African French

2025-11-01T18:28:36Z

2403:8500:1300:6BF:0:0:0:1: /* List of countries in Africa by French proficiency */

{{Short description|Set of varieties of the French Language}}
{{About|the French language spoken in Africa|immigrants to France from Africa and Haiti|Algerians in France|Black people in France|Haitians in France}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2020}}
{{Expand French|Français d'Afrique|category=Articles needing translation from French Wikipedia|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox language
| name = African French
| familycolor = indo-european
| altname =
| nativename = {{lang|fr-002|français africain}}
| pronunciation =
| region = Africa
| speakers = [[first language|L1]]: ''1.2 million'' (2021)<ref name=Ethnologue>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=French|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/fra|access-date=2021-01-15|website=Ethnologue.com}}</ref>
| date =
| speakers2 = L1 and [[Second language|L2]]: ''167 million'' (2024)<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/sites/odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/files/uploads/Pr%C3%A9sentation_FRANCOSCOPE_2023-03-15_Finale.pdf |title=327 millions de francophones dans le monde en 2023 |access-date=2023-04-15 |archive-date=2023-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415152637/https://www.odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/sites/odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/files/uploads/Pr%C3%A9sentation_FRANCOSCOPE_2023-03-15_Finale.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web | url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/en-2023-327-millions-de-personnes-parlent-francais-dans-le-monde-dont-pres-de-la-moitie-en-afrique-11169856 | title=En 2023, 327 millions de personnes parlent français dans le monde, dont près de la moitié en Afrique | access-date=2023-04-15 | archive-date=2023-06-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606153828/https://www.rtbf.be/article/en-2023-327-millions-de-personnes-parlent-francais-dans-le-monde-dont-pres-de-la-moitie-en-afrique-11169856 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.outils-odsef-fss.ulaval.ca/francoscope/ |title=Accueil-Francoscope |access-date=2023-04-15 |archive-date=2023-03-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323230934/https://www.outils-odsef-fss.ulaval.ca/francoscope/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| speakers_label = Speakers
| dateprefix =
| ref =
| refname =
| fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]
| fam4 = [[Latin]]
| fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
| fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]
| fam8 = Gallo-Iberian
| fam9 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]
| fam10 = Gallo-Rhaetian?
| fam11 = [[Franco-Provençal|Arpitan]]–[[Langues d'oïl|Oïl]]
| fam12 = [[Langues d'oïl|Oïl]]
| fam13 = [[French language|French]]
| fam14 =
| fam15 =
| ancestor = [[Old Latin]]
| ancestor2 = [[Vulgar Latin]]
| ancestor3 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]
| ancestor4 = [[Old French]]
| ancestor5 = [[Middle French]]
| dia1 = West African French
| dia2 = [[Maghreb French]]
| dia3 = Djiboutian French
| dia4 = Indian Ocean French
| dia5 = Eastern African French
| dia6 =
| dia7 =
| dia8 =
| dia9 =
| stand1 =
| stand2 =
| script = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[French orthography#Alphabet|French alphabet]]) [[French Braille]]
| nation = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=Countries and territories|
|{{flag|Benin}}
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|{{flag|Central African Republic}}
|{{flag|Chad}}
|{{flag|Comoros}}
|{{flag|Congo}}
|{{flag|Côte d'Ivoire}}
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|{{flag|DR Congo}}
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|{{flag|Guinea}}
|{{flag|Madagascar}}
|{{flag|Mayotte|local}}
|{{flag|Réunion|local}}
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|{{flag|Togo}}
}}
| minority =
| isoexception = dialect
| ietf = fr-002
| imagescale = 1.2
| map = [[File:Francophone Africa 2023.png|200px]]
|mapcaption=Countries of Africa by percentage of French speakers in 2023,<ref name="2023_data_sheet">{{cite web|url=https://www.prb.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/2023-World-Population-Data-Sheet-Booklet.pdf|title=2023 World Population Data Sheet|author=[[Population Reference Bureau]]|access-date=2024-02-05|archive-date=2024-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220122534/https://www.prb.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/2023-World-Population-Data-Sheet-Booklet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://population.un.org/dataportal/data/indicators/49/locations/12,204,854,108,120,140,148,174,178,384,180,262,226,266,324,450,466,478,480,175,504,562,638,686,690,768,788,646/start/2050/end/2050/table/pivotbylocation | title=[default] Population Division Data Portal }}</ref> also including non-official ''de jure'' status:
{{legend|#c6dbef|0–10% Francophone}}
{{legend|#9ecae1|11–20% Francophone}}
{{legend|#6baed6|21–30% Francophone}}
{{legend|#4292c6|31–40% Francophone}}
{{legend|#2171b5|41–50% Francophone}}
{{legend|#084594|>50% Francophone}}
|map2=[[File:NativevsOfficial.png|200px]]
|mapcaption2= Official status and native speakers as of 2025: {{legend|#00AAE2|Countries in which it is an official ''de jure'' language}}
{{legend|#02007F|Areas and regions in which it is spoken as a first language}}
}}

{{French language}}

[[File:WIKITONUGES- Leo speaking Pular and West African French.webm|thumb|A man from [[Labé]], [[Guinea]], speaking [[Pular language|Pular]] and West African French]]

