Vero - Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Gord (archaeology)

2025-10-27T10:54:51Z

2001:BB6:B894:C500:446C:93A8:26BB:4FAE: /* Etymology */Tag

{{short description|Medieval Slavonic fortified settlement}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2008}}

[[File:Visualization of Poznań at the end of the 10th century.jpg|thumb|Visualization of the [[Poznań]] ''gród'', [[Poland]] at the end of the 10th century]]
A '''gord''' is a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Early Slavs|Slavonic]] fortified settlement, usually built on strategic sites such as hilltops (a [[hillfort]]), riverbanks, lake islets or peninsulas between the 6th and 12th centuries in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. A typical gord consisted of a group of wooden houses surrounded by a wall made of earth and wood, and a [[palisade]] running along the top of the bulwark.

{{TOC limit}}

== Etymology ==
[[File:Góra Birów w Podzamczu - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Section of a reconstructed hilltop ''gród'' at the village of Birów near [[Ogrodzieniec]], Poland]]
[[Image:Gorod PL.PNG|thumb|right|Towns and villages in [[Poland]] with names derived from ''gród'' (magenta circles)]]

The term ultimately descends from the reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European]] root {{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|ǵʰortós}} 'enclosure'. The [[Proto-Slavic]] word {{lang|sla-x-proto|gordъ}} later differentiated into '''grad''' ([[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]: град), '''gorod''' (Cyrillic: город), '''gród''' in [[Polish language|Polish]], '''gard''' in [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]], etc.<ref Name="Taylor1898">{{cite book | last =Taylor | first =Isaac | author-link =Isaac Taylor (canon) | title =Names and Their Histories: A Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature| publisher =Rivingtons| year =1898| location =Original from the University of Michigan| url =https://archive.org/details/namesandtheirhi01taylgoog| quote =wall Grad gorod.| page =[https://archive.org/details/namesandtheirhi01taylgoog/page/n345 331]}}</ref><ref Name="Taylor1864">{{cite book | last =Taylor| first =Isaac| author-link =Isaac Taylor (canon) | title =Words and Places, Or, Etymological Illustrations of History, Ethnology, and Geography| publisher =Macmillan| year =1864| location =Original from Oxford University| url =https://archive.org/details/wordsandplaceso00unkngoog| quote =wall Grad gorod.| page =[https://archive.org/details/wordsandplaceso00unkngoog/page/n166 128]}}</ref><ref Name="Anthropologische">{{cite book | last =Anthropologische Gesellschaft in Wien| title =Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien| publisher =F. Berger & Söhne| year =1880| location =Original from the University of Michigan| url =https://archive.org/details/mittheilungende01wiengoog| quote =Gord wall Grad gorod.| page =[https://archive.org/details/mittheilungende01wiengoog/page/n51 40]}}</ref> It is the root of various words in modern [[Slavic language]]s pertaining to fences and fenced-in areas (Belarusian '''гарадз'''іць, Ukrainian '''город'''ити, Slovak o'''hrad'''iť, Czech o'''hrad'''it, Russian о'''град'''ить, [[Serbo-Croatian]] o'''grad'''iti, and Polish o'''grad'''zać, '''grod'''zić, to fence off). It also has evolved into words for a [[garden]] in certain languages.

Additionally, it has furnished numerous modern Slavic words for a [[city]] or [[town]]:

*[[Polish language|Polish]] ''gród'', plural ''grody'' (toponymic; nowadays a town or city is termed ''miasto'', but remnants of a ''gród'' are known as ''grodzisko'')
*[[Pomeranian language|Ancient Pomeranian]] and modern [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]] ''gard''
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]] and [[Czech language|Czech]] ''hrad'' ("castle" in the modern language), or ''hradisko/hradiště/hradec'', which are terms for gord
*[[Slovene language|Slovene]] ''gradec'', ''grad'' ("castle" in modern Slovene)
*[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] {{lang|be|горад}} (horad)
*[[Russian language|Russian]] {{lang|ru|город}} (gorod)
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] {{lang|uk|город}} (''horod'', dialectal and toponymic; nowadays ''misto'')
*[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Serbo-Croatian]], and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ''grad''/{{lang|bg|град}}

The names of many Central and Eastern European cities harken back to their pasts as gords. Some of them are in countries which once were but no longer are mainly inhabited by Slavic-speaking peoples.

Examples include:
* [[Horodok (disambiguation)|Horodok]]
* [[Gorod (toponymy)]]
* [[Hrod (toponymy)]]
* [[Hrud]]
* [[Horod]]
* [[Hrad (toponymy)]]
* [[Gard (Slavic toponymy)]]
* [[Grod (toponymy)]]
* [[Grad (toponymy)]]

[[File:Thunau am Kamp Reconstructed Slavic gatehouse 03.JPG|thumb|upright|A reconstructed Slavic gord [[gatehouse]] in Thunau am Kamp, Austria.]]

The words in Polish and Slovak for ''suburbium'', ''podgrodzie'' and ''podhradie'' correspondingly, literally mean a settlement beneath a gord: the ''gród''/''hrad'' was frequently built at the top of a hill, and the ''podgrodzie''/''podhradie'' at its foot. (The Slavic prefix ''pod-'', meaning "under/below" and descending from the Proto-Indo-European root {{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*pṓds}}, meaning foot, being equivalent to Latin ''sub-''). The word survives in the names of several villages ([[Podgrodzie, Subcarpathian Voivodeship]]) and town districts (e.g., that of [[Olsztyn]]), as well as in the names of the German municipalities [[Puttgarden]], [[Wagria]] and [[Putgarten]], [[Rügen]].

From this same Proto-Indo-European root come the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] word elements *''gard'' and *''gart'' (as in [[Stuttgart]]), and likely also the names of [[Graz]], [[Austria]] and [[Gartz]], [[Germany]]. Cognate to these are English words such as ''garden'', ''yard'', ''garth'', ''girdle'' and ''court.''<ref>ON. ''garðr''; goth. gards; den. -gaard; island. -gard; cimb. -garthur; aleman. -gardo; welsh. -gardd; holln. -gaerde; span. -gardin; pomern. -gard; slav. -grod, -hrad</ref><ref>A ''Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language''. Oxford. 1911; and [[Jane Chance]], "[[Tolkien and the invention of myth]]", [https://books.google.com/books?id=8LLxZXqgJdwC&dq=gar%C3%B0r+gaard+gard&pg=PA70 70]</ref>

== Construction ==
[[File:Fragment of the Slavic wharf in Gdańsk, 10-12th cent., Nar.Muz.Mor., Gdańsk, Poland.jpg|thumb|upright|A cross section of [[early Slavs|early Slavic]] ''gród'' bulwarks and [[wharf]] in [[Gdańsk]], Poland]]
[[File:Karte Freilichtmuseum Groß Raden.png|thumb|upright|A layout map of the [[West Slavs|West Slavic]] fortified settlement (gord) in [[Groß Raden Archaeological Open Air Museum|Groß Raden]], Germany]]
A typical gord was a group of wooden houses built either in rows or in circles, surrounded by one or more rings of walls made of earth and wood, a [[palisade]], and/or [[moat]]s. Some gords were ring-shaped, with a round, oval, or occasionally polygonal fence or wall surrounding a hollow. Others, built on a natural hill or a man-made mound, were cone-shaped. Those with a natural defense on one side, such as a river or lake, were usually horseshoe-shaped. Most gords were built in densely populated areas on sites that offered particular natural advantages.

As Slavic tribes united to form states, gords were also built for defensive purposes in less-populated border areas. Gords in which rulers resided or that lay on trade routes quickly expanded. Near the gord, or below it in elevation, there formed small communities of servants, merchants, artisans, and others who served the higher-ranked inhabitants of the gord. Each such community was known as a ''suburbium'' (literally "undercity") ({{langx|pl|podgrodzie}}). Its residents could shelter within the walls of the gord in the event of danger. Eventually the ''suburbium'' acquired its own fence or wall. In the [[High Middle Ages]], the gord usually evolved into a [[castle]], [[citadel]] or [[Kremlin (fortification)|kremlin]], and the ''suburbium'' into a [[town]].

Some gords did not stand the test of time and were abandoned or destroyed, gradually turning into more or less discernible mounds or rings of earth ([[Russian language|Russian]] ''gorodishche,'' [[Polish language|Polish]] ''gród'' or ''grodzisko,'' [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] ''horodyshche,'' [[Slovak language|Slovak]] ''hradisko,'' [[Czech language|Czech]] ''hradiště,'' German ''Hradisch'', Hungarian ''hradis'' and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''gradiška''/''градишка''). Notable archeological sites include [[Groß Raden Archaeological Open Air Museum|Groß Raden]] in Germany and [[Biskupin]] in Poland.

== Important gords in Central and Eastern Europe ==

=== Austria ===
*[[:de:Thunau am Kamp|Thunau am Kamp]]

=== Belarus ===
* [[Grodno]]

=== Czech Republic ===
* [[Bílina]]
* [[Budeč (gord)|Budeč]]
* [[Chotěbuz]]
* [[Kouřim]]
* [[Levý Hradec]]
* [[Libice nad Cidlinou]]
* [[Libušín]]
* [[Mikulčice-Valy]]
* [[Prague Castle]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Rubín|de}}
* [[Stará Boleslav]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Staré Zámky|cs}}
* [[Tetín (Beroun District)|Tetín]]
* [[Uherské Hradiště]]
* [[Vyšehrad]] (Prague)

=== Germany ===

==== Rügen ====
* the fort at [[Cape Arkona]] – the [[Jaromarsburg]]
* [[Garz Castle]]
* the fort of [[Charenza]] near Venz in the municipality of [[Trent (Rügen)|Trent]]
* the [[Herthaburg]] near the [[Stubbenkammer]] in the [[Jasmund National Park]]

==== Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania ====
* [[Mecklenburg Castle]] in the village of [[Dorf Mecklenburg]] near [[Wismar]] (origin of the state name)
* the [[Groß Raden Archaeological Open Air Museum|fort of Groß Raden]] near [[Sternberg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern|Sternberg]]
* the fort of [[Behren-Lübchin]], partly reconstructed in the [[Groß Raden Archaeological Open Air Museum]]
* [[Gädebehn Castle]] (Gemeinde [[Knorrendorf]]) in the county of [[Mecklenburgische Seenplatte]]
* [[Ganschendorf Castle]] (Gemeinde [[Sarow]]) in the county of [[Mecklenburgische Seenplatte]]
* the fort of [[Grapenwerder]] (Gemeinde [[Penzlin]]) in the county of [[Mecklenburgische Seenplatte]]
* [[Quadenschönfeld Castle]] in the county of [[Mecklenburgische Seenplatte]]
* [[Neu Nieköhr Castle]] (Gemeinde [[Behren-Lübchin]]) in the county of [[Rostock]]
* the [[Neu Kentzlin Castle|fort of Neu-Kentzlin]] (Gemeinde [[Kentzlin]]) between [[Demmin]] und [[Stavenhagen]]
* [[Mölln Castle]] (Gemeinde [[Mölln (Mecklenburg)]]) in the county of [[Mecklenburgische Seenplatte]]
* [[Möllenhagen Castle]] (Gemeinde [[Möllenhagen]]) in the county of [[Mecklenburgische Seenplatte]]
* the [[Ravensburg (Neubrandenburg)]]
* the [[Kastorfer See|forts at Kastorfer See]] near [[Neubrandenburg]]
* the [[Island fort of Teterower See|island fort]] in the [[Teterower See]]
* the ''Schlossberg'' near [[Feldberg (Mecklenburg)|Feldberg]]
* the Slavic fort near Menkendorf, a village in the parish of [[Grebs-Niendorf]]
* [[Wittenborn Castle]] ( municipality of [[Galenbeck]]) in the county of [[Mecklenburgische Seenplatte]]
* [[Kieve Castle]] in the county of [[Mecklenburgische Seenplatte]]
* [[Wulfsahl Castle]] in the county of [[Ludwigslust-Parchim]]

==== Berlin-Brandenburg ====
* [[Brandenburg (Castle)|Brandenburg Castle]]
* [[Spandau Citadel | Spandau Castle]] (Berlin)
* the [[Römerschanze near Potsdam]]
* the [[Reitweiner Wallberge]], fortanlage near [[Reitwein]] in the Landkreis Märkisch-Oderland
* the [[Slavic fort of Lübben]]
* the [[Slavic fort of Raddusch]] near [[Vetschau/Spreewald]]
* the [[Slavic fort of Tornow]]
* [[Lossow Castle]], [[Frankfurt (Oder)]]
* the fort near [[Kliestow]]

==== Saxony-Anhalt ====
* the fort of [[Altes Dorf (Pechau)|Altes Dorf]] in the [[Magdeburg]] subdistrict of [[Pechau]]
* [[Wust Castle]]

==== Schleswig-Holstein ====
* {{Interlanguage link|List of Early Middle Ages castles in Hamburg und Schleswig-Holstein|de|3=Liste frühmittelalterlicher Burganlagen in Hamburg und Schleswig-Holstein}} including:
* the fort of the Slavic settlement of Starigard in present-day [[Oldenburg in Holstein|Oldenburg]] – {{Interlanguage link|Oldenburger Wall|de}}

==== Bavaria ====
* [[Rauher Kulm (Upper Palatinate)|Rauher Kulm]]

=== Poland ===
[[File:Owidz, grodzisko.JPG|thumb|Part of the reconstructed {{lang|pl-kociewie|gard}} in [[Owidz]], [[Kociewie]] region, Poland]]
* [[Bnin, Kórnik|Bnin]]
* [[Cherven Cities|Cherven grods]]
* [[Gdańsk]]
* [[Giecz#Archaeological finds|Giecz]]
* [[Gniezno]]
* [[Grudziądz]]
* [[Grzybowo, Września County|Grzybowo]]
* [[Kałdus]]
* [[Kołobrzeg]]
* [[Kraków]]
* [[Ostrów Lednicki]]
* [[Owidz]]
* [[Poznań]]
* [[Przemyśl]]
* [[Piotrówka Hill Fort|Radom]]
* [[Rozprza|Rozprze]]
* [[Starogard Gdański]]
* [[Stradów, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship#History|Stradów]]
* [[Chrobry fortified village in Szprotawa|Szprotawa]]
* [[Szczecin]]
* [[Włocławek]]
* [[Wolin]]
* [[Wrocław]]

=== Russia ===
* [[Novgorod]]

=== Slovakia ===
* [[Ducové]]

=== Ukraine ===
* [[Belz]]
* [[Bilhorod Kyivskyi|Bilhorod-Kyivskyi]]
* [[Bohuslav|Bohuslavl]]
* [[Busk, Ukraine|Buzhsk]]
* [[Chernihiv]]
* [[Dorohobuzh, Rivne Oblast|Dorohobuzh]]
* [[Ancient Halych|Halych]]
* [[Hlukhiv]]
* [[Oster|Horodets Osterskyi]]
* [[Korosten|Iskorosten]]
* [[Kaniv]]
* [[Korsun-Shevchenkivskyi|Korsun]]
* [[Kyiv]]
* [[Liubech]]
* [[Liuboml]]
* [[Poltava|Ltava]]
* [[Lubny|Luben]]
* [[Medzhybizh|Mezhybozhe]]
* [[Novhorod-Siverskyi]]
* [[Ostroh]]
* [[Pereiaslav]]
* [[Peresopnytsia]]
* [[Plisnesk archaeological complex|Plisnensk]]
* [[Pryluky|Pryluk]]
* [[Putyvl]]
* [[Romny|Romen]]
* [[Terebovlia|Terebovl]]
* [[Torchesk]]
* [[Trypillia|Trepol]]
* [[Nizhyn|Unenizh]]
* [[Vasyliv]]
* [[Volodymyr, Volyn Oblast|Volodymyr]]
* [[Ovruch|Vruchiy]]
* [[Vyshhorod]]
* [[Vyr]]
* [[Bila Tserkva|Yuriv]]
* [[Zvenyhorod]]

== See also ==
* [[Oppidum]], a type of similar but often much bigger fortified wooden settlement used by ancient [[Celts]] and [[Germanic peoples]].
* [[Gordoservon]] in Asia Minor, 680 AD
* [[Garðaríki]] – [[Varangian]] name for [[Kievan Rus]], interpreted as "cities"
* [[Biskupin]], a life-size reconstruction of a gord-like [[Lusatian culture]] settlement in Poland.
* [[Kraal]] (South Africa);
* [[Motte-and-bailey]] (Western Europe).
* [[Burgh|Burgh, Borough, Burg]] or bjerg (Scotland, England, Germany, Denmark)
* [[Ringfort]] (Ireland, Britain, Scandinavia)

==References==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://archeologia.w.toruniu.pl/grzybowo/rekonstr/rekonstr.htm Reconstruction of a ''gród'' at Grzybowo, Poland] – images of a typical ancient Slavic settlement with ''suburbium'', earth-and-wood wall and moat; by Tomek Birezowski (Polish text)

{{Fortifications}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Fortifications by type]]
[[Category:Early Slavic archaeology]]
[[Category:Slavic history]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Poland]]
[[Category:Human habitats]]
[[Category:Hillforts|*]]

Lindworm

2025-10-27T10:52:21Z

2001:BB6:B894:C500:446C:93A8:26BB:4FAE: /* Etymology */Tags

{{Short description|Dragon or serpent monster in Nordic mythology}}
{{for|the popular motif found on runestones in 11th-century Sweden|Runic animal}}
{{Infobox mythical creature
|name = Lindworm
|AKA = Lindwurm, lindwyrm, lindorm
|image = John Bauer, 1911 (cropped, no signature).jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = [[Sweden|Swedish]] lindworm drawn by Swedish illustrator [[John Bauer (illustrator)|John Bauer]], 1911. The Swedish lindworm lacks wings and limbs.
|Folklore = [[Mythical creature]], [[legendary creature]]
|Grouping = [[Monster]]
|Sub_Grouping = [[Dragon]]
|Family = [[Germanic dragon|Worm (dragon)]], {{ILL|Whiteworm (mythology)|sv|Vitorm}}, [[Basilisk]], [[Guivre]], [[Vouivre]], [[Wyvern]], [[Sea serpent]]s, [[Jörmungandr]]
|Region = [[Northern Europe]], [[Western Europe]], [[Central Europe]]
|First_Attested = [[Viking Age]]<ref name="ungafakta.se"/>
}}
The '''lindworm''' (''worm'' meaning [[snake]]), also spelled '''lindwyrm''' or '''lindwurm''', is a [[mythical creature]] in [[Northern Europe|Northern]], [[Western Europe|Western]] and [[Central Europe]]an [[folklore]] that traditionally has the shape of a giant serpent monster which lives deep in the forest. It can be seen as a sort of [[dragon]].

In [[Central Europe]] and beyond, it is often depicted as a serpent with forelimbs, often also with wings and sometimes even hindlimbs, but in some traditions, especially [[Swedish folklore]], it is foremost limbless; however, the various traits are generally just considered variation within the "species", and a lindworm is not defined by limbs or lack thereof. A broad definition is any [[western dragon]] with heavy serpentine features.

According to legend, everything that lies under a lindworm will increase as the lindworm grows. This belief gave rise to tales of dragons that [[Broodiness|brood]] over treasures to become richer. Legend tells of two kinds of lindworm: a good one, associated with luck, often a cursed prince who has been transformed into the beast (compare to "[[The Frog Prince]]" and "[[Beauty and the Beast]]" stories), and a bad one, a dangerous [[Man-eating animal|man-eater]] that will attack humans on sight. A lindworm may swallow its own tail, turning itself into a rolling wheel, to pursue fleeing humans (compare [[ouroboros]] and [[hoop snake]]).<ref name="ungafakta.se"/>

The head of the 16th-century lindworm statue at Lindwurm Fountain ({{ill|Lindwurmbrunnen|de|Lindwurmbrunnen (Klagenfurt)}}) in [[Klagenfurt]], Austria, is modeled on the skull of a [[woolly rhinoceros]] found in a nearby quarry in 1335. It has been cited as the earliest reconstruction of an extinct animal.<ref name="Mayor2000">{{cite book |author=Mayor, Adrienne |title=The first fossil hunters: paleontology in Greek and Roman times |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |location=Princeton, N.J |year=2000 |isbn=0-691-08977-9 }}</ref><ref>''Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London''. [[Academic Press]]. 147-148. 1887.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.visitklagenfurt.at/en/discover-and-experience/worth-seeing/290-lindwurmbrunnen.html |title=Lindwurm Fountain |publisher=Tourism Information Klagenfurt am Wörthersee |access-date=June 1, 2019 }}</ref>

== Etymology ==
{{main|Germanic dragon}}
[[File:Historiae naturalis de quadrupetibus libri - cum aeneis figuris; (Historiae naturalis de serpentibus libri II; Historiae naturalis de insectis libri III; Historiae naturalis de exanguibus aquaticis (14749348281).jpg|thumb|upright|Italian depictions of lindworm-esque dragons (1650)]]
[[File:Niels Skovgaard, Kong Lindorm, 1910, KKS9518, Statens Museum for Kunst (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[King Lindworm]] according to Danish painter [[Niels Skovgaard]] (1910)]]

'''Lindworm''' derives from [[early medieval]] [[Germanic languages]], according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], first appearing in English as ''lintworm'' in 1423.<ref>{{cite web |title=† lintworm |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/lintworm_n?tl=true |website=oed.com |access-date=2025-06-26}}</ref> The name compounds Germanic ''lind'' with ''worm'', the latter meaning "snake, dragon"; however, the earliest known form of the word is {{langx|gmh|lintrache}} ('lin-dragon'), found in ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', only later appearing as {{lang|gmh|lintwurm}}, {{langx|gml|lintworm}}, {{lang|gml|lindworm}}, {{langx|dum|lindeworm}}, {{langx|non|linnormr}}, [[Old Swedish]]: ''lindormber''. The actual origin is uncertain, possibly from a [[Proto-Germanic]] form akin to {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*linþawurmiz}}.

The meaning of the prefix ''lind'' is uncertain, perhaps it is from the Proto-Germanic adjective {{lang|gem-x-proto|linþia-}}, meaning "flexible", or perhaps it is from the Old Danish/[[Old Saxon]] ''lithi'', Old High German {{lang|goh|lindi}}, "soft, mild" (Middle High and Low German {{lang|gmh|linde}}, German {{lang|de|lind, (ge)linde}}), Old English {{lang|ang|liðe}} (English ''lithe'', "agile"), alternatively something akin to [[Old Swedish]] ''linde'' (modern Swedish {{lang|sv|linda}}), existing as prefix ''lind-'' and ''linn-'', meaning "to wind", "to turn coils around something".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hellquist |first1=Elof |title=Svensk Etymologisk Ordbok |date=1922 |publisher=C. W. K. Gleerups Förlag |location=Lund |page=411 |url=https://runeberg.org/svetym/#l |access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref> In [[Old Icelandic]], the term ''linnormr'' was used to translate German sources to produce [[Þiðreks saga]] (an Old Norse chivalric saga adapted from the continent from the late 13th c.)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleasby |first1=Richard |last2=Vigfusson |first2=Guđbrandr |title=An Icelandic-English Dictionary |date=1957 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford |url=http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kurisuto/germanic/oi_cleasbyvigfusson_about.html |page=90}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Þiðreks saga af Bern |url=https://heimskringla.no/wiki/%C3%9Ei%C3%B0reks_saga_af_Bern_-_Upphaf_Sigur%C3%B0ar_sveins |access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref>

== Swedish lindworm (lindorm) ==
[[File:Urnes stavkirke - an10071204164102.jpg|thumb|In comparison to Sweden, which largely kept the serpentine origin of the lindworm, Early Medieval carvings of Lindworms at [[Urnes Stave Church]] in [[Norway]], show winged bipedal [[Chimera (mythology)|chimera]] designs more in line with Central European lindworms and conventional dragons]]
In [[Nordic folklore]], specifically [[Swedish folklore]], lindworms traditionally appear as giant forest serpents without limbs, living between rocks deep in the forest. They are said to be dark in color with a brighter underside. Along the spine, they are said to have either fish-like [[dorsal fin]]s or a horse-like [[Mane (horse)|mane]]; for this reason, they are sometimes called a "mane snake" ({{langx|sv|manorm}}). For defence and attack, lindworms can spit a foul milk-like substance that can blind enemies.<ref name="ungafakta.se">{{cite web |title=Lindormar |url=http://www.ungafakta.se/kunskapsbanken/svenska-oknytt/material/Svenska%20oknytt,%20Lindormar.pdf |access-date=2022-08-07 |publisher=ungafakta.se }}</ref>

Lindworm eggs are said to be laid under the bark of ''[[Tilia cordata|linden trees]]'' ({{langx|sv|lind}}). Once hatched, lindworms slither away and make a home in a pile of rocks.<ref name="ungafakta.se"/> When fully grown, they can become extremely long. To counter this, during hunting they swallow their own tails to become a [[wheel]] and roll at extremely high speeds to pursue prey. This practice earned them the nickname "wheel snake" ({{langx|sv|hjulorm}}).<ref name="ungafakta.se"/>

<gallery widths="210" heights="100">
File:Gerhard Munthe (1849-1929) Norske folkeviser 1943 37 Lindarormen Dreyers Forlag Oslo (Norwegian folk songs medieval ballads) Nasjonalbiblioteket no-nb digibok 2007042604026 PDM (cropped).jpg|Serpentine lindworm by Norwegian artist [[Gerhard Munthe]] (1943)
File:Gerhard Munthe (1849-1929) Norske folkeviser 1943 40 Lindarormen Dreyers Forlag Oslo (Norwegian folk songs medieval ballads) Nasjonalbiblioteket no-nb digibok 2007042604026 PDM (cropped).jpg|Serpentine lindworm by Norwegian artist [[Gerhard Munthe]] (1943)
File:Boj z zmajem (panjska končnica) (+20 brightness, +40 contrast).png|Slovenian serpent dragon, comparable to the Swedish lindworm
</gallery>

=== Brooding over treasure ===
In [[Nordic folklore]], it is said 'that which lies under a lindworm will grow at the rate of the snake'. This ability stems from pagan times and is featured in many of the old sagas involving [[Germanic dragon]]s and serpents thereof. One of the most stereotypical uses for this trait is to brood over treasure in order to get richer.

