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East Slavic languages

2025-10-03T14:29:42Z

156.197.54.128:

{{Short description|Language family}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = East Slavic
| ethnicity = [[East Slavs]]
| region = [[Eurasia]] ([[Eastern Europe]], [[North Asia|Northern Asia]], and the [[Caucasus]])
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
| fam3 = [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
| ancestor2 = [[Proto-Balto-Slavic language|Proto-Balto-Slavic]]
| ancestor3 = [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]]
| ancestor4 = [[Old East Slavic]]
| child1 = [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
| child2 = [[Russian language|Russian]]
| child3 = [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]
| child4 = [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| iso5 = zle
| glotto = east1426
| glottorefname = East Slavic
| altname =
}}

The '''East Slavic languages''' constitute one of three regional subgroups of the [[Slavic languages]], distinct from the [[West Slavic languages|West]] and [[South Slavic languages]]. East Slavic languages are currently spoken natively throughout [[Eastern Europe]], and eastwards to [[Siberia]] and the [[Russian Far East]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации |url=http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/Document/View/0001201811040002?index=0&rangeSize=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205162518/http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/Document/View/0001201811040002?index=0&rangeSize=1 |archive-date=February 5, 2022 |access-date=2018-11-04 |website=publication.pravo.gov.ru}}</ref> In part due to the large historical influence of the [[Russian Empire]] and the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Russian language|Russian]] language is also spoken as a [[lingua franca]] in many regions of the [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]]. Of the three Slavic branches, East Slavic is the most spoken, with the number of native speakers larger than the Western and Southern branches combined.

The common consensus is that [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] are the extant East Slavic languages.{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|pp=79–89}} Some linguists also consider [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] a separate language,{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=7}}{{sfn|Moser|2016|p=124-139}} although it is sometimes considered a dialect of Ukrainian.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dulichenko, Aleksandr ''The language of Carpathian Rus': Genetic Aspects'' |url=http://www.rusyn.org/images/1.%20Language%20of%20Carpathian%20Rus'.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625103006/http://www.rusyn.org/images/1.%20Language%20of%20Carpathian%20Rus'.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-25 |access-date=2009-12-12}}</ref>

The modern East Slavic languages descend from a [[Old East Slavic|common predecessor]] spoken in [[Kievan Rus']] from the 9th to 13th centuries, which later evolved into [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]], the chancery language of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] in the [[Dnieper]] river valley, and into medieval [[Russian language|Russian]] in the [[Volga]] river valley, the language of the Russian principalities including the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]].

All these languages use the [[Cyrillic script]], but with particular modifications. [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], which are descendants of [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]], have a tradition of using [[Latin alphabet|Latin-based alphabets]]—the [[Belarusian Latin alphabet|Belarusian Lacinka]] and the [[Ukrainian Latin alphabet|Ukrainian Latynka]] alphabets, respectively (also Rusyn uses Latin in some regions, e.g. in [[Slovakia]]).<ref name="ComrieCorbett2003">{{cite book|last1=Comrie|first1=Bernard|authorlink1=Bernard Comrie|last2=Corbett|first2=Greville G.|title=The Slavonic Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uRF9Yiso1OIC&pg=PA45|accessdate=22 November 2017|date=1 September 2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-203-21320-9|page=45|quote=...following Vuk's reform of Cyrillic in the early nineteenth century, Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s performed the same operation on Latinica, using the Czech system and producing a one-to-one symbol correlation between Cyrillic and Latinica as applied to the Serbian and Croatian parallel systems|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215081739/https://books.google.com/books?id=uRF9Yiso1OIC&pg=PA45}}</ref>

== Distribution ==
{{Expand section|date=June 2025}}
[[File:Idioma bielorruso.png|border|left|thumb|Distribution of the [[Belarusian language]] in [[Europe]]]]
[[File:Idioma rusino.PNG|right|thumb|Distribution of the [[Rusyn language]] in [[Europe]]]]
[[File:Idioma ruso.PNG|center|thumb|450x450px|Distribution of the [[Russian language]] in [[Eurasia]]]]
[[File:Idioma ucraniano.png|left|thumb|Distribution of the [[Ukrainian language]] in [[Europe]]]]
{{Clear}}

== Classification ==
Modern East Slavic languages include Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian. The Rusyn language is sometimes considered the fourth living language of the group, its status as an independent language being the subject of scientific debate.<ref name="Moser2016">{{Cite journal |last=Moser |first=Michael A. |year=2018 |title=The Fate of the Ruthenian or Little Russian (Ukrainian) Language in Austrian Galicia (1772–1867) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44983536 |url-status=live |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |volume=35 (2017–2018) |pages=124–139 |jstor=44983536 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505215931/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44983536 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=28 June 2021 |number=1/4}}</ref>

== Distinctive features ==

=== Vocabulary ===
The East Slavic territory exhibits a linguistic continuum with many transitional dialects. Between Belarusian and Ukrainian there is the [[West Polesian dialect|Polesian dialect]], which shares features from both languages. East Polesian is a transitional [[Variety (linguistics)|variety]] between Belarusian and Ukrainian on one hand, and between South Russian and Ukrainian on the other hand. At the same time, Belarusian and [[Southern Russian]] form a [[Dialect continuum|continuous area]], making it virtually impossible to draw a line between the two languages. [[Central Russian|Central]] or Middle Russian (with its Moscow sub-dialect), the transitional step between the North and the South, became a base for the Russian literary standard. [[Northern Russian]] with its predecessor, the [[Old Novgorod dialect]], has many original and archaic features.

