The Tale of Igor's Campaign

2025-10-23T18:25:41Z

146.57.11.197:

{{Short description|12th century Old East Slavic heroic poem}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:Slovo o polku igoreve 1800.djvu|thumb|Full PDF of the first publication of ''The Tale of Igor's Campaign'' (Moscow 1800) by [[Aleksei Musin-Pushkin]]]]
'''''The Tale of Igor's Campaign''''' or '''''The Tale of Igor's Campaign'''''<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Katchanovski |first1=Ivan |last2=Kohut |first2=Zenon E. |authorlink2=Zenon Kohut |last3=Nesebio |first3=Bohdan Y. |last4=Yurkevich |first4=Myroslav |date=2013 |title=Historical Dictionary of Ukraine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]]; [[Toronto]]; [[Plymouth]] |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=197 |isbn=9780810878471 |access-date=22 January 2023}}</ref> ({{langx|orv|Слово о пълкѹ Игоревѣ|translit=Slovo o pŭlku Igorevě}}) is an anonymous [[epic poem]] written in the [[Old East Slavic]] language.
The title is occasionally translated as ''The Tale of the Campaign of Igor'', ''The Song of Igor's Campaign'', ''The Lay of Igor's Campaign'', ''The Lay of the Host of Igor'', and ''The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor''.

The poem gives an account of a failed raid of [[Igor Svyatoslavich]] (d. 1202) against the [[Polovtsians]] of the [[Don (river)|Don River]] region.
While some have disputed the authenticity of the poem, the current scholarly consensus is that the poem is authentic and dates to the [[Middle Ages]] (late 12th century).{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}}{{Refn|The poem proposes to cover the tale "from the elder Vladímir up to our contemporary Ígoŕ" (отъ стараго Владимера до нынѣшняго Игоря), indicating composition before Svyatoslavich's death in 1202.|group=note}}

The ''Tale of Igor's Campaign'' was adapted by [[Alexander Borodin]] as an [[Russian opera|opera]] and became one of the great classics of Russian theatre. Entitled ''[[Prince Igor]]'', it was first performed in 1890.

==Content==
The story describes a failed raid made in year 1185 by ''[[Kniaz]]'' [[Igor Svyatoslavich]], [[Prince of Novgorod-Seversk]], on the [[Polovtsian]]s living along the lower [[Don River, Russia|Don]]. Other Rus' historical figures are mentioned, including [[skald]] [[Boyan (bard)|Boyan]] (''The Bard''), the princes [[Vseslav of Polotsk]], [[Yaroslav Osmomysl]] of [[Halych]], and [[Vsevolod the Big Nest]] of [[Suzdal]]. The author appeals to the warring Rus' princes and pleads for unity in the face of the constant threat from the Turkic East. Igor's campaign is recorded in the ''[[Kievan Chronicle]]'' (c. 1200).

The descriptions show coexistence between [[Christianity]] and ancient [[Slavic mythology|Slavic religion]]. Igor's wife Yaroslavna invokes natural forces from the walls of [[Putyvl]]. Christian motifs are presented along with depersonalised pagan gods among the artistic images. The main themes of the story are patriotism, the power and role of nature (at the time of the story, 12th century) and homeland. The main idea is the unity of people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Слово о полку Игореве ⋆ краткое содержание, о произведении |url=https://spadilo.ru/proizvedeniya/slovo-o-polku-igoreve/ |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=СПАДИЛО |language=ru-RU}}</ref>

The ''Tale'' has been compared to other [[national epic]]s, including ''[[The Song of Roland]]'' and ''[[Nibelungenlied|The Song of the Nibelungs]]''.<ref>Likhachev. "'Слово о полку Игореве'", p. 16.</ref> The book however differs from contemporary Western epics on account of its numerous and vivid descriptions of [[nature]] and the portrayal of the role which nature plays in human lives.