'''African French''' ({{langx|fr|français africain}}) is the umbrella grouping of [[Varieties of French|varieties]] of the [[French language]] spoken throughout [[Francophonie|Francophone]] [[Africa]]. Used mainly as a [[Second language|secondary language]] or ''[[lingua franca]]'', it is spoken by an estimated 167 million people across 34 countries and territories,<ref group="Note">29 full members of the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] (OIF): [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Comoros]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Madagascar]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Mauritius]], [[Morocco]], [[Niger]], [[Rwanda]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Senegal]], [[Seychelles]], [[Togo]], and [[Tunisia]]. One associate member of the OIF: [[Ghana]]. One observer of the OIF: [[Mozambique]]. One country not member or observer of the OIF: [[Algeria]]. Two French territories in Africa: [[Réunion]] and [[Mayotte]].</ref> some of which are not Francophone, but merely members or observers of the ''[[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]''. Of these, 19 sovereign states recognize it as an official ''de jure'' language, though it is not the native tongue of the majority.<ref name="auto1"/> According to [[Ethnologue]], only 1,2 million people spoke it as a first language.<ref name=Ethnologue/>{{better source|date=August 2025}} African French speakers represent 67% of the [[Francophonie]],<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto2"/> making Africa the continent with the most French speakers in the world.

In Africa, French is often spoken as a second language alongside the Indigenous ones, but in a small number of urban areas (in particular in [[Central Africa]] and in the ports located on the [[Gulf of Guinea]]) it has become a first language, such as in the region of [[Abidjan]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]],<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [https://www.amazon.fr/dp/2271059682 ''Le français à Abidjan : Pour une approche syntaxique du non-standard''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120083936/http://www.amazon.fr/dp/2271059682 |date=2016-01-20 }} by Katja Ploog, [[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS Editions]], [[Paris]], 2002</ref> the [[Languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of Congo]],<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=IDRC CRDI |access-date=21 December 2024 |title=Evidence from the Democratic Republic of the Congo |url=https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/2024-05/KIX-Strengthening-Bilingual-Education-DRC-Brief-May-2024.pdf}}</ref> in the urban areas of [[Douala]], [[Yaoundé]] in [[Cameroon]], in [[Libreville]], [[Gabon]], and [[Antananarivo]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Øyvind |first=Dahl |title=Linguistic policy challenges in Madagascar |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/225930576.pdf }}</ref>. 

In some countries, though not having official ''de jure'' status, it is a first language among a small social [[Social class|classes]] of the population, such as in [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Morocco]], and [[Mauritania]], where French is a first language among the [[upper class]]es along with Arabic (many people in the upper classes are [[Simultaneous bilingualism|simultaneous bilinguals]] in Arabic/French), but only a second language among the general population.

In each of the Francophone African countries, French is spoken with local variations in pronunciation and vocabulary.

== List of countries in Africa by French proficiency ==
French proficiency in African countries according to the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] (OIF).<ref>[https://www.odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/sites/odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/files/uploads/FRANCOSCOPE_20250320.pdf]</ref><ref>[https://www.outils-odsef-fss.ulaval.ca/francoscope/]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://observatoire.francophonie.org/qui-parle-francais-dans-le-monde/|title=Qui parle français dans le monde – Organisation internationale de la Francophonie – Langue française et diversité linguistique|access-date=2023-04-12|archive-date=2023-03-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324065348/https://observatoire.francophonie.org/qui-parle-francais-dans-le-monde/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|Countries in ''italics'' indicate non-Francophone countries.}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Countries
! Total population
! French speaking population
! Percentage of the population that speaks French
! Year
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Algeria}}
| 47,435,000
| 15,589,000
| 32.86%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Benin}}
| 14,814,000
| 4,992,000
| 33.7%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Burkina Faso}}
| 24,075,000
| 5,499,000
| 22.84%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Burundi}}
| 14,390,000
| 1,250,000
| 8.68%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|''{{flaglist|Cabo Verde}}''
| 527,000
| 52,000
| 10.83%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Cameroon}}
| 29,879,000
| 12,267,000
| 41.06%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Central African Republic}}
| 5,513,000
| 1,345,000
| 24.39%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Chad}}
| 21,004,000
| 2,693,000
| 12.82%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Comoros}}
| 883,000
| 333,000
| 37.73%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Congo}}
| 6,484,000
| 3,981,000
| 61.4%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Côte d'Ivoire}}
| 32,712,000
| 11,913,000
| 36.42%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Djibouti}}
| 1,184,000
| 592,000
| 50%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|DR Congo}}
| 112,832,000
| 57,196,000
| 50.69%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|''{{flaglist|Egypt}}''
| 118,366,000
| 3,573,000
| 3.02%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|''{{flaglist|Equatorial Guinea}}''
| 1,938,000
| 560,000
| 28.91%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Gabon}}
| 2,593,000
| 1,719,000
| 66.3%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|''{{flaglist|Gambia}}''
| 2,822,000
| 564,000
| 20.00%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|''{{flaglist|Ghana}}''
| 35,064,000
| 645,000
| 1.84%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Guinea}}
| 15,100,000
| 4,202,000
| 27.83%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|''{{flaglist|Guinea-Bissau}}''

|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Madagascar}}
| 32,741,000
| 8,705,000
| 26.59%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Mali}}
| 25,199,000
| 5,028,000
| 19.95%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Mauritania}}
| 5,315,000
| 689,000
| 12.96%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Mauritius}}
| 1,268,000
| 921,000
| 72.65%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Morocco}}
| 38,431,000
| 13,912,000
| 36.2%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Niger}}
| 27,918,000
| 3,754,000
| 13.45%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Rwanda}}
| 14,569,000
| 748,000
| 5.14%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|''{{flaglist| São Tomé and Príncipe}}''

|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Senegal}}
| 18,932,000
| 5,250,000
| 27.73%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Seychelles}}
| 133,000
| 70,000
| 53.00%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Togo}}
| 9,722,000
| 3,998,000
| 41.12%
| 2025
|-
|align=left|{{flaglist|Tunisia}}
| 12,349,000
| 6,558,000
| 53.11%
| 2025
|}