Ruthenian, the ancestor of modern Belarusian and Ukrainian, was the official language of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] as "Chancery Slavonic"{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}} until the end of the 17th century when it was gradually replaced by the Polish language. It was also the native language of the [[Cossack Hetmanate]] until the end of the 18th century, when the Ukrainian state completely became part of the Russian Empire in 1764.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Указ об учреждении губерний и о росписании к ним городов |url=https://constitution.garant.ru/history/act1600-1918/2005/ |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=constitution.garant.ru}}</ref> The [[Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk]] from 1710 is one of the most important written sources of the Ruthenian language. Due to the influence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth over many centuries, Belarusian and Ukrainian have been influenced in several respects by Polish, a [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]] [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] language. As a result of the long Polish-Lithuanian rule, these languages had been less exposed to [[Church Slavonic]], featuring therefore less Church Slavonicisms than the modern Russian language, for example:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparison of the word "sweet"
!Ukrainian
!Belarusian
!Russian
|-
|солодкий (''solodkyj'')
|салодкі (''salodki'')
|сладкий (''sladkij'')
|}
Additionally, the original East Slavic phonetic form was kept in many words in Ukrainian and Belarusian, for example:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparison of the word "unit"
!Ukrainian
!Belarusian
!Russian
|-
|одиниця (''odynycia'')
|адзінка (''adzinka'')
|eдиница (''yedinica'')
|}
In general, Ukrainian and Belarusian are also closer to other Western European languages, especially to [[German language|German]] (via Polish). At the same time Russian was being heavily influenced by Church Slavonic (South Slavic language), but also by the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] languages.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-02-14 |title=Turkic words in Russian |url=https://www.languagesoftheworld.info/historical-linguistics/turkic-words-in-russian.html |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Languages Of The World |language=en-US}}</ref> For example:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparison of the word "to search"
!Ukrainian
!Belarusian
!Russian
|-
|шукати (''šukaty'')
|шукаць (''šukać'')
|искать (''iskat́'')
|-
| colspan="2" |Compare Polish "szukać" and [[Old Saxon|Old Low German]] "sōkian" (German "suchen")
|Compare Bulgarian "искам" (''iskam'') (with a meaning shift: "to want") and Serbo-Croatian "искати" (''iskati'')
|}
What's more, all three languages do also have [[False friend|false friends]], that sometimes can lead to (big) misunderstandings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Database of False Friends in Slavic Languages |url=https://oesteuropastudier.dk/en/dictionaries/fauxamis |access-date=2024-01-16 |website=Danish Portal for East European Studies |language=en-gb}}</ref> For example, Ukrainian орати (''oraty'') — "to plow" and Russian орать (''orat́'') — "to scream", or Ukrainian помітити (''pomityty'') — "to notice" and Russian пометить (''pometit́'') — "to mark".

===Orthography===

==== Alphabet ====
The alphabets of the East Slavic languages are all written in the Cyrillic script, however each of them has their own letters and pronunciations. Russian and Ukrainian have 33 letters, while Belarusian has 32. Additionally, Belarusian and Ukrainian use the [[apostrophe]] (') for the [[hard sign]], which has the same function as the letter Ъ in Russian.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left; empty-cells: hide; font-size: 0.9em"
|+Cyrillic alphabets comparison table
! colspan="39" style="text-align: center" |East Slavic languages
|-
!Russian
|А
|Б
|В
|Г
|
|Д
|Е
|
|Ё
|Ж
|З
|И
|
|
|Й
|К
|Л
|М
|Н
|О
|П
|Р
|С
|Т
|У
|
|Ф
|Х
|Ц
|Ч
|Ш
|Щ
|Ъ
|Ы
|Ь
|Э
|Ю
|Я
|-
!Belarusian
|А
|Б
|В
|Г
|
|Д
|Е
|
|Ё
|Ж
|З
|
|І
|
|Й
|К
|Л
|М
|Н
|О
|П
|Р
|С
|Т
|У
|Ў
|Ф
|Х
|Ц
|Ч
|Ш
|
|'
|Ы
|Ь
|Э
|Ю
|Я
|-
!Ukrainian
|А
|Б
|В
|Г
|Ґ
|Д
|Е
|Є
|
|Ж
|З
|И
|І
|Ї
|Й
|К
|Л
|М
|Н
|О
|П
|Р
|С
|Т
|У
|
|Ф
|Х
|Ц
|Ч
|Ш
|Щ
|'
|
|Ь
|
|Ю
|Я
|-
!Rusyn
|А
|Б
|В
|Г
|Ґ
|Д
|Е
|Є
|Ё
|Ж
|З
|И
|І
|Ї
|Й
|К
|Л
|М
|Н
|О
|П
|Р
|С
|Т
|У
|
|Ф
|Х
|Ц
|Ч
|Ш
|Щ
|Ъ
|Ы
|Ь
|
|Ю
|Я
|-
|}
Some letters, that are not included in the alphabet of a language, can be written as [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]. For example, the sound values of the letter Ё, which doesn't exist in the Ukrainian alphabet, can be written as ЙО (ЬО after consonants), while the letter Щ in Russian and Ukrainian corresponds to ШЧ in Belarusian (compare Belarusian плошча and Ukrainian площа ("area")).

