Hindu astrology

2025-11-04T05:42:36Z

2405:201:C00D:214A:C5B5:176B:C214:C81: /* Daśās – planetary periods */

{{Short description|Indian form of astrology}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Use Indian English |date= October 2018}}
{{Hinduism}}
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'''Hindu astrology''', also called '''Indian astrology''', '''''jyotisha''''' ({{langx|sa|ज्योतिष|jyotiṣa|translit-script=iast}}; {{etymology||jyót|light, heavenly body}}) and, more recently, '''Vedic astrology''', is the traditional [[Hinduism|Hindu]] system of [[astrology]]. It is one of the [[Vedanga|six auxiliary disciplines]] in [[Hinduism]] that is connected with the study of the [[Vedas]].

The ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha]]'' is one of the earliest texts about astronomy within the [[Vedas]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Vedic Cosmography and Astronomy |pages=9–240 |first=Richard L. |last=Thompson |date = 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Āryabhaṭa I and his contributions to mathematics |date=1988 |first=Parmeshwar |last=Jha |page=282}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Mathematical Achievements of Pre-Modern Indian Mathematicians |date=2012 |first=T. K. |last=Puttaswamy |page=1}}</ref>{{sfn|Witzel|2001}} Some scholars believe that the [[horoscopic astrology]] practiced in the [[Indian subcontinent]] came from [[Hellenistic religion|Hellenistic]] influences.{{sfn|Pingree|1981|pp=67ff, 81ff, 101ff}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=81}} However, this is a point of intense debate, and other scholars believe that Jyotisha developed independently, although it may have interacted with [[Greek astrology]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Tripathi|first=Vijaya Narayan|title=Astrology in India|date=2008|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9749|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|pages=264–267|editor-last=Selin|editor-first=Helaine|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9749|isbn=978-1-4020-4425-0|access-date=2020-11-05|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164157/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9749|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The [[scientific consensus]] is that [[Astrology and science|astrology]] is a [[pseudoscience]].{{sfnm|1a1=Narlikar|1y=2009|2a1=Zarka|2y=2011|2p=424}}

==Etymology==
Jyotisha, states Monier-Williams, is rooted in the word ''Jyotish,'' which means light, such as that of the [[sun]] or the [[moon]] or a heavenly body. The term ''Jyotisha'' includes the study of [[astronomy]], astrology, and the science of timekeeping using the movements of astronomical bodies.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002}}<ref name="Monier-Williams-1923b">{{cite book|first=Monier|last=Monier-Williams|title=A Sanskrit–English Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3NWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA353|year=1923|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=353|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164257/https://books.google.com/books?id=_3NWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA353|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Monier-Williams-1923a">{{cite web |url=https://sanskritdictionary.com/?q=jyoti%E1%B9%A3a&iencoding=iast&lang=sans |title=Jyotisa |first=Monier |last=Monier-Williams |year=1923 |access-date=28 November 2024}}</ref> It aimed to keep time, maintain calendars, and predict auspicious times for Vedic rituals.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002}}<ref name="Monier-Williams-1923b"/><ref name="Monier-Williams-1923a"/>

==History and core principles{{anchor|History}}==
{{Further|Indian astronomy}}
[[Jyotiḥśāstra|Jyotiṣa]] is one of the [[Vedanga|Vedāṅga]], the six auxiliary disciplines used to support Vedic rituals.{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=376}} Early jyotiṣa is concerned with the preparation of a calendar to determine dates for sacrificial rituals,{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=377}} with nothing written regarding planets.{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=377}} There are mentions of [[eclipse]]-causing "demons" in the [[Atharvaveda]] and [[Chandogya Upanishad|Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], the latter mentioning [[Rahu|Rāhu]] (a shadow entity believed responsible for eclipses and meteors).{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=382}} The Ṛigveda also mentions an eclipse-causing demon, [[Svarbhānu]]. However, the specific term ''graha'' was not applied to Svarbhānu until the later ''[[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana|Rāmāyaṇa]]''.{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=382}}

The foundation of Hindu astrology is the notion of [[bandhu]] of the [[Vedas]] (scriptures), which is the connection between the [[Macrocosm and microcosm|microcosm]] and the macrocosm. The practice relies primarily on the [[sidereal zodiac]], which differs from the [[tropical zodiac]] used in [[Western astrology|Western (Hellenistic) astrology]] in that an ''[[ayanāṃśa]]'' adjustment is made for the [[sidereal time|gradual precession]] of the [[Great year|vernal equinox]]. Hindu astrology includes several nuanced sub-systems of interpretation and prediction with elements not found in Hellenistic astrology, such as its system of [[lunar mansion]]s (''[[nakshatras|Nakṣatra]]''). It was only after the transmission of Hellenistic astrology that the order of planets in India was fixed in that of the seven-day week.{{sfn|Yano|2008|pp=321–383}} Hellenistic astrology and astronomy also transmitted the twelve [[Astrological sign|zodiacal signs]] beginning with Aries and the twelve astrological places beginning with the ascendant.{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=384}} The first evidence of the introduction of Greek astrology to India is the ''[[Yavanajataka|Yavanajātaka]]'' which dates to the early centuries CE.{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=383}} The ''Yavanajātaka'' ({{abbr|lit.|literally}} "Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by [[Yavanesvara|Yavaneśvara]] during the 2nd century CE, and is considered the first Indian astrological treatise in the [[Sanskrit]] language.<ref>Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", p. 385 ("The Yavanajātaka is the earliest surviving Sanskrit text in horoscopy, and constitute the basis of all later Indian developments in horoscopy", himself quoting David Pingree "The Yavanajātaka of Sphujidhvaja" p. 5)</ref> However the only version that survives is the verse version of Sphujidhvaja which dates to AD 270.{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=383}} The first Indian astronomical text to define the weekday was the ''[[Āryabhaṭīya]]'' of [[Āryabhaṭa]] (born AD 476).{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=383}}