Here follows a revolving quote from ''Fru Marie Grubbe'', by Danish author [[Jens Peter Jacobsen]] (1876), given in its Swedish (1888), and English (1917), translation, due to availability. Of note: the book does not cover mythology, rather, the segment is spontaneous and written like something commonplace for the reader, used as a parable in an otherwise unrelated story. The English translation, while fairly direct, does not use the word lindworm ({{langx|sv|lindorm}}), instead opting to translate it as serpent and reptile.

{| cellpadding="5"
! Swedish
! English
|-
|<poem lang|ang>{{lang|sv|Men det skedde icke, och han kunde icke låta bli att tänka sig, att dessa outtalade förebråelser nu lågo som lindormar ligga i sina mörka hålor, rufvande öfver dystra skatter, som växte allt efter som ormarna växte, blodröd karbunkel, lyftande sig fram på guldröd stjelk, och blek opal, långsamt utvidgande sig i knöl på knöl, svällande och ynglande, under det ormarnas kroppar, stilla, men ohejdadt växande, gledo ut i bugt på bugt, lyftande sig i ring på ring öfver skattens frodiga hvimmel.}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Fru Marie Grubbe : interiörer från 1600- talet |url=https://runeberg.org/grubbesv/0190.html |website=runeberg.org |date=1888 |access-date=26 June 2025}}</ref>
</poem>

|<poem lang|en|italic="no">Still it was not done, and he could not rid himself of a sense that these unspoken accusations lay like serpents in a dark cave (Swedish: ''like lindworms laying in their dark dens''), brooding over sinister treasures, which grew as the reptiles grew, blood-red carbuncles rising on stalks of cadmium, and pale opal in bulb upon bulb slowly spreading, swelling, and breeding, while the serpents lay still but ceaselessly expanding, gliding forth in sinuous bend upon bend, lifting ring upon ring over the rank growth of the treasure.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marie Grubbe, a lady of the seventeenth century |url=https://runeberg.org/mariegrubb/0167.html |website=runeberg.org |access-date=26 June 2025}}</ref>
</poem>
|}

=== Late belief in lindworms in Sweden ===
A belief in the reality of the ''lindorm'', a giant limbless serpent, persisted well into the 19th century in some parts. In the mid-19th century, the Swedish [[folklorist]] [[Gunnar Olof Hyltén-Cavallius]] (1818–1889) collected stories of legendary creatures in Sweden and met several people in [[Småland]], Sweden, who said they had encountered giant snakes, sometimes with a long mane. He gathered around 50 eyewitness reports and in 1884 offered a cash reward for a captured specimen, dead or alive.<ref>G. O. Hyltén-Cavallius, ''Om draken eller lindormen, mémoire till k. Vetenskaps-akademien'', 1884.</ref> He was ridiculed by Swedish scholars, and because no one ever claimed the reward, the effort resulted in a [[cryptozoology|cryptozoological]] defeat. Rumours of the existence of lindworms in Småland soon abated.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Meurger |first=Michel |author-link=:fr:Michel Meurger |title=The Lindorms of Småland |journal=Arv: Nordic Yearbook of Folklore |volume=52 |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fa0SAQAAIAAJ&q=stollenwurm |pages=87–9|isbn=9789122016731 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Berömda vidunder|author=Sjögren, Bengt|date=1980|publisher=Settern|isbn=9175860236|location=[Laholm]|oclc=35325410}}</ref>

== Central European lindworm (lindwurm) ==
In [[Central Europe]] the lindworm usually resembles a dragon or something similar. It generally appears with a scaly serpentine body, a dragon's head, and two clawed forelimbs, sometimes with wings. Some examples, such as the 16th-century lindworm statue at Lindwurm Fountain in [[Klagenfurt]], Austria, have four limbs and two wings.

Most limbed depictions imply that lindworms do not walk on two limbs like a [[wyvern]] but move like a [[mole lizard]]: they slither like a [[snake]] and use their arms for traction.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://runeberg.org/nfbp/0351.html |title=lindworm |publisher=Nordisk familjebok |access-date=July 1, 2019 }}</ref>

<gallery>
File:WMK - Grüner Lindwurm.jpg|Wingless four-legged lindworm on a German relief (1566)
File:Klagenfurt Lindwurmbrunnen 02 (cropped).jpg|Winged four-legged lindworm fountain in [[Klagenfurt]] (16th-century)
File:Musaeum Hermeticum 1678 p 353 Dragon.png|Winged fore-legged Lindworm in [[Musaeum Hermeticum]] (1678)
</gallery>

== Lindworm offshoots (guivre, vouivre, wyvern) ==
{{main|Guivre|Wyvern}}
[[File:Paolo Uccello 047b (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Vouivre]] or [[wyvern]] being lanced by [[Saint George]].]]
There exist several related offshoots of the winged lindworm outside Northern and Central Europe, such as the French ''guivre'', and to some extent the British ''wyvern''. The French ''guivre'', earlier ''vouivre'', are more dragon-like than the traditional lindworms while the British wyvern is [[canon (fiction)|canonically]] a full-fledged dragon. These terms are ultimately derived from Latin ''vīpera'' "adder, poisonous snake".

== In heraldry ==
{{See also|Biscione}}
According to the 19th-century English archaeologist [[Charles Boutell]], a lindworm in heraldry is basically "a dragon without wings".<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Aveling |editor1-first=S. T. |title=Heraldry, Ancient and Modern: Including Boutell's Heraldry |date=1892 |publisher=W. W. Gibbings |location=London |page=139 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTsaAAAAYAAJ&q=lindworm&pg=PA139}}</ref> A different heraldic definition by German historian [[Maximilian Gritzner]] was "a dragon with four feet" instead of usual two,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gritzner |first=Adolf Maximilian Ferdinand |author-link=Maximilian Gritzner |date=1878 |title=Heraldische Terminologie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbJs52C53IsC |journal=Vierteljahrsschrift für Heraldik, Sphragistik und Genealogie |volume=6 |pages=313–314 |access-date=April 24, 2022}}</ref> so that depictions with - comparatively smaller - wings exist as well.<ref>{{cite book |last=Havas |first=Harald |date=2021 |title=Orte - Eine Sammlung skurriler und unterhaltsamer Fakten |publisher=[[Ueberreuter|Carl Ueberreuther]] |chapter=Linder Wurm |isbn=9783800082100 |lang=de}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=April 2022}}

<gallery heights="150" widths="150">
File:DEU Wurmannsquick COA.svg|Wingless limbed lindworm in the arms of the small Bavarian town of [[Wurmannsquick]]
File:AUT Klagenfurt COA.svg|Winged and limbed lindworm in the arms of the city of [[Klagenfurt]]
File:Wappen at sipbachzell.png|Wingless and four-limbed lindworm in the arms of the city of [[Sipbachzell]]
File:Lindworm.gif|Wingless bipedal lindworm as a [[jousting helmet]] decoration
</gallery>

== In tales ==

[[File:Klagenfurt 2018(1) 06 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|16th-century lindworm statue in [[Klagenfurt]], Austria, featuring wings and limbs.]]
An Austrian tale from the 13th century tells of a lindworm that lived near [[Klagenfurt]]. Flooding threatened travelers along the river, and the presence of the lindworm was blamed. A duke offered a reward to anyone who could capture it and so some young men tied a bull to a chain, and when the lindworm swallowed the bull, it was hooked like a fish and killed.<ref>J. Rappold, ''Sagen aus Kärnten'' (1887).</ref>

The shed skin of a lindworm was believed to greatly increase a person's knowledge about nature and medicine.<ref name="Lindorm">{{cite web|url=https://runeberg.org/nfbp/0351.html |title=645-646 (Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 16. Lee{{Snd}} Luvua) |date=22 January 2018 |website=runeberg.org }}</ref>

A serpentine monster with the head of a "[[salamander (legendary creature)|salamander]]" features in the legend of the [[Lambton Worm]], a serpent caught in the [[River Wear]] and dropped in a well, which 3–4 years thence, terrorized the countryside of [[County Durham|Durham]] while the nobleman who caught it was at the [[Crusades]]. Upon return, he received spiked armour and instructions to kill the serpent, but thereafter to kill the next living thing he saw. His father arranged that after the lindworm was killed, a dog would be released for that purpose; but instead of releasing the dog the nobleman's father ran to his son, and so incurred a malediction by the son's refusal to commit [[patricide]]. [[Bram Stoker]] used this legend in his short story ''[[Lair of the White Worm]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/meft/meft43.htm |title=The Lambton Worm|publisher= sacred-texts.com|access-date=June 1, 2019}}</ref>

The sighting of a "whiteworm" once was thought to be an exceptional sign of good luck.<ref name="Lindorm"/>

[[File:Lissitzky Cold synagogue Mogilev dragon 01.jpg|thumb|A painting of the city of Worms and the Lindworm, as depicted in the story by [[Juspa Schammes]]. The painting was displayed in [[Cold Synagogue, Mogilev]].]]
A German folk legend, written in the 17th-century by [[Juspa Schammes]], tells that the origin of the name of the city of [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] is rooted in a tale involving lindworm: This creature, resembling a [[snake]] and a [[worm]], arrived in the city of Germisa and terrorized its inhabitants. Every day, the people held a lottery to determine which of them would be sacrificed to the lindworm in order to spare the city from destruction. Eventually, the lot fell on the queen. One of the city's heroes refused to allow her to sacrifice herself and offered to replace her on the condition that if he survived, she would marry him. The queen agreed, and he donned iron armor. After the lindworm swallowed him, he cut his way out from the inside and killed it. He married the queen, became king, and renamed the city to Worms to commemorate this tale.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eidelberg |first=Shlomo |title=R. Juspa, Shammash of Warmaisa (Worms). Jewish Life in 17th Century Worms |publisher=Magnes Press |year=1991 |isbn=9652237620 |location=Jerusalem |pages=82–84}}</ref>

The [[knucker]] or the [[Tatzelwurm]] is a wingless biped, and often identified as a lindworm. In legends, lindworms are often very large and eat cattle and human corpses, sometimes invading churchyards and eating the dead from cemeteries.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.astonishinglegends.com/astonishing-legends/2018/9/24/tatzelwurm|title=Tatzelwurms |date=24 September 2018 |publisher=Astonishing Legends |access-date=June 1, 2019}}</ref>

[[File:The pink fairy book (1897) (14597454479).jpg|thumb|upright|The maiden amidst the Lindorm's shed skins. Illustration by [[Henry Justice Ford]] for [[Andrew Lang]]'s ''[[The Pink Fairy Book]]'' (1897).]]
In the 19th-century tale of "Prince Lindworm" (also "[[King Lindworm]]")<ref>Grundtvig, Svend. ''Gamle danske minder i folkemunde: folkeæventyr, folkeviser''. Kjøbenhavn, C. G. Iversen. 1854. pp. 172-180.</ref> from [[Scandinavian folklore]], a "half-man half-snake" lindworm is born, as one of twins, to a queen, who, in an effort to overcome her childlessness, followed the advice of an old [[crone]] who instructed her to eat two onions. As she did not peel the first onion, the first twin was born a lindworm. The second twin is perfect in every way. When he grows up and sets off to find a bride, the lindworm insists that a bride be found for him before his younger brother can marry.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.worldoftales.com/European_folktales/Norwegian_folktale_3.html|title= Prince Lindworm• |publisher= European folktales
|access-date=July 1, 2019}}</ref> Because none of the chosen maidens are pleased by him, he eats each one until a shepherd's daughter who spoke to the same crone is brought to marry him, wearing every dress she owns. The lindworm tells her to take off her dress, but she insists that he shed a skin for each dress she removes. Eventually, his human form is revealed beneath the last skin. Some versions of the story omit the lindworm's twin, and the gender of the soothsayer varies. A similar tale occurs in the 1952 novel ''[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader]]'' by [[C. S. Lewis]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/05/22/the-lindworm/
|title=The Lindworm|publisher=Paris Review |last=Stein|first=Sadie|date=May 22, 2015 |access-date=June 1, 2019}}</ref>

The tale of Prince Lindworm is part of a multiverse of tales in which a maiden is betrothed or wooed by a prince enchanted to be a snake or other serpentine creature ([[Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index|ATU]] 433B, "The Prince as Serpent"; "King Lindworm").<ref>Jan M. Ziolkowski. 2010. “Straparola and the Fairy Tale: Between Literary and Oral Traditions.” Journal of American Folklore 123 (490). p. 383. doi:10.1353/jaf.2010.0002</ref><ref>Thompson, Stith. ''The Folktale''. [[University of California Press]]. 1977. p. 101. {{ISBN|0-520-03537-2}}</ref>

In a short Swiss tale, a Lindworm terrorises the area around [[Grabs, Switzerland|Grabs]]. "It was as big as a tree trunk, dark red in colour and, according to its nature, extraordinarily vicious". It was defeated by a bull that had been fed milk for seven years and had hooks attached its horns. A girl, who had committed an offense, was tasked with bringing the bull to the Lindworm. After the beast was defeated, the enraged bull threw itself off a cliff, but the girl survived.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.sagen.at/texte/sagen/schweiz/st_gallen/lindwurm_grabs.html
|title="Der Lindwurm", Sagen des Kantons St. Gallen|publisher= Werner Hausknecht & Co. St. Gallen |last= Kuoni|first= Jacob|date= 1903 |access-date=June 13, 2021}}</ref> In another tale, a cowherd falls into a cave where a Lindworm lives. Instead of eating him, the Lindworm shares his food source, a spring of liquid gold. After seven years, they are discovered by a Venetian who hauls up the Lindworm and ties it up. The cowherd releases the Lindworm, who kills the Venetian and then leaves. When the cowherd goes home, no one recognizes him and he no longer likes human food.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.sagen.at/texte/sagen/schweiz/st_gallen/lindwurm_gamidaur.html
|title="Der Lindwurm in Gamidaur", Sagen des Kantons St. Gallen|publisher= Werner Hausknecht & Co. St. Gallen |last= Kuoni|first= Jacob|date= 1903 |access-date=June 29, 2021}}</ref>

In the [[Astrid Lindgren]] book ''[[Brothers Lionheart]]'', the [[dragon]] [[Katla (dragon)|Katla]] has a mortal enemy in the form of a lindworm named Karm. While Katla is the pet of Dark Lord Tengil, Karm lives under a waterfall. In the end scene of the book, they fight each other into the death.

== See also ==
* [[Little Wildrose]]
* [[The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh]]
* [[Tulisa, the Wood-Cutter's Daughter]], Indian tale about a Serpent Prince
* [[Germanic dragon]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/snake.html#lindorm King Lindorm], translated from: Grundtvig, Sven, ''Gamle danske Minder i Folkemunde'' (Copenhagen, 1854—1861).
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040604074721/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/DanishHistory/book9.html Gesta Danorum, Book 9] by Saxo Grammaticus.
*[http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/stgeorge3.html Saint George Legends from Germany and Poland]
*[https://runeberg.org/nfbp/0351.html Lindorm], an article from [[Nordisk Familjebok]] (1904–1926), a Swedish encyclopedia now in the Public Domain.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070622022752/http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/piece-info.cgi?id=883 Lindormen], a ballad in Swedish published at the [[Mutopia project]].

{{Heraldic creatures}}
{{German folklore}}

[[Category:Germanic dragons]]
[[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]]
[[Category:German legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Dutch legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Scandinavian legendary creatures]]
[[Category:English legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Northumbrian folklore]]
[[Category:Scandinavian folklore]]
[[Category:Swedish folklore]]
[[Category:Norwegian folklore]]
[[Category:Danish folklore]]
[[Category:Legendary serpents]]
[[Category:ATU 400-459]]
[[Category:Coelodonta]]

Saale

2025-10-27T10:46:59Z

2001:BB6:B894:C500:446C:93A8:26BB:4FAE: /* Etymology */Tags

{{short description|River in Germany}}
{{About|the river of Bavaria, Thuringia and Saxony-Anhalt|other uses and other rivers with the same name|Saale (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{infobox river
| name = Saale
| map = Saale (rivière).png
| map_size = 280px
| map_caption = The Saale has its source in the [[Fichtel Mountains]] in northeastern [[Franconia]] ([[Bavaria]]) and flows into the [[Elbe]] at [[Barby, Germany|Barby]], [[Saxony-Anhalt]].
| image = Petersgrat_bei_Hof_Bayern.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_caption = The Saale valley near Hof
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 6
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[Germany]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[States of Germany|States]]
| subdivision_name2 = {{hlist|[[Bavaria]]|[[Thuringia]]|[[Saxony-Anhalt]]}}
| subdivision_type3 = Reference no.
| subdivision_name3 = DE: 56
| length = {{convert|413|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="Bergemann">{{cite web | url=https://www.fgg-elbe.de/dokumente/fachberichte.html?file=tl_files/Download-Archive/Fachberichte/Allgemein/Fliessgw2015.pdf | title=Gesamtliste der Fließgewässer im Elbeeinzugsgebiet | author=Michael Bergemann | publisher=Arbeitsgemeinschaft für die Reinhaltung der Elbe | date=1 July 2015 | access-date=21 March 2018 | language= de| format=PDF; 791 kB}}</ref>
| width_avg =
| depth_avg =
| source1_location = near [[Zell im Fichtelgebirge]]
| source1_coordinates = {{Coord|50.12056|11.83056|type:river_region:DE-BY|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| source1_elevation = {{Höhe|728|DE-NN|link=true }}
| mouth_location = near [[Barby, Germany|Barby]] into the [[Elbe]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{Coord|51.95472|11.91389|type:river_region:DE-ST|format=dms|display=inline}}
| mouth_elevation = {{Höhe|49.5|DE-NN|link=true}}
| basin_population =
| basin_landmarks = {{ubl
| Cities: [[Jena]], [[Halle (Saale)]]
| Large towns: [[Hof (Saale)]], [[Saalfeld/Saale]], [[Rudolstadt]], [[Naumburg (Saale)]], [[Weißenfels]], [[Merseburg]], [[Bernburg (Saale)]]
}}
| progression = {{RElbe}}
| basin_size = {{convert|24167|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="Bergemann"/>
| discharge1_location =
| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg = {{convert|115|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_max =
| tributaries_right = [[White Elster]], [[Orla (Saale)|Orla]], [[Southern Regnitz|Southern]] and [[Northern Regnitz]]
| tributaries_left = [[Schwarza River (Saale)|Schwarza]], [[Ilm (Thuringia)|Ilm]], [[Unstrut]], [[Salza (Saale)|Salza]], [[Wipper (Saale)|Wipper]], [[Bode (river)|Bode]]
| waterbodies =
| ports = Hafen Halle (Saale), Sophienhafen in Halle (Saale)
| bridges = Saale bridge, Rudolphstein, Old Saale bridge, Jena-Burgau
| custom_label = Navigable
| custom_data = From its mouth to [[Bad Dürrenberg]]; for Europa ships to Halle-Trotha<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wsv.de/service/karten/bundeseinheitlich/index.html |title=Federal Water and Navigation Authority |access-date=9 May 2010 |archive-date=13 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213100539/http://www.wsv.de/service/karten/bundeseinheitlich/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| extra =
}}

The '''Saale''' ({{IPA|de|ˈzaːlə|-|De-Saale.ogg}}), also known as the '''Saxon Saale''' ({{langx|de|Sächsische Saale}} {{IPA|de|ˈzɛksɪʃə ˈzaːlə|pron|De-Sächsische Saale.ogg}}) and '''Thuringian Saale''' ({{langx|de|Thüringische Saale}}), is a river in [[Germany]] and a left-bank [[tributary]] of the [[Elbe]]. It is distinguished from the smaller [[Fränkische Saale|Franconian Saale]], a right-bank tributary of the [[Main (river)|Main]], or the [[Saale (Leine)|Saale]] in [[Lower Saxony]], a tributary of the [[Leine]].

==Etymology==
The name ''Saale'' comes from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root {{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*sélos|*séles}} 'marsh', akin to [[Welsh language|Welsh]] {{lang|cy|hêl, heledd}} 'river meadow', [[Cornish language|Cornish]] {{lang|kw|heyl}} 'estuary', [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{tlit|grc|hélos}} 'marsh, meadow', [[Sanskrit]] {{tlit|sa|sáras}} 'lake, pond', [[Sarasvati River|''Sárasvati'']] 'sacred river', [[Old Persian]] ''Harauvati'' '[[Harut River|Hārūt River]]; [[Arachosia]]', [[Avestan]] {{tlit|ae|Haraxvatī}}, idem. It may also be related to the Indo-European root {{lang|ine-x-proto|sal}}, "salt".<ref name="GamkrelidzeIvanov2010">{{cite book|author1= Thomas V. Gamkrelidze|author2= Vjaceslav V. Ivanov|title= Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC&pg=PA581|date= 15 December 2010|publisher= Walter de Gruyter|isbn= 978-3-11-081503-0|page= 581}}</ref>

The Slavic name of the Saale, ''Solawa'', still found in [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]] texts, comes from [[Old High German]] {{lang|goh|sol}}, "salt", and {{lang|goh|awa}}, "water".<ref name="Jacob1894">
{{cite book
|author= Georg Jacob
|title= Die Ortsnamen des Herzogthums Meiningen
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5ChBAAAAYAAJ
|year= 1894|publisher= Kesselring|page= 55
}}
</ref>

==Course==
[[File:Bad Kösen Saalewehr und Alte Mühle (01).jpg|thumb|left|Saale in [[Bad Kösen]]]]
The Saale originates on the slope of the [[Großer Waldstein]] mountain near [[Zell im Fichtelgebirge|Zell]] in the [[Fichtel Mountains]] in [[Upper Franconia]] ([[Bavaria]]), at an elevation of {{convert|728|m|ft}}. It pursues a winding course in a northern direction, and after passing the manufacturing town of [[Hof, Bavaria|Hof]], enters [[Thuringia]]. It flows amid well-wooded low mountains of the [[Thuringian Forest]] until it reaches the valley of [[Saalfeld]]. After leaving Saalfeld the Saale reaches [[Rudolstadt]]. Here it receives the waters of the [[Schwarza (Saale)|Schwarza]], in whose valley lies the ruined castle of [[Schwarzburg (municipality)|Schwarzburg]], the ancestral seat of the formerly ruling [[House of Schwarzburg]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

From Saalfeld, the Saale enters the limestone hill region north of the Thuringian Forest, and sweeps beneath the hills enclosing the [[University of Jena|university]] town of [[Jena]]. It enters [[Saxony-Anhalt]] and passes the spa of [[Bad Kösen]] and, after receiving the deep and navigable [[Unstrut]] at [[Naumburg]], flows past [[Weißenfels]], [[Merseburg]], [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]], [[Bernburg]] and [[Calbe]]. It finally joins the Elbe just above [[Barby, Germany|Barby]],{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} after traversing a distance of {{convert|413|km|mi}}<ref name="Bergemann"/>—shortened {{convert|14|km|mi|0}} by a bypass from its natural length of {{convert|427|km|mi}}.