There are also different rules of usage for certain letters, e.g. the [[soft sign]] (Ь) cannot be written after the letter Ц in Russian, because the consonant /tsʲ/ does not exist in the Russian language, while in Ukrainian and especially Belarusian, on the contrary, it is relatively common (Ukrainian ць etymologically corresponds to Russian and Belarusian ц; Belarusian ць etymologically corresponds to Russian and Ukrainian ть). Moreover, the letter Щ in standard Russian is always pronounced softly ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]]).

Standard Ukrainian, unlike all the other Slavic languages (excl. [[Serbo-Croatian]]), does not exhibit [[Final-obstruent devoicing|final devoicing]]. Nevertheless, this rule is not that clear when listening to colloquial Ukrainian. It's one of the typical deviations that occur in the Ukrainian spoken language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Фонетика й вимова - Олександр Пономарів |url=http://ponomariv-kultura-slova.wikidot.com/fonetyka |access-date=2022-11-11 |website=ponomariv-kultura-slova.wikidot.com}}</ref>

==== Different sound values of letters ====
Besides the differences of the alphabets, some letters represent different sounds depending on the language. For example, the letter И (romanized as ''I'' for Russian and ''Y'' for Ukrainian) in Russian is mostly pronounced as {{IPA|/i/}} (identical with the Ukrainian І), while in Ukrainian it's mostly pronounced as {{IPA|/ɪ/}} (very similar to the Russian Ы). Other examples:
{| class="wikitable"
|+"False friends"
! colspan="2" |Letter
!Pronunciation
|-
|Belarusian and Russian Е
|Ukrainian {{lang|uk|Є}}
|{{IPA|/je/, /ʲe/}}
|-
|Belarusian and Russian Э
|Ukrainian {{lang|uk|Е}}
|{{IPA|/e/}}
|-
|Belarusian and Russian Ы
|Ukrainian {{lang|uk|И}}
|{{IPA|/ɨ/}} (B. and R.), {{IPA|/ɪ/}} (U.)
|-
|Belarusian and Ukrainian І
|Russian {{lang|ru|И}}
|{{IPA|/i/, /ʲi/}}
|-
|Belarusian and Ukrainian Г
|sometimes Russian Г
|{{IPA|/ɣ/, /ɦ/}}
|-
|Russian {{lang|ru|Г}}
|Ukrainian {{lang|uk|Ґ}}
|{{IPA|/ɡ/}}
|}

====Representation of vowel reduction====
Vowel reduction occurs in standard Russian and Belarusian, but the Russian orthography does not reflect it, whereas the Belarusian orthography does. For example: Russian {{wikt-lang|ru|кот}} [kot] "tomcat", {{wikt-lang|ru|коты́}} [kɐˈtɨ] "tomcats"; Belarusian {{wikt-lang|be|кот}} [kot] "tomcat", {{wikt-lang|be|каты́}} [kaˈtɨ] "tomcats".