In the 300 years between the first Yavanajataka and the Āryabhaṭīya, Indian astronomers likely focused on Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy, according to Michio Yano{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=388}} We no longer have the astronomical texts from these 300 years.{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=388}} The later ''Pañcasiddhāntikā'' of [[Varāhamihira]] summarizes the five known Indian astronomical schools of the sixth century.{{sfn|Yano|2008|p=388}} Indian astronomy preserved some of the older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy.{{sfnm|1a1=Pingree|1y=1973|1pp=2–3|2a1=Ohashi|2y=1999|2pp=719–721|3a1=Lochtefeld|3y=2002|4a1=Yano|4y=2008|4p=389}}

The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the ''[[Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra|{{IAST|Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra}}]]'', and ''[[Sārāvalī]]'' by {{IAST|Kalyāṇavarma}}. The ''Horāshastra'' is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the late 8th century.{{sfn|Pingree|1981}} The ''Sārāvalī'' likewise dates to around 800 CE.{{sfn|Pingree|1981b|p=81}} N. N. Krishna Rau and V. B. Choudhari published English translations of these texts in 1963 and 1961, respectively.

== Modern Hindu astrology==
[[File:Ngram of Hindu Vedic Indian Astrology.png|thumb|Nomenclature of the last two centuries]]
[[Astrology]] remains an important facet of [[folk belief]] in the contemporary lives of many [[Hindu]]s. In [[Hindu culture]], newborns are traditionally named based on their ''jyotiṣa'' charts (''[[Kundali (astrology)|kundali]]''), and astrological concepts are pervasive in the organization of the [[Hindu calendar]] and holidays and in making major decisions such as those about marriage, opening a new business, or moving into a new home. Many Hindus believe that heavenly bodies, including the planets, have an influence throughout the life of a human being, and these planetary influences are the "fruit of [[Karma in Hinduism|karma]]". The [[Navagraha]], planetary deities, are considered subordinate to [[Ishvara]] (the Hindu concept of a supreme being) in the administration of justice. Thus, it is believed that these planets can influence earthly life.{{sfn|Keyes|Daniel|1983|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=49GVZGD8d4oC&dq=shani+karma&pg=PA132 132]}}

===Astrology as a science===
{{see also|Astrology and science}}

The scientific community has rejected astrology as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. [[Astrology#Scientific appraisal|Scientific testing]] of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions.{{sfnm|1a1=Narlikar|1y=2009|2a1=Zarka|2y=2011|2p=424}} There is no mechanism proposed by astrologers through which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth. In spite of its status as a [[pseudoscience]], in certain religious, political, and legal contexts, astrology retains a position among the [[science]]s in modern [[India]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |quote=In countries such as India, where only a small intellectual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences. |first1=David |last1=Pingree |first2=Robert |last2=Gilbert |title=Astrology; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |year=2008}}</ref>

India's [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]] and [[Ministry of Human Resource Development]] decided to introduce "Jyotir Vigyan" (i.e. ''{{IAST|jyotir vijñāna}}'') or "Vedic astrology" as a discipline of study in Indian universities, stating that "vedic astrology is not only one of the main subjects of our traditional and classical knowledge but this is the discipline, which lets us know the events happening in human life and in universe on time scale"<ref name="Times of India-2001">{{cite news |title=Supreme Court questions 'Jyotir Vigyan' |newspaper=Times of India |date=3 September 2001 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-09-03/india/27224563_1_vedic-astrology-ugc-universities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021001510/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-09-03/india/27224563_1_vedic-astrology-ugc-universities |archive-date=2011-10-21}}</ref> in spite of the complete lack of evidence that astrology actually does allow for such accurate predictions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=May 3, 2001|title=Heavens, it's not Science|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Heavens-its-not-Science/articleshow/40247321.cms|access-date=2020-11-11|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111152900/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Heavens-its-not-Science/articleshow/40247321.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The decision was backed by a 2001 judgment of the [[Andhra Pradesh High Court]], and some Indian universities offer advanced degrees in astrology.<ref>Mohan Rao, Female foeticide: where do we go? [[Indian Journal of Medical Ethics]] Oct-Dec2001-9(4), [http://www.issuesinmedicalethics.org/094co123.html issuesinmedicalethics.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627172315/http://www.issuesinmedicalethics.org/094co123.html |date=27 June 2009 }}</ref>{{sfn|Jayaraman|2001}}
This was met with widespread protests from the scientific community in India and Indian scientists working abroad.{{sfn|Jayaraman|2001}} A petition sent to the [[Supreme Court of India]] stated that the introduction of astrology to university curricula is "a giant leap backwards, undermining whatever scientific credibility the country has achieved so far".<ref name="Times of India-2001" />