The Saale is navigable from Naumburg and is also planned connected from [[Leuna]] with the [[White Elster]] near [[Leipzig]] by an unfinished canal. The soil of the lower part of its valley is exceptionally fertile, and produces, amongst other crops, large quantities of [[sugar beet]]. Among its tributaries are the White Elster, [[Southern Regnitz|Southern]] and [[Northern Regnitz]] and [[Orla (Saale)|Orla]] on the right bank, and the [[Ilm (Thuringia)|Ilm]], Unstrut, [[Salza (Saale)|Salza]], [[Wipper (Saale)|Wipper]] and [[Bode River|Bode]] on the left. Its upper course is rapid. Its valley, down to Merseburg, contains many castles which crown the enclosing heights.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

==Geography==
Originating in [[Zell im Fichtelgebirge|Zell]], the Saale flows through – [[Sparneck]] – [[Weißdorf]] – Seulbitz – Förbau – [[Schwarzenbach an der Saale]] – Fattigau – [[Oberkotzau]] – [[Hof (Saale)|Hof]] – Brunnenthal – Saalenstein – Joditz – Landesgrenze Bayern/Thüringen – [[Hirschberg (Saale)|Hirschberg]] – [[Sparnberg]] – Rudolphstein – [[Blankenberg (Thüringen)|Blankenberg]] – [[Blankenstein]] – [[Harra]] – Saaldorf – [[Saalburg-Ebersdorf|Saalburg]] – Poeritzsch – Gräfenwarth – [[Burgk]] – Walsburg – [[Ziegenrück]] – Neidenberga – [[Hohenwarte]] – [[Eichicht (Kaulsdorf)|Eichicht]] – [[Kaulsdorf (Saale)|Kaulsdorf]] – Fischersdorf – Weischwitz – Reschwitz – [[Breternitz]] – [[Saalfeld/Saale|Saalfeld]] – Schwarza – Volkstedt – [[Rudolstadt]] – Catharinau – Kolkwitz – Weißen – [[Uhlstädt-Kirchhasel|Uhlstädt]] – Rückersdorf – Zeutsch – Niederkrossen – [[Orlamünde]] – [[Freienorla]] – [[Großeutersdorf]] – [[Kleineutersdorf]] – [[Kahla]] – [[Großpürschütz]] – Jägersdorf – [[Rothenstein, Germany|Rothenstein]] – Maua – Lobeda – [[Jena]] – Zwätzen – Porstendorf – [[Dornburg/Saale|Dornburg]] – [[Dorndorf-Steudnitz]] – [[Wichmar]] – [[Camburg]] – Tümpling – [[Großheringen]] – Kleinheringen – Landesgrenze Thüringen/Sachsen-Anhalt – Stendorf – Saaleck – [[Bad Kösen]] – [[Naumburg (Saale)|Naumburg]] – Schellsitz - Schönburg – Eulau – [[Goseck]] – [[Leißling]] – Lobitzsch – [[Uichteritz]] – Markweben – [[Weißenfels]] – Dehlitz – [[Schkortleben]] – Kleinkorbetha – [[Großkorbetha]] – [[Oebles-Schlechtewitz]] – [[Wengelsdorf]] – [[Bad Dürrenberg]] – Kröllwitz – [[Leuna]] – Trebnitz – [[Merseburg]] – Meuschau – Freiimfelde – [[Schkopau]] – Korbetha – Hohenweiden – Rockendorf – Holleben – [[Halle (Saale)|Halle]] – Kröllwitz – Lettin – [[Brachwitz]] – Schiepzig – [[Salzmünde]] – Pfützthal – [[Döblitz]] – Zaschwitz – [[Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt|Wettin]] – [[Kloschwitz]] – Rumpin – Dobis – [[Friedeburg (Saale)|Friedeburg]] – Zickeritz – [[Rothenburg (Saale)|Rothenburg]] – Nelben – Gnölbzig – Trebnitz – [[Alsleben (Saale)|Alsleben]] – Poplitz – Großwirschleben – [[Plötzkau]] – [[Gröna]] – Neuborna – [[Bernburg (Saale)|Bernburg]] – Dröbel – [[Nienburg (Saale)|Nienburg]] – [[Wedlitz]] – Damaschkeplan – Wispitz – [[Calbe (Saale)]] – Trabitz – [[Groß Rosenburg]] – Werkleitz

==Tributaries==
{|
|-
| valign="top" |
Left:
* [[Schwarza River (Saale)|Schwarza]]
* [[Ilm (Thuringia)|Ilm]]
* [[Unstrut]]
* [[Salza (Saale)|Salza]]
* [[Wipper (Saale)|Wipper]]
* [[Bode River|Bode]]
| valign="top" |
Right:
* [[Orla (Saale)|Orla]]
* [[White Elster]]
* [[Southern Regnitz]]
* [[Northern Regnitz]]
|}

==See also==
* [[Saale-Unstrut]], a wine-growing region
* [[List of rivers of Bavaria]]
* [[List of rivers of Thuringia]]
* [[List of rivers of Saxony-Anhalt]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* Ernst-Otto Luthardt, Reinhard Feldrapp: ''An der Saale. Vom Fichtelgebirge durch Thüringen bis zur Elbe.'' Würzburg 1990. {{ISBN|3-8035-1335-9}}
* Wolf Thieme, Markus Altmann (Fotos): ''Mitten ins Herz. Sie entspringt in Bayern, durchquert Thüringen und fließt in Sachsen-Anhalt in die Elbe – die Saale ist ein Fluss, der alles verbindet. Und jedem Spaß macht: dem Sportler, dem Kulturfreund, dem Faulenzer.'' In: [[Stern (magazine)|stern]] Nr. 26 (22. Juni 2006), S. 84-89. ([https://www.stern.de/lifestyle/reise/deutschland/:Deutschland-Mitten-Herz/564540.html Online-Version])
* {{EB1911|wstitle = Saale|volume=23|page=953}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline}}

{{Rivers of Germany}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Federal waterways in Germany]]
[[Category:Fichtel Mountains]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bavaria]]
[[Category:Rivers of Saxony-Anhalt]]
[[Category:Rivers of Thuringia]]
[[Category:Saale basin| Saale]]
[[Category:Rivers of Germany]]

Proto-Indo-European society

2025-10-25T10:14:14Z

2001:BB6:B894:C500:446C:93A8:26BB:4FAE: Tags

{{short description|Reconstructed culture of Proto-Indo-Europeans}}
{{multiple issues |
{{Citation style |reason=article uses full and short citations. Pick one style, and then use it consistently |date=January 2025}}
{{lead too short|date=January 2022}}
{{cleanup lang|date=June 2021}} 
}}
{{Use dmy dates |date=January 2025}}
{{Indo-European topics}}
{{Contains special characters|PIE}}
'''Proto-Indo-European society''' is the reconstructed culture of [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]], the ancient speakers of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]], ancestor of all modern [[Indo-European languages]]. Historical linguistics combined with archaeological and genetic evidence have provided the current basis for understanding the culture and its people. The most widely accepted theory suggests that the culture emerged on the [[Pontic-Caspian steppe]] after 5000 BCE, a period known as the [[Chalcolithic]] where smelted copper and stone tools were in use simultaneously. Proto-Indo-European speakers are considered to have been [[semi-nomadic]], but domestication of cattle, first for ritual sacrifice and later for consumption, dairy production, and cereal cultivation emerged as the culture shifted from herding and hunter-gatherer to farming. The social hierarchy included an upper class of priests, warriors and tribe chiefs, and a lower class of commoners and slaves; [[patrilineality]] and [[patriarchy]] characteristics have been well-established. Trade, bolstered by access to wheeled wagons, connected Proto-Indo-European culture to others with archaeological and linguistic evidence supporting relations with [[Proto-Uralic_homeland|Proto-Uralic]] peoples, [[Uruk]], and [[Old European cultures]].

==Scientific approaches==
Many of the modern ideas in this field involve the unsettled [[Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses|Indo-European homeland]] debate about the precise origins of the language itself.{{Sfn|Ringe|2006|p=5|ps=: "The earliest ancestor of English that is reconstructable by scientifically acceptable methods is [[Proto-Indo-European]], the ancestor of all the [[Indo-European languages]]. As is usual with protolanguages of the distant past, we can't say with certainty where and when PIE was spoken, but evidence currently available points strongly to river valleys of Ukraine in the fifth millennium BC (the 'steppe hypothesis').}} There are four main approaches researchers have employed in their attempts to study this culture:

*'''[[Historical linguistics]]''' (especially [[Comparative method|comparative linguistics]]): interpretations based on the [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstruction]] and identification of words and formulae (those cited ''*thus'' on this page, with a preceding asterisk) which formed part of the vocabulary of the Proto-Indo-European language. These are reconstructed on the basis of [[Sound change|sound laws]] and shared grammatical structures; the definitions hereunder given for the roots should be read as "[[connotation]]s" (the concepts associated with a word that were inherited in the daughter languages), close to their original "[[denotation]]" (the exact meaning at the time of the Proto-Indo-European language).
*'''[[Comparative mythology]]''': interpretations based on the comparison of Indo-European beliefs to identify shared themes and characteristics. While few divine names can be confidently reconstructed due to foreign influences and considerable evolutions in beliefs, scholars have been able to recover parts of the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology]].{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=22–24}} [[Folklore studies|Comparative folklore]] is often overlooked in [[Indo-European studies]] due to the difficulty of dating the origin of [[Folklore|folk stories]].
*'''[[Archaeology]]''': interpretations based on archaeological evidence of a material culture. The [[Kurgan hypothesis]], proposed by archeologists [[Marija Gimbutas]] (1956) and [[David W. Anthony]] (2007), is the most widely accepted theory on the Indo-European homeland, and postulates an origin in the Pontic-Caspian steppes during the Chalcolithic period.{{refn|See:
*{{harvp|Bomhard|2019|p=2}}: "This scenario is supported not only by linguistic evidence, but also by a growing body of archeological and genetic evidence. The Indo-Europeans have been identified with several cultural complexes existing in that area between 4,500—3,500 BCE. The literature supporting such a homeland is both extensive and persuasive [...]. Consequently, other scenarios regarding the possible Indo-European homeland, such as Anatolia, have now been mostly abandoned";
*{{harvp|Reich|2018|p=152}}: "This finding provides yet another line of evidence for the steppe hypothesis, showing that not just Indo-European languages, but also Indo-European culture as reflected in the religion preserved over thousands of years by Brahmin priests, was likely spread by peoples whose ancestors originated in the steppe.";
*{{harvp|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|pp=341–342}}: "When we add the evidence from ancient DNA, and the additional evidence from recent linguistic work discussed above, the Anatolian hypothesis must be considered largely falsified. Those Indo-European languages that later came to dominate in western Eurasia were those originating in the migrations from the Russian steppe during the third millennium BC."
*{{harvp|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=199}}: "Archaeological evidence and linguistic evidence converge in support of an origin of Indo-European languages on the Pontic-Caspian steppes around 4,000 years BCE. The evidence is so strong that arguments in support of other hypotheses should be reexamined."
*{{harvp|Mallory|1989|p=185}}: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' and the ''[[Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse]]''.|name="kurgan"|group=note}} What follows are interpretations based upon this hypothesis.
*'''[[Archaeogenetics]]''': interpretations based on the study of [[ancient DNA]] to understand the nature of ancient [[human migration]]s and "mating networks".<ref name=":3" /> In support for the Kurgan hypothesis, [[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya]] migrations have been linked to the spread of Indo-Europeans languages in several genetic studies published in recent years.{{Sfn|Heyd|2017|p=349}}{{Sfn|Reich|2018|p=152}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Alpaslan-Roodenberg |first2=Songül |last3=Acar |first3=Ayşe |last4=Açıkkol |first4=Ayşen |last5=Agelarakis |first5=Anagnostis |last6=Aghikyan |first6=Levon |last7=Akyüz |first7=Uğur |last8=Andreeva |first8=Desislava |last9=Andrijašević |first9=Gojko |last10=Antonović |first10=Dragana |last11=Armit |first11=Ian |last12=Atmaca |first12=Alper |last13=Avetisyan |first13=Pavel |last14=Aytek |first14=Ahmet İhsan |last15=Bacvarov |first15=Krum |date=2022-08-26 |title=The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe |journal=Science |language=en |volume=377 |issue=6609 |article-number=eabm4247 |doi=10.1126/science.abm4247 |issn=0036-8075 |pmc=10064553 |pmid=36007055}}</ref> In support of the Anatolian Hypothesis, a study named "Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family" gained widespread media attention in 2012,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Nicholas |title=Family Tree of Languages Has Roots in Anatolia, Biologists Say |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/science/indo-european-languages-originated-in-anatolia-analysis-suggests.html?_r=0 |work=The New York Times |access-date=31 July 2023 |date=23 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ball |first1=Jonathan |title=English language 'originated in Turkey' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-19368988 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC |access-date=31 July 2023 |date=24 August 2012}}</ref> but received scrutiny from historical linguists, who accused the study of abandoning the comparative method and of conflating language with genes.<ref name=":2" /> Nonetheless, "Mapping the Origins" has been cited by many since its publication, highlighting an interdisciplinary gap between linguistics and genetics.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Pereltsvaig |first1=Asya |last2=Lewis |first2=Martin W. |title=The Indo-European controversy: facts and fallacies in historical linguistics |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge university press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-107-05453-0}}</ref>
==Chronology==
Archaeologist [[David W. Anthony]] and linguist [[Donald Ringe]] distinguish three different cultural stages in the evolution of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]:{{refn|{{harvp|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=201}}: "Determining the order in which they diverged from each other, called subgrouping, has proved surprisingly difficult (e.g., Ringe et al. 2002), but a consensus is emerging. It seems clear that the ancestor of the Anatolian subgroup (which includes Hittite) separated from the other dialects of PIE first, so from a cladistic point of view Anatolian is half the IE family (e.g., Jasanoff 2003). Within the non-Anatolian half, it appears that the ancestor of the Tocharian subgroup (whose attested languages were spoken in Xinjiang, today in western China, until approximately the tenth century CE) separated from the other dialects before the latter had diverged much (e.g.,Winter 1998, Ringe 2000). It follows that an item inherited by two or more of the daughter subgroups can be reconstructed for "early" PIE only if it is attested in at least one Anatolian language and at least one non-Anatolian language, and such an item can be reconstructed for the ancestor of the non-Anatolian subgroups only if it is attested in one or both of the Tocharian languages and in some other IE language. This observation is relevant below. For want of better terms, "early" PIE is used here for the last common ancestor of the Anatolian and non-Anatolian IE branches; "post-Anatolian" PIE is used for the last common ancestor of the non-Anatolian PIE languages, including Tocharian. Because it seems clear that there was still a more or less unified group of PIE dialects after Anatolian and Tocharian had split off, "late" PIE is used for the common ancestor of all other IE branches."|name="classification"|group=note}}

* Early (4500–4000), the common ancestor of all attested Indo-European languages, before the [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian split]] ([[Cernavodă culture]]; 4000 BCE); associated with the early [[Khvalynsk culture]],
* Classic, or "post-Anatolian" (4000–3500), the last common ancestor of the non-Anatolian languages, including [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]]; associated with the late Khvalynsk and Repin cultures,
* Late (3500–2500), in its dialectal period due to the spread of the [[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya horizon]] over a large area.

=== Early Khvalynsk (4900–3900) ===
{{Main|Khvalynsk culture}}

[[Domesticated cattle]] were introduced around [[5th millennium BC|4700 BCE]] from the [[Danube valley]] to the [[Volga River|Volga]]-[[Ural River|Ural]] steppes where the Early [[Khvalynsk culture]] (4900–3900) had emerged, associated by Anthony with the Early [[Proto-Indo-European language]]. Cattle and sheep were more important in ritual sacrifices than in diet, suggesting that a new set of cults and rituals had spread eastward across the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppes]], with domesticated animals at the root of the Proto-Indo-European conception of the universe. Anthony attributes the first and progressive domestication of horses, from taming to actually working with the animal, to this period.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=185–186}} Between 4500 and 4200, copper, exotic ornamental shells and polished stone maces were exchanged across the Pontic–Caspian steppes from [[Varna, Bulgaria|Varna]], in the eastern Balkans, to [[Khvalynsk]], near the [[Volga river]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Anthony|first=David W.|date=2019|title=Archaeology, Genetics, and Language in the Steppes: A Comment on Bomhard|url=https://www.academia.edu/39985565|journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies|language=en|volume=47|issue=1/2}}</ref> Around 4500, a minority of richly decorated single graves, partly enriched by imported copper items, began to appear in the steppes, contrasting with the remaining outfitted graves.{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=212}}

The Anatolian distinctive sub-family may have emerged from a first wave of Indo-European migration into southeastern Europe around 4200–4000, coinciding with the [[Suvorovo culture|Suvorovo]]–to–[[Cernavodă culture|Cernavoda I]] migration,{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=211}} in the context of a progression of the Khvalynsk culture westwards towards the [[Danube]] area, from which had also emerged the [[Novodanilovka group|Novodanilovka]] (4400–3800) and [[Sredny Stog culture|Late Sredny Stog]] (4000–3500) cultures.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=185–186}}

Recent genetic studies have shown that males of the Khvalynsk culture belonged to the [[Western Steppe Herder]] (WSH) cluster, which is a mixture of [[Eastern Hunter-Gatherer]] (EHG) and [[Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer]] (CHG) ancestry. This admixture appears to have happened on the eastern [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] starting around 5,000 BC.<ref name=":3"/>

=== Late Khvalynsk/Repin (3900–3300) ===
[[File:Indo-European migrations.jpg|thumb|300px|Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians|first=Ann|last=Gibbons|date=10 June 2015|title=Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians|journal=Science|publisher=AAAS}}</ref>]]
Steppe economies underwent a revolutionary change between 4200 and 3300 BCE, in a shift from a partial reliance on herding, when domesticated animals were probably used principally as a ritual currency for public sacrifices, to a later regular dietary dependence on cattle, and either sheep or goat meat and dairy products.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=211}} The Late Khvalynsk and Repin cultures (3900–3300), associated with the classic (post-[[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]]) Proto-Indo-European language, showed the first traces of cereal cultivation after 4000, in the context of a slow and partial diffusion of farming from the western parts of the steppes to the east.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=304}} Around 3700–3300, a second migration wave of [[Tocharian languages|proto-Tocharian]] speakers towards [[South Siberia]] led to the emergence of the [[Afanasievo culture]] (3300–2500).{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=264–265, 308}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lr62GwAACAAJ|title=The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West|last1=Mallory|first1=J. P.|last2=Mair|first2=Victor H.|date=2008|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-28372-1|language=en}}</ref>

The spoke-less wheeled wagon was introduced to the Pontic-Caspian steppe around 3500 from the neighbouring [[North Caucasus|North Caucasian]] [[Maykop culture]] (3700–3000), with which Proto-Indo-Europeans traded wool and horses.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=289–290, 330–335}} Interactions with the [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] Maykop culture, itself influenced by the Mesopotamian [[Uruk period|Uruk culture]],{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=289–290}} had notable social effects on the Proto-Indo-European way of life.<ref name=":3" /> Meanwhile, the Khvalynsk-influenced cultures that had emerged in the Danube-Donets region after the first migration gave way to the [[Cernavodă culture|Cernavodă]] (4000–3200), [[Coțofeni culture|Usatovo]] (3500–2500), [[Mikhaylovka culture|Mikhaylovka]] (3600–3000) and [[Kemi Oba culture|Kemi Oba]] (3700–2200) cultures, from west to east respectively.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=}}

=== Yamnaya period (3300–2600) ===
{{Main|Yamnaya horizon}}
{{See also|Piora Oscillation}}
[[File:Yamna-en.svg|thumb|267x267px|Yamnaya horizon.]]
The [[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya horizon]], associated with the Late [[Proto-Indo-European language]] (following both the Anatolian and Tocharian splits), originated in the [[Don River|Don]]-[[Volga River|Volga]] region before spreading westwards after 3300 BCE, establishing a [[Horizon (archaeology)|cultural horizon]] founded on [[kurgan]] funerals that stretched over a vast steppic area between the [[Dnieper]] and [[Volga River|Volga]] rivers. It was initially a [[herding]]-based society, with limited crop cultivation in the eastern part of the steppes, while the [[Dnieper]]-[[Donets]] region was more influenced by the agricultural [[Cucuteni–Trypillia culture|Tripolye culture]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=330–335}} [[Paleolinguistics]] likewise postulates Proto-Indo-European speakers as a semi-nomadic and pastoral population with subsidiary agriculture.{{Sfn|Della Volpe|1993|p=258}}

[[Bronze]] was introduced to the Pontic-Caspian steppes during this period. Following the Yamnaya expansion, long-distance trade in metals and other valuables, such as salt in the hinterlands, probably brought prestige and power to Proto-Indo-European societies.{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=214}} However, the native tradition of pottery making was weakly developed.{{Sfn|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=336}} The Yamnaya funeral sacrifice of wagons, carts, sheep, cattle, and horse was likely related to a cult of ancestors requiring specific rituals and prayers, a connection between language and cult that introduced the Late Proto-Indo-European language to new speakers.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=304}} Yamnaya chiefdoms had institutionalized differences in prestige and power, and their society was organized along patron-client reciprocity, a mutual exchange of gifts and favors between their patrons, the gods, and human clients.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=99}} The average life expectancy was fairly high, with many individuals living to 50–60 years old.{{Sfn|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=337}} The language itself appeared as a [[dialect continuum]] during this period, meaning that neighbouring dialects differed only slightly between each other, whereas distant [[Variety (linguistics)|language varieties]] were probably no longer [[mutually intelligible]] due to accumulated divergences over space and time.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|p=209|2015}}

As the steppe [[Piora Oscillation|became dryer and colder]] between 3500 and 3000, herds needed to be moved more frequently in order to feed them sufficiently.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=300, 336}} Yamnaya distinctive identity was thus founded on mobile [[pastoralism]], permitted by two earlier innovations: the introduction of the wheeled wagon and the domestication of the horse. Yamnaya herders likely watched over their cattle and raided on horseback, while they drove wagons for the bulk transport of water or food.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=330–335}}{{Sfn|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=337}} Light-framework dwellings could be easily assembled and disassembled to be transported on pack animals.{{Sfn|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=337}}
[[File:Yamnaya Steppe Pastoralists.jpg|thumb|300px|Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya [[Western Steppe Herders|Steppe pastoralist]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite news |first=Andrew |last=Curry |title=The first Europeans weren't who you might think |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319032852/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |archive-date=March 19, 2021 |work=National Geographic |date=August 2019}}</ref>]]
Another climate change that occurred after around 3000 led to a more favourable environment allowing for grassland productivity. Yamnaya new pastoral economy then experienced a third wave of rapid demographic expansion, that time towards Central and Northern Europe.{{Sfn|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=337}} Migrations of [[Usatovo culture|Usatovo]] people towards southeastern Poland, crossing through the [[Old Europe (archaeology)|Old European]] [[Cucuteni–Trypillia culture|Tripolye culture]] from around 3300 BCE, followed by Yamnaya migrations towards the [[Pannonian Basin]] between 3100 and 2800, are interpreted by some scholars as movements of pre-Italic, pre-Celtic and pre-Germanic speakers.{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=208}}

The Proto-Indo-European language probably ceased to be spoken after 2500 as its various dialects had already evolved into non-mutually intelligible languages that began to spread across most of western Eurasia during the third wave of [[Indo-European migrations]] (3300–1500).{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=51}} [[Indo-Iranian languages]] were introduced to Central Asia, present-day Iran, and South Asia after 2000 BCE.{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=208}}

== Social structure ==
=== Class structure ===
It is generally agreed that Proto-Indo-European society was hierarchical, with some form of social ranking and various degrees of social status.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=17–19}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=336}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=284–285}} It is unlikely, however, that they had a rigidly stratified structure, or [[Caste system in India|castes]] such as are found in historical India.{{Sfn|Della Volpe|1993|p=257}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=430}} There was a general distinction between free persons and slaves, typically prisoners of war or debtors unable to repay a debt.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=17}} The free part of society was composed of an elite class of priests, kings and warriors, along with the commoners,{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=17}} with each tribe following a chief ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*wiḱpots}}) sponsoring feasts and ceremonies, and immortalized in praise poetry.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=336}}

The presence of [[kurgan]] graves prominently decorated with dress, body ornaments and weaponry, along with well-attested roots for concepts such as "wealth" ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂ép-}}), "to be in need" ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₁eg-}}) or "servant" ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂entbʰi-kʷolos}}, "one who moves about on both sides"; and {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂upo-sth₂-i/o-}}, "one standing below"), indicate that a hierarchy of wealth and poverty was recognized.{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=212}}{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|p=|pp=268–269}} Some graves, larger than the average and necessitating a considerable number of people to be built, likewise suggest a higher status given to some individuals. These prestigious funerals were not necessarily reserved to the wealthiest person. Smiths in particular were given sumptuous graves, possibly due to the association of smithery with magic during the [[Bronze Age|early Bronze Age]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=336}} In general, such graves were mostly occupied by males in the eastern Don-Volga steppes, while they were more egalitarian in the western Dnieper-Donets region.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=331–334}}

[[File:Yamna03.jpg|thumb|215x215px|Yamnaya bone and canine ornaments.]]

=== Kinship ===
Linguistics has allowed for the reliable reconstruction of a large number of words relating to kinship relations. These all agree in exhibiting a [[patriarchal]], [[patrilocal]] and [[patrilineal]] social fabric.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=17–19}}{{Sfn|Kölligan|2017|p=2233}} Patrilocality is confirmed by lexical evidence, including the word ''{{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂u̯edh-}}'', 'to lead (away)', being the word that denotes a male wedding a female.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=207}} Rights, possessions, and responsibilities were consequently reckoned to the father, and wives were to reside after marriage near the husband's family, after the payment of a [[bride-price]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=328}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=266–269}}

The household ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*dṓm}}) was generally ruled by the senior male of the family, the {{lang|ine-x-proto|*dems-potis}} ('master of the household'), and could also consist of his children, grandchildren, and perhaps unrelated slaves or servants. His wife probably also played a complementary role: some evidence suggest that she would have kept her position as the mistress ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*pot-n-ih₂}}) of the household in the event her husband dies, while the eldest son would have become the new master.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=|pp=206–207}} The Proto-Indo-European expansionist kinship system was likely supported by both marital [[exogamy]] (the inclusion of foreign women through marriage) and the exchange of foster children with other families and clans, as suggested by genetic evidence and later attestations from Indo-European-speaking groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sjögren |first1=Karl-Göran |last2=Olalde |first2=Iñigo |last3=Carver |first3=Sophie |last4=Allentoft |first4=Morten E. |last5=Knowles |first5=Tim |last6=Kroonen |first6=Guus |last7=Pike |first7=Alistair W. G. |last8=Schröter |first8=Peter |last9=Brown |first9=Keri A. |last10=Brown |first10=Kate Robson |last11=Harrison |first11=Richard J. |date=2020 |title=Kinship and social organization in Copper Age Europe. A cross-disciplinary analysis of archaeology, DNA, isotopes, and anthropology from two Bell Beaker cemeteries |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=15 |issue=11 |article-number=e0241278 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0241278 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=7668604 |pmid=33196640 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1541278S |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Once established, the family lasted as long as the male stock of its founder endured, and clan or tribal founders were often portrayed as mythical beings stemming from a legendary past in Indo-European traditions.{{Sfn|Della Volpe|1993|p=261}} In this form of kinship organization, the individual's genetic distance from the clan's founding ancestor determined his social status. But if he was of exceptional prowess or virtue, the same individual could in his turn gain social prestige among the community and eventually found his own descent-group.{{Sfn|Della Volpe|1993|p=|pp=257–258}}

In the reconstructed lexicon linking the individual to the clan, {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂erós}} means a 'member of one's own group', 'one who belongs to the community' (in contrast to an outsider). It gave way to the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Indo-Iranian]] {{lang|iir-x-proto|[[aryan|árya]]}} (an [[exonym and endonym|endonym]]), and probably to the [[Proto-Celtic language|Celtic]] {{lang|cel-x-proto|*aryos}} ('noble, freeman'), the [[Hittite language|Hittite]] {{lang|hit-Latn|arā-}} ('peer, companion'), and the [[Proto-Germanic language|Germanic]] {{lang|gem-x-proto|*arjaz}} ('noble, distinguished').{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=209}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=266–269}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Orel |first=Vladimir E. |title=A handbook of Germanic etymology |date=2003 |publisher=Brill |isbn=1-4175-3642-X |location=Leiden |page=23 |oclc=56727400 |author-link=Vladimir Orel }}</ref> It is unlikely however that the term had an ethnic connotation, and we do not know if Proto-Indo-European speakers had a term to designate themselves as a group.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=266–269}} Another word, {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₁leudhos}}'', means 'people', 'freemen' in a more general way.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=266–269}}

=== Patron-client ===
Proto-Indo-European had several words for 'leader': {{lang|ine-x-proto|*tagós}} was a general term derived from {{lang|ine-x-proto|*tā̆g-}} ('set in place, arrange'); {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₃rḗǵs}} meant a ruler who also had religious functions, with the Roman {{lang|la|[[rex Sacrorum|rex sacrorum]]}} ('king of the sacred') as a heritage of the priestly function of the king.

