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Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor

2025-10-26T20:54:44Z

2600:1011:A18F:F810:EC88:74CB:C4DC:37A9: copy fixes

{{Short description|Holy Roman Emperor from 1027 to 1039}}
{{Redirect|Conrad II}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Conrad II
| title = [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor of the Romans]]
| image = Conrad II (HRE).jpg
| caption = Miniature depiction, {{circa|1130}}
| more =
| succession = [[Holy Roman Emperor]]
| reign = 26 March 1027 – 4 June 1039
| coronation = 26 March 1027 [[Old St. Peter's Basilica]], [[Rome]]
| cor-type = hre
| predecessor = [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]]
| successor = [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]]
| succession1 = [[King of Burgundy]]
| reign1 = 6 September 1032 – 4 June 1039
| predecessor1 = [[Rudolph III of Burgundy|Rudolph III]]
| successor1 = [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]]
| succession2 = [[King of Italy]]
| reign2 = 25 March 1026 – 4 June 1039
| coronation2 = 25 March 1026{{sfn|Wolfram|2010|p=97}} [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio]], [[Milan]]
| predecessor2 = [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]]
| successor2 = [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]]
| succession3 = [[King of Germany]]
| reign3 = 8 September 1024 – 4 June 1039
| coronation3 = 8 September 1024 [[Mainz Cathedral]], [[Mainz]]
| predecessor3 = [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]]
| successor3 = [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]]
| house = [[Salian dynasty|Salian]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Gisela of Swabia]]|1016}}
| issue = [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Matilda of Franconia]]
| father = [[Henry, Count of Speyer]]
| mother = [[Adelaide of Metz]]
| birth_date = {{circa|990}}
| birth_place = [[Speyer]], [[Duchy of Franconia]], [[Kingdom of Germany]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date = 4 June 1039 (aged 48 or 49)
| death_place = [[Utrecht]], [[Lower Lorraine]], [[Kingdom of Germany]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| burial_place = [[Speyer Cathedral]]
}}

'''Conrad II''' ({{langx|de|Konrad II}}, {{circa|990}} – 4 June 1039), also known as {{nowrap|'''Conrad the Elder'''}} and {{nowrap|'''Conrad the Salic'''}}, was the [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] from 1027 until his death in 1039. The first of a succession of four [[Salian dynasty|Salian]] emperors, who reigned for one century until 1125, Conrad ruled the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]] (from 1024), [[Kingdom of Italy (medieval)|Italy]] (from 1026) and [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]] (from 1033).

The son of [[Franconia]]n count [[Henry of Speyer]] (also Henry of Worms) and [[Adelaide of Metz]] of the ''Matfriding dynasty'', that had ruled the [[Duchy of Lorraine]] from 959 until 972, Conrad inherited the titles of count of [[Speyer]] and [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] during childhood after his father had died around the year 990. He extended his influence beyond his inherited lands, as he came into favour of the [[Princes of the Holy Roman Empire|princes]] of the kingdom. When the imperial [[Ottonian dynasty|dynastic line]] was left without a successor after [[Emperor Henry II]]'s death in 1024, on 4 September an assembly of the [[Princes of the Holy Roman Empire|imperial princes]] appointed the 34-year-old Conrad king (''Rex romanorum'').{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Weinfurter|1999|p=49}}

Conrad II adopted many aspects of his [[Ottonian dynasty|Ottonian]] predecessor Henry II regarding the role and [[Imperial Church System|organisation of the Church]] as well as general rulership practices, which in turn had been associated with [[Charlemagne]].{{sfn|Weinfurter|1999|p=26}} While the emperor was not anti-monastic, he immediately abandoned the favouritism that had been shown to men of the Church under Henry II.{{sfn|Wolfram|2010|p=322}} In Italy, he initially relied on the bishops (mostly of German origin) to maintain imperial power. Beginning with his second Italian expedition in 1036, he changed his strategy and managed to win the support of the ''valvassores'' (lesser nobles) and the military elite, who challenged the power of the bishops.{{sfn|Weinfurter|1999|pp=45–47}}<ref name=boni/><ref name="Blumenthal1988">{{Cite book |first=Uta-Renate |last=Blumenthal |author-link=Uta-Renate Blumenthal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0tZhHot9CuEC&pg=PA45 |title=The Investiture Controversy – Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-8122-1386-6 |pages=45–}}</ref> His reign marked a high point of medieval imperial rule during a relatively peaceful period for the empire. Upon the death of the childless King [[Rudolph III of Burgundy]] in 1032, Conrad claimed dominion over the [[Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles|Kingdom of Burgundy]], conquered it with German and Italian troops, and incorporated it into the empire.{{sfn|Weinfurter|1999|p=49}}<ref name=boni/> The three kingdoms (Germany, Italy and Burgundy) formed the basis of the empire as the "royal triad" (''regna tria'').

==Early life==
===Family background===
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| header = Conrad's parents
| header_align = center
| footer =
| footer_align = left
| image1 = Henry of Speyer.jpg
| width1 = 160
| caption1 = Father [[Henry of Speyer]], {{c.}}1237
| image2 = Oehringen Chorherrenstift Gruendung durch Adelheid 1037.jpg
| width2 = 160
| caption2 = Mother [[Adelaide of Metz]] (b,l), 1037 foundation of the Öhringen Convent of canons
}}

The origins of the [[Salian dynasty]] can be traced back to Count [[Werner V (Salian)|Werner V of Worms]], a [[Franks|Frankish]] nobleman from the [[Duchy of Franconia]] to the east of the [[Rhine]]. His son, [[Conrad, Duke of Lorraine|Conrad the Red]], succeeded him as Count in 941. King [[Otto I]] (the future [[Holy Roman Emperor]]) elevated him to [[Duke of Lorraine]] in 944. He subsequently married [[Liutgard of Saxony (died 953)|Liutgarde]], one of Otto's daughters, in 947 and rose to become one of the king's closest allies. The relationship, however, deteriorated, when Otto refused to honour a peace treaty that Conrad, as Otto's representative, had negotiated with [[Berengar II of Italy]]. Conrad also resented the growing influence of Otto's brother [[Henry I of Bavaria]], whom he regarded as a threat to his position. In 953 Conrad joined the king's son [[Liudolf, Duke of Swabia|Liudolf]] in rebellion against Otto. The rebellion was crushed and Conrad was stripped of his ducal title. Conrad and Otto eventually reconciled. Conrad fought alongside Otto and fell in the decisive [[Battle of Lechfeld]] in 955 that put an end to the [[Hungarian invasions of Europe|Hungarian invasions into Europe]]. Conrad was succeeded as Count of Worms in 956 by his son [[Otto of Worms]], who was also the grandson of Otto I. In between 965 and 970, Otto of Worms' first son and Conrad II's father [[Henry of Speyer]] was born, of whom only very little is known. He died at the age of 20 between 985 and 990. Conrad II's mother was [[Adelaide of Metz]]. After Henry's death, Adelaide married a Frankish nobleman and the relationship with Conrad declined.<ref name="urku">{{Cite web |title=Konrad II |url=https://www.dmgh.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb00000448_00011.html?zoom=0.75&leftTab=toc&sortIndex=030:040:0004:010:00:00 |publisher=Monumenta Germaniae Historica |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref>

In 978 [[Emperor Otto II]] appointed his nephew Otto of Worms as [[Duke of Carinthia]]. He succeeded the rebellious Duke [[Henry III, Duke of Bavaria|Henry I of Carinthia]], who had been deposed after the [[War of the Three Henries (977–978)|War of the Three Henries]]. Upon receiving the ducal title, however, Otto lost his countship at Worms, which was given to Bishop {{ill|Hildebold (bishop of Worms)|de|Hildebold (Worms)|lt=Hildebald}}, emperor Otto II's imperial chancellor. When Otto II died suddenly in 983, his infant son [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] succeeded him, with his mother [[Theophanu]] serving as regent. Theophanu sought to reconcile the imperial house with Henry I, restoring him as Duke of Carinthia in 985, with Otto of Worms allowed to regain his ancestral position as Count of Worms. However, Otto was allowed to style himself "Duke of Worms" and his original territory was expanded according to his rank. Otto of Worms loyally served the new Emperor and received the [[March of Verona]] in 955, as the actual Duchy of Carinthia was given to [[Henry IV of Bavaria]]. In 996, Otto III invested Otto of Worms' son Bruno as [[Pope Gregory V]]. When Emperor Otto III died in 1002, both Otto of Worms, Conrad's grandfather, and Henry IV became eligible for Kingship of Germany. In a compromise, Otto withdrew and in return received the Duchy of Carinthia from the newly elected king Henry IV, who ruled as ''Henry II of Germany''. As a result, Otto of Worms renounced his fiefs at Worms to Bishop [[Burchard of Worms]], a long-time political rival.<ref name="Austin2017">{{Cite book |last=Greta Austin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgokDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT4 |title=Shaping Church Law Around the Year 1000 – The Decretum of Burchard of Worms |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-90055-3 |pages=4–}}</ref>

After the early death of his uncle [[Conrad I, Duke of Carinthia]], Conrad's infant son, [[Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia]] the Younger, was named Count of Worms by Emperor Henry II while the Duchy of Carinthia passed to [[Adalbero of Eppenstein]] due to Conrad the Younger's infancy. Conrad the Younger was taken care of by his cousin Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor the Elder.{{sfn|Weinfurter|1999|p=49}}<ref name="MöllerAmmerich2015">{{Cite book |last1=Lenelotte Möller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZd4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT3 |title=Die Salier: 1024–1125 |last2=Hans Ammerich |date=2015 |publisher=marixverlag |isbn=978-3-8438-0474-5 |pages=3–}}</ref>