===Phonology===
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2014}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! [[Isogloss]]es
! [[Northern Russian dialects|Northern Russian]]
! Standard Russian (Moscow dialect)
! [[Southern Russian dialects|Southern Russian]]
! Standard Belarusian
! Standard Ukrainian
! Examples
|-
! scope="row" | reduction of unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} ([[akanye]])
| no || colspan="3" | yes<ref group=n>Except for the Polesian dialect of [[Brest, Belarus|Brest]]</ref> || no<ref group=n>Except for the Eastern [[Polesia]]n dialect</ref> || R. {{wikt-lang|ru|голова́}} {{IPA|/ɡɐlɐˈva/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|галава́}} {{IPA|/ɣalaˈva/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|голова́}} {{IPA|/ɦɔlɔˈʋa/}} "head"
|-
! scope="row" | pretonic {{IPA|/ʲe/}} ([[yakanye]])
| {{IPA|/ʲe/}} || {{IPA|/ʲi/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʲa/}} || {{IPA|/e/}}<ref group=n>Consonants are hard before {{IPA|/e/}}</ref> || R. {{wikt-lang|ru|земля́}} {{IPA|/zʲiˈmlʲa/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|зямля́}} {{IPA|/zʲaˈmlʲa/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|земля́}} {{IPA|/zeˈmlʲa/}} "earth"
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *''i''
| colspan="4" | {{IPA|/i/}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɪ/}}<ref group=n>Except for some dialects</ref> || R. {{wikt-lang|ru|лист}} {{IPA|/ˈlʲist/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|ліст}} {{IPA|/ˈlʲist/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|лист}} {{IPA|/ˈlɪst/}} "leaf"
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *''y''
| colspan="4" | {{IPA|/ɨ/}} || {{nowrap|R./B. {{wikt-lang|ru|ты}} {{IPA|/ˈtɨ/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|ти}} {{IPA|/ˈtɪ/}} "thou, you"}}
|-
! scope="row" | stressed CoC
| colspan="4" | {{IPA|/o/}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/i/}}<ref group=n>In some Ukrainian dialects C{{IPA|/o/}}C can be {{IPA|/y~y̯e~y̯i~u̯o/}}</ref><ref group=n>In some Ukrainian dialects PSl *''ě'' can be {{IPA|/e̝~i̯ɛ/}}</ref> || {{nowrap|R. {{wikt-lang|ru|ночь}} {{IPA|/ˈnot͡ɕ/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|ноч}} {{IPA|/ˈnot͡ʂ/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|ніч}} {{IPA|/ˈnʲit͡ʃ/}} "night"}}
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *''ě''
| {{IPA|/e̝~i̯ɛ~i/}} || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/e/}} || R. {{wikt-lang|ru|се́мя}} {{IPA|/ˈsʲemʲa/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|се́мя}} {{IPA|/ˈsʲemʲa/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|сі́м'я}} {{IPA|/ˈsʲimja/}} "seed"
|-
! scope="row" | /e/>/o/ change before nonpalatalized consonants<ref group=n>Also at the end of words (in Russian and Belarusian). In Belarusian (unlike Russian), the change is not present in stressed 2 and 3 sg. pres. ind. endings.</ref>
| always || colspan="3" | under stress || after /j/, /nʲ/, /lʲ/, /ʒ/, /ʃ/, /t͡ʃ/ || R. {{wikt-lang|ru|зелёный}} {{IPA|/zʲiˈlʲonɨj/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|зялёны}} {{IPA|/zʲaˈlʲonɨ/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|зеле́ний}} {{IPA|/zeˈlenɪj/}} "green"
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *''c''
| colspan="4" | {{IPA|/t͡s/}}<ref group=n>Can be {{IPA|/s/}} in South Russian</ref><ref group=n name="c">In some Northern Russian dialects, Proto-Slavic *''c'' and *''č'' have merged into one sound, variously pronounced as {{IPA|/t͡s, t͡sʲ, t͡ʂ, t͡ɕ/}} depending on a dialect.</ref> || {{IPA|/t͡s, t͡sʲ/}} ||R. волчица (volčica)
B. ваўчыца (vaŭčyca)
U. вовчиця (vovčyc’a)
”female wolf”
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *''č''
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}}<ref group=n>Can be {{IPA|/ɕ/}} in Southern Russian</ref><ref group=n name="c"/> || {{IPA|/t͡ʂ/}} || {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} || R. {{wikt-lang|ru|час}} {{IPA|/ˈt͡ɕas/}} "hour", B. {{wikt-lang|be|час}} {{IPA|/ˈt͡ʂas/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|час}} {{IPA|/ˈt͡ʃas/}} "time"
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *''skj'', ''zgj''
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ɕː/}},<ref group=n>Can be {{IPA|/ɕt͡ɕ/}}, {{IPA|/ʂː/}}</ref> {{IPA|/ʑː/}} || {{IPA|/ʂt͡ʂ/}}, {{IPA|/ʐd͡ʐ/}} || {{IPA|/ʃt͡ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒd͡ʒ/}} ||R. ещё /jeˈɕːo/
B. яшчэ /jaˈʂt͡ʂe/
U. ще /ʃt͡ʃe/
“yet”
|-
! scope="row" | soft [[dental stop]]s
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|/tʲ/}}, {{IPA|/dʲ/}}<ref group=n>In Russian light affrication can occur: {{IPA|[tˢʲ]}} , {{IPA|[dᶻʲ]}}</ref> || {{IPA|/t͡sʲ/}}, {{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}} || {{IPA|/tʲ/}}, {{IPA|/dʲ/}} || {{nowrap|R. {{wikt-lang|ru|де́сять}} {{IPA|/ˈdʲesʲitʲ/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|дзе́сяць}} {{IPA|/ˈd͡zʲesʲat͡sʲ/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|де́сять}} {{IPA|/ˈdesʲatʲ/}} "ten"}}
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *''v''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/v, f/}}<ref group=n>In some Northern Russian sub-dialects {{IPA|/v/}} is not devoiced to {{IPA|/f/}}</ref> || {{IPA|/w/}} || {{IPA|/v/}} {{IPA|[v, w]}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}} {{IPA|[β, w]}}
/u̯/ (at the end of a closed syllable)
| {{nowrap|R. {{wikt-lang|ru|о́стров}} {{IPA|/ˈostraf/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|во́страў}} {{IPA|/ˈvostrau̯/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|о́стрів}} {{IPA|/ˈostriu̯/}} "island"}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{IPA|/f/}} (in loanwords)
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/f/}} || {{IPA|/x~xv~xw~xu̯/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/f/}} ||
|-
! scope="row" | Prothetic {{IPA|/v~w~u̯/}}
| colspan="2" | no<ref group=n>Except for ''восемь'' "eight" and some others</ref> || colspan="3" | yes || {{nowrap|R. {{wikt-lang|ru|о́стров}} {{IPA|/ˈostraf/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|во́страў}} {{IPA|/ˈvostrau̯/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|о́стрів}} {{IPA|/ˈostriu̯/}} "island"}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[Proto-Slavic]] *''g''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɣ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || R. {{wikt-lang|ru|голова́}} {{IPA|/ɡɐlɐˈva/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|галава́}} {{IPA|/ɣalaˈva/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|голова́}} {{IPA|/ɦɔlɔˈʋa/}} "head"
|-
|-
! scope="row" | Hardening of final soft [[labial consonant|labials]]
| colspan="2" | no || colspan="3" | yes ||R. {{wikt-lang|ru|степь}} /sʲtʲepʲ/,
B. стэп /stɛp/,
U. {{wikt-lang|uk|степ}} /stɛp/