==Discovery and publication==
The only manuscript of the ''Tale'', claimed to be dated to the 15th century, was discovered in 1795 in the library of the Transfiguration Monastery in [[Yaroslavl]], where the first library and school in Russia had been established in the 12th century, but there is a controversy about its source.<ref name=eohou>Kotlyar, M. ''[http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?Z21ID=&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Slovo_polku A word about the Igor's Army (СЛОВО О ПОЛКУ ІГОРЕВІМ)].'' Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine.</ref> Monastery superior Joel (Bykovsky) sold the manuscript to a local landowner, [[Aleksei Musin-Pushkin]], as a part of a collection of ten texts. Aleksei realised the value of the book and made a transcription for the empress [[Catherine the Great]] in 1795 or 1796. He published it in 1800 with the help of [[Alexei Malinovsky]] and [[Nikolai Bantysh-Kamensky]], leading Russian [[Palaeography|paleographers]] of the time. The original manuscript was claimed to have burned in the [[Fire of Moscow (1812)|great Moscow fire]] of 1812 (during the [[Napoleon]]ic occupation), together with Musin-Pushkin's entire library.

The release of this historical work into scholarly circulation created a stir in Russian literary circles, as the tale represented the earliest [[Slavic languages|Slavonic]] language writing, without any element of [[Church Slavonic]]. After linguistic analysis, [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] scholars{{Who|date=October 2014}} in the [[Austrian Empire]] declared that the document contained transitional language between a) earlier fragments of the language of ''[[Ruthenia|Rus']] propria'' (the region of [[Chernigov]], eastward through [[Kiev]], and into [[Halych]]) and, b) later fragments from the [[Halych-Volynia]]n era of this same region in the centuries immediately following the writing of the document.

The Russian-American author [[Vladimir Nabokov]] translated the work into English in 1960. Other notable editions include the standard Soviet edition, prepared with an extended commentary, by the academician [[Dmitry Likhachev]].

==Authenticity debate==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2010}}
According to the majority view, the poem is a composition of the late 12th century, perhaps composed orally and fixed in written form at some point during the 13th century. Some scholars consider the possibility that the poem in its current form is a [[national Romanticist]] compilation and rearrangement of several authentic sources. The thesis of the poem's being a complete forgery has been proposed in the past but is widely discredited; the poem's language has been demonstrated to be closer to authentic medieval East Slavic than practicable by a late 18th-century forger. It was not until 1951 that scholars discovered ancient [[birch bark document]]s with content in this medieval language.
[[Image:Igorsvyat.jpg|thumb|350px|''The field of [[Igor Svyatoslavich]]'s battle with the [[Polovtsy]]'' (1880) by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]].]]
One of the crucial points of the authenticity controversy is the relationship between The Tale of Igor's Campaign and ''[[Zadonschina]]'', an unquestionably authentic poem, which was created around the end of the 1300s or the beginning of the 1400s to glorify [[Dmitri Donskoi]]'s victory over Mongol-Tatar troops of the ruler in the [[Golden Horde]] [[Mamai]] in the [[Battle of Kulikovo]] and is preserved in six medieval copies. There are almost identical passages in both texts where only the personal names are different. The traditional point of view considers ''Zadonschina'' to be a late imitation, with ''Slovo'' as its pattern. The forgery version claims the reverse: that ''Igor's Tale'' was written using ''Zadonschina'' as a source. Recently, [[Roman Jakobson]]'s and [[Andrey Zaliznyak]]'s analyses show that the passages of ''Zadonschina'' with counterparts in ''Slovo'' differ from the rest of the text by several linguistic parameters, whereas this is not so for ''Igor's Tale''. This fact is taken as evidence of ''Slovo'' being the original with respect to ''Zadonschina''. Zaliznyak also points out that the passages in ''Zadonschina'' which parallel those in the ''Igor's Tale'' but differ from it can be explained only if ''Slovo'' was the source for ''Zadonshchina'' (the differences can be the result of the distortion of the original ''Slovo'' text by the author and different editors of ''Zadonshchina'' versions), but not vice versa.