===Adulthood===
In 1016 Conrad married the twice-widowed [[duchess]] [[Gisela of Swabia]], daughter of Duke [[Herman II of Swabia]] who, in 1002, had unsuccessfully claimed the German throne upon [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Otto III]]'s death, and had lost the election to [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Henry II]]. Gisela had first been married to Count [[Brun I of Brunswick|Bruno I of Brunswick]] the same year. Following Bruno's death around 1010, Gisela married [[Ernest I, Duke of Swabia|Ernest I]] of the [[House of Babenberg]].{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=32}} Through this marriage, Ernest I inherited the [[Duchy of Swabia]] upon the death of Gisela's brother [[Herman III, Duke of Swabia|Duke Herman III of Swabia]] in 1012. The marriage produced two sons: [[Ernest II, Duke of Swabia|Ernest II]] and Herman. After the death of Ernest I in 1015, Emperor Henry II named Ernest II as Duke of Swabia. As Gisela's new husband, Conrad hoped to serve as regent for his minor stepson in the administration of the duchy, seeing it as an opportunity to increase his own rank and subsequently make a claim for his own duchy. Emperor Henry II blocked this attempt by placing the guardianship of Ernest II, and regency over Swabia, in the hands of [[Poppo (Archbishop of Trier)|Archbishop Poppo of Trier]] in 1016. This action further strained the already rough relationship between the imperial [[Ottonian dynasty|House of Otto]] and the [[Salian dynasty|Salian family]].{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=35}}<ref name="brit">{{Cite web |title=Conrad II Holy Roman emperor |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Conrad-II |last=Peter Munz |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=2 April 2020}}</ref>

Conrad II's hopes to obtain his own duchy failed, but the marriage to Gisela brought him wealth. Her mother, [[Gerberga of Burgundy]], was the daughter of reigning [[Kingdom of Arles|Burgundian king]] [[Conrad I of Burgundy|Conrad]] and granddaughter of the late [[Carolingian Empire|Frankish king]] [[Louis IV of France|Louis IV]]. Gisela also claimed descent from [[Charlemagne]] through both her mother and father. The marriage was opposed by many because of the familial relationship shared by Gisela and Conrad. Both were descendants of King [[Henry the Fowler|Henry I]] – Conrad in the fifth generation and Gisela in the fourth. According to [[canon law]], marriage was forbidden among relatives from the first to the seventh generation. Though Conrad's marriage differed little from the usual practice of the time, strict canonists frowned upon the marriage and [[Emperor Henry II]] relied on this violation of canon law when he forced Conrad into temporary exile. During this exile, Gisela bore Conrad a son, the future emperor [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]], on 28 October 1017. Conrad and Emperor Henry II eventually reconciled and he returned to Germany.<ref name="MöllerAmmerich2015"/><ref name=brit/>

==Reign as king==
===Royal election===
Emperor Henry II died childless in 1024, bringing an end to the [[Ottonian dynasty]] that had ruled Germany since 919.<ref>"Germany", Martin Volkl, ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology'', Volume 2, ed. Clifford J. Rogers, ([[Oxford University Press]], 2010), p. 171. {{ISBN?}}</ref> Without a clear successor to the German throne, Henry's widow [[Cunigunde of Luxembourg]] ruled as regent while the German dukes gathered to elect a new king. Cunigunde was assisted by her brothers Bishop [[Dietrich I of Metz]] and Duke [[Henry V of Bavaria]]. Archbishop [[Aribo of Mainz]], the [[primate of Germany]], also assisted Cunigunde.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archbishop Aribo di Magonza |url=http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bmagon.html |date=24 July 2017 |publisher=Catholic-Hierarchy |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref>

On 4 September 1024, the German princes gathered at Kamba, a historical name for an area on the east banks of the [[Rhine]] opposite the modern German town of [[Oppenheim]]. Now the location of ''Kamba'' is marked with a small equestrian statue of Conrad II. The chronicler and Conrad's [[chaplain]], [[Wipo of Burgundy]], attended the meeting and documented the event. Archbishop Aribo presided over the assembly. Conrad presented himself as a candidate for election, as did his younger cousin [[Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia|Conrad]]. Both were [[Family tree of German monarchs|descendants]] of [[Emperor Otto I]] by their common grandfather [[Otto of Worms]], son of Liutgarde, one of Otto's daughters.{{sfn|Bernhardt|2002|p=311}} Although further members of the Ottonian dynasty existed, none were seriously considered eligible. The [[Duchy of Saxony]] adopted a neutral strategy while the [[Duchy of Lorraine]] favoured the younger Conrad. A majority of the assembled princes favoured the elder Conrad, as the father of a seven-year-old son implied a more stable dynastic future for the kingdom. As president of the assembly, Archbishop Aribo cast the first vote and supported the elder Conrad. He was joined by the other clerics in support of him. The secular dukes then cast their votes for the elder Conrad as well. Archbishop [[Pilgrim of Cologne]], Duke [[Gothelo I of Lower Lorraine]] and Duke [[Frederick II of Upper Lorraine]] did not support him.{{sfn|Schutz|2010|pp=115–}}

[[File:Speyer dom 11.jpg|thumb|[[Speyer Cathedral]], consecrated in 1061]]

Conrad was crowned [[king of Germany]] by Archbishop Aribo in [[Mainz Cathedral]] on 8 September 1024 at the age of 34.{{sfn|Heer|1968|p=51}}{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=97}} To mark his election, Conrad commissioned the construction of [[Speyer Cathedral]], near his ancestral home of Worms. Construction began in 1030. Archbishop Aribo, as archbishop of Mainz, was already the chancellor of Germany. Conrad wanted to reward the archbishop for his electoral support, so he made Aribo chancellor of Italy as well, making Aribo the second most powerful man in the [[Holy Roman Empire]] as the imperial chancellor.{{sfn|Weinfurter|1999|p=22–}}<ref name="rege">{{Cite web |title=Heinrich V. in seiner Zeit |url=http://www.regesta-imperii.de/fileadmin/user_upload/downloads/Regesta_Imperii_Beiheft_34.pdf |last=Gerhard Lubich |publisher=Regesta |access-date=3 February 2020}}</ref>

Aribo refused to crown Conrad's wife Gisela as queen as their marriage violated canon law. Conrad refused to accept Archbishop Aribo's position. Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne saw the situation as an opportunity to restore his relationship with the king, after refusing to support Conrad's election, and he crowned Gisela queen on 21 September 1024. The political reorientation of Pilgrim also weakened the opposition towards the new king.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gisela |url=https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0001/bsb00016322/images/index.html?seite=427 |last=Otto zu Stolberg-Wernigerode |publisher=Neue deutsche Biographie |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref>

===Early reign===
Conrad inherited a kingdom troubled by problems. The dukes of Saxony and Lorraine and his cousin Conrad of Carinthia opposed his rule. In order to strengthen his position, Conrad and Gisela embarked on a royal tour. At [[Augsburg]] Conrad received the support of Bishop [[Bruno of Augsburg|Bruno]] and at [[Strasbourg]] he acquired the support of Bishop [[Werner I (Bishop of Strasbourg)|Werner]]. Both men were brothers of former emperor Henry II and Conrad appointed them to high office at his court. After visiting Cologne Conrad stopped at [[Aachen]], where he, as a successor of the empire's founder [[Charlemagne]], announced that he would continue the tradition of claiming [[East Francia]]. The princes of the [[Duchy of Lorraine]] rejected his claim, though. Conrad then moved north to Saxony, visiting abbesses [[Adelaide I, Abbess of Quedlinburg|Adelaide I of Quedlinburg]] and [[Sophia I, Abbess of Gandersheim|Sophia I of Gandersheim]], daughters of [[Emperor Otto II]]. They supported Conrad, which helped to rally the Saxon nobility behind him. During [[Christmas]] at [[Minden]], the Saxon nobles, led by Duke [[Bernard II, Duke of Saxony|Bernard II]], officially recognized him as sovereign. He in turn had vowed to respect and honour the ancient Saxon customs and laws. Conrad and Gisela would remain in Saxony until March 1025, when they moved on to the [[Duchy of Swabia]], celebrating [[Easter]] at [[Augsburg]] and then proceeded on to the [[Duchy of Bavaria]], spending the feast of [[Pentecost]] at [[Regensburg]]. The royal couple finally visited [[Zürich]], where after ten months they ended their tour. Conrad then entered Burgundy in order to renew the royal claim, that, in 1016, Emperor Henry II had forced the childless Burgundian King [[Rudolph III of Burgundy|Rudolph III]] to name him as his heir.{{sfn|Wolfram|2010|p=443–}}

Conrad needed to address the longstanding "[[Gandersheim Conflict]]", as he had assumed the German throne. The decade-old unsettled dispute on who controlled [[Gandersheim Abbey]] and its estates dated back to the reign of [[Emperor Otto III]]. Both the [[Archbishop of Mainz]] and the [[Bishop of Hildesheim]] claimed authority over the Abbey, including the right to invest and anoint the abbey's nuns. Though Otto III had once eased tensions among the warring parties by declaring that both bishops would be entitled to anoint the Abbess and her sisters, the conflict still lingered. Archbishop [[Aribo (archbishop of Mainz)|Aribo of Mainz]], the new [[Primate of Germany]], counted on Conrad, who was indebted to Aribo for his support during the royal election. In January 1027, the king summoned a [[synod]] at [[Frankfurt]] to end the dispute, but a conclusion could not be reached. He called another synod in September 1028, which also failed. Only a third synod in 1030 solved the conflict when Bishop [[Gotthard of Hildesheim]] renounced his claims in favour of Aribo.{{sfn|Wolfram|2010|pp=443–}}<ref name="Davids2002">{{Cite book |last=Adelbert Davids |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9Nf-GHTgnEC&pg=PA92 |title=The Empress Theophano: Byzantium and the West at the Turn of the First Millennium |year= 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52467-4 |pages=92–}}</ref>

During his royal tour at Augsburg, Conrad and his younger cousin [[Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia|Conrad the Younger]] engaged in an argument, that, although not entirely clear, was related to the younger Conrad's demands of yet-unpaid compensation that Conrad II had promised him for withdrawing from the 1024 election. The lack of conflict between them after September 1027 suggests that they reconciled by then.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=75}}

===Unrest in Italy===
[[File:Iron Crown.JPG|thumb|300px|Following his expedition into Italy in early 1026, Conrad II was crowned with the [[Iron Crown of Lombardy]] as the [[King of the Lombards]].]]