"steppe"
|-
! scope="row" | Hardening of soft {{IPA|/rʲ/}}
| colspan="3" | no || yes || hardened at the end of a closed syllable and not hardened elsewere ||R. матерь (máter’)
B. Вікторыя (Viktoryja)
U. кобзар (kobzár (nominative case)
кобзаря (kobzar’á (genetive case)
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *''CrьC, ClьC, CrъC, CrъC''
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|/rʲe/}}, {{IPA|/lʲe/}}, {{IPA|/ro/}}, {{IPA|/lo/}} || {{IPA|/rɨ/}}, /ro/, {{IPA|/lʲi/}}, {{IPA|/lɨ/}} || {{IPA|/rɪ/}}, {{IPA|/lɪ/}}, {{IPA|/ro/}}, {{IPA|/lo/}}||Protoslavic. ‘*kry (singular accusative case. krьvь);
R. кровь (krov’), кровавый (krovávyj)
B. кроў (kroŭ), крывавы (kryvávy)
U. кров (krov), кривавий (kryvávyj)
”blood, bloody”
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic *-''ъj-'', -''ьj''-
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|/oj/}}, {{IPA|/ej/}} || {{IPA|/ɨj/}}, {{IPA|/ij/}} || {{IPA|/ɪj/}} ||
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic adj. end. *''-ьjь''
| {{IPA|/ej/}} || {{IPA|/ij/}},<ref group=n name=chsl>Only unstressed, [[Church Slavonic]] influence</ref> {{IPA|/ej/}} || {{IPA|/ej/}}<ref group=n>Stressed, unstressed is usually reduced to {{IPA|[ʲəj]}}</ref> || {{IPA|/ij/}} || {{IPA|/ɪj/}}, {{IPA|/ij/}} ||
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Slavic adj. end. *''-ъjь''
| {{IPA|/oj/}} || {{IPA|/ɨj/}},<ref group=n name=chsl/> {{IPA|/oj/}} || {{IPA|/oj/}}<ref group=n>Stressed, unstressed is usually reduced to {{IPA|[əj]}}</ref> || {{IPA|/ɨj/}} || {{IPA|/ɪj/}} ||
|-
! scope="row" | Loss of the vocative case
| no || colspan="3" | yes<ref group=n>In colloquial Russian, new vocative has appeared from a pure stem: мам, пап, Маш, Вань etc.</ref> || no ||
|-
! scope="row" | 3 sg. & pl. pres. ind.
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/t/}} || {{IPA|/tʲ/}} || {{IPA|/t͡sʲ/}} || {{IPA|/tʲ/}} || {{nowrap|R. {{wikt-lang|ru|ду́мают}} {{IPA|/ˈdumajut/}}, B. {{lang|be|ду́маюць}} {{IPA|/ˈdumajut͡sʲ/}}, Uk. {{lang|uk|ду́мають}} {{IPA|/ˈdumajutʲ/}} "(they) think"}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dropping out of 3 sg. pres. ind. ending (in ''e''-stems)
| colspan="2" | no || colspan="3" | yes ||R. скажет (skážet)
B. скажа (skáža)
U. скаже (skáže)
”(he/she) will say”
|-
! scope="row" | 3 sg. masc. past ind.
| {{IPA|/v~w~u̯/}}<ref group=n>In the dialect of [[Vologda]]</ref> || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/l/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/u̯/}}|| R. {{wikt-lang|ru|ду́мал}} {{IPA|/ˈdumal/}}, B. {{lang|be|ду́маў}} {{IPA|/ˈdumau̯/}}, U. {{lang|uk|ду́мав}} {{IPA|/ˈdumau̯/}} "(he) thought"
|-
! scope="row" | [[Slavic second palatalization|2nd palatalization]] in oblique cases
| colspan="3" | no || colspan="2" | yes || R. {{wikt-lang|ru|рука|руке́}} {{IPA|/ruˈkʲe/}}, B. {{wikt-lang|be|рука|руцэ́}} {{IPA|/ruˈt͡se/}}, U. {{wikt-lang|uk|рука|руці́}} {{IPA|/ruˈt͡sʲi/}} "hand" ([[locative case|locative]] or [[prepositional case]])
|}