==Varieties==

There are many different varieties of African French, but they can be broadly grouped into five categories:<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-09-11|title=Is there a difference between French and African French?|url=http://www.african-ls.com/blog/language-translation/is-there-a-difference-between-french-and-african-french/|access-date=2020-09-30|website=African Language Solutions|language=en-GB|archive-date=2020-10-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026074935/http://www.african-ls.com/blog/language-translation/is-there-a-difference-between-french-and-african-french/|url-status=live}}</ref>

# The French variety spoken in [[Central Africa]] and [[West Africa]] including [[Angola]] with [[Angola–France relations|French ancestry]] or French residents who speak French especially in [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] – spoken altogether by about 97 million people in 2018, as either a [[first language|first]] or [[second language]].<ref name="2018_speakers" />
# The French variety spoken by [[Berbers]] and [[Maghrebis]] in [[Maghreb|North-west Africa]] (see [[Geographical distribution of French speakers#Northern Africa|Maghreb French]]), which has about 33 million first and second language speakers in 2018.<ref name="2018_speakers" />
# The French variety spoken in the [[Comoro Islands]] (the [[Comoros]] and [[Mayotte]]) and [[Madagascar]], which have 5.6 million first and second language speakers in 2018.<ref name="2018_speakers" />
# The French variety spoken by [[Creole peoples|Creoles]] in the [[Mascarene Islands]] ([[Mauritius]] and [[Réunion]]) and [[Seychelles]], which has around 1.75 million first and second language speakers in 2018.<ref name="2018_speakers" /> The French spoken in this region is not to be confused with the [[French-based creole languages]], which are also spoken in the area.
# The French variety spoken in [[Djibouti]] in the [[Horn of Africa]], which has about 0.5 million first and second language speakers in 2018.<ref name="2018_speakers" />

All the African French varieties differ from [[Standard French]], both in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary, but the formal African French used in education, media and legal documents is based on standard French vocabulary.

[[File:Kutuku (strong spirit) Chez Maman la Joie.jpg|thumb|Alcohol seller in [[Kara, Togo|Kara]], [[Togo]], with sign in French; she uses the phrase ''Soyez les bienvenus'' ("Be welcome"), considered an [[conservative and innovative language|archaic phrase]] in [[Metropolitan France]]; some terms and words persist in use in Africa after falling out of use in France.]]

In the colonial period, a vernacular form of [[French-based creole languages|creole]] French known as ''[[Français Tirailleur|Petit nègre]]'' ("little [[negro]]") was also present in West Africa. The term has since, however, become a pejorative term for "poorly spoken" African French.

In [[Angola]], French is spoken in Angola especially [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]], particularly in the northern regions. While [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese]] is the official language, French is understood and spoken, especially among the Kongo people in the north and by Angolans with French ancestry. It's also one of the foreign languages taught in schools with 90% speak French from neighboring [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] as a legacy of [[Belgian Congo|Belgian colonial rule]] which established as [[Belgium]]'s private colony of [[Belgium–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations|Francophone Africa]] until its independence on 30 June 1960.

[[Code-switching]], or the alternation of languages within a single conversation, takes place in both [[Democratic Republic of Congo|DR Congo]] and [[Senegal]], the former having four "national" languages – [[Luba-Kasai language|Ciluba]], [[Kongo language|Kikongo]], [[Lingala]], and [[Swahili language|Swahili]] – which are in a permanent opposition to French. Code-switching has been studied since colonial times by different institutions of linguistics. One of these, located in [[Dakar, Senegal]], already spoke of the creolization{{inconsistent|date=May 2012}} of French in 1968, naming the result "franlof": a mix of French and [[Wolof language|Wolof]] (the language most spoken in Senegal) which spreads by its use in urban areas and through schools, where teachers often speak Wolof in the classroom despite official instructions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Calvet |first1=Maurice jean |last2=Dumont |first2=Pierre |title=Le français au Sénégal : interférences du wolof dans le français des élèves sénégalais |trans-title=The French of Senegal: Wolof interference in the French of Senegalese students |language=fr |journal=Collection IDERIC |date=1969 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=71–90 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/oeide_0549-1533_1969_act_7_1_860 |access-date=2023-02-21 |archive-date=2023-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221140145/https://www.persee.fr/doc/oeide_0549-1533_1969_act_7_1_860 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The omnipresence of local languages in Francophone African countries – along with insufficiencies in education – has given birth to a new linguistic concept: ''le petit français''.<ref name="manessy">{{cite journal |last1=Manessy |first1=Gabriel |date=1978 |title=Le français d'Afrique noire, français créole ou créole français ? |trans-title=The French of black Africa: French creole or creole French? |journal=Langue française |language=fr |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=91–105 |doi=10.3406/lfr.1978.4853 |jstor=41557837}}</ref> ''Le petit français'' is the result of a superposition of the structure of a local language with a narrowed lexical knowledge of French. The specific structures, though very different, are juxtaposed, marking the beginning of the creolization process.