In Bavaria, Conrad came into contact with members of the Italian ruling elite for the first time. In June 1025, bishops from [[Northern Italy]], led by Archbishop [[Aribert (archbishop of Milan)|Aribert of Milan]], crossed the [[Alps]] in order to pay homage to Conrad. In exchange for certain administrative privileges, Aribert agreed to crown Conrad [[Iron Crown of Lombardy|King]]. However, the situation in Italy had become increasingly unstable after the death of Henry II. Amidst occasional riots, many Italian aristocrats demanded the secession of the [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Kingdom of Italy]] from the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The local aristocrats and merchants increasingly considered the idea of Frankish [[Ultramontanism|ultramontan]] protection against [[Saracen]] and [[Byzantine]] threats to be obsolete. The Italian throne was now viewed as vacant and not Conrad's as a matter of right. The Lombard cities wanted to elect a king from the ranks of their own magnates, and when this motion failed, they tried to invite a prince from [[Aquitaine]] or other French realms. They offered the Italian crown to the [[House of Capet|Capetian]] king [[Robert II of France]] and his son [[Hugh Magnus]]. After the offer was rejected, they approached Duke [[William V of Aquitaine]], who, initially intrigued by the offer, rejected it as well.{{sfn|Bury|1922|p=264}}{{sfn|Schutz|2010|p=117}}

When the news of Henry's death spread, the citizens of [[Pavia]] revolted and destroyed the local imperial palace of the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|Ostrogothic king]] [[Theodoric the Great]], built during the 5th century.<ref name="Morgan-Owenson1821">{{Cite book |last=Sydney Morgan-Owenson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lupQAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA200 |title=Italy |publisher=H. Colburn |year=1821 |pages=200–}}</ref> Though Pavia was no longer the seat of imperial administration in Italy since the Ottonian dynasty, the palace had been perceived as a symbol of imperial authority in Italy and its mere presence within the city walls had been deemed intolerable. Pavia had—thanks to its strategic location on the trade routes from Italy to Burgundy and France—become an important commercial centre. The local merchants and aristocrats demanded the greatest possible autonomy from imperial control.<ref name="boni">{{Cite journal |title=Boniface of Canossa and the Emperor Conrad III |url=https://www.academia.edu/40250313 |last=Robert Houghton |journal=Storicamente |date=24 July 2017 |volume=13 |publisher=Academiaa |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref> Schutz notes that Pavia disliked the financial burden they had to bear whenever the monarchs came to the citadel. The bishops protested the separatist movement though, as they fared better under imperial protection than under local princes.{{sfn|Schutz|2010|p=117}}

In the wake of the ecclesiastical mission, a party of noblemen from [[Pavia]] travelled north to meet Conrad and asked for severance from the Empire. The emissaries justified the actions of their fellow citizens by claiming that Pavia had always been loyal to the Italian king, as long as the king was alive and present, and that the revolt had taken place when the Italian throne was vacant. Conrad rejected the argument, that just as a ship remains devoted to its captain after his death, the Empire remains imperial property after the death of an emperor. The kingdom of Italy, according to Conrad, belonged to the empire as a matter of legal right. In his ''[[Constitutio de feudis]]'' ("Edict on the Benefices of the Italian Kingdom") of 1038 he would determine his regulations of the feudal contracts in Italy.<ref name="Stock1983">{{Cite book |last=Brian Stock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ves8Li9LH8C |title=The Implications of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries |page=156 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=1983 |isbn=0-691-10227-9}}</ref> Conrad also declared that the Ostrogothic palace was property of the Empire and therefore the king had the right to punish those responsible for its destruction. The Pavian embassy returned to Italy in opposition to [[Salian dynasty|Salian]] rule.<ref name=boni/>

In February 1026, Conrad assembled a large army of armoured knights for an expedition into Italy, including troops commanded by both Archbishop [[Aribo (archbishop of Mainz)|Aribo of Mainz]] and Archbishop [[Pilgrim (archbishop of Cologne)|Pilgrim of Cologne]]. Conrad's army moved south and a contingent besieged Pavia and blocked all trade in the area, as he continued his campaign. By March 1026, Conrad arrived in [[Milan]] and was crowned with the [[Iron Crown of the Lombards]] by Archbishop [[Aribert (archbishop of Milan)|Aribert of Milan]] as [[King of the Lombards]]. From Milan, Conrad travelled to [[Vercelli]], where he celebrated [[Easter]] with the aged [[Leo of Vercelli|Bishop Leo of Vercelli]], who had been a chief advisor to the late [[Emperor Otto III]]. When Leo died a few days later, Archbishop Aribert became the chief supporter of the [[Salian dynasty]] in Italy. With Conrad's assistance, Aribert rose to the highest-ranking religious office in Italy and oversaw the expansion of the [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio]] in Milan. In June 1026, Conrad led his army to [[Ravenna]], but quartering his soldiers among the Ravennese population caused tensions in the city. Conrad then marched north to mitigate the risk the summer heat might pose to his army. In autumn Conrad left his summer camp in the [[Po Valley]] and marched to the Burgundian border. Conrad then celebrated [[Christmas]] at [[Ivrea]]. By the end of winter, the Italian aristocrats voluntarily ended their opposition to Conrad's reign. Pavia, however, remained in revolt until early 1027 when Abbot [[Odilo of Cluny]] brokered a peace deal between the city and Conrad.<ref name="Halfond2016">{{Cite book |last=Gregory I. Halfond |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yIC1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |title=The Medieval Way of War – Studies in Medieval Military History in Honor of Bernard S. Bachrach |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-02419-4 |pages=69–}}</ref>

==Reign as emperor==
===Imperial coronation===
[[File:Weltliche Schatzkammer Wien (190)2.JPG|thumb|220px|The [[Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire]]. Conrad was crowned as Emperor on 26 March 1027, by [[Pope John XIX]].]]

On 26 March 1027, [[Pope John XIX]] crowned Conrad and his wife Gisela as [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] and empress, respectively, in [[Old Saint Peter's Basilica]] in [[Rome]].{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=102}} The event lasted seven days and was attended by Conrad's son and heir [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]]; [[Cnut the Great]], King of England, Denmark and Norway; [[Rudolph III of Burgundy]] and around 70 senior clerics, including the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, Trier, Magdeburg, Salzburg, Milan and Ravenna.{{sfn|Heer|1968|p=51}} Rudolph of Burgundy's attendance suggested surprisingly good relations between Burgundy and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. During the festivities, a power struggle between the archbishops of Milan and Ravenna ensued and was settled in favour of Milan. Subsequently, Conrad left Rome and toured south to receive [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] from the Southern Italian principalities of [[Principality of Capua|Capua]] and [[Principality of Salerno|Salerno]] and the [[Duchy of Benevento]].{{sfn|Weinfurter|1999|pp=28–}}

After his coronation, Conrad issued decrees reorganising the monasteries and dioceses of Italy, with the explicit objective of bringing the [[Patriarchate of Venice]] under imperial control (see the ''[[Schism of the Three Chapters]]''). On 6 April 1027, at a [[synod]] held in the [[Lateran Basilica]] with [[Pope John XIX]], the emperor addressed the matter by declaring the [[Patriarchate of Aquileia]] superior to the [[Patriarchate of Grado]], an ally of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The Aquileian [[Poppo of Treffen|Poppo]] had been a loyal supporter of Emperor Henry II, who had appointed him patriarch in 1020. Conrad's action placed the patriarchate at Grado under Poppo's authority, securing Poppo's loyalty by making him the Emperor's top official in northern Italy. The synod also limited the political autonomy of Venice. In so doing, Conrad broke with the policies of his predecessors and revoked Venice's privileged trading status.{{sfn|Schutz|2010|pp=115–}}

In May 1027 Conrad returned to Germany in order to attend the funeral of Duke [[Henry V of Bavaria]] at [[Regensburg]]. Conrad asserted his right to appoint the new [[Duchy of Bavaria|Duke of Bavaria]]. He made the unprecedented decision of choosing his 10-year-old son [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]], ignoring several suitable candidates who held valid claims to the fief.

The young prince assumed Bavarian rule on 24 June 1027. Following Henry's appointment, Conrad held court at Regensburg and decreed that all imperial property in the duchy must be documented. This required the various counts and bishops to report all imperial property in their domains, castles and abbeys. Even the [[dowager empress]] [[Cunigunde of Luxembourg]] was required to report to Conrad, who even claimed that Cunegonde's ''[[wittum]]'' (money and property she had inherited from her deceased husband Emperor Henry II) belonged to him. These dubious claims to property and the excessive promotion of imperial authority over ducal and clerical affairs throughout Bavaria caused, unsurprisingly, new tension between him and the German aristocracy.<ref name=brit/>{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=114}}

===Uprising in Swabia===
In 1025, Duke [[Ernest II of Swabia]], Conrad's stepson from his marriage to [[Gisela of Swabia]], rebelled against his stepfather when he was elected king of Germany. By 1026, Conrad had defeated the resistance and Ernest submitted to his reign. Due to the intervention of his mother Gisela, Ernest was allowed to accompany Conrad on his expedition to Italy in 1026. During the expedition, the rebellion led by [[Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia|Conrad of Carinthia]] and Count [[Welf II, Count of Swabia|Welf II of Swabia]] continued. Conrad had named Bishop [[Bruno of Augsburg]] regent of Germany while he marched south to Italy. When Bruno was defeated by the rebels, Conrad sent Ernest back to Germany in September 1026 to end the revolt. When Ernest returned, however, he joined the rebels.