Public feasts sponsored by such patrons were a way for them to promote and secure a political hierarchy built on the unequal mobilization of labor and resources, by displaying their generosity towards the rest of the community. Rivals competed publicly through the size and complexity of their feasts, and alliances were confirmed by gift-giving and promises made during those public gatherings. The host of the feast was called the {{lang|ine-x-proto|*ghosti-potis}}, the 'lord of the guests', who honoured the immortal gods and his mortal guests with gifts of food, drink, and poetry.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=212}}

=== Guest-host ===
Vertical social inequalities were partly balanced by horizontal mutual obligations of hospitality between guests and hosts.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=213}} According to Anthony, the domestication of horses and the introduction of the wagon in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]] between 4500 and 3500 BCE led to an increase in mobility across the Yamnaya horizon, and eventually to the emergence of a guest-host political structure. As various herding clans began to move across the steppes, especially during harsh seasons, it became necessary to regulate local migrations on the territories of tribes which had likely restricted these obligations to their kins or co-residents (*''h₂erós'') until then.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=303}} In Proto-Indo-European, the term *''ghós-ti''-, whose original meaning must have been "table companion",<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Garnier|first=Romain|author-link=Romain Garnier|date=2013|title=Le nom indo-européen de l'hôte|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=133|issue=1|pages=57–69|doi=10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.1.0057|jstor=10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.1.0057}}</ref> could either mean a ''host'' or a ''guest.''{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=303}} The connotation of an obligatory reciprocity between both guests and hosts has persisted in descendant [[cognate]]s, such as Latin ''hospēs'' ("foreigner, guest; host"), Old English ''ġiest'' ("stranger, guest"), or [[Old Church Slavonic]] ''gostĭ'' ("guest") and ''gospodĭ'' ("master").{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|p=269}}{{Sfn|Kölligan|2017|p=2234}}

Guests and hosts were indeed involved in a mutual and reciprocal relationship bound by oaths and sacrifices. The giving and receiving of favors was accompanied by a set of ritual actions that indebted the guest to show hospitality to his host at any time in the future. The obligation could even be heritable: [[Homer]]'s warriors, [[Glaucus of Lycia|Glaukos]] and [[Diomedes]], stopped fighting and presented gifts to each other when they learned that their ''grandfathers'' had shared a guest-host relationship.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=303}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=19–20}} Violations of the guest-host obligations were considered immoral, illegal and unholy: in [[Early Irish law|Irish law]], refusing hospitality was deemed a crime as serious as murder. The killing of a guest was also greeted with a singular revulsion, as was the abuse of hospitality.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=19–20}}{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=213}}

=== Legal system ===
Because of the archaic nature of traditional legal phraseology—which preserves old forms and meaning for words—and the necessity for legal sentences to be uttered precisely the same way each time to remain binding, it is possible to securely reconstruct some elements of the Proto-Indo-European legal system.{{Sfn|Watkins|1986|p=}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=21–22}} For instance, the word {{lang|ine-x-proto|*serk}}- ('to make a circle, complete') designated a type of compensation where the father (or master) had to either pay for the damages caused by his son (or slave), or surrender the perpetrator to the offended party. It is attested by a common legal and linguistic origin in both [[Roman law|Roman]] and [[Hittite laws]].{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=21–22}}{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=214}} Another root denoting a compensation, {{lang|ine-x-proto|*kwey-'}} had the meanings of '[[blood money (restitution)|blood-price]]', 'vengeance' or 'guilt' in daughter languages, suggesting that it was specifically applied to the restitution for theft or violence.{{Sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=214}}{{Sfn|Mallory|2006|p=86}}

Law was apparently designed to preserve the 'order' ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂értus}}) of the universe, with the underlying idea that the cosmic harmony should be maintained, be it in the physical universe or the social world.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|p=345|1997}} There was however probably no public enforcement of justice, nor were there formal courts as we know them today. Contractual obligations were protected by private individuals acting as sureties: they pledged to be responsible for payments of debts incurred by someone else if the latter defaulted. In case of litigation, one could either take matter into their own hands, for instance by barring someone from accessing their property to compel payment, or bring the case before judges (perhaps kings) that included witnesses.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=21–22}} The word for 'oath', {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₁óitos}}, derives from the verb {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₁ei-}} ('to go'), after the practice of walking between slaughtered animals as part of taking an oath.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=277}}

The root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂értus}} (from {{lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂er-}}, 'to fit') is associated with the concept of a [[cosmos|cosmic order]], that is which is 'fitting, right, ordered'. It is one of the most securely reconstructed Proto-Indo-European words, with cognates attested in most sub-families: [[Latin]] {{lang|la|artus}} ('joint'); [[Middle High German]] {{lang|gmh|art}} ('innate feature, nature, fashion'); [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc-Latn|artús}} ({{lang|grc|ἀρτύς}}, 'arrangement'), possibly {{lang|grc-Latn|[[arete]]}} ({{lang|grc|ἀρετή}}, 'excellence');<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Beekes |first1=Robert S. P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4qudQAAACAAJ |title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek |last2=Beek |first2=Lucien van |date=2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-17418-4 |pages=128 |language=en }}</ref> [[Armenian language|Armenian]] {{lang|hy-Latn|ard}} ({{lang|hy|արդ}}, 'ornament, shape'); [[Avestan]] {{lang|ae-Latn|arəta-}} ('order') and {{lang|ae-Latn|ṛtá}} ('truth'); [[Sanskrit]] {{lang|sa-Latn|ṛtú-}} ({{lang|sa|ऋतु}}, 'right time, order, rule'); [[Hittite language|Hittite]] {{lang|hit-Latn|āra}} ({{wikt-lang|hit|𒀀𒀀𒊏}}, 'right, proper');<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmdiAAAAMAAJ |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon |last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-16092-7 |pages=198 |language=en }}</ref> [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian A]] {{lang|xto-Latn|ārt-}} ('to praise, be pleased with').{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=276}}

=== Trifunctional hypothesis ===
The [[trifunctional hypothesis]], proposed by [[Georges Dumézil]], postulates a tripartite ideology reflected in a threefold division between a [[cleric]]al class (encompassing both the religious and social functions of the priests and rulers), a [[warrior]] class (connected with the concepts of courage and combat), and a class of [[farmer]]s or husbandmen (associated with fertility and craftsmanship), on the basis that many historically known groups speaking Indo-European languages show such a division.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|pages=429–430}}<ref name="Flamen-Brahman">Dumézil, Georges (1929). ''Flamen-Brahman''.</ref> Dumézil initially contended that it derived from an actual division in Indo-European societies, but later toned down his approach by representing the system as ''fonctions'' or general organizing principles.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=430}}{{Sfn|West|2007|p=4}} Dumézil's theory has been influential and some scholars continue to operate under its framework,{{Sfn|West|2007|p=4}}<ref name="Theorizing myth">[[Bruce Lincoln|Lincoln, Bruce]] (1999). ''Theorizing myth: Narrative, ideology, and scholarship'', p. 260 n. 17. University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0-226-48202-6}}.</ref> although it has also been criticized as aprioristic and too inclusive, and thus impossible to be proved or disproved.{{Sfn|West|2007|p=4}}

== Culture ==

===Beliefs===
{{main|Proto-Indo-European mythology}}
The reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|cosmology of the proto-Indo-Europeans]] shows that the ritual sacrifice of cattle, cows in particular, was at the root of their beliefs, as the primordial condition of the world order.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|1997|page=138}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=134–135}} The myth of *''Trito'', the first warrior, involves the liberation of cattle stolen by a three-headed serpent named *''Ngwhi''. After recovering the wealth of the people, Trito eventually offered the cattle to the priest in order to ensure the continuity of the cycle of giving between gods and humans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lincoln|first=Bruce|date=1976|title=The Indo-European Cattle-Raiding Myth|journal=History of Religions|volume=16|issue=1|pages=42–65|doi=10.1086/462755|issn=0018-2710|jstor=1062296|s2cid=162286120}}</ref> The creation myth could have rationalized raiding as the recovery of cattle that the gods had intended for the people who sacrificed properly. Many Indo-European cultures preserved the tradition of cattle raiding, which they often associated with epic myths.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=134-135}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|1997|page=138}} [[Georges Dumézil]] suggested that the religious function was represented by a duality, one reflecting the [[magico-religious]] nature of priesthood, while the other is involved in religious sanction to human society (especially contracts), a theory supported by common features in Iranian, Roman, Scandinavian and Celtic traditions.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|1997|page=452–453}} The study of [[astronomy]] was not much developed among Proto-Indo-Europeans, and they probably had established names for only a few individual stars and star-groups (e.g. [[Sirius]], [[Ursa Major]]).{{Sfn|West|2007|p=351}}

The basic word for "god" in [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] is *''deiwós'' ("celestial"), itself a derivative of *''dei''- ("to shine, be bright").{{Sfn|West|2007|p=167}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=22–24}} On the other hand, the word for "earth" (*''[[Dhéǵhōm|dʰéǵʰōm]])'' is at root of both "earthly" and "human", as it is notably attested in the Latin cognates ''[[humus]]'' and ''[[homo]]''.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=135–136}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=22–24}} This suggests a hierarchical conception of the status of mankind regarding the gods, confirmed by the use of the term "mortal" (''*mr̩tós'') as a synonym of "human" as opposed to the never-dying gods in Indo-European traditions.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=22–24}} The idea is expressed in the [[Homer]]ic phrase "of the immortal gods and of men who walk on earth".{{Sfn|Kölligan|2017|p=2232}}

Proto-Indo-European beliefs were influenced by a resistant [[Animism|animistic]] substratum, and the few names that can be reconstructed based upon both linguistic (''[[cognate]]s'') and thematic (''reflexes'') evidence are the cosmic and elemental deities: the 'Daylight-Sky' (''*[[Dyeus|Dyḗus]]''), his partner 'Earth' ([[Dhéǵhōm|''*Dʰéǵʰōm'']]), his daughter the 'Dawn' (*''[[H₂éwsōs]]''), and his [[Divine twins|Twin Sons]], the 'Sun' (''*Séh₂ul'') and the Sun-Maiden, and deities of winds, waters, [[H1n̥gʷnis|fire]], rivers and springs.{{sfn|West|2007|p=141}} The [[Indo-European cosmogony|Proto-Indo-European creation myth]] tells of a primordial sacrifice performed by the first man ''*Manu'' ("Man") on his twin brother ''*Yemo'' ("Twin"), from whom emerged the cosmological elements.{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|p=435–436}} Other deities, such as the weather-god ''*[[Perkwunos|Perkʷunos]]'' and the guardian of roads and herds, *''Péh₂usōn'', are probably late innovations since they are attested in a restricted number of traditions, Western (European) and [[Graeco-Aryan]], respectively.{{sfn|West|2007|p=141}}

=== Rituals ===
Proto-Indo-Europeans practiced a polytheistic religion centered on sacrificial rites of cattle and horses, probably administered by a class of [[priest]]s or [[shaman]]s. Animals were slaughtered ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*gʷʰn̥tós}}) and dedicated to the gods ({{lang|ine-x-proto|*déiwos}}) in the hope of winning their favor. The king as the high priest would have been the central figure in establishing good relations with the other world.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|1997|page=452–453}} The [[Khvalynsk culture]], associated with early Proto-Indo-European, had already shown archeological evidence for the sacrifice of domesticated animals.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=134–135}} Proto-Indo-Europeans also had a sacred tradition of [[horse sacrifice]] for the renewal of kinship involving the ritual mating of a queen or king with a horse, which was then sacrificed and cut up for distribution to the other participants in the ritual.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=25–26}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=437}}

Although we know little about the role of magic in Proto-Indo-European society, there is no doubt that it existed as a social phenomenon, as several branches attest the use of similarly worded charms and curses, such as ones against worms. Furthermore, incantations and spells were frequently regarded as one of the three categories of medicine, along with the use of surgical instruments and herbs or drugs.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=25–26}} Since the earliest evidence for the burning of the plant was found in Romanian [[kurgan]]s dated 3,500 BCE, some scholars suggest that [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] was first used as a psychoactive drug by Proto-Indo-Europeans during ritual ceremonies, a custom they eventually spread throughout western Eurasia during their [[Indo-European migrations|migrations]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=362}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nBvFBAAAQBAJ|title=Seeking the Sacred with Psychoactive Substances: Chemical Paths to Spirituality and to God|last=Ellens|first=J. Harold|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3088-4|pages=24|language=en}}</ref> Descendant [[cognate]]s of the root ''*kanna-'' ("cannabis") have been proposed in [[Sanskrit]] ''śaná'', [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''kánnabis'' (κάνναβις), [[Proto-Germanic language|Germanic]] ''*hanipa'' (German ''Hanf'', English ''[[hemp]]''), Russian ''konopljá'', Albanian ''kanëp'', Armenian ''kanap'' and [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] ''knapios.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kroonen|first=Guus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgmFRAAACAAJ|title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic|date=2013|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-18340-7|page=209|language=en}}</ref>''{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=293}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kluge|first=Friedrich|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IBHnBQAAQBAJ|title=Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache|date=2013|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-148859-2|page=288|language=de}}</ref> Other linguists suggest that the common linguistic inheritance does not date back to the Indo-European period and contend that the word ''[[Etymology of cannabis|cannabis]]'' likely spread later across Eurasia as a ''[[Wanderwort]]'' ('wandering word'), ultimately borrowed into Ancient Greek and Sanskrit from a non-Indo-European language.{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=266–267}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barber|first=E. J. W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnSlynSfeEIC|title=Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean|date=1991|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00224-8|pages=36–38|language=en|author-link=Elizabeth Wayland Barber}}</ref>

=== Poetry ===
Poetry and songs were central to Proto-Indo-European society.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=265}}{{sfn|West|2007|p=26–31}} The poet-singer was the society's highest-paid professional, possibly a member of a hereditary profession that ran in certain families, the art passing from father to son as the poet had to acquire all the technical aspects of the art and to master an extensive body of traditional subject matter.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=29}}{{sfn|West|2007|p=30}} He performed against handsome rewards—such as gifts of horses, cattle, wagons and women—and was held in high esteem. In some cases, the poet-singer had a stable relationship with a particular noble prince or family. In other cases, he travelled about with his dependants, attaching himself to one court after another.{{sfn|West|2007|p=30}}

A transmitter of inherited cultural knowledge, the poet sang as a ''recall'' of the old heroic times, entrusted with telling the praises of heroes, kings, and gods.{{sfn|West|2007|p=26–31}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=29}} Composing sacred hymns ensured the gods would in turn bestow favourable fate to the community, and for kings that their memory would live on many generations.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=29}} A lexeme for a special song, the ''*erkw'' ("praise of the gift") has been identified in early Proto-Indo-European. Such praise poems proclaimed the generosity of the gods (or a patron) and enumerated their gifts, expanding the patron's fame, the path to immortality otherwise only attainable for mortals through conspicuous acts of war or piety.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=212}}

The concept of ''fame'' (''*ḱléwos'') was central to Proto-Indo-European poetry and culture. Many poetic dictions built on this term can be reconstituted, including ''*ḱléwos wéru'' ("wide fame"), ''*ḱléwos meǵh₂'' ("great fame"), *''ḱléuesh₂ h₂nróm'' ("the famous deeds of men, heroes"), or ''*dus-ḱlewes'' ("having bad repute").{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=29–30}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=118}}{{sfn|Beekes|2011|p=42}} Indo-European poetic tradition was probably [[Oral-formulaic composition|oral-formulaic]]: stock formulas, such as the ''imperishable fame'' (''*ḱléwos ń̥dʰgʷʰitom''),{{sfn|Watkins|1995|p=173}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=365–366}} the ''swift horses'' (''*h₁ōḱéwes h₁éḱwōs''),{{Sfn|Watkins|1995|p=12}} the ''eternal life'' (''*h₂iu-gʷih₃''),{{Sfn|Watkins|1995|p=16}} the metaphor of the ''wheel of the sun'' (''*sh₂uens kʷekʷlos''),{{sfn|Beekes|2011|p=42}} or the epithet ''man-killer'' (''*hₐnr̥-gʷhen''), attached to [[Hector|Hektor]] and [[Rudra]] alike,{{Sfn|Mallory|2006|p=92}} were transmitted among poet-singers to fill out traditional verse-lines in epic song lyrics.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=29–30}} The task of the Indo-European poet was to preserve over the generations the famous deeds of heroes.{{Sfn|Mallory|2006|p=92}} He would compose and retell poems based on old and sometimes obscure formulations, reconnecting the motifs with his own skills and improvisations.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=29–30}} Poetry was therefore associated with the acts of ''weaving words'' (''*wékʷos webh-'') and ''crafting speech'' (''*wékʷos teḱs-'').{{sfn|West|2007|p=26–31}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=365–366}}

=== Warfare ===
{{See also|Kóryos}}{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 320
| image_style = border:none
| image1 = Керносовский идол.png
| image2 = Warrior_of_Hirschlanden_-_Landesmuseum_Württemberg_-_Stuttgart_-_Germany_2017.jpg
| footer = The [[Yamnaya]] [[Kurgan stelae|Kernosovskiy idol]], depicting a naked warrior with a belt, axes, and testicles (mid-3rd mill. BCE); and the Celtic [[Warrior of Hirschlanden]] (6th c. BCE), wearing only a helmet, neckband, belt, and sword.{{sfn|Telegrin|Mallory|1994|page=54}}{{sfn|Speidel|2002|p=262}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=364–365}}
| direction =
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| caption2 =
}}
Although Proto-Indo-Europeans have been often cast as warlike conquerors, their reconstructed arsenal is not particularly extensive.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=245–246}}{{Sfn|Huld|1993|p=}} Several words with the meaning of "spear" (''*gʷéru'' ; ''*ḱúh₁los''), "pointed stick" (''*h₂eiḱsmo'') or "throwing spear" (''*ǵʰai-só-s'') are attested.{{Sfn|Mallory|2006|p=81}} The term ''*wēben'' meant a "cutting weapon", probably a knife, and ''*h₂/₃n̩sis'' a "large offensive knife", likely similar to [[dagger|bronze daggers]] found across Eurasia around 3300–3000 BCE. Proto-Indo-Europeans certainly did not know [[sword]]s, which appeared later around 2000–1500.{{Sfn|Huld|1993|p=225}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=245–246}}{{Sfn|Mallory|2006|p=82}} The axe was known as ''*h₄edʰés'', while the word ''*spelo/eh₂'' designated a wooden or leather shield.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=245–246}} The term ''*leh₂wós'' meant "military unit" or "military action",{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|p=282}}{{Sfn|Anthony|Brown|2019|p=115}} while ''*teutéh₂-'' might have referred to the "adult male with possession" who would mobilize during warfare, perhaps originally a Proto-Indo-European term meaning "the people under arms".{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|p=269}}{{Sfn|Anthony|Brown|2019|p=115}}

A number of scholars propose that Proto-Indo-European rituals included the requirement that young unmarried men initiate into manhood by joining a warrior-band named [[Kóryos|*''kóryos'']]. They were led by a senior male and lived off the country by hunting and engaging in raiding and pillaging foreign communities.<ref>{{Harvnb|McCone|1987|pp=107–108}}; {{harvnb|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=31}}; {{Harvnb|Sergent|2003|pp=11–12}}; {{harvnb|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=339}}</ref> Kóryos members served in such brotherhoods (''Männerbünde'') for a number of years before returning home to adopt more respectable identities as mature men.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=134–135}} During their initiation period, the young males wore the skin and bore the names of wild animals, especially wolves (*''wl̩kʷo'') and dogs (''*ḱwōn''), in order to assume their nature and escape the rules and taboos of their host society.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=213}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=17–19}}{{Sfn|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=339}}

Most [[kurgan stelae]] found in [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]] feature a man wearing a belt and weapons carved on the stone. In later Indo-European traditions, notably the (half-)naked warrior figures of Germanic and Celtic art, ''*kóryos'' raiders wore a belt that bound them to their leader and the gods, and little else. The tradition of kurgan stelae featuring warriors with a belt is also common in [[Scythian cultures]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=364–365}} A continuity of an "animal-shaped raid culture" has been also postulated based on various elements attested in later Indo-European-speaking cultures, such as the Germanic [[Berserker]]s, the Italic ''[[Ver sacrum|Ver Sacrum]]'', and the Spartan [[Crypteia]],{{Sfn|Sergent|2003|pp=9–10}}{{Sfn|Loma|2019|p=3}} as well as in the mythical Celtic [[fianna]] and Vedic [[Maruts]],{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=31}} and in the legend of the [[werewolf]] ("man-wolf"), found in Greek, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic traditions alike.{{Sfn|McCone|1987|p=}}{{Sfn|Loma|2019|p=2}}

In a mostly patriarchal economy based on bride competition, the escalation of the bride-price in periods of climate change could have resulted in an increase in cattle raiding by unmarried men.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=134–35}} Scholars also suggest that, alongside the attractiveness of the patron-client and the guest-host relationships, the *''kóryos'' could have played a key role in diffusing [[Indo-European languages]] across most of Eurasia.{{Sfn|Sergent|2003|p=24}}{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=214}}{{Sfn|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=339}}

=== Personal names ===
The use of two-word [[compound word]]s for personal names, typically but not always ascribing some noble or heroic feat to their bearer, is so common in Indo-European languages that it is certainly an inherited feature. These names often belonged in early dialects to the class of compound words that in the Sanskrit tradition are called ''[[bahuvrihi]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i9Ls1Gwmx5cC&pg=PA149|title=Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics|last=Lehmann|first=Winfred Philipp|date=1996|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-13850-5|pages=149|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CerT4n6N26AC&pg=PA375|title=Celtic Linguistics|last=Ball|first=Martin John|date=1990|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-3565-7|pages=375|language=en}}</ref> As in Vedic ''bahuvrihi'' (literally "much-rice", meaning "one who has much rice"), those compounds are formed as active structures indicating possession and do not require a verbal root.<ref name=":0" /> From the Proto-Indo-European personal name ''*H₁wésu-ḱléwos'' (lit. "good-fame", meaning "possessing good fame") derive the [[Liburnian language|Liburnian]] ''Vescleves'', the Greek ''Eukleḗs'' (Εὐκλεής), the [[Old Persian]] ''Huçavah'', the [[Avestan]] ''Haosravah-'', and the [[Sanskrit]] ''Suśráva''.{{Sfn|West|2007|p=400}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=118}}{{Sfn|García Ramón|2017|p=1}}

A second type of compound consists of a noun followed by a verbal root or stem, describing an individual performing an action. Compounds more similar to [[Synthetic language|synthetics]] are found in the [[Vedic Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] ''Trasá-dasyus'' ("one who causes enemies to tremble"), the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''[[Archelaus (disambiguation)|Archelaus]]'' (Ἀρχέλαος, "one who rules people"), and the [[Old Persian]] ''[[Xerxes (disambiguation)|Xšayāršan]]'' ("one who rules men").<ref name=":0" />

Many Indo-European personal names are associated with the horse ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*h₁éḱwos}}) in particular, which expressed both the wealth and nobility of their bearer, including the Avestan ''Hwaspa'' ("owning good horses"), the Greek ''Hippónikos'' ("winning by his horses"), or the Gaulish ''Epomeduos'' ("master of horses"). Since domestic animals also served to sacrifice, there were often used as [[Endocentric and exocentric|exocentric structures]] in compound names (the bearers are not 'horses' themselves but 'users of horses' in some way), in contrast to endocentric personal names rather associated with wild animals like the wolf, for instance in the German ''Rudolf'' ("a famous wolf") or the Serbian ''Dobrovuk'' ("a good wolf").{{Sfn|Loma|2019|p=1}}

== Economy ==
Proto-Indo-Europeans possessed a Neolithic mixed economy based on livestock and subsidiary agriculture, with a wide range of economic regimes and various degrees of mobility that could be expected across the large [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]].{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=153}} Tribes were typically more influenced by [[Agriculture|farming]] in the western [[Dnieper]]-[[Donets]] region, where cereal cultivation was practised, while the eastern [[Don River|Don]]-[[Volga River|Volga]] steppes were inhabited by semi-nomadic and [[Pastoralism|pastoral]] populations mostly relying on [[herding]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=304}}{{Sfn|Kristiansen|Allentoft|Frei|Iversen|2017|p=337}}

Proto-Indo-European distinguished between unmovable and movable wealth (''*péḱu'', the "livestock"). As for the rest of society, economy was founded on reciprocity. A gift always entailed a counter-gift, and each party was bound to the other in a mutual relationship cemented by trust.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=19–20}}{{Sfn|Kölligan|2017|p=2232}}