===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=n|2}}

==History==

===Influence of Church Slavonic===
After the conversion of the East Slavic region to Christianity the people used service books borrowed from [[Bulgaria]], which were written in [[Old Church Slavonic]] (a [[South Slavic language]]).{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|pp=63–65}} The Church Slavonic language was strictly used only in text, while the colloquial language of the [[Bulgarians]] was communicated in its spoken form.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Church Slavonic |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChurchSlavonic.htm#:~:text=Church%20Slavonic%20was%20never%20a%20spoken%20language.%20It,was%20adopted%20as%20the%20church%20and%20literary%20language. |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>

Throughout the Middle Ages (and in some way up to the present day) there existed a duality between the Church Slavonic language used as some kind of 'higher' register (not only) in religious texts and the popular tongue used as a 'lower' register for secular texts. It has been suggested to describe this situation as ''[[diglossia]]'', although there do exist mixed texts where it is sometimes very hard to determine why a given author used a popular or a Church Slavonic form in a given context. Church Slavonic was a major factor in the evolution of modern Russian, where there still exists a "high stratum" of words that were imported from this language.{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|pp=477–478}}

==See also==
* [[Outline of Slavic history and culture]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book|last=Moser|first=Michael A.|chapter=Rusyn: A New-Old Language In-between Nations and States|title=The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders|year=2016|location=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=124–139|doi=10.1007/978-1-137-34839-5_7|isbn=978-1-349-57703-3|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-137-34839-5_7|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114121225/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-137-34839-5_7|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Rusyn Language|last=Pugh|first=Stefan M.|year=2009|publisher=LINCOM GmbH|location=Munich, Germany|isbn=978-3-89586-940-2|url=https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/item/2WPXQMIRNX7WE2VPAI6JHAOSMXYMVH5P|access-date=15 December 2021|archive-date=15 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215214401/https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/item/2WPXQMIRNX7WE2VPAI6JHAOSMXYMVH5P|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book
| last1 = Sussex
| first1 = Roland
| author-link1 = Roland Sussex
| last2 = Cubberley
| first2 = Paul
| title = The Slavic languages
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| year = 2006
| location = [[Cambridge]]
| isbn = 978-0-521-22315-7
}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book
| chapter = East Slavonic languages
| title = The Slavonic languages
| publisher = Routledge
| editor1-last= Comrie
| editor1-first = Bernard
| editor2-last= Corbett
| editor2-first = Greville G
| year = 1993
| location = London, New York
| pages = 827–1036
| isbn = 0-415-04755-2
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://windowoneurasia2.blogspot.com/2024/03/belgorod-residents-speak-their-own.html "Belgorod Residents Speak Their Own Language, Even Russian Linguists Say"] by [[Paul A. Goble]], ''Window on Eurasia'' (March 24, 2024)

{{Slavic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:East Slavic Languages}}
[[Category:East Slavic languages| ]]

West Slavic languages

2025-10-03T14:27:17Z

156.197.54.128:

{{Short description|Subdivision of the Slavic language group}}
{{Infobox language family
|name = West Slavic
|ethnicity = [[West Slavs]]
|region = [[Central Europe]]
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam2 = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
|fam3 = [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
|child1 = [[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak]]
|child2 = [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]]
|child3 = [[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]
|iso5 = zlw
|glotto = west2792
|glottorefname= West Slavic
|map = Zapadoslovanske.jpg
|mapcaption = Distribution of the West Slavic languages and dialects.
| ancestor = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
| altname = West Slavonic
| ancestor2 = [[Proto-Balto-Slavic language|Proto-Balto-Slavic]]
| ancestor3 = [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]]
| ancestor4 = [[Old West Slavic language|Old West Slavic]]
}}
[[File:Slavic languages tree.svg|thumb|right|300px|Balto-Slavic languages.]]
The '''West Slavic languages''' are a subdivision of the [[Slavic languages|Slavic language group]].<ref name="Winkler Prins">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Slavische talen |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]] Encyclopedie [[Winkler Prins]] |date=1993–2002 |publisher=Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum |language=nl}}</ref> They include [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]], [[Silesian language|Silesian]], [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]] and [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]].<ref name="Winkler Prins"/> The languages have traditionally been spoken across a mostly continuous region encompassing the [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], [[Poland]],<ref name="Winkler Prins" /> the westernmost regions of [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]], and a bit of eastern [[Lithuania]].{{cn|date=August 2022}} In addition, there are several [[language island]]s such as the Sorbian areas in [[Lusatia]] in [[Germany]],<ref name="Winkler Prins"/> and Slovak areas in [[Hungary]] and elsewhere.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Slowaakse taal |encyclopedia=Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins |date=1993–2002 |publisher=Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum |language=nl}}</ref>

== Classification ==
West Slavic is usually divided into three subgroups—[[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak]], [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]] and [[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]—based on similarity and degree of [[mutual intelligibility]]. The groupings are as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.phil.muni.cz/jazyk/files/IEclassSIGL.pdf|title=On the internal classification of Indo-European languages: Survey|first=Václav|last=Blažek|pages=16–17}}</ref>

{{clade
|label1=West Slavic
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Polish language|Polish]]
|label2=[[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]
|2=[[Slovincian language|Slovincian]] {{†}}
}}
|3=[[Polabian language|Polabian]] {{†}}
}}
|label2=[[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]
|2=[[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]
}}
|label3=[[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak]]
|3={{clade
|1=[[Czech language|Czech]]
|2=[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
}}
}}
}}

The [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] classifies the West Slavic languages within their [[Glottolog]] database as follows:<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/west2792 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - West Slavic |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last=Hammarström |first=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907041818/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/west2792 |archive-date=2023-09-07 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{clade
|label1=West Slavic
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Czech language|Czech]]<ref name="Knaanic" group="note">[[Knaanic language|Knaanic]] is classified as a dialect of Czech under the name "West Judeo-Slavic".</ref>
|2=[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
}}
|label2=[[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]]
|2={{clade
|label1=Polish–Silesian
|1={{clade
|1=[[Polish language|Polish]]
|2=[[Silesian language|Silesian]]
}}
|2=[[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]<ref name="Slovincian" group="note">[[Slovincian language|Slovincian]] is classified as a dialect of Kashubian.</ref>
|3=[[Polabian language|Polabian]] {{†}}
}}
|label3= [[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]
|3={{clade
|1=[[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]
|2=[[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]
}}
}}
}}

Some linguists include Upper and Lower Sorbian in the Lechitic branch, but other linguists regard it as a separate branch.{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|p=55}} The reason for this is that 'the Sorbian dialects are extremely diverse, and there are virtually no linguistic features common to all Sorbian dialects which distinguish them as a group from the other Slavic languages' (Sussex & Cubberley 2006).{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|p=55}} Czech and Slovak are more closely related to each other than to the other West Slavic languages, and also closer to each other than Polish and Sorbian are.{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|p=55}} Czecho-Slovak (Slovak in particular) shares certain features with other Slavic languages, such as [[Slovene language|Slovene]] and [[Serbo-Croatian|BCMS]].{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|p=55}}

==Distinctive features==
Some distinctive features of the West Slavic languages, as from when they split from the [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]] and [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] branches around the 3rd to 6th centuries AD (alternatively, between the 6th and 10th centuries{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|p=58}}), are as follows:<ref>Zenon Klemensiewicz, ''Historia języka Polskiego'', 7th edition, Wydawnictwo naukowe PWN, Warsaw 1999. {{ISBN|83-01-12760-0}}</ref>
* Development of [[Proto-Slavic]] ''*tj'', ''*dj'' into palatalized ''ts'', ''(d)z'', as in modern Polish/Czech/Slovak ''{{lang|pl|noc}}'' ("night"; compare Russian {{lang|ru|ночь}} (''noch''));
* Retention of the groups ''kv'', ''gv'' as in Polish {{Lang|pl|kwiat}} ("flower"); ''{{lang|pl|gwiazda}}'' ("star") (Compare Russian {{Lang|ru|цвет}} (''cvet''); {{lang|ru|звезда}} (''zvezda''));
* Retention of ''tl'', ''dl'', as in Polish/Slovak/Czech ''{{lang|pl|radło/radlo/rádlo}}'' ("[[ard (plough)|ard]]"; compare Russian {{lang|ru|рало}});
* Palatized ''x'' developed into ''š'', as in Polish ''{{lang|pl|musze}}'' ([[locative]] case of ''{{lang|pl|mucha}}'', "fly");
* The groups ''pj'', ''bj'', ''mj'', ''vj'' developed into (soft) consonant forms without the [[epenthesis]] of ''l'', as in Polish ''{{lang|pl|kupię}}'' ("I shall buy"; compare Russian {{lang|ru|куплю}});
* A tendency towards [[fixed stress]] (on the first syllable in Czech and Slovak and on the penultimate syllable in Polish);
* Use of the endings ''-ego'' or ''-ého'' for the genitive singular of the adjectival declension;
* Extension of the accusative form ''*tъnъ'' to nominative in place of ''*tъ'', leading to Slovak/Polish/Czech ''{{lang|pl|ten}}'' ("this" (masc.); compare Russian {{lang|ru|тот}}; [[Old Church Slavonic]] [[wiktionary:тъ#Old_Church_Slavonic|тъ]]);
* Extension of the genitive form ''*čьso'' to nominative and accusative in place of ''čь(to)'', leading to Polish/Czech ''{{lang|pl|co}}'' ("what", compare Russian {{lang|ru|что}}; OCS [[wiktionary:чьто|чьто]], genitive чьсо).