In 1027 Conrad returned to Germany after his imperial coronation and held court at [[Augsburg]], calling upon the rebels to surrender. Ernest, trusting in the number and fidelity of his vassals, rejected the peace offer and appealed to his Swabian counts to join him in the rebellion. According to [[Wipo of Burgundy]], the counts refused, stating that while they had sworn loyalty to Ernest, they would not rebel against their Emperor. Without the support of the Swabian counts, Ernest, Conrad of Carinthia and Count Welf surrendered to Conrad at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] on 9 September 1027, ending the rebellion. Conrad stripped Ernest of his ducal title and imprisoned him at [[Giebichenstein Castle]] in [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxony]]. Gisela supported Conrad against her son but did not want Ernest to be entirely humiliated. As a result of his mother's intervention, Conrad allowed Ernest to retain his title while imprisoned, with Gisela serving as regent over the duchy.{{sfn|Schutz|2010|pp=115–}}

In 1028, after Conrad's son [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]] was crowned in Aachen as King of Germany, Gisela again intervened on Ernest's behalf. Conrad pardoned Ernest and released him from prison in 1028, but Gisela retained regency over Swabia. Ernest served as duke in name only. On Easter 1030, Conrad offered to restore to Ernest his full powers as Duke of Swabia if he would crack down on the Emperor's enemies there. Ernest's refusal, especially against his friend Count Werner of Kyburg, resulted in his final downfall. Conrad stripped his stepson of his title, declared him a public enemy, and had him [[excommunicated]]. Even his mother Gisela did not come to his rescue. Within a few months, both Ernest and Werner, who had retreated to Falkenstein Castle, south of modern [[Schramberg]] in the [[Black Forest]], were killed in a battle against a contingent of the [[Bishop of Constance]]. The fall of Ernest greatly weakened the sovereignty of Swabia. Conrad appointed Ernest's younger brother [[Herman IV, Duke of Swabia|Herman]] as a new Swabian prince. As Herman was still an infant, the Bishop of Constance was assigned his regent. Eight years later in 1038, Herman died and Conrad installed his own son Henry as duke, securing imperial control over the duchy.{{sfn|Schutz|2010|pp=115–}}

===Conflict with Adalbero===
[[File:Adalbero of Eppenstein, Duke of Carinthia and Margrave of Verona.jpg|thumb|Emperor Conrad disapproved of Duke [[Adalbero, Duke of Carinthia|Adalbero]]'s increasingly indiscreet and quasi-independent rule of his estates [[Duchy of Carinthia|Carinthia]] and [[March of Verona|Verona]], that compromised the stability at the crossroads of the empire]]

Conrad had to enforce his [[royal prerogative]]s in the [[Duchy of Carinthia]] and the [[Duchy of Swabia]]. Duke [[Adalbero, Duke of Carinthia|Adalbero of Carinthia]] had been appointed as duke in 1012 under Emperor Henry II and remained loyal to imperial authority, supporting Conrad's election as German king in 1024. At a [[synod]] in [[Frankfurt]] in September 1027, Conrad attempted to resolve the decades-long "Gandersheim Conflict". Adalbero accompanied the Emperor and acted as his sword-bearer during the proceeding, indicating Conrad's trust in him. From 1028 on, Adalbero governed his duchy as an independent state.

In particular, he attempted to conduct peaceful relations with King [[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen I]] of the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Hungary]]. Under Emperor Henry II, who was the brother-in-law to Stephen, relations between the Empire and Hungary had been friendly. Upon Henry's death in 1024, Stephen I adopted a more aggressive policy, prompting border raids into the Empire from Hungary. The raids particularly affected Adalbero's domain of Carinthia, which shared a long, eastern border with Hungary.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p= 140}}{{sfn|Makk|2001|p=45}}

Conrad summoned Adalbero to court at [[Bamberg]] on 18 May 1035, to answer an indictment of [[treason]] for his actions regarding Hungary. In the presence of the German dukes, Conrad demanded that Adalbero be stripped of all his titles and lands. The dukes demurred and demanded that Conrad's son [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]], Germany's co-king and Conrad's designated successor, join the assembly before a decision was made. Henry refused to depose Adalbero, citing an earlier agreement with Adelbero to be his ally in negotiating a settlement between him and his father. Conrad resorted to exhortations, pleas and threats to convince Henry to support Adalbero's deposition. Henry's support was soon followed by that of the other dukes. Conrad then ordered Adalbero to be removed as Duke and sentenced him and his son to [[exile]]. After attacking Conrad's allies in Carinthia, Adalbero fled to his mother's estates in [[Ebersberg]] in the [[Duchy of Bavaria]], where he remained until his death in 1039. The ducal seat of Carinthia remained unoccupied until 2 February 1035, when Conrad named his cousin [[Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia|Conrad the Younger]] as the new duke. With the appointment, the three southern German duchies of Swabia, Bavaria and Carinthia were all under the control of Emperor Conrad through his family members (his stepson Herman in Swabia, his son Henry in Bavaria, and his cousin Conrad in Carinthia).{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=84}}

Control of the southern duchies allowed Conrad to continue the process begun under the [[Ottonian dynasty]], centralizing the Emperor's authority over the Empire at the expense of the regional dukes. Conrad broke with Ottonian tradition, however, in favouring a more strict means of controlling rebellious vassals. Whereas the Ottonians followed a policy of informal public submission and subsequent reconciliation, Conrad used treason trials to declare rebels as "public enemies" to legitimize his subsequent harsh treatment, as he had done with [[Ernest II, Duke of Swabia|Ernest II of Swabia]] and Adalbero. The nobles saw the use of these treason trials not as mere power shifts in favour of the Emperor, but as a cruel breach of German tradition.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=88}}

===Policy towards the Church===
Conrad continued the [[Ottonian dynasty]]'s [[imperial church system]]—a policy of using the German Church as a vehicle for imperial control. Beginning in the 950s, the Ottonians had favoured Church officials over secular nobles for appointment to the Empire's most important offices. Claiming "[[divine right of king|divine right]]" to rule the Empire, the Ottonians increasingly viewed themselves as [[Defender of the Faith|protectors of the church]] and thus demanded loyalty from the Church officials.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Timothy Reuter |date=25 March 2011 |title=The 'Imperial Church System' of the Ottonian and Salian Rulers: a Reconsideration |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-ecclesiastical-history/article/imperial-church-system-of-the-ottonian-and-salian-rulers-a-reconsideration/8B8887F785FC72BFD48A4A5DDF8A49C2 |journal=The Journal of Ecclesiastical History |publisher=Cambridge Org |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=347–374 |doi=10.1017/S0022046900026245 |s2cid=159994750 |access-date=27 January 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In return, the various bishoprics and abbeys of the Empire were granted extensive landholdings and secular authority, providing immunity from the jurisdiction of the secular nobles. As such, the Church officials reported exclusively to the Emperor, acting as his personal vassals.<ref name="Fuhrmann1986">{{Cite book |last=Horst Fuhrmann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hlapxde55rAC |title=Germany in the High Middle Ages: c. 1050–1200 |date=1986 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-31980-5}}</ref> As the Emperor's vassals, the Church officials were subject to the provision of two services: the ''servitium regis'' (royal service) and ''servitium militum'' (military service). Under royal service, the bishops and abbots were required to provide hospitality and accommodations to the Emperor and his court when he arrived. It also required the Church officials to act as quasi-bureaucracy for the Empire. Under military service, the Church was required to supply soldiers for the Emperor's army or to act as diplomats at his direction. Conrad energetically continued this tradition.{{sfn|Schutz|2010|pp=115–}}<ref name="Bernhardt2002">{{Cite book |last=John W. Bernhardt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIiloa3-AlIC&pg=PR6 |title=Itinerant Kingship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany, c. 936–1075 |date=2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-52183-3 |pages=6–}}</ref>

In his biography of Conrad, the chronicler [[Wipo of Burgundy]] stated the promotion of the Church was of little value to the Emperor. Conrad and the other members of the [[Salian dynasty]] had little interest in the founding of new monasteries. Through their hundred-year dynasty, the Salians only founded one: [[Limburg Abbey]] which was converted from a fortress to a monastery in 1025. The Ottonians established at least eight in their hundred-year reign. Additionally, the Ottonians were active in the establishment of Church affairs, but Conrad was uninterested, only calling five [[synod]]s during his reign and usually only to restore peace. Conrad's decisions on Church policy were often left to his wife [[Gisela of Swabia]]. When Archbishop [[Aribo (archbishop of Mainz)|Aribo of Mainz]], [[Primate of Germany]], died in 1031, Conrad considered both Abbot [[Bardo (bishop)|Bardo]] of [[Hersfeld Abbey]] and the renowned [[theologian]] [[Wazo of Liège]], then serving as the dean of the [[cathedral chapter]] for the [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège|Bishop of Liege]]. Though Conrad favoured Wazo to lead the German Church as Archbishop and Primate, Gisela convinced him to appoint Bardo instead.<ref name="MöllerAmmerich2015"/>

===Relations with Poland===
====War with Mieszko Lambert====
{{Main|Germania Slavica}}
[[File:Polska 992 - 1025.png|thumb|The [[Duchies of Poland|Duchy of Poland]] at its greatest extent under [[Bolesław I the Brave|Bolesław I]] and his son [[Mieszko II Lambert]]]]

Duke [[Bolesław I of Poland]] of the [[Piast dynasty]] repeatedly clashed with [[Emperor Henry II]] during the [[German–Polish War (1002–18)|German–Polish Wars]] of 1002 to 1018. In January 1018, Henry II and Bolesław I signed the [[Peace of Bautzen|peace treaty of Bautzen]],{{sfn|Knefelkamp|2002|p=125}} that settled the permanent coexistence of the Empire and Poland as Bolesław recognized Henry II as his nominal feudal lord.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=451}} In return, Henry II generously invested Bolesław with territories on the Empire's eastern border. In order to reinforce his dynastic bonds with the German nobility, Bolesław, a widower, married [[Oda of Meissen]], daughter of the Saxon margrave [[Eckard I of Meissen]]. The Empire and Poland enjoyed peace for the remainder of Henry's reign. However, Bolesław then seized the opportunity presented by Henry's death in 1024 and the subsequent interregnum to consolidate his own power, crowning himself King on [[Easter]], 25 April 1025. Bolesław was thus the first Polish king, as his predecessors only held the ducal title of the political entity, called [[Civitas Schinesghe]] at the time, that had only a few decades ago revealed itself to the world and the [[Holy See]] in Rome.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krystyna Łukasiewicz|date=2009 |title='dagome Iudex' and the First Conflict over Succession in Poland |journal=The Polish Review |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=407–429 |jstor=25779841}}</ref> Bolesław died within two months of his coronation, most likely due to an illness. His son, [[Mieszko II Lambert]], succeeded him as King, crowned on Christmas, 1025. Upon assuming the Polish throne, Mieszko expelled his older half-brother [[Bezprym]] and his younger brother [[Otto Bolesławowic]]. Otto went west to seek Conrad II's protection.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=209}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Herzog Mieszko II – Lambert Piast |url=https://www.geni.com/people/Herzog-Mieszko-II-Lambert-Piast/6000000000768959047 |publisher=Geni |access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref>

Conrad considered the assumption of the title "king" by Mieszko an act of war and a disregard of his imperial authority, but had to address domestic issues before dealing with Mieszko. In 1026 Conrad II marched into Italy to consolidate imperial authority south of the Alps and to claim the imperial crown from the Pope. In his absence, Duke [[Ernest II of Swabia]], [[Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia|Conrad the Younger]] and Duke [[Frederick II of Upper Lorraine]] rebelled against his authority.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mathilde von Schwaben |url=http://bsbndb.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/sfz58985.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130701012634/http://bsbndb.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/sfz58985.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 July 2013 |last=Eckhard Freise |publisher=Neue deutsche Biographie |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref>