In 2004, the Supreme Court dismissed the petition,<ref>[http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2112/stories/20040618001904800.htm Astrology On A Pedestal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203041837/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2112/stories/20040618001904800.htm |date=3 December 2021 }}, Ram Ramachandran, Frontline Volume 21, Issue 12, Jun. 05 - 18, 2004</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090625190535/http://www.thehindu.com/2004/05/06/stories/2004050602931400.htm Introduction of Vedic astrology courses in varsities upheld], [[The Hindu]], Thursday, May 06, 2004</ref> concluding that the teaching of astrology did not qualify as the promotion of religion.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Supreme Court: Bhargava v. University Grants Commission, Case No.: Appeal (civil) 5886 of 2002|url=http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=26188|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050312205612/http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=26188|archive-date=12 March 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="The Hindu-2004">{{Cite news|date=5 May 2004|title=Introduction of Vedic astrology courses in universities upheld|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/06/stories/2004050602931400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923190435/http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/06/stories/2004050602931400.htm|archive-date=23 September 2004|url-status=dead}}</ref> In February 2011, the Bombay High Court referred to the 2004 Supreme Court ruling when it dismissed a case which had challenged astrology's status as a science.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Astrology is a science: Bombay HC|date=3 February 2011 |newspaper=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Astrology-is-a-science-Bombay-HC/articleshow/7418795.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206024139/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Astrology-is-a-science-Bombay-HC/articleshow/7418795.cms|archive-date=6 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|2014|post=,}} despite continuing complaints by scientists,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Integrate Indian medicine with modern science|date=26 October 2003|newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/10/27/stories/2003102707090400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031113211344/http://www.hindu.com/2003/10/27/stories/2003102707090400.htm|archive-date=13 November 2003|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn|Narlikar|2013}} astrology continues to be taught at various universities in India,<ref name="The Hindu-2004" /><ref>{{Cite news|date=13 February 2014|title=People seek astrological advise from Banaras Hindu University experts to tackle health issues|newspaper=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/People-seek-astrological-advise-from-Banaras-Hindu-University-experts-to-tackle-health-issues/articleshow/30334332.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322203108/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/People-seek-astrological-advise-from-Banaras-Hindu-University-experts-to-tackle-health-issues/articleshow/30334332.cms|archive-date=22 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and there is a movement in progress to establish a national Vedic University to teach astrology together with the study of [[tantra]], [[mantra]], and [[yoga]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Set-up Vedic university to promote astrology |date=9 February 2013 |newspaper=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Set-up-Vedic-university-to-promote-astrology/articleshow/18411238.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209135849/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Set-up-Vedic-university-to-promote-astrology/articleshow/18411238.cms |archive-date=9 February 2013 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Skeptics have thoroughly debunked the claims made by Indian astrologers.. For example, although the planet Saturn is in the constellation [[Aries (constellation)|Aries]] roughly every 30 years (e.g. 1909, 1939, 1968), the astrologer [[Bangalore Venkata Raman]] claimed that "when Saturn was in Aries in 1939 England had to declare war against Germany", ignoring all the other dates.{{sfn|Narlikar|2013}} Astrologers regularly fail in attempts to predict election results in India, and fail to predict major events such as the assassination of [[Indira Gandhi]]. Predictions by the head of the Indian Astrologers Federation about war between India and Pakistan in 1982 also failed.{{sfn|Narlikar|2013}}

In 2000, when several planets happened to be close to one another, astrologers predicted that there would be catastrophes, [[volcanic eruption]]s and [[tsunami|tidal wave]]s. This caused an entire sea-side village in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]] to panic and abandon their houses. The predicted events did not occur and the vacant houses were burgled.{{sfn|Narlikar|2009}}

==Texts==
{{Quote box
|quote = '''Time keeping'''
<poem>
[The current year] minus one,
multiplied by twelve,
multiplied by two,
added to the elapsed [half months of current year],
increased by two for every sixty [in the sun],
is the quantity of half-months ([[Syzygy (astronomy)|syzygies]]).
</poem>
|source = — Rigveda Jyotisha-vedanga 4<br />Translator: Kim Plofker{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|p=36}}
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}
The ancient extant text on Jyotisha is the ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha|Vedanga-Jyotisha]]'', which exists in two editions, one linked to the [[Rigveda]] and other to [[Yajurveda]].{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|p=719}} The Rigveda version consists of 36 verses, while the Yajurveda recension has 43 verses of which 29 verses are borrowed from the Rigveda.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=35–36}}{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|p=1}} The Rigveda version is variously attributed to sage Lagadha and sometimes to sage Shuci.{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|p=1}} The Yajurveda version does not attribute credit to any specific sage, has endured into the modern era with a commentary by Somakara, and is considered the more studied version.

The Jyotisha text ''Brahma-siddhanta'', probably composed in the 5th century CE, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=67–68}} This text also lists [[trigonometry]] and mathematical formulae to support its theory of orbits, predict planetary positions and calculate relative mean positions of celestial nodes and apsides.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=67–68}} The text is notable for presenting very large integers, such as the lifetime of the current universe being 4.32 billion years.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=68–71}}

The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss timekeeping and never mention astrology or prophecy.<ref>{{cite book|author=C. K. Raju|title=Cultural Foundations of Mathematics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jza_cNJM6fAC|year=2007|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-81-317-0871-2|page=205|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164246/https://books.google.com/books?id=jza_cNJM6fAC|url-status=live}}</ref> These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level.<ref>{{cite book|author=Friedrich Max Müller|title=A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mlle|year=1860|publisher=[[Williams and Norgate]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mlle/page/210 210]–215}}</ref> Technical horoscopes and astrology ideas in India came from Greece and developed in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas Campion|title=Astrology and Cosmology in the World's Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxSr1NT3BLoC|year=2012|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8147-0842-2|pages=110–111|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164254/https://books.google.com/books?id=MxSr1NT3BLoC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|pp=719–721}}{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|pp=2–3}} Later medieval era texts such as the ''Yavana-jataka'' and the ''[[Siddhanta (astronomy)|Siddhanta]]'' texts are more astrology-related.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=116–120, 259–261}}