Proponents of the forgery thesis give sometimes contradictory arguments: some authors (Mazon) see numerous ''[[Gallicism]]s'' in the text; while others (Trost, Haendler) see [[Germanism (linguistics)|Germanisms]], yet others (Keenan) [[Bohemisms]]. Zimin is certain that the author could only be Ioil Bykovsky, while Keenan is equally sure that only [[Josef Dobrovský|Josef Dobrovsky]] could be the falsifier.

Current [[dialectology]] upholds [[Pskov]] and [[Polotsk]] as the two cities where the ''Tale'' was most likely written.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} Numerous persons have been proposed as its authors, including Prince Igor and his brothers.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} Other authors consider the epic to have emerged in Southern Rus', with many elements corresponding to modern [[Ukrainian language]].<ref>Dragomanov M. Little Russia in its literature (Малороссия в ее словесности: Малороссия /Южная Русь/ в истории ее литературы с XI по XVIII век Й. Г. Прыжова. Воронеж, 1869. // Вестник Европы. - 1870.)</ref>

===Early reactions===
After the only manuscript copy of the ''Tale'' was destroyed in the Napoleonic invasion of 1812, questions about its authenticity were raised, mostly because of its language. Suspicion was also fueled by contemporary fabrications (for example, the ''Songs of [[Ossian]]'', proved to be written by [[James Macpherson]]). Today, majority opinion accepts the authenticity of the text, based on the similarity of its language and imagery with those of other texts discovered after the ''Tale''.

Proposed as forgers were [[Aleksei Musin-Pushkin]], or the Russian manuscript forgers Anton Bardin and [[Alexander Sulakadzev]]. (Bardin was publicly exposed as the forger of four copies of ''Slovo''). [[Josef Sienkowski]], a journalist and Orientalist, was one of the notable early proponents of the falsification theory.

===Soviet period===
[[File:Biliwar.jpg|thumb|Soviet Russian artist [[Ivan Bilibin]]'s illustration to the tale, 1941]]
The problem of the national text became more politicized during the years of the [[Soviet Union]]. Any attempts to question the authenticity of ''Slovo'' (for example, by the French [[Slavist]] [[André Mazon]] or by the Russian historian [[Alexander Zimin]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}) were condemned. Government officials{{who?|date=November 2023}} also repressed and condemned{{fact?|date=November 2023}} non-standard interpretations based on Turkic lexis, such as was proposed by [[Olzhas Suleimenov]] (who considered ''Igor's Tale'' to be an authentic text). Mazon's and Zimin's views were opposed, for example, by [[Roman Jakobson]].

In 1975, Olzhas Suleimenov challenged the mainstream view of the ''Tale'' in his book ''Az i Ya''. He claimed to reveal that ''Tale'' cannot be completely authentic since it appeared to have been rewritten in the 16th century.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://kitap.net.ru/sulejmenov/aziia1-11.php Сон Святослава]. Татарская электронная библиотека.</ref><ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://kitap.net.ru/sulejmenov/aziia1-12.php Царь Додон и Геродот]. Татарская электронная библиотека.</ref>

Mainstream Slavists, including [[Dmitri Likhachev]],<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [[Dmitri Likhachev|Likhachev, Dmitri S.]] "'Слово о полку Игореве' в интерпретации О.Сулейменова" in ''Русская литература'' (''Russian Literature''). Leningrad: Nauka, 1985, p. 257.</ref> and Turkologists<ref>{{in lang|ru}} Baskakov, Nikolay A. "Слово о полку Игореве" in ''Памятники литературы и искусства XI-XVII веков'' (''Literary Monuments and Art in the Eleventh to Seventeenth Centuries''). Moscow, 1978, pp. 59–68.</ref> criticized ''Az i Ya'', characterizing Suleimenov's etymological and paleography conjectures as amateurish. Linguists such as Zaliznyak pointed out that certain linguistic elements in ''Slovo'' dated from the 15th or 16th centuries, when the copy of the original manuscript (or of a copy) had been made. They noted this was a normal feature of copied documents, as copyists introduce elements of their own orthography and grammar, as is known from many other manuscripts. Zaliznyak points out that this evidence constitutes another argument for the authenticity of ''Slovo''. An anonymous forger would have had not only to imitate very complex 12th century orthography and grammar but also to introduce fake complex traces of the copying in the 15th or 16th centuries.