The rebels sought the support of Mieszko, which the Polish king granted, promising to take military action against Conrad. Conrad returned to Germany in mid-1027, putting an end to the rebellion before Mieszko could deploy his forces. In preparation for his own invasion of Poland, Conrad developed a closer relationship with King [[Cnut]] of England and Denmark (whose kingdom lay beyond the Empire's northern border). Cnut accompanied Conrad at his imperial coronation in 1027, and Conrad granted Cnut authority over the [[Duchy of Schleswig|March of Schleswig]], the land bridge between Denmark and Germany.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=215}}

Fearing the possibility of a joint German-Danish attack, in 1028 Mieszko took the initiative and invaded [[March of Lusatia|Lusatia]] in the eastern Empire and occupied the territories of the [[Lutici]]an Federation, where [[West Slavs|West Slavic]] [[Polabian Slavs|Polabian]] tribes had settled and represented the majority of the population since the 10th century after centuries of steady immigration.<ref name="Goldberg2006">{{Cite book |last=Eric Joseph Goldberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyiTg0wgl58C&pg=PA121 |title=Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict Under Louis the German, 817–876 |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-8014-3890-X |pages=121–}}</ref> Slavs had long been the targets of imperial military campaigns, particularly for the punishment and subjugation of [[paganism|pagan]] tribes. [[Emperor Otto I]]'s lieutenants, [[Herman Billung]] and [[Gero]], harassed Slavic settlers beginning in the 940s. As part of the [[Slavic revolt of 983]], the Lutici rebelled against the Empire. In the ensuing war (983–995), the Lutici succeeded in reclaiming their independence and gained control of the [[Billung March]] and [[Northern March]] from the Empire.{{sfn|Lübke|2002|p=99}} Though [[Emperor Otto III]] allied with Duke [[Bolesław I of Poland]] to reintegrate them into the Empire, Otto III's death ended the friendly relationship between Poland and the Empire. Instead, Bolesław competed with Otto III's successor, Emperor Henry II, for dominion over the Lutici, causing Henry II to ally the Empire with the Lutici against Poland. Under the [[Peace of Bautzen]] in 1018, all three parties remained in uneasy peace, with Poland allowed to retain the [[Margraviate of Meissen]]. Of the eastern marches, the Empire only kept the [[March of Lusatia]]. Mieszko's 1028 invasion ended the peace. The Lutici sent ambassadors to seek Conrad's protection against Mieszko, which Conrad granted and renewed the German-Lutician alliance.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ostsiedlung – ein gesamteuropäisches Phänomen |date=25 May 2002 |url=https://www.grin.com/document/106527 |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=9783640048069 |access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=A. Pleszczynski |url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004205642/Bej.9789004185548.i-352_003.xml |title=The Birth of a Stereotype – Appearance Of The Piast State Within Eyeshot Of The Elites In The Liudolfings' Empire |date= 2011 |publisher=Jstor |isbn=9789004205642 |access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="Herrmann1985">{{Cite book |last=Joachim Herrmann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iXggAAAAMAAJ |title=Die Slawen in Deutschland: Geschichte und Kultur der slawischen Stämme westlich von Oder und Neisse vom 6. bis 12. Jahrhundert |publisher=Akademie-Verlag |year=1985}}</ref>

Conrad, seeking to relieve pressure on the Lutici, counter-invaded Poland in 1029 and besieged [[Bautzen]] in the [[Margraviate of Meissen]]. However, faced with a potential invasion by Hungary and the failure of the Lutici to provide their promised contingent of troops, Conrad retreated. In 1030, Poland secured an alliance with Hungary, with Stephen I invading Bavaria while Mieszko invaded Saxony. Conrad responded by allying with [[Yaroslav the Wise]], [[Grand Prince of Kiev]], who captured [[Red Ruthenia]], on Poland's eastern border. In 1031, Conrad concluded a peace treaty with Hungary by ceding the lands between the rivers [[Lajta]] and [[Fischa]] to Hungarian control. Freed from the threat of Hungarian attack, the Emperor was able to focus his attention on Poland. Marching on Mieszko in autumn 1031, Conrad again besieged [[Bautzen]]. Mieszko was crushed by the Holy Roman and Kievan invaders and his exiled brother [[Bezprym]]'s rebellion. He surrendered to Conrad in the fall of 1031. The [[Treaty of Merseburg]] provided that Mieszko return the [[Margraviate of Meissen]] and the [[March of Lusatia]] to the Empire.{{sfn|Boshof|2008|p=71}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mieszko II Lambert King of Poland |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mieszko-II-Lambert |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="mie">{{Cite journal |last=Henry Joseph Lang |date=1974 |title=The Fall of the Monarchy of Mieszko II, Lambert |journal=Speculum |publisher= |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=623–639 |doi=10.2307/2852030 |jstor=2852030|s2cid=159636093}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge1995">{{Cite book |last=Cambridge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-SsbHs5zTAC&pg=PA267 |title=The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, c. 900 – c. 1024 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-36447-8 |pages=267–}}</ref>

====Treaty of Merseburg====
Soon after Mieszko had concluded peace with the Empire, he was deposed by [[Bezprym]], who had been in exile in the [[Kievan Rus']] since 1025. Bezprym, with Conrad's approval, had persuaded the Kievan Grand Prince [[Yaroslav I the Wise]] to invade Poland and install Bezprym as sovereign. Mieszko fled to [[Duchy of Bohemia|Bohemia]] where he was imprisoned and [[castrated]] by Duke [[Oldřich, Duke of Bohemia|Oldřich]] in retribution for Mieszko's father [[Bolesław I the Brave|Bolesław]]'s blinding of Duke [[Boleslaus III, Duke of Bohemia|Boleslaus III]], Oldřich's brother, thirty years earlier. Shortly after taking power, Bezprym sent the [[Polish regalia]] to Conrad, officially renouncing the title "king" in favour of the traditional title "duke" and accepting the overlordship of the Empire over Poland.{{sfn|Boshof|2008|p=71}} The royal regalia were delivered by Mieszko II's wife, [[Richeza of Lotharingia]].<ref name="Halfond2016"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Medieval Russia 980–1584 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/102/4/1140/80981?redirectedFrom=fulltext |last=Janet Martin |date=1 October 1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=4 April 2020}}</ref>

Bezprym's reign, however, was short. His extreme cruelty caused his half-brother [[Otto Bolesławowic]] to conspire against him. Bezprym's own men murdered him in the spring of 1032, which created a [[power vacuum]] in Poland. Conrad responded by holding a [[hoftag|diet]] at [[Merseburg]] in 1033 to address the situation. Conrad's wife, Empress [[Gisela of Swabia]], interceded on Mieszko's behalf and requested he be freed from imprisonment in Bohemia and allowed to regain the Polish throne. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Merseburg]], Conrad divided Poland among Mieszko, Otto and Detric, another half-brother. Mieszko was allowed to retain the title of Duke and nominal authority over all of Poland. Now that the Empire had a strong central leader, the treaty significantly increased the Empire's influence over Poland.{{sfn|Knefelkamp|2002|p=137}}{{sfn|Boshof|2008|p=72}}

The regulation was short-lived as in 1033 Otto was killed by one of his own men, and Mieszko II took over his domains. Shortly after, Mieszko expelled Detric and reunited the whole country. Though Mieszko regained his territory, he still was opposed by the nobility and his own subjects. Mieszko did not adopt Bezprym's renunciation of the Polish crown and continued to style himself as King. Mieszko II died soon after in 1034, and upon his death, a [[Pagan reaction in Poland]] erupted. Subsequently, his wife [[Richeza of Lotharingia|Richeza]] and son [[Casimir I of Poland|Casimir I]] fled to the Empire.<ref name=mie/>{{sfn|Knefelkamp|2002|p=137}}{{sfn|Boshof|2008|p=72}}

===Relations with Eastern Europe===

====Bohemia====
The [[Duchy of Bohemia]] was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1004 during the [[German–Polish War (1002–1018)|German–Polish War]]s, that lasted from 1002 to 1018. [[Emperor Henry II]] installed [[Jaromír, Duke of Bohemia|Jaromír]] as [[Duke of Bohemia]] and guaranteed protection against Polish aggression. Jaromír ruled only a small territory, however, as Poland had occupied the traditional Czech territories of [[Moravia]], [[Silesia]], [[Lesser Poland]] and [[Lusatia]]. In 1012, Jaromír was deposed by his brother [[Oldřich, Duke of Bohemia|Oldřich]], who assumed the Bohemian throne for himself. Following the resumption of hostilities between the Empire and Poland in 1028, Oldřich went on the offensive against Poland, reconquering Moravia by 1029, which helped to stabilize his duchy. The war ended in 1031 when the Polish king [[Mieszko II Lambert|Mieszko II]] surrendered to Conrad. During the following civil war, Mieszko was forced to flee Poland for Bohemia, where Oldřich had him imprisoned and castrated in revenge for the torture Mieszko's father, [[Bolesław I of Poland]], inflicted upon Duke [[Boleslaus III, Duke of Bohemia|Boleslaus III]], Oldřich's brother, thirty years before.<ref name=mie/><ref name="Prague09">{{Cite book |last1=Cosmas (of Prague) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZG7igBN41oUC&pg=PA105 |title=The Chronicle of the Czechs |last2=Cosmas of Prague |last3=Côme de Prague |publisher=CUA Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8132-1570-9 |pages=105–}}</ref>

Poland did not stabilize in the wake of Mieszko's exile, forcing Conrad to convene an assembly in July 1033 to issue the [[Treaty of Merseburg]] which restored Mieszko to the Polish throne. Conrad summoned Oldřich to appear at the assembly, but Oldřich refused. His absence raised the ire of the Emperor; Conrad, busy with securing his succession to the Burgundian throne, charged his son Duke [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry of Bavaria]] with punishing the recalcitrant Bohemian. At age 17, Henry's march on Bohemia was his first independent military command. The expedition was a complete success, as Henry deposed Oldřich and restored his brother Jaromír to the Bohemian throne. Oldřich's son [[Bretislav I|Bretislaus I]] was appointed as Count of [[Moravia]]. Oldřich himself was imprisoned in Bavaria, but in 1034 was pardoned and allowed to return to Bohemia.<ref name="Wolverton2012">{{Cite book |last=Lisa Wolverton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeFACISbhCgC&pg=PP6 |title=Hastening Toward Prague: Power and Society in the Medieval Czech Lands |date= 2012 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0422-3 |pages=6–}}</ref> Oldřich deposed and blinded Jaromír, reclaimed the Bohemian throne, and exiled his son Bretislaus. While the reason for the conflict between father and son has been lost, it is assumed Bretislaus had supported Jaromír over his father. However, Oldřich died suddenly on 9 November 1034, allowing Bretislaus to return from exile. Though Jaromír was offered the throne, he declined in favour of his nephew. Bretislaus was then confirmed as the new Duke of Bohemia by Conrad II.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=227}}