=== Trade ===
[[File:Yamna-2.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Yamnaya bone and bronze arrowheads.]]The early [[Khvalynsk culture]], located in the [[Volga River|Volga]]-[[Ural River|Ural]] steppes and associated with early [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]],{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=48}} had trade relationship with [[Old Europe (archaeology)|Old European cultures]]. Domesticated cattle, sheep and goats, as well as copper, were introduced eastward from the Danube valley around 4700–4500. Copper objects show an artistic influence from Old Europe, and the appearance of sacrificed animals suggest that a new set of rituals emerged following the introduction of herding from the west.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=185–186}} The Old European [[Cucuteni–Trypillia culture|Tripolye culture]] continued to influence the western part of the steppes, in the [[Dnieper]]-[[Donets]] region, where the Yamnaya culture was more agricultural and less male-centered.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=305}}

Proto-Indo-European speakers also had indirect contacts with [[Uruk period|Uruk]] around 3700–3500 through the [[North Caucasus|North Caucasian]] [[Maykop culture|Maikop culture]], a trade route that introduced the wheeled wagon into the Caspian-Pontic steppes. Wheel-made pottery imported from Mesopotamia were found in the Northern Caucasus, and Maikop chieftain was buried wearing Mesopotamian symbols of power—the lion paired with the bull. The late Khvalynsk and Repin cultures probably traded wool and domesticated horses in exchange, as suggested by the widespread appearance of horses in archeological sites across [[Transcaucasia]] after 3300.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=289–290}} Socio-cultural interactions with [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasians]] have been proposed, on the ground that the Proto-Indo-European language shows a number of lexical parallels with [[Proto-Northwest Caucasian language|Proto-Northwest Caucasian]].{{sfn|Bomhard|2019|p=11}} Proto-Indo-European also exhibits lexical loans to or from other Caucasian languages, particularly [[Proto-Kartvelian language|Proto-Kartvelian]].{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=207}}

Proto-Indo-European probably also had trade relationships with [[Proto-Uralic]] speakers around the [[Ural Mountains]].{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=206}} Words for "sell" and "wash" were borrowed in Proto-Uralic, and words for "price" and "draw, lead" were introduced in the Proto-Finno-Ugric language. [[J. P. Mallory|James P. Mallory]] suggested that the expansion of the [[Uralic languages]] across the northern forest zone might have been stimulated by organizational changes within Uralic forager societies, resulting partly from interaction with more complex, hierarchical Proto-Indo-European and (later) [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] pastoral societies at the steppe/forest-steppe ecological border.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=207}}

===Technology===
[[File:StateLibQld 2 157835 Party of three young women in a horsedrawn wagon on the road to Buderim Mountain, Queensland, 1900-1910.jpg|thumb|232x232px|A horse-drawn, spoke-less, wheeled and wood-made wagon, close to what was used in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]] around 3500–2500 BC. Here in [[Queensland]], 1900.]]
From the reconstructable lexicon, it is clear that Proto-Indo-Europeans were familiar with wheeled vehicles—certainly horse-drawn wagons (''*weǵʰnos'')—as they knew the wheel (''*kʷekʷlóm''), the axle (''*h₂eḱs-''), the shaft (''*h₂/₃éih₁os''), and the yoke (''*yugóm'').{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=247–249}} Although wheels were most likely not invented by Proto-Indo-Europeans, the word ''*kʷekʷlóm'' is a native derivation of the root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*kʷel-}} ("to turn") rather than a [[Loanword|borrowing]], suggesting short contacts with the people who introduced the concept to them.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=205}}

The technology used was a solid wheel made of three planks joined with their outer edges trimmed to a circle.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=247–249}} The swift [[chariot]] with spoked wheels, which made the mode of transport much more rapid and lighter, appeared later within the [[Sintashta culture]] (2100–1800), associated with the [[Indo-Iranians]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuzmina|first=E.|date=2002|title=On the Origin of the Indo-Iranians|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=43|issue=2|pages=303–304|doi=10.1086/339377|s2cid=224798735 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuznetsov|first=P. F.|date=2006|title=The emergence of Bronze Age chariots in eastern Europe|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=80|issue=309|pages=638–645|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00094096|s2cid=162580424|issn=0003-598X}}</ref> As the word for "boat" (''*néh₂us'') is widely attested across the language groups, the means of transport (likely a [[dugout canoe]]) was certainly known by Proto-Indo-Europeans.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=247–249}}

The vocabulary associated with metallurgy is very restricted and at best we can attest the existence of copper/bronze, gold, and silver. The basic word for "metal" (''*h₂ey-es'') is generally presumed to mean "copper" or a copper-tin alloy of "bronze". "Gold" is reliably reconstructed as ''*h₂eusom'', and ''*h₂erǵ-n̩t-om'' designated a "white metal" or "silver". Proto-Indo-Europeans were also familiar with the sickle (''*sr̩po/eh₂''), the awl (''*h₁óleh₂'') for working leather or drilling wood, and used a primitive plough (''*h₂érh₃ye/o'') made of a curved and forked branch.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=241–244}}

The term for "oven" or "cooking vessel" (''*h₂/₃ukʷ'') has been reconstructed based on four branches, as for "baking" (''*bʰōg-'') and "boiling" (''*yes-'').{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=240}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=38}} They certainly drank beer (''*h₂elut'') and [[mead]] (''*médʰu''), and the word for "wine" (*''wóinom'') has been proposed, although this remains a debated issue.{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=166}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=38}} Proto-Indo-Europeans produced textile, as attested by the reconstructed roots for wool (''*wĺh₂neh₂''), [[flax]] (''*linom''), sewing (''*syuh₁-''), spinning (''*(s)pen-''), weaving (''*h₂/₃webʰ-'') and plaiting (''*pleḱ-''), as well as needle (''*skʷēis'') and thread (''*pe/oth₂mo''). They were also familiar with combs (''*kes'') and ointments with salve (''*h₃engʷ-'').{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=38}}

== Animals ==
Animals ([[mammal]]s in particular) are fairly abundant in the reconstructed lexicon. We can ascribe about seventy-five names to various animal species, but it hardly recovers all the animals to have been distinguished in the proto-language.''{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=151}}'' While ''*kʷetwor-pod'' designated a four-footed animal ([[tetrapod]]), ''*gʷyéh₃wyom'' seems to have been the general term for animals, derived from the root ''*gʷyeh₃''-, "to live". Proto-Indo-European speakers also made a distinction between wild animals ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*ǵʰwḗr}}) and the livestock ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*péḱu}}).''{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=135–136}}''

===Domesticated animals===
[[File:Tarpan.png|thumb|189x189px|Tarpan horse (1841 drawing)]]The reconstructed lexicon suggests a [[Neolithic]] economy with extensive references to domesticated animals.''{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=151}}'' They were familiar with cows ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*gʷṓws|*gʷṓus}}), sheep ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂ówis|*h₃ówis}}), goats (''*díks'', or *''h₂eiĝs'') and pigs ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*suH-|*sūs}}; also {{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*pórḱos}}, "piglet").{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=135–136}}

They knew dogs ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*ḱwṓ|*ḱwōn}}), milk (''*ǵl̩ákt''; also {{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂melǵ-}}, "to milk") and dairy foods, [[wool]] ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂wĺ̥h₁neh₂|*wĺh₂neh₂}}) and woollen textiles, agriculture, wagons, and honey ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*mélit}}).{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015|p=207}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=135–136}} The [[domestication of the horse]] ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|h₁éḱwos}}), thought to be an extinct [[Tarpan]] species,{{snf|Mallory|Adams|1997|page=275}} probably originated with these peoples, and scholars invoke this innovation as a factor contributing to their increased mobility and rapid expansion.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=303}}

The dog was perceived as a symbol of death and depicted as the guardian of the [[Otherworld]] in Indo-European cultures (Greek [[Cerberus]], Indic [[Sharvara|Śārvara]], Norse [[Garmr]]).{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=439}} The [[mytheme]] possibly stems from an older [[Ancient North Eurasian]] belief, as evidenced by similar motifs in [[Native American religion|Native American]] and [[Shamanism in Siberia|Siberian mythology]], in which case it might be one of the oldest mythemes recoverable through [[comparative mythology]].{{Sfn|Anthony|Brown|p=|2019|pp=104–105}} In various Indo-European traditions, the worst throw at the game of [[dice]] was named the "dog", and the best throw was known as the "dog-killer".{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=266}} Canine teeth of dogs were frequently worn as pendants in Yamnaya graves in the western Pontic steppes, particularly in the [[Inhul|Ingul valley]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=364–365}}

=== Wild animals ===
Linguistic evidence suggest that Proto-Indo-European speakers were also in contact with various wild animals, such as [[red fox]]es (*''wl(o)p''), [[Eurasian wolf|wolves]] ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*wĺ̥kʷos|*wl̩kʷo}}), [[Eurasian brown bear|bears]] ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*h₂ŕ̥tḱos|*h₂ŕ̩tḱos}}), [[red deer]]s (*''h₁elh₁ēn''), [[Moose|elks (moose)]] (*''h₁ólḱis''), [[Eagle|eagles]] ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*h₃érō|*h₃or}}), [[Otter|otters]] ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|*udrós}}), [[Snake|snakes]] ({{wikt-lang|ine-x-proto|h₁ógʷʰis}}), [[Mouse|mice]] (''*mūs'' ; from ''*mus-'', "to steal"), or [[Brown trout|trouts]] (''*lóḱs'').<ref>{{cite conference|last=Lane|first=George S.|year=1970|editor1-last=Cardona|editor1-first=George|editor2-last=Hoenigswald|editor2-first=Henry M.|editor3-last=Senn|editor3-first=Alfred|title=Indo-European and Indo-Europeans.|conference=Third Indo-European Conference at the University of Pennsylvania|location=Philadelphia|page=83|article=Tocharian. Indo-European and Non-Indo-European Relationships.}}</ref>{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=135–136, 144, 147}}

Some of them were featured in mythological and folkloric motifs. Goats draw the chariots of the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] and [[Historical Vedic religion|Indic]] gods [[Thor]] and [[Pushan]], and they are associated with the [[Baltic mythology|Baltic]] god [[Perkūnas]] and the Greek god [[Pan (god)|Pan]]. The words for both the wolf and the bear underwent [[Euphemism|taboo deformation]] in a number of branches, suggesting that they were feared as symbols of death in Proto-Indo-European culture.{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=28}}

In Indo-European culture, the term "wolf" is generally applied to brigands and outlaws who live in the wild.{{Sfn|West|2007|p=450}} Ritual and mythological concepts connected with wolves, in some cases similar with [[Native American religion|Native American beliefs]], may represent a common [[Ancient North Eurasian]] heritage: ''mai-coh'' meant both "wolf" and "witch" among [[Navajo]]s, and ''shunk manita tanka'' a "doglike powerful spirit" among [[Sioux|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ]], while the Proto-Indo-European root ''*ṷeid'' ("knowledge, clairvoyance") designated the wolf in both Hittite (''ṷetna'') and Old Norse (''witnir''), and a "werewolf" in Slavic languages (Serbian ''vjedogonja'' and ''vukodlak'', Slovenian ''vedanec'', Ukrainian ''viščun'').{{Sfn|Loma|2019|p=4}}

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=26em}}
* [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European homeland]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European mythology]]
* [[Khvalynsk culture]]
* [[Yamnaya horizon]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=note|30em}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{sfn whitelist |CITEREFRinge2006}}
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}

*{{Cite book|last=Anthony|first=David W.|title=The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-691-05887-0|author-link=David W. Anthony }}
*{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=David W.|last2=Ringe|first2=Donald|date=2015|title=The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives|journal=Annual Review of Linguistics|volume=1|issue=1|pages=199–219|doi=10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812|author-link=David W. Anthony|author-link2=Donald Ringe|doi-access=free}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Anthony|first1=David W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WXzKDwAAQBAJ|title=Tracing the Indo-Europeans: New evidence from archaeology and historical linguistics|last2=Brown|first2=Dorcas R.|date=2019|publisher=Oxbow Books|isbn=978-1-78925-273-6|editor-last=Olsen|editor-first=Birgit A.|language=en|chapter=Late Bronze Age midwinter dog sacrifices and warrior initiations at Krasnosamarskoe, Russia|editor-last2=Olander|editor-first2=Thomas|editor-last3=Kristiansen|editor-first3=Kristian}}

*{{Cite book|last=Beekes|first=Robert S. P.|title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|year=2011|isbn=978-90-272-1185-9|author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes }}
*{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/indoeuropeanlang0000benv|url-access=registration|title=Indo-European Language and Society|last=Benveniste|first=Émile|publisher=University of Miami Press|year=1973|isbn=978-0-87024-250-2|author-link=Émile Benveniste}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Bomhard|first=Allan R.|date=2019|title=The Origins of Proto-Indo-European: The Caucasian Substrate Hypothesis|url=https://www.academia.edu/40002289|journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies|language=en|volume=47| issue = 1 & 2, Spring/Summer 2019|author-link=Allan R. Bomhard}}

*{{Cite journal|last=Della Volpe|first=Angela|date=1993|title=On evidence of ranked status in Indo-European: PIE *wik-pot-i-|journal=WORD|volume=44|issue=2|pages=255–271|doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435903|issn=0043-7956|doi-access=free}}

*{{Cite book|last=Fortson|first=Benjamin W.|title=Indo-European Language and Culture|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=1-4051-0316-7|author-link=Benjamin W. Fortson IV}}

*{{Cite book|last1=Gamkrelidze|first1=Tamaz V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC|title=Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture|last2=Ivanov|first2=Vjaceslav V.|date=1995|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-081503-0|language=en|author-link=Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze|author-link2=Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)}}
*{{Cite conference|last=García Ramón|first=José L.|date=2017|title=Reconstructing Indo-European phraseology: Continuity and renewal|url=https://rootsofeurope.ku.dk/english/calendar/archive_2017/the-split-reconstructing-early-indo-european-language-and-culture/Garc_a_Ram_n_-_Reconstructing_Indo-European_phraseology__Continuity_and_renewal__handout_.pdf|conference=The Split: Reconstructing Early Indo-European Language and Culture|publisher=University of Copenhagen}}

*{{Cite journal|last=Heyd|first=Volker|date=2017|title=Kossinna's smile|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/kossinnas-smile/8ABA3BD9132B7605E8871236065CD4E3|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=91|issue=356|pages=348–359|doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.21|issn=0003-598X|hdl=10138/255652|s2cid=164376362|hdl-access=free}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Huld|first=Martin E.|date=1993|title=Early Indo-European weapons terminology|journal=WORD|volume=44|issue=2|pages=223–234|doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435901|issn=0043-7956|doi-access=free}}

*{{Cite book|last=Kölligan|first=Daniel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SuR8DwAAQBAJ|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics|date=2017|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-054243-1|editor-last=Klein|editor-first=Jared|volume=3|language=en|chapter=The lexicon of Proto-Indo-European|editor-last2=Joseph|editor-first2=Brian|editor-last3=Fritz|editor-first3=Matthias}}
*{{Cite journal|last1=Kristiansen|first1=Kristian|last2=Allentoft|first2=Morten E.|last3=Frei|first3=Karin M.|last4=Iversen|first4=Rune|last5=Johannsen|first5=Niels N.|last6=Kroonen|first6=Guus|last7=Pospieszny|first7=Łukasz|last8=Price|first8=T. Douglas|last9=Rasmussen|first9=Simon|last10=Sjögren|first10=Karl-Göran|last11=Sikora|first11=Martin|date=2017|title=Re-theorising mobility and the formation of culture and language among the Corded Ware Culture in Europe|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=91|issue=356|pages=334–347|doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.17|issn=0003-598X|author-link=Kristian Kristiansen (archaeologist)|doi-access=free|hdl=1887/70150|hdl-access=free}}

*{{Cite conference|last=Loma|first=Aleksandar|author-link=Aleksandar Loma|date=2019|title=Problems of chronological and social stratification in the historical anthroponomastics: The case of "lupine" and "equine" proper names among the Indo-European peoples|url=https://www.helsinki.fi/sites/default/files/atoms/files/wolf_and_horse_handout.pdf|conference=Personal Names and Cultural Reconstruction|publisher=University of Helsinki}}

*{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofindoeu00jpma|url-access=registration|title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth|last=Mallory|first=James P.|date=1989|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-05052-1|language=en|author-link=J. P. Mallory}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=James P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|last2=Adams|first2=Douglas Q.|date=1997|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|language=en|author-link=James P. Mallory|author-link2=Douglas Q. Adams}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=J. P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNUSDAAAQBAJ|title=The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World|last2=Adams|first2=D. Q.|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-929668-2}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Mallory|first=J. P.|date=2006|title=Indo-European Warfare|journal=Journal of Conflict Archaeology|volume=2|issue=1|pages=77–98|doi=10.1163/157407706778942312|s2cid=162297933|issn=1574-0773}}
*{{Cite book|last=McCone|first=Kim R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WghZAAAAMAAJ|title=Studien zum indogermanischen Wortschatz|date=1987|publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft|isbn=978-3-85124-591-2|editor-last=Meid|editor-first=Wolfgang|pages=101–154|language=de|chapter=Hund, Wolf und Krieger bei den Indogermanen}}

*{{Cite book|last=Reich|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rKZTDwAAQBAJ|title=Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-255438-3|language=en|author-link=David Reich (geneticist)}}
*{{cite Q |Q131605459 |first=Don |last=Ringe |author-link=Donald Ringe |mode=cs1 }}

*{{Cite journal|last=Sergent|first=Bernard|author-link=Bernard Sergent|date=2003|title=Les troupes de jeunes hommes et l'expansion indo-européenne|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_2003_num_29_2_1560|journal=Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne|volume=29|issue=2|pages=9–27|doi=10.3406/dha.2003.1560}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Speidel|first=Michael P.|author-link=Michael P. Speidel|date=2002|title=Berserks: A History of Indo-European Mad Warriors|journal=Journal of World History|volume=13|issue=2|pages=253–290|issn=1045-6007|jstor=20078974}}

*{{citation|last1=Telegrin|first1=D. Ya.|last2=Mallory|first2=James P.|date=1994|title=The Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Ukraine: The Early Iconography of the Indo-Europeans|series=Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series|volume=11|location=Washington D.C., United States|publisher=Institute for the Study of Man|isbn=978-0-941694-45-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TBJmAAAAMAAJ}}

*{{Cite journal|last=Watkins|first=Calvert|author-link=Calvert Watkins|date=1986|title=In the Interstices of Procedure: Indo-European Legal Language and Comparative Law|journal=Historiographia Linguistica|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=27–42|doi=10.1075/hl.13.1.05wat|issn=0302-5160}}
*{{Cite book |last=Watkins |first=Calvert |title=How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-802471-2 |author-link=Calvert Watkins }}
*{{Cite book|last=West|first=Martin L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|date=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|language=en|author-link=Martin Litchfield West}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* Rowlett, Ralph M. "[https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/463207?journalCode=hr Research Directions in Early Indo-European Archaeology]." (1990): 415-418.
* Carstens, Anne Marie. "To Bury a Ruler: The Meaning of the Horse in Aristocratic Burials." In: ''Tracing the Indo-Europeans: New Evidence from Archaeology and Historical Linguistics'', edited by Olsen Birgit Anette, Olander, Thomas; and Kristiansen, Kristian. Oxford; Philadelphia: Oxbow Books, 2019. pp. 165–184. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvmx3k2h.14.
* Edholm, Kristoffer af. "[https://www.academia.edu/67957608/Crossing_the_River_of_Battle_A_Heroic_Motif_in_Ancient_Indian_and_Old_Norse_Texts_Journal_of_Indo_European_Studies_49_231_250_2021_ Crossing the River of Battle: A Heroic Motif in Ancient Indian and Old Norse Texts]" In: ''Journal of Indo-European Studies'' (JIES) 49 (2021), 231–250.
* Fortunato, Laura (2011). "Reconstructing the History of Residence Strategies in Indo-European–Speaking Societies: Neo-, Uxori-, and Virilocality." In: ''Human Biology'': Vol. 83: Iss. 1, Article 7. Available at: https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol83/iss1/7
* Friedrich, Paul. "Proto-Indo-European Kinship". In: ''Ethnology'' 5, no. 1 (1966): 1-36. doi:10.2307/3772899.
* Galton, Herbert. "The Indo-European Kinship Terminology". In: ''Zeitschrift Für Ethnologie'' 82, no. 1 (1957): 121–38. www.jstor.org/stable/25840433.
* Olsen, Birgit Anette. "Aspects of Family Structure among the Indo-Europeans." In: ''Tracing the Indo-Europeans: New Evidence from Archaeology and Historical Linguistics'', edited by Olsen, Birgit Anette; Olander Thomas, and Kristiansen Kristian, 145–64. Oxford; Philadelphia: Oxbow Books, 2019. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvmx3k2h.13.
* Puhvel, Jaan. "Victimal Hierarchies in Indo-European Animal Sacrifice". In: ''The American Journal of Philology'' 99, no. 3 (1978): 354–62. doi:10.2307/293746.
* Requena, Miguel, and Díez De Revenga. "Las Representaciones Colectivas De Los Pueblos Indoeuropeos". In: ''Reis'', no. 25 (1984): 181–95. Accessed June 23, 2020. doi:10.2307/40183059.
* Sadovski, Velizar. "On Horses and Chariots in Ancient Indian and Iranian Personal Names." In: ''Pferde in Asien: Geschichte, Handel Und Kultur'' [Horses in Asia: History, Trade and Culture]. Edited by FRAGNER BERT G., KAUZ RALPH, PTAK RODERICH, and SCHOTTENHAMMER ANGELA, 111–28. Wien: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2009. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvmd83w6.17.
* {{cite book|last=Stüber|first=Karin|chapter={{lang|de|Die Stellung der Frau: Spuren indogermanischer Gesellschaftsordnung in der Sprache}}|editor-last=Schärer|editor-first=K.|title=Spuren lesen|publisher=Chronos|year=2007|isbn=978-3-0340-0879-2|pages=97–115|language=de}}
* Testart, Alain. "Reconstructing Social and Cultural Evolution: The Case of Dowry in the Indo-European Area". In: ''Current Anthropology'' 54, no. 1 (2013): 23–50. doi:10.1086/668679.
* Vassilkov, Yaroslav. ""Words and things": An attempt at reconstruction of the earliest Indo-European concept of heroism". In: ''Indologica. T. Ya. Elizarenkova Memorial Volume''. Book 2. Compiled and edited by L. Kulikov, M. Rusanov. Moscow, 2012. pp. 157–187.
* Winter, Werner. "Some Widespread Indo-European Titles". In: ''Indo-European and Indo-Europeans: Papers Presented at the Third Indo-European Conference at the University of Pennsylvania''. Edited by Cardona George, Hoenigswald Henry M., and Senn Alfred, 49–54. PHILADELPHIA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv4v31xt.7.
{{Proto-Indo-European language}}

[[Category:Proto-Indo-Europeans|Society]]
[[Category:Bronze Age]]
[[Category:Society]]

The Hague

2025-10-25T09:34:19Z

2001:BB6:B894:C500:446C:93A8:26BB:4FAE: Tags

{{Short description|City and municipality in the Netherlands}}
{{Redirect-multi|3|Den Haag|'s-Gravenhage|Hague|the elm cultivar|Ulmus 'Den Haag'{{!}}''Ulmus'' 'Den Haag'|the fishing trawler|German trawler V 401 Jan Mayen{{!}}FV s'Gravenhage|other uses|Hague (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}