Some African countries such as [[French language in Algeria|Algeria]] intermittently attempted to remove the use of French; it was removed as an official language in [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], and [[Niger]] in 2023, 2024, and 2025 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date= 26 July 2023|title=Mali drops French as official language |url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/07/26/mali-drops-french-as-official-language/ |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=Africanews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-07 |title=Burkina abandons French as an official language |url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/12/07/burkina-abandons-french-as-an-official-language/ |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=Africanews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-09 |title=Niger Republic drops French for Hausa as official language |url=https://www.pulse.ng/articles/news/world/niger-republic-drops-french-for-hausa-as-official-language-2025040913353848810 |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=Pulse Nigeria |language=en}}</ref>

== Français populaire africain ==
In the urban areas of Francophone Africa, another type of French has emerged: ''Français populaire africain'' ("Popular African French") or FPA. It is used in the entirety of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], but especially in cities such as [[Abidjan]], Côte d'Ivoire; [[Cotonou]], Benin; [[Dakar]], Senegal; [[Lomé]], Togo; and [[Ouagadougou]], Burkina Faso. At its emergence, it was marginalized and associated with the ghetto; Angèle Bassolé-Ouedraogo describes the reaction of the scholars:

{{cquote|Administration and professors do not want to hear that funny-sounding and barbarian language that seems to despise articles and distorts the sense of words. They see in it a harmful influence to the mastery of good French.<ref name=bassole />}}

However, FPA has begun to emerge as a second language among the upper class. It has also become a symbol of social acceptance.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

FPA can be seen as a progressive evolution of Ivorian French. After diffusing out of Côte d'Ivoire, it became Africanized under the influence of young Africans (often students) and cinema, drama, and dance.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

FPA has its own grammatical rules and lexicon. For example, "{{lang|fr-202|Il ou elle peut me tuer!}}" or "{{lang|fr-202|Il ou elle peut me dja!}}" can either mean "This person annoys me very much (literally he or she is annoying me to death)" or "I'm dying (out of love) for him/her" depending on the circumstances. "{{Lang|fr-202|Il ou elle commence à me plaire}}" signifies a feeling of exasperation (whereupon it actually means "he or she starts to appeal to me"), and friendship can be expressed with "{{lang|fr-202|c'est mon môgô sûr}}" or "{{lang|fr-202|c'est mon bramôgo.}}"<ref name=bassole>{{cite web|url=http://www.francophonie-durable.org/documents/colloque-ouaga-a1-bassole-ouedraogo.pdf |last=Bassolé-Ouedraogo |first=A |title=Le français et le français populaire africain: partenariat, cohabitation ou défiance? FPA, appartenance sociale, diversité linguistique |publisher=Institut d'Études des Femmes, Université d'Ottawa |year=2007 |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227222734/http://www.francophonie-durable.org/documents/colloque-ouaga-a1-bassole-ouedraogo.pdf |archive-date=2008-02-27 }}</ref>

FPA is mainly composed of [[metaphor]]s and images taken from African languages. For example, the upper social class is called "{{lang|fr-202|les en-haut d'en-haut}}" (the above from above) or "{{lang|fr-202|les môgôs puissants}}" (the powerful môgôs).

=== Pronunciation ===
Pronunciation in the many varieties of African French can be quite varied. There are nonetheless some trends among African French speakers; for instance, [[r|{{vr|r}}]] tends to be pronounced as the historic [[alveolar trill]] of pre-20th Century French instead of the now standard [[uvular trill]] or '[[guttural R]].' The [[voiced velar fricative]], the sound represented by {{lang|ar|{{vr|غ}}}} in the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word {{lang|ar|مغرب}} {{lang|ar-Latn|[[Maghreb|Ma'''gh'''rib]]}}, is another common alternative. Pronunciation of the letters {{vr|d}}, {{vr|t}}, {{vr|l}} and {{vr|l}} may also vary, and [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] may differ from standard French.{{Citation needed|date=October 2014}}