====Hungary====

[[File:Portrayal of Stephen I, King of Hungary on the coronation pall.jpg|thumb|Stephen as depicted on the coronation pall]]
With emperor Otto III's approval, Stephen was crowned as the first Christian [[king of Hungary]] on [[Christmas Day]], 1000.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=28}} Otto III's successor, [[Emperor Henry II]], was Stephen's brother-in-law by Stephen's marriage to Henry's sister [[Gisela of Hungary|Gisela]], furthering the friendly relationship between the Empire and Hungary. Under Conrad II, however, relations quickly turned hostile as Conrad pursued a more aggressive policy regarding eastern Europe.{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|p=90}} Conrad II expelled the [[Doge of Venice|Venetian doge]] [[Otto Orseolo]], the husband of Stephen's sister [[Grimelda of Hungary]] from Venice in 1026.{{sfn|Lenkey|2003|p=90}}{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=148}} Conrad also persuaded the Bavarians to accept his own infant son, [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]], as their duke in 1027, although Stephen's son, [[Saint Emeric of Hungary|Emeric of Hungary]], had a legitimate claim to the [[Duchy of Bavaria]] through his mother.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=187}}

Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the [[Byzantine Empire]] and dispatched one of his advisors, Bishop [[Werner I (Bishop of Strasbourg)|Werner of Strasbourg]], to [[Constantinople]].{{sfn|Butler|Cumming|Burns|1998|p=159}}{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=197–198}} The bishop presented himself as a pilgrim, but Stephen, who had been informed of his actual purpose, refused to let him enter the country in the autumn of 1027.{{sfn|Butler|Cumming|Burns|1998|p=159}}{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=197–198}} Conrad's biographer [[Wipo of Burgundy]] recorded that the Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common Imperial-Hungarian border in 1029, causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|p=149}}{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=74}} In 1030, open conflict erupted. Conrad launched an invasion into Hungary but was forced to retreat when the Hungarians successfully used [[scorched earth]] tactics. Conrad departed to address the problem with his stepson [[Ernest II, Duke of Swabia|Ernest II]], the deposed [[Duke of Swabia]], leaving matters in Hungary to his son Henry. Henry settled the conflict by 1031 by bestowing titles to eastern Bavarian lands between the [[Lajta]] and [[Fischa]] rivers to the Hungarian nobility. Hungary and the Empire remained at peace from 1031 to Henry's own reign as Emperor in 1040.{{sfn|Györffy|1994|pp=149–150}}

===Conquest of Burgundy===
In 1016 King [[Rudolph III of Burgundy]], ruler of the [[Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles|Kingdom of Burgundy]], was left without a male heir, and so [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] seized the opportunity and forced Rudolph to name him as successor.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=16}} Henry II, the son of Rudolph's sister [[Gisela of Burgundy]], was his nephew and closest living male relative. However, Henry predeceased Rudolph in 1024. Soon, Henry's successor Conrad II claimed to have acquired Henry's rights to the Burgundian succession, which Rudolph disputed. Count [[Odo II of Blois]], who had strong family ties with Rudolph, also claimed the succession. Conrad II met Rudolph III in August 1027 near [[Basel]] to settle the dispute. Henry II's widowed wife, Empress [[Cunigunde of Luxembourg]], mediated between the two parties.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=27}} An agreement was reached that allowed Conrad II to succeed to the Burgundian throne upon Rudolph's death under the same conditions as Henry II. In return, Rudolph was allowed to retain independent rule over his kingdom.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=27}}

Rudolph died on 6 September 1032, while Conrad was on campaign against Duke [[Mieszko II of Poland]]. Upon Mieszko's surrender, Conrad marched his army to Burgundy during the winter of 1032/1033. Conrad's rival to the Burgundian throne, Count Odo II of Blois had already invaded the kingdom to secure his rule and controlled large sections of the kingdom's western territories.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=30}} On 2 February 1033, Conrad arrived at [[Vaud]], where he held an assembly at the [[Payerne Priory|Abbey of Payerne]] and was crowned King of Burgundy.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=32}}

Initially, Conrad made little progress against Odo and had to withdraw to [[Zürich]] in March.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=32}} In April 1033 he negotiated a treaty of alliance with [[Henry I of France]], which was completed at the end of May in a personal interview at [[Deville, Ardennes|Deville]] on the Meuse. Both monarchs had Odo for an enemy, since he had supported the claims of Henry I's younger brother to the French crown. Conrad might therefore have been given a free hand by his ally to invade Odo's French fiefs.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=33}} In two large-scale military summer campaigns in 1033 and 1034, Conrad defeated Odo.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|pp=33–36}} On 1 August 1034, Conrad officially incorporated Burgundy into the [[Holy Roman Empire]] at a ceremony held in the [[St. Pierre Cathedral|Cathedral of Geneva]].{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|pp=33–36}}

Though Burgundy had been brought under full imperial control, the kingdom was allowed a remarkable degree of autonomy. Conrad rarely intervened in its affairs following his coronation, returning only in 1038 to announce his son [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]] as the kingdom's future ruler. Crucially, the conquest of Burgundy augmented the influence and dignity of the Emperor to the benefit of the Empire. With Burgundy secured, Conrad controlled the western Alpine passes into Italy and could easily block foreign invasions.{{sfn|Previté-Orton|1912|p=40}}

==Politics==
[[File:Conrad II et prince impérial, vitrail roman, Cathédrale de Strasbourg.jpg|thumb|upright|Conrad II, 12th-century stained glass window, [[Strasbourg Cathedral]]]]

Conrad formally confirmed the popular [[legal]] traditions of [[Saxony]] and issued new constitutions for [[Lombardy]]. In 1028 at [[Aachen]], he had his son Henry elected and anointed king of [[Germany]]. Henry married [[Gunhilda of Denmark]], daughter of King [[Cnut]] the Great of [[England]], [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] by [[Emma of Normandy]]. This was an arrangement that Conrad had made many years prior when he gave Canute parts of northern Germany to administer.<ref name="Bolton2017">{{Cite book |last=Timothy Bolton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ssCDgAAQBAJ |title=Cnut the Great |page= 162 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-300-20833-7}}</ref> Henry, who would later become Emperor [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]], became his father's chief counselor.


When King [[Rudolph III of Burgundy]] died on 2 February 1032, Conrad claimed the kingship on the basis of an inheritance that Henry II had extorted from Rudolph in 1006, after Henry invaded [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]] to enforce his claim in 1016. Despite some opposition, the Burgundian and Provençal nobles paid homage to Conrad in [[Zürich]] in 1034. This Kingdom of Burgundy, later known as the [[Kingdom of Arles]] from the 12th century, corresponded to most of the southeastern quarter of modern France and included western Switzerland, the Franche-Comté and Dauphiné. It did not include the smaller [[Duchy of Burgundy]] to the north, ruled by a cadet branch of the Capetian [[King of France]]. (Most of the former Kingdom of Burgundy/Arles was incorporated into France piecemeal over the next centuries, but "King of Burgundy" remained one of the Holy Roman Emperor's subsidiary titles until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806.)

Conrad upheld the rights of the ''valvassores'' (knights and [[Burgher (social class)|burghers]] of the cities) of [[Italy]] against Archbishop Aribert of Milan and the local nobles. The nobles, as vassal lords, and the [[bishop]] had conspired to rescind rights from the burghers. Conrad restored order with skilful diplomacy and luck.<ref name="MöllerAmmerich2015"/>

==Late life==

===Securing the imperial succession===
On 14 January 1040, Conrad II's heir Henry issued a charter, in which he announced his official designation as ''Rex romanorum'' ("[[King of the Romans]]"), thus effectively elevating the traditional Frankish kingship to Imperial authority. This was the exclusive method for claiming the office of Holy Roman Emperor.<ref name=brit/>{{sfn|Weinfurter|1999|pp=28–}}

===Second Italian expedition===

In 1038, Prince [[Guaimar IV of Salerno]] requested that Conrad adjudicate in a dispute over [[Capua]] with its Prince [[Pandulf IV of Capua|Pandulf]], whom Conrad had released from imprisonment in 1024, immediately after his coronation. Hearing that [[Michael IV the Paphlagonian]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] had received the same request, Conrad went to [[Southern Italy]], to [[Salerno]] and [[Aversa]]. He appointed Richer, from Germany, as abbot of [[Monte Cassino]], as abbot Theobald was imprisoned by Pandulf. At [[Troia, Apulia|Troia]], he ordered Pandulf to restore stolen property to Monte Cassino. Pandulf sent his wife and son to ask for peace, offering {{cvt|300|lb}} of gold and two of his children as hostages. The Emperor accepted Pandulf's offer, but the hostages escaped as Pandulf hid in his outlying castle of [[Sant'Agata de' Goti]]. Conrad besieged and conquered Capua and bestowed the place and the title of ''Prince'' on Guaimar. He also recognized Aversa as a county of Salerno under [[Rainulf Drengot]], the [[Normans|Norman]] adventurer. Pandulf, meanwhile, fled to [[Constantinople]]. Conrad thus left the ''[[Mezzogiorno]]'' firmly in Guaimar's hands and loyal, for once, to the Holy Roman Empire.<ref name=boni/><ref name=brit/>

===Death===
[[Image:Grab Konrad II. im Dom zu Speyer.JPG|thumb|150px|Conrad II's tomb in the [[Speyer Cathedral]]]]
On the return to Germany, a severe epidemic decimated the ranks of Conrad's troops; Conrad's daughter-in-law and stepson also died. Conrad himself returned home safely and held court on important occasions in [[Solothurn]], [[Strasbourg]] and [[Goslar]]. His son Henry was invested with the duchies of Swabia and Carinthia.{{sfn|North|2001|p=143}}

A year later in 1039 Conrad fell ill and died of [[gout]] in [[Utrecht]].{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|p=345}} His heart and bowels are buried at the [[Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht]].{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=345–346}} His body was transferred to Speyer via [[Cologne]], [[Mainz]] and [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], where the funeral procession made several stops. His body is buried at [[Speyer Cathedral]], a cathedral which he himself founded and contains the resting place of all [[Salian Emperors|Salian emperors]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heer |first=Friedrich |url=http://archive.org/details/holyromanempire0000heer |title=The Holy Roman Empire |publisher=Phoenix Giant |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-85799-367-7 |location=London |pages=52 |language=en}}</ref> During a major excavation in 1900 his sarcophagus was relocated from his original resting place in front of the altar to the crypt, where it is still visible today.