==Evolution of Vedic timekeeping==
The field of Jyotisha deals with ascertaining time, particularly forecasting auspicious days and times for Vedic rituals.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002}} The field of Vedanga structured time into ''Yuga,'' which was a 5-year interval,{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|p=36}} divided into multiple lunisolar intervals such as 60 solar months, 61 savana months, 62 synodic months and 67 sidereal months.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|p=719}} A Vedic Yuga had 1,860 ''tithis'' ({{lang|sa|तिथि}}, dates), and it defined a ''savana''-day (civil day) from one sunrise to another.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1993|pp=185–251}}

The Rigvedic version of Jyotisha may be a later insertion into the Veda, states [[David Pingree]], possibly between 513 and 326 BCE, when the Indus Valley was occupied by the Achaemenid from [[Mesopotamia]].{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|p=3}} The mathematics and devices for timekeeping mentioned in these ancient Sanskrit texts, proposes Pingree, such as the [[water clock]], may also have arrived in India from Mesopotamia. However, Yukio Ohashi considers this proposal as incorrect,{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|pp=719–721}} suggesting instead that the Vedic timekeeping efforts, for forecasting appropriate time for rituals, must have begun much earlier and the influence may have flowed from India to Mesopotamia.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1993|pp=185–251}} Ohashi states that it is incorrect to assume that the number of civil days in a year equals 365 in both the Hindu and Egyptian–Persian years.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|pp=719–720}} Further, adds Ohashi, the Mesopotamian formula is different from the Indian formula for calculating time, each can only work for their respective latitude, and either would make major errors in predicting time and calendar in the other region.<ref>{{cite book|author=Yukio Ohashi|editor=S.M. Ansari|title=History of Oriental Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8X0iCQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=[[Springer Science]]|isbn=978-94-015-9862-0|pages=75–82}}</ref> According to Asko Parpola, the Jyotisha and luni-solar calendar discoveries in ancient India, and similar discoveries in [[China]] in "great likelihood result from convergent parallel development", and not from diffusion from Mesopotamia.<ref>[[Asko Parpola]] (2013), "Beginnings of Indian Astronomy, with Reference to a Parallel Development in China", ''History of Science in South Asia'', Vol. 1, pages 21–25</ref>

Kim Plofker states that while a flow of timekeeping ideas from either side is plausible, each may have instead developed independently, because the loan-words typically seen when ideas migrate are missing on both sides as far as words for various time intervals and techniques.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=41–42}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sarma | first=Nataraja | title=Diffusion of astronomy in the ancient world | journal=Endeavour | publisher=[[Elsevier]] | volume=24 | issue=4 | year=2000 | pages=157–164 | doi=10.1016/s0160-9327(00)01327-2 | pmid=11196987 }}</ref> Further, adds Plofker, and other scholars, that the discussion of timekeeping concepts is found in the Sanskrit verses of the ''Shatapatha Brahmana'', a 2nd millennium BCE text.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=41–42}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Helaine Selin| title=Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRHvCAAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Springer Science| isbn=978-94-011-4179-6 |pages=320–321}}</ref> Water clocks and sun dials are mentioned in many ancient Hindu texts such as the [[Arthashastra]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Hinuber | first=Oskar V. | title=Probleme der Technikgeschichte im alten Indien | journal=Saeculum | publisher=[[Bohlau Verlag]] | volume=29 | issue=3 | year=1978 | pages=215–230 | doi=10.7788/saeculum.1978.29.3.215 | s2cid=171007726 | language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Kauṭilya|translator1-first=Patrick|translator1-last=Olivelle |title=King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya's Arthasastra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MlgU0oQb4sC |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-989182-5|pages=473 with note 1.7.8}}</ref> Plofker suggests that the arrival of Greek astrology ideas in India may have led to a roundabout integration of Mesopotamian and Indian Jyotisha-based systems.<ref>{{cite book| author=Kim Plofker| editor=Micah Ross| title=From the Banks of the Euphrates: Studies in Honor of Alice Louise Slotsky| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edVOGJKa7XUC| year=2008| publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]]|isbn=978-1-57506-144-3| pages=193–203}}</ref>

The Jyotisha texts present mathematical formulae to predict the length of daytime, sunrise and moon cycles.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1993|pp=185–251}}{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=35–40}}{{Sfn|Winternitz|1963|p=269}} For example,

:The length of daytime = <math>\left(12 + \frac{2}{61}n \right)</math> ''muhurtas''{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|p=37}}
:where ''n'' is the number of days after or before the winter solstice, and one ''muhurta'' equals {{frac|1|30}} of a day (48 minutes).{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|p=720}}

<blockquote style="background-color:none;margin-right:5em;margin-left:0em;border-left:solid 6px #FFE0BB;padding:1.0em">
'''Water clock'''<br />A ''prastha'' of water [is] the increase in day, [and] decrease in night in the [sun's] northern motion; vice versa in the southern. [There is] a six-muhurta [difference] in a half year.