== Abidjan French ==
{{expand French|Nouchi (langue)|section=yes|date=July 2024}}
According to some estimates, French is spoken by 75 to 99 percent of [[Abidjan]]'s population,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unice.fr/ILF-CNRS/ofcaf/21/Jabet.pdf|title=La situation multilinguistique d'Abidjan|author=Marita Jabet, [[Lund University]]|access-date=2007-05-29|language=fr|archive-date=2008-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227222734/http://www.unice.fr/ILF-CNRS/ofcaf/21/Jabet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> either alone or alongside indigenous African languages. There are three sorts of French spoken in Abidjan. A formal French is spoken by the educated classes. Most of the population, however, speaks a colloquial form of French known as ''français de Treichville'' (after a working-class district of Abidjan) or ''français de Moussa'' (after a character in chronicles published by the magazine ''Ivoire Dimanche'' which are written in this colloquial Abidjan French). Finally, an Abidjan French slang called '''''Nouchi''''' has evolved from an ethnically neutral [[lingua franca]] among uneducated youth into a [[creole language]] with a distinct grammar.<ref>{{cite conference|title=Nouchi as a Distinct Language: The Morphological Evidence|first=Hannah|last=Sande|date=2015|book-title=Selected Proceedings of the 44th Annual Conference on African Linguistics|editor1-first=Ruth|editor1-last=Kramer|editor2-first=Elizabeth C.|editor2-last=Zsiga|editor3-first=One|editor3-last=Tlale Boyer|pages=243–253|publisher=Cascadilla Proceedings Project|location=Somerville, Massachusetts|url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/44/paper3142.pdf|access-date=2021-09-15|archive-date=2022-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322012722/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/44/paper3142.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> New words often appear in ''Nouchi'' and then make their way into colloquial Abidjan French after some time.<ref name="Abidjan_varieties">{{cite web|url=http://www.bibliotheque.auf.org/doc_num.php?explnum_id=196|title=Variétés lexicales du français en Côte d'Ivoire.|author=Bertin Mel Gnamba and Jérémie Kouadio N'Guessan|format=PDF|page=65|access-date=2013-09-30|language=fr|archive-date=2015-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923184735/http://www.bibliotheque.auf.org/doc_num.php?explnum_id=196|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2012, a [[crowdsourced]] dictionary of ''Nouchi'' was being written using mobile phones.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Languages: Crowd-Sourced Online Nouchi Dictionary| work = Rising Voices| access-date = 2012-09-02| date = 2012-07-30| url = http://rising.globalvoicesonline.org/blog/2012/07/30/cote-divoire-2-0-a-crowd-sourced-dictionary-for-the-nouchi-language/| archive-date = 2012-09-04| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120904085615/http://rising.globalvoicesonline.org/blog/2012/07/30/cote-divoire-2-0-a-crowd-sourced-dictionary-for-the-nouchi-language/| url-status = live}}</ref>

Here are some examples of words used in the African French variety spoken in Abidjan (the spelling used here conforms to [[French orthography]], except ô which is pronounced {{IPA|[ɔ]}}):<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unice.fr/ILF-CNRS/ofcaf/16/16.html|title=Le lexique français de Côte d'Ivoire|author=Suzanne Lafage|year=2002|access-date=2007-08-01| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070804084452/http://www.unice.fr/ILF-CNRS/ofcaf/16/16.html| archive-date= 4 August 2007 | url-status= live|language=fr}}</ref>
*{{lang|fr-CI|une go}} is a slang word meaning a girl or a girlfriend. It is a [[loanword]] either from the [[Mandinka language]] or from [[English language|English]] ("girl"). It is also French hip-hop slang for a girl.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.dictionnairedelazone.fr/index.php?page=definition&index=resultat&type_recherche=&mots=go&photo=&audio=&video=&illustration=&terme=go | title=Le Dictionnaire de la Zone © Cobra le Cynique | access-date=2015-08-10 | archive-date=2024-05-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525234838/http://www.dictionnairedelazone.fr/index.php?page=definition&index=resultat&type_recherche=&mots=go&photo=&audio=&video=&illustration=&terme=go | url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{lang|fr-CI|un maquis}} is a colloquial word meaning a street-side eatery, a working-class restaurant serving African food (likely from French “{{lang|fr|marquise}}”).
*{{lang|fr-CI|un bra-môgô}} is a slang word equivalent to "bloke" or "dude" in English. It is a loanword from the Mandinka language.
*{{lang|fr-CI|chicotter}} is a word meaning to whip, to beat, or to chastise (children). It is a loanword from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] where it meant "to whip". It has now entered the formal language of the educated classes.
*{{lang|fr-CI|le pia}} is a slang word meaning money. It comes perhaps from the standard French word {{lang|fr|pièce}} ("coin") or {{lang|fr|pierre}} ("stone"), or perhaps {{lang|fr|piastre}} (dollar, buck).
When speaking in a formal context, or when meeting French speakers from outside Côte d'Ivoire, Abidjan speakers would replace these local words with the French standard words {{lang|fr|une fille}}, {{lang|fr|un restaurant}} or {{lang|fr|une cantine}}, {{lang|fr|un copain}}, ''battre'' and ''l'argent'' respectively. Note that some local words are used across several African countries. For example, {{lang|fr-002|chicotter}} is attested not only in Côte d'Ivoire but also in [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Chad]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Benin]], [[Togo]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref name=Abidjan_varieties />

As already mentioned, these local words range from slang to formal usage, and their use therefore varies depending on the context. In Abidjan, this is how the sentence "The girl stole my money." is constructed depending on the [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]]:<ref name=Abidjan_varieties />
*formal Abidjan French of the educated people: {{lang|fr-CI|La fille m'a subtilisé mon argent.}}
*colloquial Abidjan French ({{lang|fr|français de Moussa}}): {{lang|fr-CI|Fille-là a prend mon l'argent.}} (in standard French, the grammatically correct sentence should be {{lang|fr|Cette fille (là) m'a pris de l'argent}})
*Abidjan French slang (''Nouchi''): {{lang|fr-CI|La go a momo mon pia.}} ({{lang|fr-CI|Momo}} is an Abidjan slang word meaning "to steal")
Another unique, identifiable feature of Ivorian French is the use of the phrase ''n'avoir qu'à + infinitif'' which, translated into English, roughly means, ''to have only to + infinitive''.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Manda Djoa |title=La locution verbale n'avoir qu'à + infinitif dans le français ivoirien/La locución verbal francesa n'avoir qu'à + infinitivo en el francés marfileño |trans-title=The verbal phrase to have only with + infinitive in Ivorian French |language=fr |journal=Thélème |volume=26 |date=2011 |pages=79–88 |id={{Gale|A383852945}} {{ProQuest|1017876369}} |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/THEL/article/view/36738/35570 |access-date=2023-02-21 |archive-date=2023-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221131725/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/THEL/article/view/36738/35570 |url-status=live }}</ref> The phrase is often used in linguistic contexts of expressing a wish or creating hypotheticals. This original Ivorian phrase is generally used across the Côte d'Ivoire's population; children, uneducated adults, and educated adults all using the phrase relatively equally. Often in written speech, the phrase is written as ''Ils non cas essayer de voir'' rather than ''Ils n'ont qu'à essayer de voir''.<ref name=":1" />