A biography of Conrad II in chronicle form, ''Gesta Chuonradi II imperatoris'', was written by his chaplain [[Wipo of Burgundy]], and presented to Henry III in 1046, not long after he was crowned.<ref name="MöllerAmmerich2015"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gesta Chuonradi imperatoris - (Taten Kaiser Konrads) |url=https://www.geschichtsquellen.de/werk/4761 |publisher=Geschichtsquellen |access-date=4 April 2020}}</ref>

==Cultural depictions of Conrad II==
{{main|Cultural depictions of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor}}

==Family and children==
{{see also|Family tree of German monarchs}}

Conrad married Gisela of Swabia in 1016, the daughter of Duke Herman II of Swabia. They had three children:
* [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]]{{sfn|Heer|1968|p=52}} (1017–1056)
* Beatrix ({{c.}}1020–1036){{sfn|Bernhardt|2002|p=311}}
* [[Matilda of Franconia|Matilda]] (c. 1027–1034){{sfn|Bernhardt|2002|p=311}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book |title=The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526 |publisher=I.B. Tauris Publishers |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-86064-061-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Pál |author-link=Pál Engel}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Medieval History: Vol. III. Germany and the Western Empire |year=1922 |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=John Bagnell |author-link=J. B. Bury}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bernhardt |first=John W. |title=Itinerant Kingship & Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany, c. 936–1075 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Halliday |first=Andrew |title=Annals of the House of Hannover |year=1826 |location=London |author-link=Andrew Halliday (journalist)}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=m_VUiHt9jxwC&q=Annals+of+the+House+of+Hannover at Google Books]
* {{Cite book |last=Györffy |first=György |title=István király és műve ''[=King Stephen and his work]'' |publisher=Gondolat Könyvkiadó |year=1983 |isbn=963-9441-87-2 |language=hu |author-link=György Györffy}}
* {{Cite book |last=Heer |first=Friedrich |url=https://archive.org/details/holyromanempire00heer |title=The Holy Roman Empire |publisher=Frederick A. Praeger |year=1968 |translator-last=Sondheimer |translator-first=Janet |author-link=Friedrich Heer |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Makk |first=Ferenc |title=Saint Stephen and His Country: A Newborn Kingdom in Central Europe – Hungary |publisher=Lucidus Kiadó |year=2001 |isbn=963-86163-9-3 |editor-last=Zsoldos |editor-first=Attila |pages=37–48 |chapter=On the Foreign Policy of Saint Stephen }}
* {{Cite book |last=Herrmann |first=Joachim |title=Die Slawen in Deutschland: Geschichte und Kultur der slawischen Stämme westlich von Oder und Neiße vom 6. bis 12. Jahrhundert |publisher=Akademie-Verlag |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-376-08338-8 |location=Berlin |author-link=Joachim Herrmann (archaeologist)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Boshof |first=Egon |title=Die Salier |publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-17-020183-5 |edition=5 |language=de |author-link=Egon Boshof}}
* {{Cite book |last=Knefelkamp |first=Ulrich |title=Das Mittelalter |publisher=UTB |year=2002 |isbn=3-8252-2105-9 |edition=2 |series=UTB M |volume=2105 |language=de}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lenkey |first=Zoltán |title=Szent István és III. András ''[=Saint Stephen and Andrew III]'' |publisher=Kossuth Kiadó |year=2003 |isbn=963-09-4461-8 |editor-last=Szentpéteri |editor-first=József |pages=5–118 |language=hu |chapter=Szent István ''[=Saint Stephen]'' }}
* {{cite book|author1-link=Christian Lübke|last=Lübke|first=Christian|editor=Borgolte, Michael|title=Polen und Deutschland vor 1000 Jahren. Die Berliner Tagung über den "Akt von Gnesen"|series=Europa im Mittelalter. Abhandlungen und Beiträge zur historischen Komparatistik|volume=5|year=2002|publisher=Akademie Verlag|location=Berlin|language=de|isbn=3-05-003749-0|pages=91–110|chapter=Zwischen Polen und dem Reich. Elbslawen und Gentilreligion}}
* {{Cite book |last=Györffy |first=György |title=King Saint Stephen of Hungary |publisher=Atlantic Research and Publications |year=1994 |isbn=0-88033-300-6 |author-link=György Györffy}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wolfram |first=Herwig |title=Conrad II, 990–1039: Emperor of Three Kingdoms |publisher=The Pennsylvania State University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-271-02738-X |author-link=Herwig Wolfram}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Butler |first1=Alban |title=Butler's Lives of the Saints (New Full Edition): August |last2=Cumming |first2=John |last3=Burns |first3=Paul |publisher=Burns & Oates |year=1998 |isbn=0-86012-257-3 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Kristó |first=Gyula |title=Háborúk és hadviselés az Árpádok korában ''[Wars and Tactics under the Árpáds]'' |publisher=Szukits Könyvkiadó |year=2003 |isbn=963-9441-87-2 |language=hu |author-link=Gyula Kristó}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Garland Publishing Inc. |last=North |first=William L. |editor-last=Jeep |editor-first=John M. |article=Conrad II}}
* {{Cite book |last=Previté-Orton |first=C.W. |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofh00prev |title=The Early History of the House of Savoy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1912 |author-link=Charles Previté-Orton}}
* {{Cite web |title=Conrad II, Diplomata [Urkunden] |url=https://www.dmgh.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb00000448_00011.html?zoom=0.75&leftTab=toc&sortIndex=030:040:0004:010:00:00 |publisher=Monumenta Germaniae Historica (dMGH) |access-date=29 January 2020 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Schutz |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ikkaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 |title=The Medieval Empire in Central Europe: Dynastic Continuity in the Post-Carolingian Frankish Realm, 900–1300 |year= 2010 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-2035-6 |author-link=Herbert Schutz}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weinfurter |first=Stefan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChuTjtrf9xIC&pg=PA49 |title=The Salian Century: Main Currents in an Age of Transition |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-8122-3508-8}}
*{{Cite book |last=Wolfram |first=Herwig |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuKIX5g6MgoC&pg=PA96 |title=Conrad II, 990–1039: Emperor of Three Kingdoms |date=2010 |publisher=Penn State Press |isbn=978-0-271-04818-5}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Salian dynasty]] ||c 990||1039}}
{{S-reg|}}
|-
{{S-vac|rows=3|last=[[Henry the Saint]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Germany]]|years=1024–1039|regent1=[[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]]|years1=1028–1039}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry the Black]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Holy Roman Emperor]]|years=1027–1039}}
{{S-vac|rows=3|next=[[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry the Black]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Italy]]|years=1027–1039|}}
{{s-break}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Rudolph the Pious]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Burgundy]]|years=1032–1039|regent1=[[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry the Black]]|years1=1038–1039}}
{{S-end}}

{{Holy Roman Emperors}}
{{German monarchs}}
{{Antique Kings of Italy}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Conrad 02, Holy Roman Emperor}}
[[Category:Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor| ]]
[[Category:10th-century births]]
[[Category:1039 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Speyer]]
[[Category:Salian dynasty]]
[[Category:11th-century Holy Roman Emperors]]
[[Category:Dukes of Carinthia]]
[[Category:Burials at Speyer Cathedral]]
[[Category:Burials at St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht]]

Pope Leo IX

2025-10-26T20:32:40Z

2600:1011:A18F:F810:EC88:74CB:C4DC:37A9: Fixed typo

{{Short description|Head of the Catholic Church from 1049 to 1054}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
|type=Pope
|name=Leo IX
|title= [[Bishop of Rome]]
|church= [[Catholic Church]]
|image= Leon IX.jpg
|caption=Miniature of Leo IX contained in an [[illuminated manuscript]] of the 11th century
|term_start=12 February 1049
|term_end=19 April 1054
|predecessor=[[Damasus II]]
|successor=[[Pope Victor II|Victor II]]
|birth_name=Bruno von Egisheim-Dagsburg
|birth_date=21 June 1002
|birth_place=[[Egisheim]], [[Alsace]], [[Duchy of Swabia]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
|death_date=19 April 1054 (aged 51)
|death_place=[[Rome]], [[Papal States]]
|previous_post=[[Bishop of Toul]] (1026–49)
|feast_day=19 April
|venerated=[[Catholic Church]]
|canonized_date=1082
|canonized_by=[[Pope Gregory VII]]
|other=Leo
|honorific-prefix=[[Pope Saint]]
}}

'''Pope Leo IX''' ({{langx|it|Leone IX}}, {{langx|de|Leo IX.}}, 21 June 1002 – 19 April 1054), born '''Bruno von Egisheim-Dagsburg''', was the head of the [[Catholic Church]] and ruler of the [[Papal States]] from 12 February 1049 to his death in 1054.<ref>Coulombe, Charles A., ''Vicars of Christ: A History of the Popes'', (Citadel Press, 2003), 204.</ref> Leo IX is considered to be one of the most historically significant popes of the [[Middle Ages]]; he was instrumental in the precipitation of the [[Great Schism of 1054]], considered the turning point in which the Catholic and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es formally separated.