===Recent views===
[[Image:1985 CPA 5670.png|thumb|800th anniversary of ''The Tale'' on a 1985 [[USSR]] commemorative stamp]]
While some historians and philologists continue to question the text's authenticity for various reasons (for example, believing that it has an uncharacteristically modern nationalistic sentiment) ([[Omeljan Pritsak]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} inter alios), linguists are not so skeptical. The overall scholarly consensus accepts Slovo's authenticity.

Some scholars believe the ''Tale'' has a purpose similar to that of the [[Manuscripts of Dvůr Králové and Zelená Hora|Kralovedvorsky Manuscript]].<ref name="POSP">Pospíšil, Ivo: Slovo o pluku Igorově v kontextu současných výzkumů, ''Slavica Slovaca'', Volume 42, No. 1, 2007, pp. 37–48.</ref> For instance, the Harvard historian [[Edward L. Keenan]] says in his article, "Was Iaroslav of Halych really shooting sultans in 1185?" and in his book ''Josef Dobrovsky and the Origins of the Igor's Tale'' (2003), that ''Igor's Tale'' is a fake, written by the Czech scholar [[Josef Dobrovský]].<ref>Keenan, E. L.: ''Josef Dobrovský and the Origins of the ‘Igor Tale’'', Harvard University Press, 2003.</ref>

Other scholars contend that it is a recompilation and manipulation of several authentic sources put together similarly to [[Lönnrot]]'s ''[[Kalevala]]''.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} "[http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=75b25a31-5a9f-4a88-8d64-726bccdeb0c3 Проблема подлинности 'Слова о полку Игореве' и 'Ефросин Белозерский'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202011/http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=75b25a31-5a9f-4a88-8d64-726bccdeb0c3 |date=2015-09-23 }}" (The Problem of the Authenticity of 'A Word about the Leader Igorev' and 'Efrosin Belozerskij'), ''Acta Slavica Iaponica'', Issue: 22, 2005, pp. 238–297.</ref>

In his 2004 book, the Russian linguist [[Andrey Zaliznyak]] analyzes arguments and concludes that the forgery theory is virtually impossible.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} Zaliznyak, Andrey. ''Слово о полку Игореве: взгляд лингвиста (Языки Славянской)''. Moscow: Kultura Publishing, 2004.</ref> It was not until the late 20th century, after hundreds of bark documents were unearthed in Novgorod, that scholars learned that some of the puzzling passages and words of the ''tale'' were part of common speech in the 12th century, although they were not represented in chronicles and other formal written documents. Zaliznyak concludes that no 18th-century scholar could have imitated the subtle grammatical and syntactical features in the known text. He did not believe that Dobrovský could have accomplished this, as his views on Slavic grammar (as expressed in his magnum opus, ''Institutiones'') were strikingly different from the system written in ''Igor's Tale''. In his revised second edition issued in 2007, Zaliznyak was able to use evidence from the posthumous edition of [[Aleksandr Zimin|Zimin]]'s 2006 book. He argued that even someone striving to imitate some older texts would have had almost impossible hurdles to overcome, as mere imitation could not have represented the deep mechanics of the language.<ref>З(in Russian) Zaliznyak, Andrey. [https://inslav.ru/images/stories/pdf/2008_Zalizniak_Slovo_o_polku_Igoreve_vzglyad_lingvista_%283-e_izd%29.pdf «Слово о полку Игореве»: взгляд лингвиста.] Изд. 3-е, дополн. [[Москва|М.]]: «Рукописные памятники Древней Руси», 2008.</ref>