=== Characteristics ===
Many characteristics of Ivorian/Abidjan French differ from "standard" French found in France. Many of the linguistic evolutions are from the influences of native African languages spoken within the Côte d'Ivoire and make Abidjan French a distinct dialect of French.

Some of the major phonetic and phonological variations of Abidjan French, as compared to a more "typical" French, include substituting the nasal low vowel [ɑ̃] for a non-nasal [a], especially when the sound occurs at the beginning of a word, and some difficulty with the full production of the phonemes /ʒ/ and /ʃ/.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Baghana |first1=Jerome |last2=Glebova |first2=Yana A. |last3=Voloshina |first3=Tatiana G. |last4=Blazhevich |first4=Yuliya S. |last5=Birova |first5=Jana |title=Analyzing the effect of interference on the utilization of French in Côte d'Ivoire: social and linguistic aspects |journal=Revista de Investigaciones Universidad del Quindío |date=14 June 2022 |volume=34 |issue=S2 |pages=13–19 |doi=10.33975/riuq.vol34nS2.873 |s2cid=249701668 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There are also, to a certain degree, rhythmic speaking patterns in Ivorian French that are influenced by native languages.<ref name=":0" />

Ivorian French is also unique in its grammatical differences present in spoken speech such as these:<ref name=":0" />

* omission of articles in some contexts (''tu veux poisson'' instead of the French ''tu veux du poisson'')
* omission of prepositions in some contexts (''Il parti Yamoussoukro'' rather than ''Il est parti à Yamoussoukro'')
* interchangeable usage of indirect and direct objects (using ''lui'' instead of ''le'' and vice versa)
* more flexible grammatical formation

== Angolan French ==
French is used as a language of communication, especially among the literate population in [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]], and it's also a language spoken in [[Angola]] as a significant [[Angola–France relations|French Angolan]] population, which includes Angolans with French ancestry and French people who live or have lived in Angola, many people, including a large percentage of the literate population, speak French fluently from the neighboring [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] as a legacy of [[Belgian Congo|Belgian colonial rule]] from [[Brussels]] that declared its independence from [[Belgium]] on 30 June 1960. Angola has had a historical and cultural connection with [[France]], particularly through its colonial past and subsequent economic and political relationships with other countries including [[Françafrique|Francophone Africa]] which had been colonized as former French colonies from [[Paris]].

== Algerian French ==
Without being an official language, French is frequently used in government, workplaces, and education. French is the default language for work in several sectors. In a 2007 study set in the city of [[Mostaganem]], it was shown that French and [[Arabic]] were the two functional languages of banking. Technical work (accounting, financial analysis, management) is also frequently done in French. Documents, forms, and posters are often in both French and Arabic.

The usage of French among the Algerian population is different depending on social situations. One can find:

* direct borrowings, where the lexical unit is unchanged: ''surtout'' (particularly), ''voiture'' (car)
* integrated borrowings, where the lexical unit experiences phonetic transformation: ''gendarme'' (police force), ''cinéma'' (cinema)
* code switching, where another language is spoken in addition to French in a single oration (ex: Berber/French, Arabic/French)

== Beninese French ==
French is the sole official language in Benin. In 2014, over 4 million Beninese citizens spoke French (around 40% of the population). [[Fongbe]] is the other widely spoken language of Benin. It is natural to hear both languages blending, either through loan words or code-switching.

Few academic sources exist surrounding the particularisms of Beninese French. Nevertheless, it is evident that Beninese French has adapted the meanings of several French terms over time, such as: ''seconder'' (to have relations with a second woman, from the French ''second -'' second), ''doigter'' (to show the way, from the French ''doigt'' - finger).

==Burkinabe French==
French is the language of administration, education, and business in [[Burkina Faso]] and was the ''[[de jure]]'' official language until a constitutional change in 2024. While spoken fluently only by about a quarter of the population, French has progressively become a native language among urban populations since the late 20th century, notably in the cities of [[Ouagadougou]], [[Bobo-Dioulasso]], and [[Banfora]]. By 2010, about 10% of Ouagadougou residents spoke French as their first language.<ref>[https://observatoire.francophonie.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/langue_francaise_monde_integral.pdf La langue française dans le monde 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324172707/https://observatoire.francophonie.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/langue_francaise_monde_integral.pdf |date=2024-03-24 }}, ''[[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]'', 2010, p. 51 (in French)</ref>