— Yajurveda Jyotisha-vedanga 8, Translator: Kim Plofker{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|p=37}}
</blockquote>

==Elements==
There are sixteen [[Varga (astrology)|''Varga'']] ({{langx|sa|{{IAST|varga}}}}, 'part, division'), or divisional, charts used in Hindu astrology:{{sfn|Sutton|1999|pp=61–64}}

===Zodiac===
{{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#sauramana}}
The Nirayana, or [[sidereal zodiac]], is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana, or [[tropical zodiac]], is divided into 12 equal parts. Each part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign or ''rāśi'' ([[Sanskrit]]: 'part'). Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western [[zodiac]]s differ in the method of [[Indian units of measurement|measurement]]. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa primarily uses the sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the motion of the planets is measured), whereas most [[Western astrology]] uses the [[tropical zodiac]] (the motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the [[Equinox|spring equinox]]). After two [[millennium|millennia]], as a result of the [[precession of the equinoxes]], the origin of the [[ecliptic longitude]] has shifted by about 30 degrees. As a result, the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa system is roughly aligned with the constellations, while tropical astrology is based on the solstices and equinoxes.
<div style="overflow:auto">
{| class="wikitable"
!English
! [[Sanskrit]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA89|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=89|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164318/https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA89|url-status=live}}</ref>
! Starting
! Representation
! [[Tattva|Element]]
! Quality
! Ruling body
|-
|[[Aries (astrology)|Aries]]
|{{langx|sa|मेष|{{IAST|meṣa}}|label=none}}
| 0°
| ram
| [[Agni|fire]]
| movable (chara)
| [[Mars]]
|-
|[[Taurus (astrology)|Taurus]]
|{{langx|sa|वृषभ|{{IAST|vṛṣabha}}|label=none}}
| 30°
| bull
| [[Prithivi|earth]]
| fixed (sthira)
| [[Venus]]
|-
|[[Gemini (astrology)|Gemini]]
|{{langx|sa|मिथुन|{{IAST|mithuna}}|label=none}}
| 60°
| twins
| [[Vayu|air]]
| dual (dvisvabhava)
| [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
|-
|[[Cancer (astrology)|Cancer]]
|{{langx|sa|कर्क|{{IAST|karka}}|label=none}}
|90°
| crab
| [[Jala (water)|water]]
| movable
| [[Moon]]
|-
|[[Leo (astrology)|Leo]]
|{{langx|sa|सिंह|{{IAST|siṃha}}|label=none}}
| 120°
| lion
| fire
| fixed
| [[Sun]]
|-
|[[Virgo (astrology)|Virgo]]
|{{langx|sa|कन्या|{{IAST|kanyā}}|label=none}}
| 150°
| virgin girl
| earth
| dual
| Mercury
|-
|[[Libra (astrology)|Libra]]
|{{langx|sa|तुला|{{IAST|tulā}}|label=none}}
|180°
| balance
| air
| movable
| Venus
|-
|[[Scorpio (astrology)|Scorpio]]
|{{langx|sa|वृश्चिक|{{IAST|vṛścika}}|label=none}}
| 210°
| scorpion
| water
| fixed
| Mars
|-
|[[Sagittarius (astrology)|Sagittarius]]
|{{langx|sa|धनुष|{{IAST|dhanuṣa}}|label=none}}
| 240°
| bow and arrow
| fire
| dual
| [[Jupiter]]
|-
|[[Capricorn (astrology)|Capricorn]]
|{{langx|sa|मकर|{{IAST|makara}}|label=none}}
| 270°
| crocodile
| earth
| movable
| [[Saturn]]
|-
|[[Aquarius (astrology)|Aquarius]]
|{{langx|sa|कुम्भ|{{IAST|kumbha}}|label=none}}
| 300°
| water-bearer
| air
| fixed
| Saturn, [[Rahu]]
|-
|[[Pisces (astrology)|Pisces]]
|{{langx|sa|मीन|{{IAST|mīna}}|label=none}}
| 330°
| fishes
| water
| dual
| Jupiter, [[Ketu (mythology)|Ketu]]
|}
Unlike Western astrology, Hindu astrology usually disregards [[Uranus]] (which rules Aquarius), [[Neptune]] (which rules Pisces), and [[Pluto]] (which rules Scorpio).
</div>

===Nakṣhatras, or lunar mansions===
{{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#nakshatra}}[[File:Nakshatras.jpg|thumb|Nakshatras]]

The ''[[nakshatra]]s'' or [[lunar mansion]]s are 27 equal divisions of the night sky used in Hindu astrology, each identified by its prominent star(s).{{sfn|Sutton|1999|p=168}}

Historical (medieval) Hindu astrology enumerated either 27 or 28 nakṣatras. In modern astrology, a rigid system of 27 nakṣatras is generally used, each covering 13° 20′ of the [[ecliptic]]. The missing 28th nakshatra is ''Abhijeeta''. Each nakṣatra is divided into equal quarters or ''padas'' of 3° 20′.

The junction of two Râshis as well as Nakshatras is known as Gandanta.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Defouw |first1=Hart |last2=Svoboda |first2=Robert E. |title=Light on Relationships: The Synatry of Indian Astrology |date=1 October 2000 |publisher=Weiser Books |isbn=978-1-57863-148-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQqP0LLIRR8C&dq=Gandanta&pg=PA172 |access-date=1 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164240/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Light_on_Relationships/cQqP0LLIRR8C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Gandanta&pg=PA172 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Daśās – planetary periods===
The word [[Dasha (astrology)|''dasha'']] ([[Devanāgarī]]: दशा, [[Sanskrit]], ''{{IAST|daśā}}'', 'planetary period') means 'state of being' and it is believed that the ''daśā'' largely governs the state of being of a person. The Daśā system shows which planets may be said to have become particularly active during the period of the Daśā. The ruling planet (the Daśānātha or 'lord of the Daśā') eclipses the mind of the person, compelling him or her to act per the nature of the planet.{{sfn|Braha|1993}}