{{Infobox settlement

| name = The Hague
| native_name = {{lang|nl|Den Haag}} {{Native name|nl|'s-Gravenhage|paren=omit}}
| settlement_type = [[List of cities in the Netherlands by province|City]] and [[Municipalities of the Netherlands|municipality]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| total_width = 280
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/2/2/2/1
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Den Haag Skyline 1.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Plein, The Hague|Plein]]
| image2 = Vredespaleis-voor.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = [[Peace Palace]]
| image3 = 2010-05-22-den-haag-by-RalfR-43.jpg
| alt3 =
| caption3 = [[Binnenhof]]
| image4 = Scheveningen The-Netherlands-Kurhaus-01.jpg
| alt4 =
| caption4 = [[Kurhaus of Scheveningen|Kurhaus]]
| image5 = GraphyArchy - Wikipedia 00807.jpg
| alt5 =
| caption5 = [[The Hague City Hall|City Hall]]
}}
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_flag = Flag of The Hague.svg
| flag_size = 100x67px
| flag_alt =
| image_shield = Den Haag wapen.svg
| shield_size = 100x80px
| shield_alt =
| image_blank_emblem = Compact Logo gemeente Den Haag.svg
| nicknames = ''De Hofstad'', ''De Residentie'', ''Agga'', ''070''
| motto = ''Vrede en Recht'' ('Peace and Justice')
| image_map = NL - locator map municipality code GM0518 (2016).png
| map_alt = Highlighted position of The Hague in a municipal map of South Holland
| map_caption = Location within South Holland
| pushpin_map = Netherlands#Europe
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within the Netherlands##Location within Europe
| pushpin_relief = 1
| coordinates = {{Coord|52|04|48|N|04|18|36|E|region:NL-ZH_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = [[Netherlands]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of the Netherlands|Province]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[South Holland]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of regions of the Netherlands#Subregions|Subregion]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Haaglanden]]
| parts_type = [[Districts of The Hague|District]]
| parts_style = coll
| parts = 8 districts
| p1 = [[The Hague Center|Centrum]]
| p2 = [[Escamp]]
| p3 = [[Haagse Hout]]
| p4 = [[Laak, The Hague|Laak]]
| p5 = [[Leidschenveen-Ypenburg]]
| p6 = [[Loosduinen]]
| p7 = [[Scheveningen]]
| p8 = [[Segbroek]]
| government_footnotes = <ref name="aldermen_now">{{cite web
|url = https://www.denhaag.nl/nl/bestuur-en-organisatie/college-van-burgemeester-en-wethouders.htm
|title = College van burgemeester en wethouders
|trans-title = Municipal executive
|language = nl
|publisher = Gemeente Den Haag
|access-date = 28 August 2021
|df = dmy-all
|archive-date = 12 October 2019
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191012201828/https://www.denhaag.nl/nl/bestuur-en-organisatie/college-van-burgemeester-en-wethouders.htm
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
| governing_body = [[Municipal council (Netherlands)|Municipal council]]
| leader_party = [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]]
| leader_title = [[List of mayors of The Hague|Mayor]]
| leader_name = [[Jan van Zanen]]
| leader_title1 = [[Municipal executive#Aldermen|Aldermen]]
| leader_name1 = {{Collapsible list
|title=List
|Kavita Parbhudayal ([[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]])
|Saskia Bruines ([[Democrats 66|D66]])
|{{nowrap|[[Liesbeth van Tongeren]] ([[GroenLinks|GL]])}}
|Hilbert Bredemeijer ([[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]])
|Martijn Balster ([[Labour Party (Netherlands)|PvdA]])
|[[Anne Mulder]] ([[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]])
|[[Robert van Asten]] ([[Democrats 66|D66]])
|Bert van Alphen ([[GroenLinks|GL]])
}}
| total_type = Municipality
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{Dutch municipality total area|dataref}}</ref><ref name="tno_randstad">{{cite tech report
|author1=Anita Bouman–Eijs
|author2=Thijmen van Bree
|author3=Wouter Jonkhoff
|author4=Olaf Koops
|author5=Walter Manshanden
|author6=Elmer Rietveld
|url=http://www.zuidvleugel.nl/sites/www.zuidvleugel.nl/files/article/downloads/top_20_europese_grootstedelijke_regios_1995_2011_tno_2012_r11155.pdf
|title=De Top 20 van Europese grootstedelijke regio's 1995–2011; Randstad Holland in internationaal perspectief
|language=nl
|trans-title=Top 20 of European metropolitan regions 1995–2011; Randstad Holland compared internationally
|date=17 December 2012
|publisher=[[Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research|TNO]]
|place=Delft
|access-date=25 July 2013
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303212054/http://www.zuidvleugel.nl/sites/www.zuidvleugel.nl/files/article/downloads/top_20_europese_grootstedelijke_regios_1995_2011_tno_2012_r11155.pdf
|archive-date=3 March 2014
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 = {{Dutch municipality total area|The Hague}}
| area_land_km2 = {{Dutch municipality land area|The Hague}}
| area_water_km2 = {{Dutch municipality water area|The Hague}}
| area_urban_km2 = 286.31
| area_metro_km2 = 1,256.40
| area_blank1_title = [[Randstad]]
| area_blank1_km2 = 4384.10
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name="AHN">{{cite web
|url = http://www.ahn.nl/postcodetool
|title = Postcodetool for 2511BT
|language = nl
|author = 
|work = Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland
|publisher = Het Waterschapshuis
|access-date = 23 July 2013
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053543/http://www.ahn.nl/postcodetool
|archive-date = 21 September 2013
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
| elevation_m = 1
| elevation_max_footnotes = 
| elevation_max_m =
| elevation_min_footnotes = 
| elevation_min_m = 
| population_footnotes = <ref name="tno_randstad"/><ref>{{Dutch municipality population|dataref}}</ref><ref>{{Dutch municipality population urbanmetro|dataref}}</ref>
| population_total = 549,163
| population_as_of = 1 January 2021
| population_density_km2 = {{Dutch municipality population density|The Hague}} 
| population_urban = {{Dutch municipality population urbanmetro|'s-Gravenhage Urban}}
| population_metro = {{Dutch municipality population urbanmetro|'s-Gravenhage Metro}}{{efn|Counted as one with the city of [[Rotterdam]], [[Port of Rotterdam|its seaport and industrial area]], and its suburbs / metro area.}}
| population_blank1_title = [[Randstad]]
| population_blank1 = 6,396,416
| population_demonym = Hagenaar or Hagenees
| timezone1 = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset1 = +01:00
| timezone1_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| utc_offset1_DST = +02:00
| postal_code_type = [[Postal codes in the Netherlands|Postcodes]]
| postal_code = 2490–2599
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbers in the Netherlands|Area code]]
| area_code = 070, 015
| website = {{URL|http://www.denhaag.nl/}} {{in lang|nl}}
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-wikidata = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 9
}}

'''The Hague'''{{efn|English pronunciation: {{IPAc-en|h|eɪ|ɡ}} {{respell|HAYG}}.}} ({{langx|nl|Den Haag}},{{efn|{{IPA|nl|dɛn ˈɦaːx|-|Nl-Den Haag.ogg|small=no}}.}} short for {{lang|nl|'s-Gravenhage}}){{efn|{{IPA|nl|ˌsxraːvə(n)ˈɦaːɣə|-|Nl-'s-Gravenhage.ogg|small=no}}.}} is the capital city of the [[South Holland]] province of the [[Netherlands]]. With a population of over half a million, it is the third-largest city in the Netherlands. Situated on the west coast facing the [[North Sea]], The Hague is the country's administrative centre and its [[seat of government]], and has been described as the country's ''de facto'' capital since the time of the [[Dutch Republic]], while [[Amsterdam]] is the official [[capital of the Netherlands]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=David |title=Varieties of Capital Cities: The Competitiveness Challenge for Secondary Capitals |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-78811-643-5 |location=Cheltenham, UK |oclc=1049802517}}</ref>

The Hague is the core municipality of the [[COROP|Greater The Hague urban area]] containing over 800,000 residents, and is also part of the [[Rotterdam–The Hague metropolitan area]], which, with a population of approximately 2.6 million, is the largest metropolitan area of the Netherlands. The city is also part of the [[Randstad]] region, one of the largest [[conurbation]]s in Europe.

The Hague is the seat of the [[Cabinet of the Netherlands|Cabinet]], the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]], the [[Supreme Court of the Netherlands|Supreme Court]], and the [[Council of State (Netherlands)|Council of State]] of the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite book|last=Daum|first=Andreas|title=Berlin – Washington, 1800–2000 Capital Cities, Cultural Representation, and National Identities|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521841178|pages=13, 38|quote=Amsterdam is the statuary capital of the Netherlands, while the Dutch government resides in De Hague. (''sic'') (p. 13) The Dutch seat of government is The Hague but its capital is bustling Amsterdam, the national cultural centre. (p. 38)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OA-yi2sUDT4C|access-date=23 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503212953/https://books.google.com/books?id=OA-yi2sUDT4C|archive-date=3 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|King Willem-Alexander]] officially lives in the [[Huis ten Bosch]] and works at the [[Noordeinde Palace]] together with [[Queen Máxima of the Netherlands|Queen Máxima]].<ref>[https://www.royal-house.nl/topics/huis-ten-bosch-palace Huis ten Bosch Palace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731235202/https://www.royal-house.nl/topics/huis-ten-bosch-palace |date=31 July 2017 }} at "The Official Website of the Dutch Royal House in English", maintained by the [[Netherlands Government Information Service]].</ref> Most foreign embassies in the Netherlands are in the city. The Hague is also home to the headquarters of [[List of companies of the Netherlands|many Dutch companies]], with [[Shell plc]] having major offices in the city as well. The [[Royal Library of the Netherlands]] is also located there. The Hague's coastal area includes the popular seaside resort [[Scheveningen]].

The Hague is known as the global hub of international law and arbitration. The [[International Court of Justice]], the main judicial arm of the [[United Nations]], is based in the city, as are the [[International Criminal Court]], the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]], [[Europol]], and approximately 200 other [[international governmental organization]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Internationale organisaties in Den Haag |url=https://www.denhaag.nl/nl/bestuur-en-organisatie/stad-van-vrede-en-recht/den-haag-internationale-stad-van-vrede-en-recht-1.htm |website=Gemeente Den Haag |access-date=3 February 2019 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204065736/https://www.denhaag.nl/nl/bestuur-en-organisatie/stad-van-vrede-en-recht/den-haag-internationale-stad-van-vrede-en-recht-1.htm |archive-date=4 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The name "The Hague" is commonly used [[Metonymy|metonymically]] to refer to either of the international courts that reside in the city. The city has hosted several major international conferences, including the [[2014 Nuclear Security Summit]] and the [[2025 The Hague NATO summit|2025 NATO Summit]].

==Etymology==
The name {{lang|nl|Den Haag}} (anglicised as ''The Hague'' and [[French language|gallicised]] as {{lang|fr|La Haye}}) derives from the [[Middle Dutch]] word {{lang|dum|hag(h)e}}, meaning "hedge", "enclosure", or "hunting ground".<ref>{{cite web|title=Haag – (omheining met struiken, heg)|publisher=etymologiebank.nl|url=https://etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/haag1|access-date=14 July 2025}}</ref> It first appeared in 1242. The fuller form {{lang|nl|'s-Gravenhage}}, meaning "the count's enclosure", first appeared in 1347.<ref>{{cite web|title='s-Gravenhage – (geografische naam)|publisher=etymologiebank.nl|url=https://etymologiebank.nl/trefwoord/sgravenhage|access-date=14 July 2025}}</ref>{{Efn|{{wikt-lang|nl|'s}} is an abbreviated form of the genitive article {{wikt-lang|nl|des}}, while {{wikt-lang|nl|den}} is a fossilised dative article (see [[archaic Dutch declension]]). The name is grammatically masculine even though the word {{wikt-lang|nl|haag}} is normally feminine.}} The count in question was the [[Count of Holland]] (as is the case with nearby [['s-Gravenzande]]).

In deference to common usage, the municipal government adopted the shorter name in 1990, reserving the long-form name for official documents.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://taaladvies.net/taal/advies/vraag/1199/ |title='s-Gravenhage / Den Haag |publisher=Taaladvies.net |access-date=16 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116115237/http://taaladvies.net/taal/advies/vraag/1199/ |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The post office specifies that letters should be addressed to {{lang|nl|'s-Gravenhage}}, but a letter to {{lang|nl|Den Haag}} will be delivered just as well. The railway stations use the name {{lang|nl|Den Haag}}, as do signposts.

== History ==
{{For timeline}}

=== Ancient history===
The area was part of the [[Roman province]] of [[Germania Inferior]] and was close to the border of the empire, the [[Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes]]. In 1997, four Roman milestones were discovered at Wateringse Veld. The originals are in the "[[Museon]]" museum. The milestones indicate the distance from the nearest Roman city, Forum Hadriani (modern [[Voorburg]]), and can be dated to the reign of the emperors [[Antoninus Pius]] (138–161; the column is dated 151), [[Caracalla]] (211–217), [[Gordian III]] (238–244), and [[Decius]] (249–251).

=== Early history ===
[[File:Joust on the Hofvijver, by Dutch School of the 17th century.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Binnenhof]] at the [[Hofvijver]], 1625]]
[[File:Beest Street in The Hague.jpg|thumb|left|''Street in The Hague'' by Sybrand van Beest, {{Circa|1650}}, [[Royal Castle, Warsaw|Royal Castle]] in [[Warsaw]]]]

Little is known about the origin of The Hague. There are no contemporary documents describing it, and later sources are often of dubious reliability. What is certain is that The Hague was founded by the last counts of the [[House of Holland (nobility)|House of Holland]]. [[Floris IV]] already owned two residences in the area, but presumably purchased a third court situated by the present-day [[Hofvijver]] in 1229, previously owned by a woman called Meilendis. Presumably, Floris IV intended to rebuild the court into a large castle, but he died in a [[Tournament (medieval)|tournament]] in 1234, before anything was built.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://anemaa.home.xs4all.nl/ges/geschiedenis_den_haag_04a_florisiv.htm |title=De geschiedenis van den Haag: graaf Floris IV |website=Geschiedenis van Den Haag |language=nl |access-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424093819/http://anemaa.home.xs4all.nl/ges/geschiedenis_den_haag_04a_florisiv.htm |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> His son and successor [[William II of Holland|William II]] lived in the court, and after he was elected [[King of the Romans]] in 1248, he promptly returned to The Hague, and had builders turn the court into a "royal palace" (''regale palacium''), which would later be called the [[Binnenhof]] ("Inner Court"). He died in 1256 before this palace was completed, but parts of it were finished during the reign of his son [[Floris V, Count of Holland|Floris V]], of which the [[Ridderzaal]] ("Knights' Hall"), still intact, is the most prominent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://anemaa.home.xs4all.nl/ges/geschiedenis_den_haag_04b_willemii.htm |title=Den Haag en graaf Willem II |website=Geschiedenis van Den Haag |language=nl |access-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424093824/http://anemaa.home.xs4all.nl/ges/geschiedenis_den_haag_04b_willemii.htm |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://anemaa.home.xs4all.nl/ges/geschiedenis_den_haag_04d_bouw_binnenhof.htm |title=Het Binnenhof: ontstaat |website=Geschiedenis van Den Haag |language=nl |access-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424191019/http://anemaa.home.xs4all.nl/ges/geschiedenis_den_haag_04d_bouw_binnenhof.htm |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is still used for political events, such as the annual [[speech from the throne]] by the Dutch [[monarch]]. From the 13th century onward, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative center and residence when in Holland.

The village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as ''Die Haghe'' in a charter dating from 1242. It became the primary residence of the Counts of Holland in 1358 and thus became the seat of many government institutions. This status allowed the village to grow; by the Late Middle Ages, it had grown to the size of a city, although it did not [[City rights in the Low Countries|receive city rights]].<ref name=ZH>{{Cite web |url=https://geschiedenisvanzuidholland.nl/locatie/geschiedenis-van-den-haag |title=Geschiedenis van Den Haag |website=Geschiedenis van Zuid-Holland |language=nl |access-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616203832/https://geschiedenisvanzuidholland.nl/locatie/geschiedenis-van-den-haag |archive-date=16 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> In its early years, the village was in the {{wikt-lang|nl|ambacht}}, or rural district, of [[Monster, South Holland|Monster]], which was governed by the Lord of Monster. Seeking to exercise more direct control over the village, however, the Count split the village off and created a separate ''ambacht'' called Haagambacht, governed directly by the Counts of Holland. The territory of Haagambacht was considerably expanded during the reign of Floris V.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://anemaa.home.xs4all.nl/ges/geschiedenis_den_haag_04e_die_haghe.htm |title=Het dorp Die Haghe: het ontstaan |website=Geschiedenis van Den Haag |language=nl |access-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424093832/http://anemaa.home.xs4all.nl/ges/geschiedenis_den_haag_04e_die_haghe.htm |archive-date=24 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

When the [[House of Burgundy]] inherited the counties of Holland and Zeeland in 1432, they appointed a [[stadtholder]] to rule in their stead with the [[States of Holland and West Friesland]] as an advisory council. Although their seat was in The Hague, the city became subordinate to more important centres of government such as [[Brussels]] and [[Mechelen]], from where the sovereigns ruled over the increasingly centralised [[Burgundian Netherlands]].<ref name=ZH/>

At the beginning of the [[Eighty Years' War]], the absence of city walls proved disastrous, as it allowed [[Spain|Spanish]] troops to easily occupy the town. In 1575, the States of Holland, temporarily based in [[Delft]], even considered demolishing the city, but this proposal was abandoned after mediation by [[William the Silent]]. In 1588, The Hague became the permanent seat of the States of Holland as well as the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] of the [[Dutch Republic]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merkdenhaag.nl/de-allerkortste-geschiedenis-van-den-haag |title=De allerkortste geschiedenis van Den Haag |website=Merkboek Den Haag |language=nl |access-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616203831/https://www.merkdenhaag.nl/de-allerkortste-geschiedenis-van-den-haag |archive-date=16 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> For the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, "city rights" have no place anymore.

=== Modern history ===
[[File:Den Haag - Stadhuis 1900.jpg|thumb|The [[Old City Hall (The Hague)|Old City Hall]] of The Hague around 1900]]
In 1806, when the [[Kingdom of Holland]] was a puppet state of the [[First French Empire]], the settlement was [[City rights in the Low Countries|granted city rights]] by [[Louis Bonaparte]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.denhaag.nl/en/residents/news-and-events/press-room/to/A-short-history-of-The-Hague.htm |title=A short history of The Hague |date=28 November 2011 |website=Denhaag.nl |access-date=9 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413125843/http://www.denhaag.nl/en/residents/news-and-events/press-room/to/A-short-history-of-The-Hague.htm |archive-date=13 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the [[Napoleonic Wars]], modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] to form a buffer against France. As a compromise, [[Brussels]] and [[Amsterdam]] alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, while the government was situated in The Hague. When the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. Many streets were specifically built for the large number of civil servants employed in the country's government and for the Dutchmen who were retiring from the administration of the [[Netherlands East Indies]]. The growing city amalgamated the rural municipality of [[Loosduinen]] partly in 1903 and completely in 1923.<ref>{{Repertorium Nederlandse Gemeenten}}</ref>

The city sustained heavy damage during [[World War II]]. Many Jews were killed during the German occupation. Additionally, the [[Atlantic Wall]] was built through the city,<ref>{{cite web |author=Jack Oosthoek |date=18 October 2022 |title='Vitaal onderdeel geschiedenis van bezet Nederland' |url=https://magazines.defensie.nl/defensiekrant/2022/41/02_boek-atlantikwall-_41 |website=Defensiekrant |publisher=Defensie.nl}}</ref> causing a large quarter to be torn down by the [[Nazism|Nazi]] occupants. On 3 March 1945, the [[Royal Air Force]] mistakenly [[Bombing of the Bezuidenhout|bombed]] the [[Bezuidenhout]] quarter. The target was an installation of [[V-2 rocket]]s in the nearby [[Haagse Bos]] park, but because of navigational errors, the bombs fell on a heavily populated and historic part of the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kb.nl/dossiers/geschiedenis/bombardement-op-bezuidenhout|title=Bombardement op Bezuidenhout maart 1945|trans-title=Bombing of the Bezuidenhout March 1945|publisher=[[National Library of the Netherlands|Koninklijke Bibliotheek]]|access-date=5 December 2013|language=nl|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215125838/http://www.kb.nl/dossiers/geschiedenis/bombardement-op-bezuidenhout|archive-date=15 December 2013}}</ref> The bombardment wreaked widespread destruction in the area<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_vQfUQxCjtMC&q=razed |title=The Low Countries: arts and society in Flanders and the Netherlands, a yearbook |volume=9 |author=Stichting Ons Erfdeel |year=1998 |publisher=Flemish-Netherlands Foundation |page=113 |isbn=9789075862287 |access-date=23 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617185656/https://books.google.com/books?ei=FcOXUtmIFYfwhQeC-4CgAQ&id=_vQfUQxCjtMC&dq=The+Low+Countries:+Arts+and+Society+in+Flanders+and+the+Netherlands,+a+Yearbook&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=razed |archive-date=17 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and caused 511 fatalities.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} [http://kranten.kb.nl/view/article/id/ddd%3A010462560%3Ampeg21%3Ap008%3Aa0146 Bombardement Bezuidenhout 3 maart '45 Voor velen stortte in luttele minuten de wereld in elkaar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215185333/http://kranten.kb.nl/view/article/id/ddd%3A010462560%3Ampeg21%3Ap008%3Aa0146 |date=15 December 2013 }}, Amigoe di Curacao, 4 March 1965</ref>

Because of uncertainty about what to do after the destruction of the bombing, nobody attempted to plan a reconstruction of Bezuidenhout. In 1962, David Jokinen saw an opportunity to put an end to the situation where two main stations each served only part of the rail traffic. The [[Jokinen Plan]] included the intent to demolish the [[Den Haag Centraal railway station#History|Staatsspoor Station]], with [[Hollands Spoor]] becoming the central station. Jokinen's plan sparked fierce discussions. The plan was not implemented, in part because it was only presented when decision-making had finally reached an advanced stage. In the place of the Staatsspoor station now stands the [[Den Haag Centraal railway station]].

[[File:Den Haag Skyscrapers 5.jpg|thumb|The [[Ministry of Justice and Security]] building, opened in 2012]]
After the war, The Hague became at one time the largest building site in [[Europe]]. The city expanded massively to the southwest, and the destroyed areas were quickly rebuilt. The population peaked at 600,000 inhabitants around 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, mostly white middle-class families moved to neighbouring towns such as [[Voorburg]], [[Leidschendam]], [[Rijswijk]] and (most of all) [[Zoetermeer]]. This led to the traditional pattern of an impoverished inner city and more prosperous suburbs. Attempts to include parts of these municipalities in the city of The Hague were highly controversial. In the 1990s, with the consent of the Dutch Parliament, The Hague annexed large areas from neighboring and non-adjacent towns to build new residential areas, which are still being developed today.

== Geography ==
{{See also|Districts of The Hague}}
[[File:DenHaag-plaats-OpenTopo.jpg|thumb|Detailed topographic map of The Hague, 2014]]
[[File:Haagse wijken.PNG|thumb|The Hague, divided into neighbourhoods]]
[[File:Netherlands, The Hague, Rembrandtstraat (01a).jpg|thumb|Rembrandt Street]]

The Hague is the largest Dutch city on the [[North Sea]] in the Netherlands and forms the centre of the [[COROP#South Holland province|Greater The Hague urban area]]. [[Westland (municipality), Netherlands|Westland]] and [[Wateringen]] lie to the south, [[Rijswijk]], [[Delft]] and the [[Rotterdam]] conurbation (known as ''[[Rijnmond]]'') to the southeast, [[Pijnacker-Nootdorp]] and [[Zoetermeer]] to the east, [[Leidschendam-Voorburg]], [[Voorschoten]] and the [[Leiden]] conurbation to the northeast and [[Wassenaar]] to the north.

The conurbations around The Hague and Rotterdam are close enough to be seen as a single conurbation in some contexts. For example, they share the [[Rotterdam The Hague Airport]] and a light rail system called [[RandstadRail]]. This led to the creation of the [[Rotterdam-The Hague metropolitan area]]. This large conurbation centred on The Hague and Rotterdam is, in turn, part of the [[Randstad]]—specifically a band of municipalities called the South Wing ([[Zuidvleugel]]). The Randstad, which also includes, among others, [[Amsterdam]] and [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], has a population of 6,659,300. The Hague lies at the southwestern corner of the [[List of metropolitan areas in Europe#Polycentric metropolitan areas in the European Union|second-largest conurbation in the European Union]].

The Hague is divided into eight official districts, which are, in turn, divided into neighbourhoods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.denhaag.nl/home/bewoners/stadsdelen-en-wijken/to/Stadsdelen-9.htm|title=Stadsdelen|date=18 October 2010|publisher=Denhaag.nl|language=nl|access-date=31 August 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928144925/http://www.denhaag.nl/home/bewoners/stadsdelen-en-wijken/to/Stadsdelen-9.htm|archive-date=28 September 2011}}</ref> Some of the most prosperous and some of the poorest neighbourhoods of the Netherlands can be found in The Hague. The wealthier areas such as [[Statenkwartier]], [[Belgisch Park]], [[Marlot]], [[Benoordenhout]] and [[The Hague Center#Archipelbuurt|Archipelbuurt]] are generally in the northwestern part of the city, closer to the sea, whereas the southeastern neighbourhoods such as [[The Hague Center#Transvaal|Transvaal]], [[Moerwijk]], and the [[Schilderswijk]] are significantly poorer, except the [[Vinex-location]]s of [[Leidschenveen-Ypenburg]] and [[Wateringse Veld]]. This division is reflected in the local accent: The more affluent citizens are usually called "Hagenaars" and speak so-called ''bekakt Haags'' ("posh"), this contrasts with the ''Hagenezen'', who speak ''plat Haags'' ("vulgar"); see [[#Demographics|Demographics]] below.

The districts are:
* [[The Hague Center|Centrum]] (110,000 inhabitants)<ref name=pop>[https://denhaag.incijfers.nl/Jive?workspace_guid=f17a1247-92b3-4c3c-b84c-dac23f1e5358 Den Haag in Cijfers] (in Dutch)</ref> forms the heart of The Hague. The [[Binnenhof]], the [[Noordeinde Palace]], the [[Mauritshuis]] museum, the [[Nieuwe Kerk (The Hague)|Nieuwe Kerk]], the [[Grote or Sint-Jacobskerk (The Hague)|Grote Kerk]], the [[Old City Hall (The Hague)|Old City Hall]] and the [[The Hague City Hall|City Hall]] are located here. Architecture varies from medieval to the 20th century.
* [[Escamp]] (131,000 inhabitants)<ref name=pop/> is the most populous district of The Hague, built largely after [[World War II]] as part of The Hague's large expansion to the southeast. One railway station can be found here: [[Den Haag Moerwijk railway station|Den Haag Moerwijk]]. The district is divided into six neighbourhoods.
* [[Haagse Hout]] (51,000 inhabitants)<ref name=pop/> is a wealthy district in the northeast of the city and the location of the [[Haagse Bos]], a large forest. The King of the Netherlands lives in the royal palace [[Huis ten Bosch]], in this forest. The district also includes the financial centre of the city, the [[Beatrixkwartier]].
* [[Laak, The Hague|Laak]] (46,000 inhabitants)<ref name=pop/> is the smallest district of the city, southeast of its centre, for the most part, built in the 20th and 21st centuries. The area used to be part of [[Rijswijk]] until the municipality of The Hague bought the land in 1844. The [[Den Haag Hollands Spoor railway station|Hollands Spoor]] railway station and [[The Hague University]] are located here, as well as the site of the planned mixed-use development [[Nieuw Binckhorst]].
* [[Leidschenveen-Ypenburg]] (48,000 inhabitants)<ref name=pop/> is an early 21st-century [[Vinex-location]] southeast of the city, geographically connected to the main body of the city [[Flagpole annexation|only by a narrow corridor]]. The district is divided into Leidschenveen and Ypenburg, which were part of [[Leidschendam]], [[Nootdorp]], and [[Rijswijk]] before the areas were annexed by The Hague in 2002. This area was the site of [[Ypenburg Airport]], which was a military airport during World War II.
* [[Loosduinen]] (53,000 inhabitants)<ref name=pop/> is the westernmost district of The Hague. It was a village unto itself until 1923, when it was annexed by The Hague. The less popular of the city's two seaside resorts, [[Kijkduin]], is located here. The district is divided into four neighbourhoods.
* [[Scheveningen]] (61,000 inhabitants)<ref name=pop/> is the wealthy northernmost district of The Hague. A modern beach resort, Scheveningen is a popular tourist destination. It has a long sandy beach and its own esplanade, pier, and lighthouse, but also a [[Pathé]] cinema, a musical theatre, a casino, and a special Museum for Scheveningen. The district also includes a fishing harbour. Notable buildings include the [[Kurhaus of Scheveningen|Kurhaus]] and, farther inland, the [[Peace Palace]].
* [[Segbroek]] (63,000 inhabitants)<ref name=pop/> is a district located between Scheveningen and Loosduinen. The population decreased until around 2005, but since then has begun to grow again, driven by students and Eastern European immigrants. It became a district of The Hague in 1988 and is divided into five neighbourhoods.