Linguists have observed the development of a local vernacular of French in the country called [[:fr:Français populaire burkinabè|français populaire burkinabè]] which is influenced by local languages such as [[Mooré]] and is used as a lingua franca in commerce.<ref>Coulibaly, Bakary. [https://www.persee.fr/doc/lfr_0023-8368_1994_num_104_1_5739 ''Interférences et français populaire du Burkina''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318002652/https://www.persee.fr/doc/lfr_0023-8368_1994_num_104_1_5739 |date=2024-03-18 }}, [[University of Ouagadougou]], 1994. (in French)</ref> It is largely used as a spoken language whereas speakers continue to use standard French as the written language.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.teluq.uquebec.ca/diverscite/SecArtic/Arts/2004/magord_%20landry/ftxt.htm |title=Vécu Langagier africanophone et francophone de jeunes lycéens du Burkina Faso |access-date=2024-03-18 |archive-date=2024-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318002652/https://www.teluq.uquebec.ca/diverscite/SecArtic/Arts/2004/magord_%20landry/ftxt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Cameroonian French==
{{excerpt|Cameroonian French|paragraphs=1|files=0}}

== Kinshasa French ==
[[File:Kinshasa downtown.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Boulevard du 30 Juin]] in the commercial heart of Kinshasa]]

With more than 11 million inhabitants, [[Kinshasa]] is the largest Francophone city in the world, surpassing [[Paris]] in population. It is the capital of the most populous francophone country in the world, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], where an estimated 43 million people (51% of the total population) can speak French (essentially as a second language).<ref name="2018_speakers">{{cite web|url=http://observatoire.francophonie.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Francophones-Statistiques-par-pays.pdf|title=Estimation du nombre de francophones (2018)|author=Observatoire de la langue française de l’[[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]|access-date=2020-11-24|archive-date=2023-01-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102181251/http://observatoire.francophonie.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Francophones-Statistiques-par-pays.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="2018_methodology">{{cite web|url=https://www.odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/sites/odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/files/odsef-lfdm-2018.pdf|title=Estimation des populations francophones dans le monde en 2018 - Sources et démarches méthodologiques|author=Observatoire démographique et statistique de l'espace francophone (ODSEF)|access-date=2020-11-24|archive-date=2020-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129202015/https://www.odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/sites/odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/files/odsef-lfdm-2018.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Contrary to Abidjan where French is the first language of a large part of the population, in Kinshasa French is only a second language, and its status of ''[[lingua franca]]'' is shared with [[Lingala]]. Kinshasa French also differs from other African French variants, for it has some [[Belgian French]] influences, due to colonization. People of different African mother tongues living in Kinshasa usually speak Lingala to communicate with each other in the street, but French is the language of businesses, administrations, schools, newspapers and televisions. French is also the predominant written language.

Due to its widespread presence in Kinshasa, French has become a local language with its own pronunciation and some local words borrowed for the most part from Lingala. Depending on their social status, some people may mix French and Lingala, or [[Code-switching|code switch]] between the two depending on the context. Here are examples of words particular to Kinshasa French. As in Abidjan, there exist various [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]] and the most educated people may frown upon the use of slangish/Lingala terms.

*{{lang|fr-CD|cadavéré}} means broken, worn out, exhausted, or dead. It is a [[neologism]] on the standard French word {{lang|fr|cadavre}} whose meaning in standard French is "corpse". The word {{lang|fr-002|cadavéré}} has now spread to other African countries due to the popularity of Congolese music in Africa.
*{{lang|fr-CD|makasi}} means strong, resistant. It is a loanword from Lingala.
*{{lang|fr-CD|anti-nuit}} are sunglasses worn by partiers at night. It is a word coined locally and whose literal meaning in standard French is "anti-night". It is one of the many Kinshasa slang words related to nightlife and partying. A reveler is known locally as {{lang|fr-CD|un ambianceur}}, from standard French {{lang|fr|ambiance}} which means atmosphere.
*{{lang|fr-CD|casser le bic}}, literally "to break the [[Bic Cristal|Bic]]", means to stop going to school. {{Lang|fr|[[Bic Cristal|Bic]]}} is colloquially used to refer to a ballpoint pen in [[Belgian French]] and Kinshasa French, but not in standard French.
*{{lang|fr-CD|merci mingi}} means "thank you very much". It comes from standard French {{lang|fr|merci}} ("thank you") and Lingala {{lang|ln|mingi}} ("a lot").
*{{lang|fr-CD|un zibolateur}} is a bottle opener. It comes from the Lingala verb {{lang|ln|kozibola}} which means "to open something that is blocked up or bottled", to which was added the standard French suffix {{lang|fr|-ateur}}.
*{{lang|fr-CD|un tétanos}} is a rickety old taxi. In standard French {{lang|fr|tétanos}} means "[[tetanus]]".
*{{lang|fr-CD|moyen tê vraiment}} means "absolutely impossible". It comes from {{lang|fr-CD|moyen tê}} ("there's no way"), itself made up of standard French {{lang|fr|moyen}} ("way") and Lingala {{lang|ln|tê}} ("not", "no"), to which was added standard French {{lang|fr|vraiment}} ("really").
*{{lang|fr-CD|avoir un bureau}} means to have a mistress. {{lang|fr-CD|Il a deux bureaux}} doesn't mean "He has two offices", but "He has two mistresses".
*{{lang|fr-CD|[[Article 15 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|article 15]]}} means "fend for yourself" or "find what you need by yourself".
*{{lang|fr-CD|ça ne dérange pas}} means "thank you" or "you are welcome". When it means "thank you", it can offend some French speakers who are not aware of its special meaning in Kinshasa. For example, if one offers a present to a person, they will often reply {{lang|fr-CD|ça ne dérange pas}}. In standard French, it means "I don't mind".
*{{lang|fr-CD|quatre-vingt-et-un}} is the way Kinois say 81, {{lang|fr-150|quatre-vingt-un}} in Europe.
*{{lang|fr-CD|compliquer quelqu'un}}, literally to make things "complicated" or difficult for someone. It can be anyone: {{lang|fr-CD|Elle me complique}}, "She is giving me a tough time".
*{{lang|fr-CD|une tracasserie}} is something someone does to make another person's life harder, and often refers to policemen or soldiers. A fine is often called a {{lang|fr-CD|tracasserie}}, especially because the policemen in Kinshasa usually ask for an unpayable sum of money that requires extensive bargaining.