There are several ''dasha'' systems, each with its own utility and area of application. There are Daśās of ''grahas'' (planets) as well as Daśās of the Rāśis (zodiac signs). The primary system used by astrologers is the Viṁśottarī Daśā system, which has been considered universally applicable in the ''[[Kali Yuga]]'' to all horoscopes.{{sfn|Braha|1993}}

The first Mahā-Daśā is determined by the position of the natal Moon in a given Nakṣatra. The lord of the Nakṣatra governs the Daśā. Each Mahā-Dāśā is divided into sub-periods called ''bhuktis'', or ''antar-daśās'', which are proportional divisions of the maha-dasa. Further proportional sub-divisions can be made, but error margins based on accuracy of the birth time grow exponentially. The next sub-division is called ''pratyantar-daśā'', which can in turn be divided into ''sookshma-antardasa'', which can in turn be divided into ''praana-antardaśā'', which can be sub-divided into ''deha-antardaśā''. Such sub-divisions also exist in all other Daśā systems.{{sfn|Braha|1993}}

===Heavenly bodies===
The [[navagraha]] ({{langx|sa|नवग्रह|{{IAST|navagraha}}|nine planets}})<ref>{{cite book |title=Sanskrit–English Dictionary |first=Monier |last=Monier-Williams |date=c. 1899}}</ref> are the nine celestial bodies used in Hindu astrology:{{sfn|Sutton|1999|pp=38–51}}
* Surya (Sun)
* Chandra (Moon)
* Budha (Mercury)
* Shukra (Venus)
* Mangala (Mars)
* Bṛhaspati or Guru (Jupiter)
* Shani (Saturn)
* [[Rahu]] (North node of the Moon)
* [[Ketu (mythology)|Ketu]] (South node of the Moon)

The navagraha are said to be forces that capture or eclipse the mind and the decision making of human beings. When the ''grahas'' are active in their ''daśās'', or periodicities they are said to be particularly empowered to direct the affairs of people and events.

Planets are held to signify major details,<ref>{{harvnb|Raman|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gW2DIFHrxfgC&pg=PA7 6]}}: "Each planet is supposed to be the karaka or indicator of certain events in life."</ref> such as profession, marriage and longevity.{{sfn|Parāśara|1984|p=319}}

Of these indicators, known as Karakas, [[Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra|Parashara]] considers Atmakaraka most important, signifying broad contours of a person's life.{{sfn|Parāśara|1984|p=316}}

Rahu and Ketu correspond to the points where the moon crosses the ecliptic plane (known as the ascending and descending nodes of the moon). Classically known in Indian and Western astrology as the "head and tail of the dragon", these planets are represented as a serpent-bodied demon beheaded by the [[Sudarshana Chakra|Sudarshan Chakra]] of [[Vishnu]] after attempting to swallow the sun. They are primarily used to calculate the dates of eclipses. They are described as "shadow planets" because they are not visible in the night sky. Rahu and Ketu have an orbital cycle of 18 years and they are always retrograde in motion and 180 degrees from each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Braha|1y=1993|2a1=Raman|2y=2003}}

===Gocharas – transits===
A natal chart shows the position of the ''grahas'' at the moment of birth. Since that moment, the ''grahas'' have continued to move around the zodiac, interacting with the natal chart grahas. This period of interaction is called ''gochara'' ([[Sanskrit]]: ''{{IAST|gochara}}'', 'transit').{{sfn|Sutton|1999|p=227}}

The study of transits is based on the transit of the Moon (Chandra), which spans roughly two days, and also on the movement of Mercury (Budha) and Venus (Śukra) across the celestial sphere, which is relatively fast as viewed from Earth. The movement of the slower planets – Jupiter (Guru), Saturn (Śani) and Rāhu–Ketu — is always of considerable importance. Astrologers study the transit of the Daśā lord from various reference points in the horoscope.

====Yogas – planetary combinations====
In Hindu astronomy, [[Yoga (Hindu astrology)|''yoga'']] ([[Sanskrit]]: ''{{IAST|yoga}}'', 'union') is a combination of planets placed in a specific relationship to each other.{{sfn|Sutton|1999|p=265}}

[[Raja yoga (Hindu astrology)|Rāja yogas]] are perceived as givers of fame, status and authority, and are typically formed by the association of the Lord of Keṅdras ('quadrants'), when reckoned from the [[Lagna]] ('ascendant'), and the Lords of the [[Trikona]] ('trines', 120 degrees—first, fifth and ninth houses). The Rāja yogas are culminations of the blessings of Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Some planets, such as Mars for Leo Lagna, do not need another ''graha'' (or [[Navagraha]], 'planet') to create ''Rājayoga'', but are capable of giving ''Rājayoga'' by themselves due to their own lordship of the 4th [[Bhāva]] ('astrological house') and the 9th Bhāva from the Lagna, the two being a Keṅdra ('angular house'—first, fourth, seventh and tenth houses) and Trikona Bhāva respectively.{{sfn|Raman|2003}}

[[Dhana yoga (Hindu astrology)|Dhana Yogas]] are formed by the association of wealth-giving planets such as the Dhaneśa or the 2nd Lord and the Lābheśa or the 11th Lord from the Lagna. Dhana Yogas are also formed due to the auspicious placement of the Dārāpada (from ''dara'', 'spouse' and ''pada'', 'foot'—one of the four divisions—3 degrees and 20 minutes—of a [[Nakshatra]] in the 7th house), when reckoned from the Ārūḍha Lagna (AL). The combination of the Lagneśa and the Bhāgyeśa also leads to wealth through the Lakṣmī Yoga.{{sfn|Raman|2003}}