=== Climate ===
The Hague experiences a temperate [[oceanic climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen:]] ''Cfb'') similar to almost all of the Netherlands. Because of its location on the coast, it experiences milder winters and cooler summers than more inland locations. However, because of its location, it can also be extremely windy in the winter and humid in the summer. It also gets more sunshine.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}

{{Weather box
|width = auto
|location = [[Valkenburg Naval Air Base]]
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
| Jan record high C = 13.8
| Feb record high C = 15.9
| Mar record high C = 20.8
| Apr record high C = 25.9
| May record high C = 29.7
| Jun record high C = 33.5
| Jul record high C = 36.5
| Aug record high C = 34.6
| Sep record high C = 31.7
| Oct record high C = 24.5
| Nov record high C = 17.5
| Dec record high C = 15.4
|year record high C = 36.5
| Jan high C = 6.4
| Feb high C = 6.9
| Mar high C = 9.8
| Apr high C = 13.6
| May high C = 17.0
| Jun high C = 19.6
| Jul high C = 21.6
| Aug high C = 21.8
| Sep high C = 18.9
| Oct high C = 14.7
| Nov high C = 10.2
| Dec high C = 7.1
|year high C = 14.0
| Jan mean C = 4.1
| Feb mean C = 4.2
| Mar mean C = 6.4
| Apr mean C = 9.4
| May mean C = 12.8
| Jun mean C = 15.6
| Jul mean C = 17.8
| Aug mean C = 17.8
| Sep mean C = 15.0
| Oct mean C = 11.4
| Nov mean C = 7.6
| Dec mean C = 4.8
|year mean C = 10.6
| Jan low C = 1.5
| Feb low C = 1.2
| Mar low C = 2.7
| Apr low C = 4.8
| May low C = 8.3
| Jun low C = 11.2
| Jul low C = 13.5
| Aug low C = 13.4
| Sep low C = 10.9
| Oct low C = 7.9
| Nov low C = 4.7
| Dec low C = 2.1
|year low C = 6.8
| Jan record low C = -16.4
| Feb record low C = -14.0
| Mar record low C = -11.1
| Apr record low C = -4.4
| May record low C = -1.5
| Jun record low C = 1.7
| Jul record low C = 5.4
| Aug record low C = 5.5
| Sep record low C = 1.2
| Oct record low C = -4.4
| Nov record low C = -7.1
| Dec record low C = -10.6
|year record low C = -16.4
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 70.0
| Feb precipitation mm = 59.4
| Mar precipitation mm = 52.8
| Apr precipitation mm = 41.6
| May precipitation mm = 52.7
| Jun precipitation mm = 62.8
| Jul precipitation mm = 72.7
| Aug precipitation mm = 84.0
| Sep precipitation mm = 89.2
| Oct precipitation mm = 89.9
| Nov precipitation mm = 90.4
| Dec precipitation mm = 76.4
|year precipitation mm = 841.9
|unit precipitation days = 1 mm
| Jan precipitation days = 12
| Feb precipitation days = 10
| Mar precipitation days = 11
| Apr precipitation days = 9
| May precipitation days = 9
| Jun precipitation days = 9
| Jul precipitation days = 10
| Aug precipitation days = 10
| Sep precipitation days = 12
| Oct precipitation days = 13
| Nov precipitation days = 14
| Dec precipitation days = 13
|year precipitation days = 132
| Jan snow days = 5
| Feb snow days = 5
| Mar snow days = 3
| Apr snow days = 1
| May snow days = 0
| Jun snow days = 0
| Jul snow days = 0
| Aug snow days = 0
| Sep snow days = 0
| Oct snow days = 0
| Nov snow days = 2
| Dec snow days = 4
|year snow days = 20
|Jan humidity = 86
|Feb humidity = 84
|Mar humidity = 83
|Apr humidity = 79
|May humidity = 78
|Jun humidity = 79
|Jul humidity = 80
|Aug humidity = 80
|Sep humidity = 83
|Oct humidity = 84
|Nov humidity = 87
|Dec humidity = 87
| Jan sun = 71.7
| Feb sun = 96.7
| Mar sun = 152.0
| Apr sun = 207.2
| May sun = 240.5
| Jun sun = 229.3
| Jul sun = 237.5
| Aug sun = 213.4
| Sep sun = 160.0
| Oct sun = 116.7
| Nov sun = 68.2
| Dec sun = 56.5
|year sun = 1849.7
|source 1 = [[Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute]] (1981–2010 normal, snowy days normal for 1971–2000)<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.klimaatatlas.nl/tabel/stationsdata/klimtab_8110_210.pdf
|title = Klimaattabel Valkenburg, langjarige gemiddelden, tijdvak 1981–2010
|publisher = [[Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute]]
|language = nl
|access-date = 10 September 2013
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171010161642/http://www.klimaatatlas.nl/tabel/stationsdata/klimtab_8110_210.pdf
|archive-date = 10 October 2017
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
|source 2 = Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (1971–2000 extremes)<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.knmi.nl/klimatologie/normalen1971-2000/per_station/stn210/5-extremen/210_extremen.pdf
|title = Klimaattabel Valkenburg, langjarige extremen, tijdvak 1971–2000
|publisher = Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
|language = nl
|access-date = 10 September 2013
}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|date=October 2013}}

=== Cityscape ===
{{see also|List of tallest buildings in Haaglanden}}
{{Panorama
| image = File:The Hague Skyline Part I.jpg
| caption =
| height = 250
}}

City life concentrates around the [[Hofvijver]] and the [[Binnenhof]], where the States General of the Netherlands is located. Because of its history, the historical inner city of The Hague differs in various aspects from the nearby smaller cities of [[Leiden]] and [[Delft]]. It does not have a cramped inner city, bordered by canals and walls. Instead, it has some small streets in the town centre that may be dated from the late [[Middle Ages]] and several spacious streets boasting large and luxurious 18th-century residences built for diplomats and affluent Dutch families. It has a large church dating from the 15th century, a [[Old City Hall (The Hague)|City Hall]] (built as such) from the 16th century, several large 17th-century palaces, a 17th-century [[Protestant]] church built in what was then a modern style, and many important 18th-century buildings.

[[File:Den Haag Binnenhof 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Hofvijver]] and the buildings housing the [[States General of the Netherlands]]]]
[[File:Den Haag, skyline vanaf Laan van Reagan en Gorbatsjov IMG 8945 2019-03-24 17.46.jpg|thumb|View of the [[Hoftoren]] (left) and the [[Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport]] (the triangular [[gable]] right)]]
The city is becoming more student-friendly with the introduction of a new campus in 2012 of [[Leiden University]] as well as [[Leiden University College The Hague]], which was established in 2010. The [[Royal Conservatory of The Hague]] and the [[Royal Academy of Art (The Hague)|Royal Academy of Art]] are also located there, as well as [[The Hague University]], a [[vocational university]], and a branch of The [[Open University of the Netherlands]]. The city has many [[civil servant]]s and [[diplomat]]s.<ref name="denh_Dipl">{{Cite web |title=Diplomatic Corps and embassies |last=Haag |first=Den |work=Gemeente Den Haag |access-date=27 February 2019 |url=https://www.denhaag.nl/en/in-the-city/international-the-hague/diplomatic-corps-and-embassies.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228065846/https://www.denhaag.nl/en/in-the-city/international-the-hague/diplomatic-corps-and-embassies.htm |archive-date=28 February 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In fact, the number and variety of foreign residents (especially the [[expatriate]]s) make the city quite culturally diverse, with many foreign [[pub]]s, shops and cultural events.

The Hague is the largest Dutch city on the [[North Sea]] and includes two distinct [[beach resort]]s. The main beach resort [[Scheveningen]], in the northwestern part of the city, is a popular destination for tourists as well as for inhabitants. With 10 million visitors a year, it is the most popular beach town in the [[Benelux]] area. [[Kijkduin]], in the southwest, is The Hague's other beach resort. It is significantly smaller and attracts mainly local residents.

The former Dutch colony of the [[Dutch East Indies|East Indies]], now [[Indonesia]], has left its mark on The Hague. Since the 19th century, high-level civil servants from the Dutch East Indies often spent long-term leave and vacations in The Hague. Many streets are named after places in the Netherlands East Indies (as well as other former Dutch colonies such as Suriname), and there is a sizable "[[Indo people|Indo]]" (i.e., mixed Dutch-Indonesian) community. Since the loss of these Dutch possessions in December 1949, "[[Indo people]]" also known as "Indische people" often refer to The Hague as "the Widow of the Indies".<ref>Dutch: 'de Weduwe van Indie'. As per song text by the famous singer [[Wieteke van Dort]], see text of the song "Arm Den Haag" ("Pity The Hague"): [http://www.muzikum.eu/nl/123-1151-22012/wieteke_van_dort/arm_den_haag-songtekst.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720165653/http://www.muzikum.eu/nl/123-1151-22012/wieteke_van_dort/arm_den_haag-songtekst.html|date=20 July 2011}}</ref>

The older parts of the town have many characteristically wide and long streets. Houses are generally low-rise (often not more than three floors). A large part of the southwestern city was planned by the progressive Dutch architect [[Hendrik Petrus Berlage|H.P. Berlage]] about 1910. This 'Plan Berlage' decided the spacious and homely streets for several decades. In World War II, a large portion of the western portion of The Hague was destroyed by the Germans. Afterward, modernist architect [[Willem Marinus Dudok|W.M. Dudok]] planned its renewal, putting apartment blocks for the middle class in open park-like settings.

The layout of the city is more spacious than other Dutch cities, and because of the incorporation of large and old nobility estates, the creation of various parks, and the use of green zones around natural streams, it is a much greener city than any other in the Netherlands. That is, excepting some medieval close-knitted streets in the centre. The Hague has a canal system around the old city center, which is mainly used for boat tours around the city. Most of the canals were drained in the late 19th century, and some were filled between 1910 and 1970,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mvrdv.com/projects/407/the-hague-canals|title= The Hague Canals|website=MVRDV }}</ref> but many have been restored recently.{{when|date=July 2023}}

The tallest buildings of The Hague are both 146-meter-tall ministries of [[Ministry of Justice and Security|Justice and Security]] and the [[Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations|Interior and Kingdom Relations]] of the Netherlands, designed by [[Hans Kollhoff]]. Other significant skyscrapers include the [[Hoftoren]], [[Het Strijkijzer]] and [[De Kroon (The Hague)|De Kroon]].

==Demographics==
[[File:The Hague population pyramid.svg|thumb|The Hague population pyramid in 2022]]
{{Historical populations
| percentages = pagr
| cols = 3
| source = {{Harvnb|Lourens|Lucassen|1997|pp=108–110}} (1369–1795) [http://www.denhaag.buurtmonitor.nl/ buurtmonitor.nl] (1795–present) [[Statistics Netherlands]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Population dynamics; birth, death and migration per region
|url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/en/dataset/37259eng/table?ts=1742391441388|publisher=[[Statistics Netherlands]]}}</ref>
| 1369|1494
| 1398|1300
| 1477|6066
| 1514|5500
| 1550|6000
| 1622|15825
| 1632|16600
| 1665|20000
| 1732|33500
| 1795|38433
| 1850|72000
| 1874|90000
| 1895|180000
| 1900|206022
| 1910|271280
| 1920|359610
| 1930|432680
| 1940|504262
| 1950|558849
| 1960|606110
| 1970|550613
| 1980|456886| 1990|441506| 2000|441094
| 2010|488553| 2020|545838|2023|562839}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+City of Den Haag population by country of origin (2018)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37713&D1=0-8&D2=0&D3=1-2,6-55&D4=603&D5=l&HDR=T,G4&STB=G1,G3,G2&VW=T|title= Bevolking; leeftijd, herkomstgroepering, geslacht en regio, 1 januari |website=CBS StatLine |access-date=4 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630224048/http://statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37713&D1=0-8&D2=0&D3=1-2,6-55&D4=603&D5=l&HDR=T,G4&STB=G1,G3,G2&VW=T|archive-date=30 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" | Country/Territory
! scope="col" | Population
|-
! scope="row" |{{Flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands]]
| 246,633 (43%)
|-
! scope="row" |{{Flagicon|Suriname}} [[Suriname]]
| 46,346 (8.70%)
|-
! scope="row" |{{Flagicon|Turkey}} [[Turkey]]
| 40,064 (7.52%)
|-
! scope="row" |{{Flagicon|Morocco}} [[Morocco]]
| 31,455 (5.91%)
|-
! scope="row" |{{Flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Indonesia]]
| 17,635 (3.31%)
|-
! scope="row" |{{Flagicon|Poland}} [[Poland]]
| 14,094 (2.65%)
|-
! scope="row" |{{Flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Dutch Caribbean]]
| 13,218 (2.48%)
|-
! scope="row" |Other
| 123,116 (26%)
|}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religions in The Hague (2015)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/_excel/2016/51/kerkelijke-gezindte-en-kerkbezoek-naar-gemeenten.xlsx|format=XLSX|publisher=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek|title=Kerkelijke gezindte en kerkbezoek naar gemeenten 2010/2015|access-date=2020-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621204358/https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/_excel/2016/51/kerkelijke-gezindte-en-kerkbezoek-naar-gemeenten.xlsx|archive-date=21 June 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Irreligion]]
|value1 = 49.6
|color1 = White
|label2 = [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
|value2 = 14.9
|color2 = Purple
|label3 = [[Protestant Church in the Netherlands]]
|value3 = 9.4
|color3 = DarkBlue
|label4 = Other Christian denominations
|value4 = 5.7
|color4 = Blue
|label5 = [[Islam in the Netherlands|Islam]]
|value5 = 14.7
|color5 = DarkGreen
|label6 = [[Hinduism]]
|value6 = 4.8
|color6 = DarkOrange
|label7 = [[Buddhism]]
|value7 = 0.8
|color7 = Gold
|label8 = [[Judaism]]
|value8 = 0.2
|color8 = Red
}}

As of 1 January 2021, The Hague counts 549,163 inhabitants, making it the third-largest city in the Netherlands. Between 1800 and 1960, the city saw considerable growth from 40,000 in 1800 to 200,000 in 1900 and eventually 600,000 in 1960. The growth following 1900 was partially caused by the Housing Act of 1901, which stimulated the expansion of cities such as The Hague. In the period between 1960 and 1980, The Hague saw a shrinkage from 600,000 to 440,000 inhabitants, caused mostly by spatial policy, demographic processes, and lack of space. After several annexations and housing constructions, The Hague has since grown again, celebrating its 500,000th inhabitant in 2011. The municipality expects the growth to continue to just over 600,000 inhabitants by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://denhaag.incijfers.nl/Jive?workspace_guid=c2afd650-eebf-4a7c-a24d-692a114c1edb |title=Aantal personen prognose WBP - Gemeenten |website=Den Haag in Cijfers |access-date=7 February 2022 |language=nl}}</ref>

The demonym of The Hague officially is ''Hagenaar'', but the term ''Hagenees'' is informally used for someone who was born and raised in The Hague.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Stam |first1=Niek |title=Kaakstand maakt verschil tussen Hagenaar en Hagenees |url=https://www.rd.nl/vandaag/binnenland/kaakstand-maakt-verschil-tussen-hagenaar-en-hagenees-1.358927 |access-date=15 July 2018 |work=Reformatorisch Dagblad |date=17 December 2013 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716025320/https://www.rd.nl/vandaag/binnenland/kaakstand-maakt-verschil-tussen-hagenaar-en-hagenees-1.358927 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The usage of these demonyms appears to be class-bound, with Hagenaar being the upper-class term and Hagenees being that of the lower-class.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jaspers |first1=Klaartje |title=Den Haag: uitvergrote versie van Keeping Up Appearances? |url=https://www.haacs.nl/identiteit-den-haag-keeping-up-appearances/ |access-date=15 July 2018 |work=HAACS |date=30 March 2016 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716030542/https://www.haacs.nl/identiteit-den-haag-keeping-up-appearances/ |archive-date=16 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Origin make-up===
43% of the population of The Hague has two parents that were born in the Netherlands, while 15.6% have at least one parent who was born abroad in a Western country, and 34.4% have at least one parent that was born in a non-Western country.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} [http://www.denhaag.buurtmonitor.nl/ Den Haag in Cijfers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504115138/http://www.denhaag.buurtmonitor.nl/ |date=4 May 2013 }}.</ref>

=== Inhabitants by birthplace ===
{| class="wikitable"
!2020<ref>{{Cite web |title=CBS Statline |url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37713/table |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=opendata.cbs.nl |language=nl}}</ref>
!Numbers
!%
|-
!Both parents born in NL
|242,441
|44.42%
|-
!Western migration background
|105,315
|19.29%
|-
!Non-Western migration background
|198,082
|36.29%
|-
|''[[Suriname]]''
|45,783
|8.39%
|-
|''[[Turkey]]''
|41,122
|7.53%
|-
|''[[Morocco]]''
|32,355
|5.93%
|-
|''[[Indonesia]]''
|17,187
|3.15%
|-
|''[[Netherlands Antilles]] and [[Aruba]]''
|14,037
|2.57%
|-
|Total
|545,838
|100%
|}

===Religion===
Just under half of The Hague's population identifies with a religious group. The two most popular religions are [[Christianity]] (29%) and Islam (14.1%). Religiosity is higher among people with a recent [[migration background]] from Indonesia, Turkey, Morocco, and Suriname. Islam is the most common religion among people with a Turkish or Moroccan migration background. Among people of Surinamese heritage, there is more religious diversity, with Hinduism being the most common. Of The Hague's native Dutch population, most religious people adhere to Christianity. Just under 40% of the population of The Hague regularly attends a house of worship.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.denhaag.nl/home/bewoners/to/Burgerschapsmonitor-2009.htm |title = Burgerschapsmonitor (2009) |date = 28 September 2009 |website = DenHaag.nl |access-date = 25 November 2013 |language = nl |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222237/http://www.denhaag.nl/home/bewoners/to/Burgerschapsmonitor-2009.htm |archive-date = 2 December 2013 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

== Politics ==
=== Municipal government ===
[[File:GraphyArchy - Wikipedia 00807.jpg|thumb|[[The Hague City Hall]]]]
{{See also|List of mayors of The Hague}}
Following the [[2022 Dutch municipal elections#The Hague|2022 municipal election]], the [[Municipal council (Netherlands)|municipal council]] of The Hague currently contains fourteen groups, most notably [[Richard de Mos|Heart for The Hague]] (HvDH; 11 seats), [[Democrats 66]] (D66; 8 seats), the [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]] (VVD; 6 seats) and [[GroenLinks]] (5 seats).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://verkiezingsuitslagen.nl/verkiezingen/detail/GR20220316/705145 |title=Gemeenteraad 16 maart 2022 |website=Verkiezingsuitslagen |access-date=25 March 2022 |language=nl |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326223212/https://www.verkiezingsuitslagen.nl/verkiezingen/detail/GR20220316/705145 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{election table}}
! colspan=2|Group
! Seats
|-
|bgcolor="#008f51"|
|align=left|[[Richard de Mos#Local politics in The Hague|Heart for The Hague]]||{{Composition bar compact|12|45|#008f51}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Democrats 66}}
|align=left|[[Democrats 66]]||{{Composition bar compact|8|45|{{party color|Democrats 66}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (2020)}}
|align=left|[[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]]||{{Composition bar compact|6|45|{{party color|People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (2020)}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|GroenLinks}}
|align=left|[[GroenLinks]]||{{Composition bar compact|5|45|{{party color|GroenLinks}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Party for the Animals}}
|align=left|[[Party for the Animals]]||{{Composition bar compact|3|45|{{party color|Party for the Animals}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Labour Party (Netherlands)}}
|align=left|[[Labour Party (Netherlands)|Labour Party]]||{{Composition bar compact|2|45|{{party color|Dutch Labour Party}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Christian Democratic Appeal (2021)}}
|align=left|[[Christian Democratic Appeal]]||{{Composition bar compact|2|45|{{party color|Christian Democratic Appeal (2021)}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|DENK (political party)}}
|align=left|[[DENK (political party)|DENK]]||{{Composition bar compact|2|45|{{party color|DENK (political party)}}}}
|-
|bgcolor="#fcda00"|
|align=left|The Hague City Party||{{Composition bar compact|1|45|#fcda00}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Socialist Party (Netherlands)}}
|align=left|[[Socialist Party (Netherlands)|Socialist Party]]||{{Composition bar compact|1|45|{{party color|Socialist Party (Netherlands)}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Party for Freedom}}
|align=left|[[Party for Freedom]]||{{Composition bar compact|1|45|{{party color|Party for Freedom}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Christian Union (Netherlands)}}
|align=left|[[Christian Union – Reformed Political Party]]||{{Composition bar compact|1|45|{{party color|Christian Union (Netherlands)}}}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Forum for Democracy}}
|align=left|[[Forum for Democracy]]||{{Composition bar compact|1|45|{{party color|Forum for Democracy}}}}
|-
|align=left colspan=3|Source: Municipal Council<ref>[https://www.denhaag.nl/nl/gemeenteraad/politieke-partijen-in-de-gemeenteraad/ Politieke partijen in de gemeenteraad] (in Dutch).</ref>
|}

Since 2023, the [[municipal executive]] has comprised D66, GroenLinks, PvdD, PvdA, CDA, and DENK. The chairman of the college is Mayor [[Jan van Zanen]] (VVD), and the city has seven aldermen: [[Robert van Asten]], Saskia Bruines (both D66), Mariëlle Vavier, Arjen Kapteijns (both GroenLinks), Robert Barker (PvdD), Hilbert Bredemeijer (CDA), and Nur Ican (DENK). Each alderman is responsible for many particular policy areas and one of the city's eight districts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.denhaag.nl/nl/in-de-stad/nieuws/pers/nieuwe-haagse-coalitie-presenteert-haar-coalitieakkoord.htm |title=Nieuwe Haagse coalitie presenteert haar coalitieakkoord |website=Den Haag |date=29 May 2018 |access-date=7 June 2018 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143920/https://www.denhaag.nl/nl/in-de-stad/nieuws/pers/nieuwe-haagse-coalitie-presenteert-haar-coalitieakkoord.htm |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 1 October 2019, the National Department of Criminal Investigation (''Rijksrecherche'') performed a [[police raid|raid]] on the homes and offices of then-aldermen [[Richard de Mos]] and Rachid Guernaoui, as part of an investigation of alleged administrative corruption, bribery, and violation of confidentiality. The offices of several municipal civil servants and the homes of three entrepreneurs were also searched for the investigation. The aldermen were suspected of receiving bribes in exchange for granting permits.<ref>{{cite news |title=Invallen bij wethouders Den Haag wegens verdenking omkoping en corruptie |url=https://nos.nl/artikel/2304154-invallen-bij-wethouders-den-haag-wegens-verdenking-omkoping-en-corruptie.html |access-date=1 October 2019 |agency=Nederlandse Omroep Stichting |date=1 October 2019 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001092500/https://nos.nl/artikel/2304154-invallen-bij-wethouders-den-haag-wegens-verdenking-omkoping-en-corruptie.html |archive-date=1 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2023, De Mos and Guernaoui were acquitted of all charges.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vrijspraak voor Richard de Mos in corruptiezaak |url=https://www.rechtspraak.nl/Organisatie-en-contact/Organisatie/Rechtbanken/Rechtbank-Rotterdam/Nieuws/Paginas/Vrijspraak-voor-Richard-de-Mos-in-corruptiezaak.aspx |website=Rechtspraak.nl |access-date=23 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{ECLI|ECLI:NL:RBROT:2023:3199}}</ref><ref>{{ECLI|ECLI:NL:RBROT:2023:3267}}</ref>

=== International politics ===
[[File:International Court of Justice HQ 2006.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[Peace Palace]] houses the [[International Court of Justice]] and [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] amongst other institutions.]]
[[File:International Criminal Court Headquarters, Netherlands.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[International Criminal Court]]]]
[[File:Europa Congres Ridderzaal Den Haag. Overzicht, Bestanddeelnr 902-7379.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Meeting in the [[Ridderzaal|Hall of Knights]] during the [[Congress of Europe]] (9 May 1948)]]
The Hague is home to many different international judicial bodies, such as the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC), and the [[International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals]] (IRMCT). It houses [[Hague Penitentiary Institution|Scheveningen Prison]], the ICC's detention center for those suspected of war crimes and other violations of international law.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-05-16 |title=Profile: Scheveningen prison |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18084974 |access-date=2022-04-23}}</ref> The Hague is the fourth major centre for the [[United Nations]], after New York, Geneva and Vienna.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.trouw.nl/tr/nl/4324/Nieuws/article/detail/1132183/2009/03/11/Beveiliging-is-routine-voor-Haagse-autoriteiten.dhtml|title=Beveiliging is routine voor Haagse autoriteiten|last=Slager|first=Seije|date=11 March 2009|newspaper=Trouw|language=nl|access-date=31 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020075010/http://www.trouw.nl/tr/nl/4324/Nieuws/article/detail/1132183/2009/03/11/Beveiliging-is-routine-voor-Haagse-autoriteiten.dhtml|archive-date=20 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

The foundation of The Hague as an [[Hague Justice Portal|"international city of peace and justice"]] started at the end of the 19th century, when [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|the first global peace conference]] took place in The Hague on [[Tobias Asser]]'s initiative, with a second one a few years later. A direct result of these meetings was the establishment of the world's first organisation for the settlement of international disputes, the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] (PCA). Shortly thereafter, the Scottish-American millionaire [[Andrew Carnegie]] made the necessary funds available to build the [[Peace Palace]] to house the PCA. After the establishment of the [[League of Nations]], The Hague became the seat of the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]], which was replaced (after [[World War II]]) by the UN's [[International Court of Justice]]. The establishments of the [[Iran–United States Claims Tribunal]] (1981), the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] (1993), and the [[International Criminal Court]] (2002) in the city further consolidated its role as a centre for international legal arbitration. Most recently, on 1 March 2009, the [[Special Tribunal for Lebanon]], a UN tribunal to investigate and prosecute suspects in the 2005 assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, opened in the former headquarters of the Dutch [[General Intelligence and Security Service]] in [[Leidschendam]], a town within the greater area of The Hague.