=== Characteristics ===
There are many linguistic differences that occur in Kinshasa French that make it a distinct dialect of French. Similarly to many other African dialects of French, many of the linguistic aspects are influenced, either directly or indirectly, by the linguistics of the local African languages. It is also essential to note that grammatical differences between local Congolese languages and the French language, such as the lack of gendered nouns in the former, result in linguistic changes when speakers of the former speak French.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Baghana |first1=Jerome |last2=Voloshina |first2=Tatiana G. |last3=Slobodova Novakova |first3=Katarina |title=Morphological and syntactic interference in the context of Franco-Congolese bilingualism |journal=XLinguae |date=2019 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=240–248 |doi=10.18355/XL.2019.12.03.18 |s2cid=199175583 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Here are some of the phonetic characteristics of Kinshasa French:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gombé-Apondza |first1=Guy-Roger Cyriac |title=Particularités phonétiques du français dans la presse audio-visuelle de Kinshasa |trans-title=The French Phonetic particularities in the broadcast media in Kinshasa |journal=Synergies Afrique des Grands Lacs |volume=4 |date=2015 |pages=101–116 |id={{ProQuest|2060963904}} |url=https://gerflint.fr/Base/Afrique_GrandsLacs4/gombe_apondza.pdf |access-date=2023-02-21 |archive-date=2024-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525234837/https://gerflint.fr/Base/Afrique_GrandsLacs4/gombe_apondza.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

* the posteriorization of anterior labial vowels in French, more specifically, the posteriorization of the common French phoneme [ɥ] for [u] (ex: pronunciation of the French word ''cuisine'' [kɥizin] as ''couwisine'' [kuwizin])
* the delabialization of the phoneme [y] for the phoneme [i] (ex: pronunciation of the French term ''bureau'' [byʁo] as ''biro'' [biʁo])
* the vocalic opening of the French phoneme [œ] creating, instead, the phoneme [ɛ] (ex: pronunciation of the French word ''acteur'' [aktœʁ] as actère [aktɛʁ])
* in some cases, the denasalization of French vowels (ex: pronunciation of the French term ''bande'' [bɑ̃d] as ba-nde [band])
* the mid-nasalization of occlusive consonants that follow the nasals [n] and [m] (ex: in relationship to the example above, the French word ''bande'' [bɑ̃d] could be pronounced both as ba-nde [band] or as ban-nde with a slightly nasalized [d])
* the palatalization of French apico-dental consonants that are followed by [i] and/or [ɥ] (ex: pronunciation of the French word ''dix'' [dis] is pronounced as ''dzix'' [dzis] and, similarly, the term ''parti'' may be pronounced as ''partsi)''

As briefly mentioned above, many Congolese languages are ungendered languages and so there is often some mixing of the French masculine and feminine articles in speakers of Kinshasa French, such as the phrase ''Je veux du banane'' rather than the "correct" French ''Je veux de la banane''.<ref name=":2" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Africa}}
*
*[[France–Africa relations|Francophone Africa]]
*[[French colonial empire]]
*[[Belgian colonial empire]]
*[[Geographical distribution of French speakers]]
*[[Camfranglais]]
*[[List of colonies and possessions of France]]
*[[Belgian Congo]]
*[[Maghreb French]]
*[[Françafrique]]
*[[Francophonie]]
*[[French-based creole languages]]
*[[French language in Minnesota]]
*[[French language in Vietnam]]
*[[French language in Cambodia]]
*[[French language in Laos]]
*[[French Polynesia]]
*[[Languages of Africa]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.unice.fr/ILF-CNRS/ofcaf/ LE FRANÇAIS EN AFRIQUE - Revue du Réseau des Observatoires du Français Contemporain en Afrique]{{in lang|fr}}
* [http://www.lehman.cuny.edu/deanhum/langlit/french/afrique.html Links for Afrique francophone]
* [http://www.lexilogos.com/francophonie_dictionnaires.htm Dictionaries of various French-speaking countries]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080227222734/http://www.francophonie-durable.org/documents/colloque-ouaga-a1-bassole-ouedraogo.pdf Le Français et le Français populaire Africain: partenariat, cohabitation ou défiance? FPA, appartenance sociale, diversité linguistique] {{in lang|fr}}
* [http://www.senat.fr/colloques/actes_mondialisation_francophonie/actes_mondialisation_francophonie10.html La mondialisation, une chance pour la francophonie] {{in lang|fr}}
* [http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/042/article_22654.asp RFI - L’avenir du français passe par l’Afrique] {{in lang|fr}}

{{French dialects by continent}}
{{Gallo-Romance languages and dialects}}
{{Romance languages}}

[[Category:French language in Africa| ]]
[[Category:French dialects]]
[[Category:Languages of the African diaspora]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Vero - Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

African French