Although influences from other language families have contributed a large number of [[loanword]]s, and to a lesser extent to verb [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and syntax, the Slavic languages retained a distinctly Slavic character, with clear roots in Indo-European.{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|p=58}}

The West Slavic languages are all written in the [[Latin script]], while the East Slavic branch uses Cyrillic{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|p=60}} and the South Slavic branch is mixed.{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|p=58}}<ref name="O.T. Ford">{{cite web|author=O.T. Ford|url=http://the-stewardship.org/research/reference/slavs.htm|title=Slavs|publisher=The Stewardship|website=the-stewardship.org|accessdate=2022-01-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/serbia-proposes-law-changes-to-halt-cyrillic-s-decline-08-01-2018 |title=Serbia Proposes Law Changes to Halt Cyrillic's Decline |last=Zivanovic |first=Maja |work=Balkan Insight |date=2 August 2018 |access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref>

==History==
{{see|Early Slavs|Wends|Veneti (Slavs)|Vistula Veneti|List of Medieval Slavic tribes}}

The [[early Slavs|early Slavic expansion]] reached Central Europe in c. the 7th century, and the West Slavic dialects diverged from Common Slavic over the following centuries. West Slavic polities of the 9th century include the [[Principality of Nitra]] and [[Great Moravia]]. The West Slavic tribes settled on the eastern fringes of the [[Carolingian Empire]], along the ''{{lang|la|[[Limes Saxoniae]]}}''. The [[Obotrites]] were given territories by [[Charlemagne]] in exchange for their support in his war against the [[Saxons]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In the high medieval period, the West Slavic tribes were again pushed to the east by the incipient German ''{{lang|de|[[Ostsiedlung]]}}'', decisively so following the [[Wendish Crusade]] in the 11th century. The Sorbs and other [[Polabian Slavs]] like [[Obodrites]] and [[Veleti]] came under the domination of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and were strongly [[germanization|Germanized]].<ref>Christiansen, Erik (1997). The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 287. {{ISBN|0-14-026653-4}}.</ref>

The Bohemians established the [[Duchy of Bohemia]] in the 9th century, which was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in the early 11th century. At the end of the 12th century the duchy was raised to the status of [[Kingdom of Bohemia|kingdom]], which was legally recognized in 1212 in the [[Golden Bull of Sicily]]. [[Lusatia]], the homeland of the remaining Sorbs, became a [[crown land]] of Bohemia in the 11th century, and Silesia followed suit in 1335. The [[Slovaks]], on the other hand, never became part of the Holy Roman Empire, being incorporated into the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]. Hungary fell under [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg rule]] alongside Austria and Bohemia in the 16th century, thus uniting the Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks, and Silesians under a single ruler. While Lusatia was lost to [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]] in 1635 and most of Silesia was lost to [[Prussia]] in 1740, the remaining West Slavic Habsburg dominions remained part of the [[Austrian Empire]] and then [[Austria-Hungary]], and after that remained united until 1992 in the form of [[Czechoslovakia]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Over the past century, there have been efforts by some to standardize and to recognize [[Silesian language|Silesian]], [[Lachian Language|Lachian]], and [[Moravian dialects|Moravian]] as [[Language secessionism|separate languages]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==See also==
*{{anl|West Slavs}}
*[[Comparison of Czech and Slovak]]
* [[Outline of Slavic history and culture]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|liststyle=lower-alpha|group=note}}

==References==
{{commons category|West Slavic languages}}
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book |last1=Sussex |first1=Roland |last2=Cubberley |first2=Paul |title=The Slavic Languages |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521223157}}

{{Slavic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:West Slavic Languages}}
[[Category:West Slavic languages| ]]