Other major international and European organisations based in The Hague include:

* [[Europol]], European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Cooperation
* [[Eurojust]], European Union Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation
* [[Europeana]], European Union digital platform for cultural heritage.
* [[The Hague Academy of International Law]], centre for high-level education in both public and private international law
* [[Hague Conference on Private International Law]] (HCCH), the oldest and preeminent private international law harmonisation institution
* [[International Commission on Missing Persons]] (ICMP)
* [[European Patent Office]]
* [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]]
* [[NATO Communications and Information Agency]], (NCI Agency)
* [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW)
* [[European Library|The European Library]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/portal/index.html |title=TheEuropeanLibrary.org |publisher=TheEuropeanLibrary.org |access-date=4 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617120215/http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/portal/index.html |archive-date=17 June 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many academic institutions in the fields of international relations, international law, and international development are based in The Hague. The [[Hague Academic Coalition]] (HAC) is a consortium of those institutions.

Its member institutions are:
* [[Carnegie Foundation (Netherlands)|Carnegie Foundation]]
* [[Hague Institute for the Internationalisation of Law]] (HiiL)
* [[International Institute of Social Studies]] (ISS) of [[Erasmus University Rotterdam]]
* [[Leiden University College The Hague]]
* [[Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael|Netherlands Institute of International Relations 'Clingendael']]
* [[The Hague Academy of International Law]]
* [[The Hague University of Applied Sciences]]
* [[T.M.C. Asser Instituut]]

In 1948, the [[Congress of Europe]] was held with 750 delegates from 26 European governments, providing them with the opportunity to discuss ideas about the development of [[European integration]], which eventually culminated in the creation of the modern-day [[European Union]].

== Economy ==
[[File:RandstadRail Den Haag netkous.jpg|thumb|The Hague's central financial district, [[Beatrixkwartier]], with the modern tram viaduct called the ''{{lang|nl|Netkous}}'' ("[[Fishnet stocking]]")]]

The Hague has a [[Service economy|service-oriented]] economy. A professional life in the city is dominated by a large number of civil servants and diplomats working in the city; {{As of|2006|lc=y}}, 26% of the jobs in The Hague are those offered by the Dutch government or the international institutions. Large employers in this sector include the ministries of [[Ministry of Defence (Netherlands)|Defence]], [[Ministry of Justice and Security|Justice]], [[Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (Netherlands)|Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment]], [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Netherlands)|Foreign Affairs]], the [[Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations]] and [[Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (Netherlands)|Transport, Public Works and Water Management]].

Several large international businesses have their headquarters in The Hague. Significant companies headquartered in The Hague include [[Aegon N.V.|Aegon]], [[APM Terminals]], [[Damco]], [[NIBC Bank]], [[Chicago Bridge & Iron Company]] and [[PostNL]]. The city is also host to the regional headquarters of [[Siemens]], [[T-Mobile International AG|T-Mobile]], [[AT&T]], [[Huawei]], [[Kuwait Petroleum Corporation]], [[McDermott International]], [[Saudi Aramco]], [[TotalEnergies]] and [[Worley (company)|Worley]]. There has never been any large-scale industrial activity in The Hague, with the possible exception of the fishing activities of the harbour in [[Scheveningen]]. Many of the city's logistical and minor-industrial services are in the Binckhorst in the Laak district, which contains many sizeable warehouses.

The city is the second biggest [[Netherlands|Dutch]] tourist destination after [[Amsterdam]]. In 2012, The Hague welcomed 1.2 million tourists, half of whom came from abroad. Tourists spend an average of €2 billion a year in the local economy. 1 in 10 residents makes their living in the tourism sector.<ref>[http://denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/More-tourists-visiting-The-Hague.htm More tourists visiting The Hague] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191319/http://denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/More-tourists-visiting-The-Hague.htm |date=29 October 2013 }}. Denhaag.nl. 7 May 2013 (last update 18 July 2013). Retrieved 25 October 2013.</ref><ref>[http://denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Tourism-sector-growing-in-The-Hague.htm Tourism sector growing in The Hague] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194248/http://denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Tourism-sector-growing-in-The-Hague.htm |date=29 October 2013 }}. Denhaag.nl. 24 October 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2013.</ref>

== Culture ==
{{more citations needed section|date=May 2022}}
The Hague originated around the 13th century [[Binnenhof]], and this is still considered the cultural centre of the city. Nightlife centres around the three main squares in the city centre. The ''[[Plein, The Hague|Plein]]'' (meaning "Plaza" or "Town square") is taken by several large sidewalk cafés, where often politicians may be spotted. The ''Grote Markt'' (literally "Big Market") is completely strewn with chairs and tables, summer or winter. The [[Buitenhof (The Hague)|Buitenhof]] (literally "Outer Courtyard", located just outside the [[Binnenhof]]) contains a six-screen [[Pathé]] cinema and a handful of bars and restaurants in the immediate vicinity. Adjacent to the Buitenhof is [[De Passage]], the country's first covered shopping mall. Dating from the late 19th century,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://denhaag.com/en/passage|title=Passage | DenHaag.com|website=denhaag.com}}</ref> it contains many expensive and speciality shops. One of the country's largest music venues, [[Paard van Troje]], can be found in the centre of The Hague. Another popular music venue in The Hague is Muziekcafé de Paap.

[[File:Koninklijke Schouwburg Den Haag.jpg|thumb|The [[Koninklijke Schouwburg]], home to [[Het Nationale Theater]]]]
The Spuiplein is a modern fourth square in the city centre, opposite the [[Nieuwe Kerk (The Hague)|Nieuwe Kerk]]. Besides the [[The Hague City Hall|City Hall]], this was also the location of the [[Anton Philipszaal]], home to the [[Residentie Orchestra]], and the [[Lucent Danstheater]], home to the internationally celebrated modern dance company [[Nederlands Dans Theater]]. These buildings, designed by [[Rem Koolhaas]] in 1988, have been demolished to make space for a new theatre, [[Amare (theatre)|Amare]], which would house both institutes as well as the [[Royal Conservatory of The Hague|Royal Conservatory]]. Despite the efforts of the municipality, public support for the proposed theatre remains low. At the heart of the city centre, across the palace gardens, is the home of [[Summerschool Den Haag]], an international school for dance with guest teachers such as [[Valentina Scaglia]], [[Igone de Jongh]], and [[Maia Makhateli]]. The [[Koninklijke Schouwburg]], home to [[Het Nationale Theater]], can also be found in the city centre – on the Korte Voorhout. [[New European Ensemble]] is a collective for [[contemporary music]] consisting on international musicians. The ensemble has its main base in the city.

[[Scheveningen]] forms a second cultural centre of The Hague, having its own [[Pathé]] cinema as well as the musical theatre [[Circustheater]], although, especially in the summer, most nightlife concentrates around the sea-front boulevard with its bars, restaurants, and gambling halls. Several other attractions can be found in Scheveningen, such as the miniature park [[Madurodam]], the [[Beelden aan Zee]] museum, and a [[Sea Life Centres|Sea Life Centre]].

The Hague is the residence of the Dutch monarch, and several (former) royal palaces can be found in the city. King [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands]] and Queen [[Máxima of the Netherlands]] live in [[Huis ten Bosch]] in the [[Haagse Bos]] and work in the [[Noordeinde Palace]] in the city centre. Moreover, there are two former royal palaces in The Hague. The [[Kneuterdijk Palace]], built in 1716, is now home to the [[Council of State of the Netherlands]], and the Lange Voorhout Palace is now occupied by the [[Escher Museum]], dedicated to Dutch graphical artist [[M. C. Escher]].

[[File:2010-05-22-den-haag-by-RalfR-48.jpg|thumb|[[Mauritshuis]]|251x251px]]
The Hague has numerous museums, most notably the [[Mauritshuis]], located next to the Binnenhof, which exhibits many [[painting]]s by old masters up to 1800, such as [[Johannes Vermeer]], [[Rembrandt van Rijn]] and [[Paulus Potter]]. The art museum [[Gemeentemuseum Den Haag|Kunstmuseum]], housed in a striking building by architect [[H. P. Berlage|HP Berlage]], exhibits art from after 1800, including the world's large collection of paintings by [[Piet Mondrian]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mondrian {{!}} Kunstmuseum Den Haag |url=https://www.kunstmuseum.nl/en/collections/mondrian |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=www.kunstmuseum.nl |language=en}}</ref> Other museums include the science museum [[Museon]], the historic museum [[Haags Historisch Museum]], the national postal museum [[Museum voor Communicatie]], the [[Museum Bredius]], the [[Louis Couperus Museum]], the museum [[Beelden aan Zee]] in [[Scheveningen]], [[Panorama Mesdag]], and the [[Gevangenpoort]], a former prison housed in a 15th-century gatehouse.

Since early times, possibly as far back as the 16th century, the [[stork]] has been the symbol of The Hague.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.denhaag.nl/home/bewoners/to/Haagse-weetjes.htm |title=Den Haag – Haagse weetjes |publisher=Denhaag.nl |date=12 July 2010 |access-date=16 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602153030/http://www.denhaag.nl/home/bewoners/to/Haagse-weetjes.htm |archive-date=2 June 2016 }}</ref> Several films have been (partially) shot in The Hague, including ''[[Mindhunters]]'' (2004), ''[[Hum Tum (film)|Hum Tum]]'' (2004), ''[[Ocean's Twelve]]'' (2004), ''[[Zwartboek|Black Book]]'' (2006) and ''[[Sonny Boy (2011 film)|Sonny Boy]]'' (2011). Parts of the second season of the Netflix series ''[[Sense8]]'' were filmed in The Hague.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://denhaagfm.nl/2016/07/10/opnamen-netflix-serie-sense8-dit-weekend-in-den-haag/ |title=Opnamen Netflix-serie 'Sense8' dit weekend in Den Haag |publisher=DenhaagFM.nl |date=10 July 2016 |access-date=20 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160710123710/http://denhaagfm.nl/2016/07/10/opnamen-netflix-serie-sense8-dit-weekend-in-den-haag/ |archive-date=10 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Notable actors and filmmakers from The Hague include [[Martin Koolhoven]], [[Georgina Verbaan]], [[Carel Struycken]], [[Frederique van der Wal]], [[Marwan Kenzari]], [[Anna Drijver]], [[Renée Soutendijk]] and [[Paul Verhoeven]], who grew up in the city from an early age.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="180">
File:Bevel Koninklijke Marechaussee in handen van Leijtens-9.jpg|The [[Ridderzaal]] inside the [[Binnenhof]], the political centre of the Netherlands
File:Plein 1813.JPG|Monument commemorating the founding of the Kingdom of the Netherlands at Plein 1813
File:Noordeinde Palace.jpg|[[Noordeinde Palace]]
File:Den Haag, Grote Kerk foto2 2010-03-07 15.31.JPG|[[Grote or Sint-Jacobskerk (The Hague)|Grote or Sint-Jacobskerk]]
File:Overzicht voorgevel met gedeelte zijvleugels, vanaf de oprijlaan - 's-Gravenhage - 20358480 - RCE.jpg|[[Huis ten Bosch]] is the residence of the king.
File:Den Haag Louwman Museum 005.jpg|[[Louwman Museum]] is a museum for historic cars, coaches, and motorcycles.
File:Kloosterkerk (The Hague) (5).jpg| the [[Lange Voorhout]] is a street in the old city centre
File:De zandstenen voorgevel heeft een middenrisaliet met fronton - 's-Gravenhage - 20396168 - RCE.jpg| [[Escher in the Palace]]
File:Gemeente museum.jpg|View of the [[Kunstmuseum Den Haag]], Designed by [[H. P. Berlage]], and opened in 1935
</gallery>

=== Sports ===
[[File:20180916-Ado - Ajax vrouwen.jpg|thumb|[[ADO Den Haag Stadium]]]]
The city's major [[association football|football]] club is [[ADO Den Haag]], which competes in the [[Eerste Divisie]], the second-highest tier of football in the Netherlands. ADO Den Haag has won the [[KNVB Cup]] twice and won the League twice in the era before professional football. They play their matches at the 15,000-seat [[ADO Den Haag Stadium]]. Amateur team [[HVV Den Haag|HVV]] is also based in the city. Before the professional era, the club won 10 national titles and one KNVB Cup, and they remain fourth in the all-time [[List of Dutch football champions|list of national title winners]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesn/nedchamp.html|title=Netherlands – Champions|website=[[RSSSF]]|access-date=2017-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608070758/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesn/nedchamp.html|archive-date=8 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> [[HBS Craeyenhout (football club)|HBS Craeyenhout]] is another amateur club in the city, which won three national titles before the establishment of the Eredivisie.<ref name=":0" /> On 13 May 2021, football club ADO Den Haag was relegated from the Eredivisie as they lost their final game of the season against [[Willem II (football club)|Willem II]]. In effect, ADO Den Haag no longer holds a position in the top division of professional Dutch football.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2021/05/ado-and-vvv-relegated-from-eredivisie-as-willem-ii-and-emmen-win/|title = ADO and VVV relegated from Eredivisie as Willem II and Emmen win|date = 13 May 2021}}</ref>

Since 2020, the basketball club [[The Hague Royals]] has played in the professional [[Dutch Basketball League]] (DBL). Home games are played at the Sportcampus Zuiderpark.

The local [[rugby union]] team is Haagsche Rugby Club (a.k.a. HRC). The ice hockey team is [[HYS The Hague]] and the local [[American football]] team is Den Haag Raiders '99.

[[Darts]] is another sport played in The Hague; its popularity was increased by [[Raymond van Barneveld]] winning several World Championships.

The half-marathon race [[CPC Loop Den Haag]] is held annually in The Hague. In 1994, The Hague held the [[International Federation for Equestrian Sports|FEI]] World Equestrian Games.

=== Annual events ===
[[Koningsdag]], or ''King's Day'', is held annually on 27 April. It is traditionally celebrated with fairs and flea markets throughout the city. On this day, the colour orange predominates at a [[funfair]] (which sells orange [[cotton candy]]) and scores of informal street markets. The day is a ''vrijmarkt'' (literally "free market"), which means no licence is needed for street vending; children traditionally use this day to sell old, unwanted toys. Since King's Day is a national holiday and thus a day off, many people also go out and party on the evening before King's Day. This evening is called King's Night, or ''Koningnacht'' in The Hague. The "t" is left out because ''nacht'' is pronounced as ''nach'' in The Hague. Outdoor concerts throughout the city centre of The Hague draw tens of thousands of visitors every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Kings-Day-Koningsdag.htm |title=King's Day (Koningsdag) |date=11 November 2013 |website=Denhaag.nl |access-date=19 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419221344/http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Kings-Day-Koningsdag.htm |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/The-Hague-turns-Orange-on-Kings-Day.htm |title=The Hague turns Orange on King's Day!) |date=26 March 2014 |website=Denhaag.nl |access-date=19 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419224259/http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/The-Hague-turns-Orange-on-Kings-Day.htm |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Every third Tuesday in September is {{Lang|nl|[[Prinsjesdag]]|italic=no}}, or ''Prince's Day'', the opening of the Dutch parliament. On a festive day, children in The Hague are free from school so they may watch the procession of the [[Golden Coach (Netherlands)|Golden Coach]]. The King is driven in the coach from [[Noordeinde Palace]] to the [[Ridderzaal]] in the [[Binnenhof]]. Here, the King reads the [[Speech from the Throne]], written jointly by the Ministers and Secretaries of State. This ''troonrede'' outlines the government's plans for the coming year. As the procession returns to the Noordeinde Palace, the road is lined with members of the Dutch Royal Armed Forces, and in the afternoon, the Royal Family appears on the palace balcony to address an adoring and often frenzied public (''balkonscène'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Princes-Day-Prinsjesdag.htm |title=Prince's Day (Prinsjesdag) |date=26 August 2013 |website=Denhaag.nl |access-date=19 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419220113/http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Princes-Day-Prinsjesdag.htm |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Vlaggetjesdag]] ([[:nl:Vlaggetjesdag|nl]]), literally ''Flag Day'', is the annual celebration of the arrival of the year's first herring (Hollandse Nieuwe) in [[Scheveningen]]. Hundreds of thousands of people gather in Scheveningen for the festivities, and the fishing boats are decorated specially for the occasion. In addition to the omnipresent herring, this day also features several activities unrelated to fish. In Scheveningen, the first barrel of herring is traditionally sold at an auction on the Thursday preceding the official Vlaggetjesdag, and the proceeds go to charity. Vlaggetjesdag was made official in 1947, although the festive tradition around the beginning of herring season is much older: in the 18th century, the villages along the coast, including Scheveningen, were forbidden to gut the caught herring. Since herring was most appropriate for smoking around September, most fishing boats caught flatfish or round-bodied fish during part of the summer, to avoid a surplus of fresh herring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Flag-Day-Vlaggetjesdag.htm |title=Vlaggetjesdag (Flag Day) |date=19 July 2013 |website=Denhaag.nl |access-date=19 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419214619/http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Flag-Day-Vlaggetjesdag.htm |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In July or August, The Hague hosts a series of weekly firework displays by the sea front in [[Scheveningen]], as part of an international fireworks festival and competition.

[[Tong Tong Fair]], formerly ''Pasar Malam Besar'', is the largest festival in the world for [[Indo people|Indo]] culture. Established in 1959, it is one of the oldest festivals and the fourth-largest grand fair in the Netherlands. It is also the annual event with the highest number of paying visitors to The Hague, having consistently attracted more than 100,000 visitors since 1993. The Milan Festival is Europe's biggest Hindustani open-air event, annually held in [[Zuiderpark]]. The Hague also hosts several annual music festivals; on the last Sunday in June, the city hosts [[Parkpop]], the largest free open-air pop concert in Europe. [[Crossing Border Festival]], [[State-X]] and [[The Hague Jazz]] festival are among other music festivals in The Hague.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Music-City-The-Hague-5.htm |title=Music City The Hague |date=23 August 2012 |website=Denhaag.nl |access-date=19 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419214407/http://en.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/Music-City-The-Hague-5.htm |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Crossing Border Festival]] is an annual festival in November, focusing on music and literature.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://crossingborder.nl/ |title=Crossing Border Festival |access-date=5 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915044439/http://crossingborder.nl/ |archive-date=15 September 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first edition took place in 1993.

Movies That Matter<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moviesthatmatter.nl/english_index |title=Moviesthatmatter.nl |access-date=8 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415014727/http://www.moviesthatmatter.nl/english_index |archive-date=15 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> is an international film and debate festival about peace and justice that takes place every year at the end of March; nine days filled with screenings of fiction films and documentaries, daily talk-shows, music performances, and [[exhibition]]s. The first such event took place in 2006.

Moreover, the Hague International Model United Nations, annually held in January, is a five-day conference held at the [[World Forum (The Hague)|World Forum]], gathering over 4,000 students from over 200 secondary schools across the globe. It is the oldest and largest high school [[United Nations]] simulation in the world. ''Den Haag Sculptuur'' is an open-air exhibition of sculptures; the tenth such event, in 2007, celebrated the 400 years of the [[Australia–Netherlands relations|relationship between the Netherlands and Australia]]. Since 2009, the city of The Hague has also annually presented an [[LGBT social movements|LGBTQ+ emancipation]] award, called the [[John Blankenstein Award]]. The exact date of the ceremony varies each year.

== Notable people ==
{{main|List of people from The Hague}}

== Transport ==
[[File:Lijn2 Citadis4036 25042012.jpg|thumb|Modern RegioCitadis tram on route 2, [[Loosduinen]], April 2012]]

===Air===
The Hague shares an [[Rotterdam The Hague Airport|airport]] with [[Rotterdam]]. It can be reached from Central Station by [[RandstadRail]] Line E, with an Airport Shuttle to and from [[Meijersplein RandstadRail station|Meijersplein Station]]. However, with several direct trains per hour from the railway stations Hollands Spoor and Centraal, [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol]] is more frequently used by people travelling to and from The Hague by air.

===Rail===
[[File:Den Haag - Station Holland Spoor v1.JPG|thumb|View of Hollands Spoor]]

There are two main [[railway station]]s in The Hague: [[Den Haag HS railway station|Hollands Spoor]] and [[Den Haag Centraal railway station|Centraal Station]], {{convert|1.5|km|0|abbr=on}} apart from each other. Because the two stations were built and run by two different railway companies in the 19th century, services have traditionally been split between the two: east–west lines terminate at Centraal Station, whereas north–south lines run through Hollands Spoor. However, Centraal Station now offers direct services to most major Dutch cities, such as [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], and [[Utrecht]].

Other destinations include [[Leiden]], [[Haarlem]], [[Zwolle]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Amersfoort]], [[Enschede]], [[Breda]], [[Tilburg]] and [[Eindhoven]]. International travellers for [[Antwerp]] and [[Brussels]] have to change trains at Rotterdam.

===Urban transport===
Public transport in The Hague consists of [[Trams in The Hague|a tramway network]] and a sizeable number of bus routes, operated by [[HTM Personenvervoer]].<ref>[http://www.htm.net/smartsite.dws?id=169 Public transport map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520163149/http://www.htm.net/smartsite.dws?id=169 |date=20 May 2009 }} (from [[HTM Personenvervoer|HTM]])</ref> Plans for a subway were shelved in the early 1970s. However, in 2004, a tunnel was built under the city centre with two underground tram stations ([[Spui RandstadRail station|Spui]] and [[Grote Markt RandstadRail station|Grote Markt]]); it is shared by RandstadRail lines 3 and 4 and tram routes 2 and 6.

[[RandstadRail]] connects The Hague to nearby cities, Zoetermeer, Rotterdam, and Leidschendam-Voorburg. It consists of four light rail lines (3, 4, and 19 to Zoetermeer, Rijswijk, Delft, and Leidschendam-Voorburg) and one subway line (E to Rotterdam).

===Road===
Major motorways connecting to The Hague include the [[A12 motorway (Netherlands)|A12]], running to Utrecht and the German border. The A12 runs directly into the heart of the city in a cutting. Built in the 1970s, this section of the motorway (the "Utrechtsebaan") is now heavily overburdened. Plans were made in the late 1990s for a second artery road into the city (the "Rotterdamsebaan", previously called the "Trekvliettracé"), which was completed in 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wegenwiki.nl/Rotterdamsebaan|title=Rotterdamsebaan – Wegenwiki|website=www.wegenwiki.nl|access-date=2 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005015024/http://www.wegenwiki.nl/Rotterdamsebaan|archive-date=5 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Other connecting motorways are the [[A4 motorway (Netherlands)|A4]], which connects the city with [[Amsterdam]], and the [[A13 motorway (Netherlands)|A13]], which runs to [[Rotterdam]] and connects to motorways towards the Belgian border. There is also the [[A44 motorway (Netherlands)|A44]] that connects the city to [[Leiden]], [[Haarlem]] and [[Amsterdam]]. In the 1970s, plans for building another motorway to Leiden existed. This "Leidsebaan" was supposed to start in the city centre and then follow the railway line from The Hague to Amsterdam. Some works had been executed but had been removed by the 1980s.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Netherlands}}
* [[List of people from The Hague]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{Further|Timeline of The Hague#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of The Hague}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1 = Lourens |first1 = Piet |last2 = Lucassen |first2 = Jan |title = Inwonertallen van Nederlandse steden ca. 1300–1800 |year = 1997 |location = Amsterdam |publisher = NEHA |isbn = 9057420082 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=The Hague |commons=Den Haag |b=no |n=Category:The Hague |q=no |s=no |v=no |voy=The Hague |species=no |d=no |display=The Hague}}
*[http://www.thehague.com/ City of The Hague].
* [http://www.panorama-mesdag.com The largest painting in the Netherlands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111203026/http://panorama-mesdag.com/ |date=11 January 2016 }}.



{{Geographic location
|Centre = The Hague
|North = [[Wassenaar]], [[Leidschendam-Voorburg]]
|Northeast = [[Zoetermeer]]
|East = [[Pijnacker-Nootdorp]] [[Rijswijk]]
|Southeast = [[Delft]] [[Midden-Delfland]]
|South = [[Westland (municipality), Netherlands|Westland]]
|Southwest =
|West = ''[[North Sea]]''
|Northwest =
}}
{{South Holland Province}}
{{Dutch capital cities}}
{{World Games Host Cities}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hague, The}}
[[Category:The Hague| ]]
[[Category:1248 establishments in Europe]]
[[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Former national capitals]]
[[Category:Municipalities of South Holland]]
[[Category:Populated places in South Holland]]
[[Category:Populated coastal places in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 13th century]]
[[Category:Provincial capitals of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Port cities and towns of the North Sea]]