[[Sanyasa yoga|Sanyāsa Yogas]] are formed due to the placement of four or more ''grahas'', excluding the Sun, in a Keṅdra Bhāva from the Lagna.{{sfn|Parāśara|1984}}

There are some overarching yogas in Jyotiṣa such as Amāvasyā Doṣa, Kāla Sarpa Yoga-Kāla Amṛta Yoga and Graha Mālika Yoga that can take precedence over Yamaha yogar planetary placements in the horoscope.{{sfn|Raman|2003}} Some modern practices complement planetary yogas with the use of tools such a gemstone, pearls, rudraksha beads, etc.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rudraksha According to Rashi |url=https://nepalirudraksha.com/blogs/blog/rudraksha-according-to-rashi }}</ref>

===Bhāvas – houses===
The Hindu Jātaka or Janam Kundali or [[natal chart|birth chart]], is the [[bhāva]] chakra ([[Sanskrit]]: 'division' 'wheel'), the complete 360° circle of life, divided into houses, and represents a way of enacting{{clarify|date=February 2025}} the influences in the wheel. Each house has associated ''kāraka'' ([[Sanskrit]]: 'significator'), planets that can alter the interpretation of a particular house. Each ''bhāva'' spans an arc of 30° with twelve ''bhāvas'' in any chart of the horoscope. These are a crucial part of any horoscopic study since the ''bhāvas'', understood as 'state of being', personalize the astrological signs to the native and each sign apart from indicating its true nature reveals its impact on the person based on the ''bhāva'' occupied. The best way to study the various facets of Jyotiṣa is to see their role in chart evaluation of actual persons and how these are construed.{{sfn|Sutton|1999|pp=93–167}}

The meanings of the bhāvas are very similar to the triplicities in Western astrology. The houses are divided into four ''purusharthas'' (Sanskrit: 'aims in life') which point to mood or meaning of the house. These four ''purusharthas'' are [[Dharma]] (duty), [[Artha]] (resources), [[Kama]] (pleasure) and [[Moksha]] (liberation). They correspond to the 12 ''bhavas'' as follows:{{sfnm|1a1=Parāśara|1y=1984|2a1=Braha|2y=1993}}

* Dharma – 1st, 5th and 9th ''bhavas'' – The need to find a path and purpose.
* Artha – 2nd, 6th and 10th ''bhavas'' – The need to acquire the necessary resources to fulfill that path.
* Kama – 3rd, 7th and 11th ''bhavas'' – The need for pleasure and enjoyment.
* Moksha – 4th, 8th and 12th ''bhavas'' – The need to attain liberation from the world.

These 4 aims of life are repeated in above sequence 3 times through the 12 bhavas:{{sfnm|1a1=Parāśara|1y=1984|2a1=Braha|2y=1993}}
* The first round, bhavas 1 through 4, show the process within the Individual.
* The second round, bhavas 5 through 8, show the alchemy in relating to other people.
* The third round, bhavas 9 through 12, show the universalization of the self.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Dharma (Duty) Houses !! Artha (Resources) Houses !! Kama (Pleasure) Houses !! Moksha (Liberation) Houses
|-
| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4
|-
| 5 || 6 || 7 || 8
|-
| 9 || 10 || 11 || 12
|-
|}

===Dṛiṣṭis===
[[Astrological aspect (Hindu Astrology)|''Drishti'']] ([[Sanskrit]]: ''{{IAST|Dṛṣṭi}}'', 'sight') is an aspect to an entire house. ''Grahas'' cast only forward aspects, with the furthest aspect being considered the strongest. For example, Jupiter aspects the 5th, 7th and 9th house from its position, Mars aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses from its position, and its 8th house.{{sfn|Sutton|1999|pp=26–27}}

The principle of Drishti (aspect) was devised on the basis of the aspect of an army of planets as deity and demon in a war field.{{sfn|Jain|2005}} Thus the Sun, a deity king with only one full aspect, is more powerful than the demon king Saturn, which has three full aspects.{{sfn|Parāśara|1984}}

Aspects can be cast both by the planets (Graha Dṛṣṭi) and by the signs (Rāśi Dṛṣṭi). Planetary aspects are a function of desire, while sign aspects are a function of awareness and cognizance.{{sfnm|1a1=Parāśara|1y=1984|2a1=Braha|2y=1993}}

There are some higher aspects of Graha Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects) that are not limited to the Viśeṣa Dṛṣṭi or the special aspects. Rāśi Dṛṣṭi works based on the following formulaic structure: all movable signs aspect fixed signs except the one adjacent, and all dual and mutable signs aspect each other without exception.{{sfn|Parāśara|1984}}

===Planetary Aspects (Graha Dṛṣṭi)===

Each planet has a specific way of casting aspects (Drishti) on other houses from its position:

*Sun – Aspects the 7th house from its position.

*Moon – Aspects the 7th house.

*Mercury – Aspects the 7th house.

*Venus – Aspects the 7th house.

*Jupiter – Aspects the 5th, 7th, and 9th houses.

*Mars – Aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses.

*Saturn – Aspects the 3rd, 7th, and 10th houses.

*Rahu – Aspects the 5th and 9th houses (some traditions).

*Ketu – Aspects the 5th and 9th houses (some traditions).