[[Juri Lotman]] supports the text's authenticity, based on the absence of a number of [[Semiotics|semiotic]] elements in the Russian Classicist literary tradition before the publication of the ''Tale''. He notes that "Russian Land" (''русская земля'') was a term that became popular only in the 19th century. A presumed forger of the 1780s–1790s would not have used such a term while composing the text.<ref>[http://feb-web.ru/feb/slovo/critics/s62/s62-330-.htm Ю. М. Лотман «СЛОВО О ПОЛКУ ИГОРЕВЕ» И ЛИТЕРАТУРНАЯ ТРАДИЦИЯ XVIII — НАЧАЛА XIX в.]</ref>

==Orality==
Robert Mann (1989, 2005) argues that the leading studies have been mistaken in concluding the ''Tale'' is the work of a poet working in a written tradition. Mann points to evidence suggesting that the ''Tale'' first circulated as an oral epic song for several decades before being written down, most likely in the early 13th century. He identifies the opening lines as corresponding to such an oral tradition: "Was it not fitting, brothers, to begin with the olden words of the heroic tales about the campaign of Igor..." The narrator begins by referring to oral epic tales that are already old and familiar. Mann has found numerous new parallels to the text of the ''Tale'' in wedding songs, magical incantations, ''[[bylina|byliny]]'' and other Old Russian sources. He was the first researcher to point out unique textual parallels in a rare version of the ''Tale of the Battle against [[Mamai]]'' (''Skazanie o Mamaevom poboishche''), published by N.G. Golovin in 1835. It contains what Mann claims is the earliest known redaction of the ''Skazanie'', a redaction that scholars posited but could not locate.

Based on byliny and Old Russian sources, Mann has attempted to reconstruct an early Russian song about the [[religious conversion|conversion]] of the [[Kiev]]an State. Mann believes that this early conversion cycle left its imprint on several passages of the ''Tale'', including the motif sequence in which the pagan Div warns the Tmutorokan idol that Igor's army is approaching.<ref>See Mann, Robert; ''Lances Sing: A Study of the Old Russian Igor Tale''. Slavica: Columbus, 1989.</ref><ref>Mann, Robert. ''The Igor Tales and Their Folkloric Background''. Jupiter, FL: The Birchbark Press of Karacharovo, 2005.</ref>

==Editions and translations==
* [[Aleksei Musin-Pushkin]], Alexei Malinovsky and Nikolai Bantysh-Kamensky, ''Ироическая пѣснь о походѣ на половцовъ удѣльнаго князя Новагорода-Сѣверскаго Игоря Святославича, писанная стариннымъ русскимъ языкомъ въ исходѣ XII столѣтія съ переложеніемъ на употребляемое нынѣ нарѣчіе''. Moscow, in senatorial typography. (1800)
* Mansvetus Riedl, {{lang|hu|Szozat Igor hadjaratarul a paloczok ellen}} (1858)
* {{cite book |title=The Tale of the Armament of Igor. A.D. 1185. A Russian Historical Epic |others=ed. and trans. by [[Leonard Arthur Magnus|Leonard A. Magnus]] |place=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1915 |url=https://archive.org/details/taleofarmamentof00magnuoft/page/n9/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book |title=The Tale of Igor |others=trans. Helen de Vere Beauclerk with illustrations by Michel Sevier |place=London |publisher=Beaumont |year=1918 |url=https://archive.org/details/taleofigor00beaurich}}
* Eduard Sievers, ''Das Igorlied'' (1926)
* Karl Heinrich Meyer, ''Das Igorlied'' (1933)
* Henri Grégoire, Roman Jakobson, Marc Szeftel, J. A. Joffe, ''La Geste du prince Igor'', Annuaire de l'Institut de philologie et ď histoire orientales et slaves, t. VIII. (1948)
* [[Dmitry Likhachev]], ''Слова о полку Игореве'', Литературные памятники (1950)
* [[Vladimir Nabokov]], ''The Song of Igor's Campaign: An Epic of the 12th Century'' (1960)
* [[Dimitri Obolensky]], ''The Lay of Igor's Campaign — of Igor the Son of Svyatoslav and the Grandson of Oleg'' (translation alongside original text), in ''The Penguin Book of Russian Verse'' (1962)
* Robert Howes, ''The Tale of the Campaign of Igor'' (1973)
* Serge Zenkovsky, "The Lay of Igor's Campaign", in ''Medieval Russia's Epics, Chronicles, and Tales'' (Revised edition, 1974)
* [[Dmitry Likhachev]], ''Слова о полку Игореве'', (Old Russian into English by Irina Petrova), (illustrated by [[Vladimir Favorsky]]), "The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor", Progress Publishers (Moscow, revised edition, 1981)
* J. A. V. Haney and Eric Dahl, ''The Discourse on Igor’s Campaign: A Translation of the Slovo o polku Igoreve''. (1989)
* J. A. V. Haney and Eric Dahl, ''On the Campaign of Igor: A Translation of the Slovo o polku Igoreve''. (1992)
* Robert Mann, ''The Igor Tales and Their Folkloric Background'' (2005)