These aspects are fixed and not based on degree differences like in Western astrology. The aspect strength depends on the planet and its position.<ref>{{cite web |title=Planetary Aspects in Vedic Astrology |url=https://vedicmarga.com/planetary-aspects-in-vedic-astrology/ |website=Vedicmarga |access-date=22 June 2025}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Hinduism}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Archaeoastronomy and Vedic chronology]]
* [[Hindu cosmology]]
* [[History of astrology]]
* [[Jyotiḥśāstra]]
* [[Nadi astrology]]
* [[Panchangam]]
* [[Synoptical astrology]]
}}

== References ==
===Citations===
{{full citations needed|date=February 2025}}
{{reflist|2}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin|2}}

* {{cite book |last=Braha |first=James T. |year=1993 |title=Ancient Hindu Astrology for the Modern Western Astrologer |publisher=Hermetician Press |isbn=978-0-935895-04-9}}

* {{cite book |last=Jain |first=Sanat Kumar |year=2005 |title=Astrology: A Science Or Myth |place=New Delhi |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-269-0556-0}}
* {{cite magazine |first=T. |last=Jayaraman |title=A Judicial Blow |magazine=Frontline |volume=18 |issue=12 |date=June 9–22, 2001 |url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1812/18120970.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125123324/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1812/18120970.htm |archive-date=2013-01-25 |url-status=usurped}}

* {{cite book |editor1-first=Charles F. |editor1-last=Keyes |editor2-first=E. Valentine |editor2-last=Daniel |title=Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-04429-0}}

* {{cite encyclopedia |first=James |last=Lochtefeld |year=2002 |title=Jyotisha |encyclopedia=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M |publisher=Rosen Publishing |isbn=0-8239-2287-1 |pages=326–327}}

* {{cite book |last1=Narlikar |first1=Jayant V. |editor1-first=Jay |editor1-last=Pasachoff |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=Percy |title=Teaching and Learning Astronomy: Effective Strategies for Educators Worldwide |chapter=Astronomy, pseudoscience and rational thinking |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=164–165 |isbn=978-0-521-11539-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdzQ4uCnYfkC&pg=PA165}}
* {{cite journal |last=Narlikar |first=Jayant V. |date=2013 |title=An Indian Test of Indian Astrology |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |volume=37 |issue=2 |url=http://www.csicop.org/si/show/an_indian_test_of_indian_astrology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723193119/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/an_indian_test_of_indian_astrology |archive-date=23 July 2013 |url-status=live}}

* {{cite journal |last1=Ohashi |first1=Yukio |title=Development of Astronomical Observations in Vedic and post-Vedic India |year=1993 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=28 |number=3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ohashi |first1=Yukio |editor1-last=Andersen |editor1-first=Johannes |title=Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQYscrT0fgQC |year=1999 |publisher=Springer Science |isbn=978-0-7923-5556-4}}

* {{cite book |author=Parāśara |editor-last=Santhanam |editor-first=R. |year=1984 |title=Brihat Parasara Hora Sastra of Maharshi Parasara |volume=1 |place=India |publisher=Ranjan Publications |url=http://archive.org/details/BPHSEnglish}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pingree |first=David |author-link=David Pingree |title=The Mesopotamian Origin of Early Indian Mathematical Astronomy |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |publisher=SAGE |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=1973 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1177/002182867300400102 |bibcode=1973JHA.....4....1P |s2cid=125228353}}
* {{cite book |last=Pingree |first=David |title=Jyotihśāstra: Astral and Mathematical Literature |publisher=[[Otto Harrassowitz]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-3447021654}}
* {{cite book |last=Pingree |first=David |year=1981b |chapter={{IAST|Jyotiḥśāstra}} |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Gonda |title=A History of Indian Literature |volume=VI |place=Wiesbaden |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz}}
* {{cite book |last=Plofker |first=Kim |author-link=Kim Plofker |title=Mathematics in India |title-link=Mathematics in India (book) |year=2009 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-12067-6}}

* {{cite book |last1=Raman |first1=Bangalore V. |title=Studies in Jaimini Astrology |year=2003 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-1397-7 |language=en}}

* {{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Samuel |year=2010 |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Sutton |first=Komilla |year=1999 |title=The Essentials of Vedic Astrology |publisher=The Wessex Astrologer |place=Bournemouth, England |isbn=1-902405-06-4}}

* {{cite book |last1=Winternitz |first1=Maurice |author-link=Moriz Winternitz |title=History of Indian Literature |volume=1 |year=1963 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0056-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |title=Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |date=25 May 2001 |issue=3 |volume=7 |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.htm |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=27 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527150828/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.htm |url-status=live}}

* {{cite book |last=Yano |first=Michio |chapter=Calendar, Astrology, and Astronomy |editor-last=Flood |editor-first=Gavin |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |year=2008 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-81-265-1629-2 |pages=376–392}}

* {{cite journal |last=Zarka |first=Philippe |title=Astronomy and astrology |journal=Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union |date=2011 |volume=5 |issue=S260 |pages=420–425 |doi=10.1017/S1743921311002602 |bibcode=2011IAUS..260..420Z |url=https://zenodo.org/record/890932 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-date=18 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818112236/https://zenodo.org/record/890932 |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Frawley |first=David |year=2000 |title=Astrology of the Seers: A Guide to Vedic (Hindu) Astrology |place=Twin Lakes, Wisconsin |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=0-914955-89-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Frawley |first=David |year=2005 |title=Ayurvedic Astrology: Self-Healing Through the Stars |place=Twin Lakes, Wisconsin |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=0-940985-88-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pingree |first=David |author-link=David Pingree |date=1963 |title=Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=229–246 |doi=10.1086/349703 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Raman |first=B. V. |title=Planetary Influences on Human Affairs |publisher=South Asian Books |year=1992 |isbn=978-81-85273-90-7 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}













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