==See also==
*[[Prince Igor (1969 film)]]
* [[Solar eclipse of May 1, 1185|Solar eclipse of 1 May 1185]]
* [[Musin-Pushkin House (Saint Petersburg)]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Magnus |first=Leonard Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/taleofarmamentof00magnuoft |title=The Tale of the Armament of Igor |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1915}}{{snd}}The first English translation.
* {{cite book |last=Mann |first=Robert |title=Lances Sing: A Study of the Old Russian Igor Tale |publisher=Slavica |location=Columbus |year=1989}}
* {{cite book |last=Mann |first=Robert |title=The Igor Tales and Their Folkloric Background |location=Jupiter, FL |publisher=The Birchbark Press of Karacharovo |year=2005}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mann |first=Robert |title=The Silent Debate Over the Igor Tale |journal=Oral Tradition |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=53–94 |year=2016 |doi=10.1353/ort.2016.0000 |url=http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/30i/mann|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite conference |lang=ru |last1=Rjabchikov |first1=Sergei V. |chapter=The Meaning of the Word Combination "do kur’’ Tmutorokanya" in "The Tale of Igor’s Campaign" |editor-first1=I. I. |editor-last1=Ivanovskaya |editor-first2=M. V. |editor-last2=Posnova |conference=Sustainable Development Forum 2024 |book-title=Sbornik statey II Mezhdunarodnoy nauchno-prakticheskoy konferentsii, sostoyavsheysya 2 aprelya 2024 g. v g. Petrozavodske |location=Petrozavodsk |publisher=International Center for Scientific Partnership “New Science” |year=2024 |pages=61–65}}
* {{cite book |lang=ru |title=Pesn' o polku Igoreve: Novye otkrytiia |script-title=ru:Песнь о полку Игореве: Новые открытия |trans-title=The Song of Igor's Campaign: New Discoveries |location=Moscow |publisher=Iazyki Slavianskoi Kul'tury |year=2009}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
*[[s:ru:Слово о полку Игореве|The original edition of 1800]]
*[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/slav/aruss/slovigor/slovi.htm Roman Jacobson's edition]
*[http://lib.ru/NABOKOW/slovo.txt Vladimir Nabokov's edition]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040105122334/http://www.litera.ru:8080/stixiya/themes/slovo/ 1800 edition, plus 4 more contemporary Russian language translations]
*[http://litopys.org.ua/links/inslovo.htm Old East Slavic text and various Russian and Ukrainian translations and interpretations]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/tai/index.htm Leonard Magnus English translation of 1915, parallel English/Russian]
*[http://www.sras.org/the_lay_of_igor_s_campaign_and_works_it_inspired Katherine Owen, "The Lay of Igor’s Campaign and the Works It Has Inspired"], Analysis of artistic adaptations
*[http://www.moyka104.ru/ The House of Count Aleksei Musin-Pushkin (1744-1818) in St. Petersburg. Here was stored the Tale of Igor's Campaign]

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The Tale of Igor's Campaign