Leo IX favoured traditional morality in his reformation of the Catholic Church. One of his first public acts was to hold the [[Easter]] [[synod]] of 1049; he joined [[Emperor Henry III]] in Saxony and accompanied him to Cologne and Aachen. He also summoned a meeting of the higher clergy in Reims, in which several important reforming decrees were passed. At Mainz, he held a council at which the Italian and French as well as the German clergy were represented, and ambassadors of the Byzantine emperor were present. Here too, simony and clerical marriage were the principal matters dealt with. He is regarded as a [[Saint#Catholic Church|saint]] by the [[Catholic Church]]; his [[feast day]] is celebrated on 19 April.<ref>Butler, Alban, ''Butler's Lives of the Saints'', (Liturgical Press, 2003), 176.</ref>

==Early life==
Bruno was the youngest son of Count [[Hugh IV of Nordgau]] and Hedwig of [[County of Dagsburg|Dagsburg]]. He was a native of [[Egisheim]], [[Upper Alsace]] (present-day [[Alsace]], France).{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=99}} His father was a first cousin of [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]], [[Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire]].<ref>Ian Robinson, ''The papal reform of the eleventh century: Lives of Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII'' (Manchester University Press, 2004), 99.</ref> At the age of five, Bruno was committed to the care of [[Berthold of Toul|Berthold]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Toul|Bishop of Toul]], who had a school for the sons of the nobility.{{sfn|Barrow|2008|p=56}}

Hagiographic sources state that when Pope Leo IX was born, "his body [was] marked all over with little red crosses".<ref>Alban Butler, The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints, Volume 4, 1821, p. 189</ref> Some authors have considered this to be a form of the stigmata.<ref>Kathleen W. Peters, Sacred Views of Saint Francis, 2020, p. 134.</ref>

In 1017, Bruno became a [[canon (priest)|canon]] at [[Toul Cathedral|St. Stephen's in Toul]]. When, in 1024, his cousin Conrad succeeded [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] as emperor, Bruno's relatives sent him to the new king's court "to serve in his chapel".<ref name=Mann>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09160c.htm Mann, Horace. "Pope St. Leo IX." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 12 May 2019 {{Source-attribution}}</ref>

Bruno was a deacon in 1026 when Conrad set out for Italy to make his authority respected in that portion of his dominions, and as Herimann, Bishop of Toul, was too old to lead his contingent into the peninsula, he entrusted the command of it to Bruno. While he was thus in the midst of arms, Bishop Herimann died, and Bruno was at once elected to succeed him. Conrad, who destined him for higher things, was loath to allow him to accept that insignificant see. But Bruno induced the emperor to permit him to take the see. Consecrated in 1027, Bruno administered the Diocese of Toul for over twenty years, during a time of stress and trouble.<ref name="Ginther">James R. Ginther, ''Humbert of Silva Candida'', ''The Westminster Handbook to Medieval Theology'' (Westminster John Knox Press, 2009), 89–91.</ref> He had to contend not merely with famine, but also with war, to which, as a frontier town, Toul was much exposed. Bruno rendered important political services to Conrad II, and afterwards to [[Emperor Henry III]]. He knew how to make peace, and, if necessary, to wield the sword in self-defence. Sent by Conrad to Robert the Pious, he established so firm a peace between France and the empire that it was not again broken even during the reigns of the sons of both Conrad and Robert. On the other hand, he held his episcopal city against Count [[Odo II of Blois]], a rebel against Conrad, and "by his wisdom and exertions" added Burgundy to the empire.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Bruno became widely known as an earnest and reforming ecclesiastic by the zeal he showed in spreading the rule of the [[order of Cluny]]. It was whilst he was bishop that he was saddened by the death not merely of his father and mother, but also of two of his brothers. Bruno found some consolation in music, in which he proved himself highly proficient.<ref name=Mann/>

==Papacy==
On the death of [[Pope Damasus II]] in 1048, Bruno was selected as his successor by an assembly at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] in December. Both the emperor and the Roman delegates concurred. However, Bruno apparently favoured a [[canon law|canonical]] election and stipulated as a condition of his acceptance that he should first proceed to Rome and be freely elected by the voice of the clergy and people of Rome. Setting out shortly after Christmas, he met with abbot [[Hugh of Cluny]] at [[Besançon]], where he was joined by the young monk Hildebrand, who afterwards became [[Pope Gregory VII]]; arriving in pilgrim garb at Rome in the following February, he was received with much cordiality, and at his consecration assumed the name Leo IX.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Leo IX (Bruno von Egisheim und Dagsburg), Pope {{!}} Saints Resource|url=http://saintsresource.com/leo-ix-pope|access-date=2020-07-07|website=saintsresource.com}}</ref>

===Theology===
[[File:Pope Leo IX, Charter, 1051.jpg|thumb|upright|1051 charter of Leo IX]]
Leo IX favoured celibacy for the clergy in his reformation of the Catholic Church. One of his first public acts was to hold the well-known Easter synod of 1049, at which celibacy of the clergy (down to the rank of [[subdeacon]]) was required anew. Also, the Easter synod was where the pope at least succeeded in making clear his own convictions against every kind of [[simony]]. The greater part of the year that followed was occupied by one of those progresses through Italy, Germany and France which form a marked feature in Leo IX's pontificate. After presiding over a synod at [[Pavia]], he joined Henry III in Saxony and accompanied him to [[Cologne]] and [[Aachen]]. He also summoned a meeting of the higher clergy in [[Reims]] in which several important reforming decrees were passed. At [[Mainz]], he held a council at which the Italian and French as well as the German clergy were represented, and ambassadors of the Byzantine emperor were present. Here too, simony and the marriage of the clergy were the principal matters dealt with.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}

After his return to Rome, Leo held another [[Easter]] synod on 29 April 1050. It was occupied largely with the controversy about the teachings of [[Berengar of Tours]]. In the same year he presided over provincial synods at [[Salerno]], [[Siponto]] and [[Vercelli]], and in September revisited his native Germany, returning to Rome in time for a third Easter synod at which the question of the [[reordination]] of those who had been ordained by simonists was considered. In 1052, he joined the emperor at [[Pressburg]] and vainly sought to secure the submission of the [[Hungarians]]. At [[Regensburg]], [[Bamberg]] and [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], the papal presence was celebrated with various ecclesiastical solemnities. In early 1053, Leo arbitrated a dispute between the [[Archdiocese of Carthage|archbishop of Carthage]] and the bishop of [[Gummi in Byzacena|Gummi]] over ecclesiastical precedence.{{sfn|Lower|2014|p=614}}

===Relations with Constantinople===
Patriarch [[Michael I Cerularius]] of Constantinople, through [[Leo of Ohrid]], Archbishop of Bulgaria, wrote to the pope denouncing the use of unleavened bread and fasting days in the Latin Church. Leo IX sent a letter to Michael I in 1054, citing a large portion of the [[Donation of Constantine]], believing it was genuine.<ref>Migne's ''Patrologia Latina'', Vol. 143 (cxliii), Col. 744–769. Also Mansi, ''Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova Amplissima Collectio'', Vol. 19 (xix) Col. 635–656.</ref>

Leo assured Michael that the donation was completely genuine, not a fable, so only the apostolic successor to Peter possessed that primacy and was the rightful head of all the Church. Before his death, Leo IX had sent a legatine mission under Cardinal [[Humbert of Silva Candida]] to Constantinople to negotiate with Patriarch Michael Cerularius in response to his actions concerning the Church in Constantinople.<ref>Brett Edward Whalen, ''Dominion of God: Christendom and Apocalypse in the Middle Ages'' (Harvard University Press, 2009), p. 24.</ref> Humbert quickly disposed of negotiations by delivering a bull excommunicating the Patriarch.<ref name="Ginther"/> This act, although legally invalid due to the pope's death at the time, was answered by the patriarch's own bull of excommunication against Humbert and his associates and is popularly considered the official split between the Eastern and Western Churches. Afterwards, he closed down the [[Latin Church|Latin]] churches of Constantinople, stopped remembrance for the pope in the diptychs, and wrote letters to the other patriarchs against the pope. The patriarch of Antioch, Peter III, rejected most of Michael's accusations against Rome and urged him to compromise.<ref>[https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1054peter-of-antioch-to-michael-kerularious1.asp ''Patriarch Peter of Antioch: Letter to Patriarch Michael Kerularios'']</ref> Despite this, the break began the Great [[East–West Schism]].

===Conflict with the Normans===
In constant fear of attack from the [[Normans]] in the south of Italy, the [[Byzantine]]s turned in desperation to the Normans' own spiritual chief, Pope Leo IX, and, according to [[William of Apulia]], begged him "to liberate Italy that now lacks its freedom and to force that wicked people, who are pressing [[Apulia]] under their yoke, to leave". After a fourth Easter synod in 1053, Leo IX set out against the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|Norman in the south]] with an army of Italians and [[Swabia]]n [[mercenaries]]. "As fervent Christians the Normans were reluctant to fight their spiritual leader and tried to sue for peace but the Swabians mocked them—battle was inevitable."<ref>Robert Bartlett, ''The Normans of the South'', BBC TV</ref> Leo IX led the army himself, but his forces suffered total defeat at the [[Battle of Civitate]] on 15 June 1053.{{sfn|Theotokis|2014|p=133}} Nonetheless, on going out from the city to meet the victorious enemy, he was received with every token of submission, pleas for forgiveness and oaths of fidelity and homage. From June 1053 to March 1054, the pope was nevertheless held hostage at [[Benevento]], in honourable captivity, until he acknowledged the Norman conquests in [[Calabria]] and Apulia. He did not long survive his return to Rome, where he died on 19 April 1054.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}

== Selected works ==

* {{Cite book |author=Pope Saint Leo IX |title=The Battle of the Virtues and Vices: Defending the Interior Castle of the Soul |publisher=TAN Books |date=15 August 2023 |isbn=978-1505131741}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{EB1911|wstitle=Leo (popes)/Leo IX}}
* {{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Pope St. Leo IX|short=yes}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |chapter=Grades of Ordination and Clerical Careers, c. 900–c. 1200 |first=Julia |last=Barrow |pages=41–61 |title=Anglo-Norman Studies XXX: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 2007 |editor-first=C. P. |editor-last=Lewis |publisher=The Boydell Press |year=2008 }}
* {{cite journal |title=The Papacy and Christian Mercenaries of Thirteenth-Century North Africa |first=Michael |last=Lower |journal=Speculum |volume= 89| issue= 3 July |year=2014 |pages=601–631 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |doi=10.1017/S0038713414000761 |s2cid=154773840 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Papal Reform of the Eleventh Century: Lives of Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII |editor-first=I.S. |editor-last=Robinson |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=2004 }}
* {{cite book|title=Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, 1081–1108|first=Georgios|last=Theotokis|publisher=The Boydell Press|year=2014}}

==Further reading==
{{Portal|Biography|Christianity|History}}
* Migne's [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/1815-1875,_Migne,_Patrologia_Latina_01._Rerum_Conspectus_Pro_Tomis_Ordinatus,_MLT.html ''Patrologia Latina''], Vol. 143 (cxliii), Leo IX [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_1049-1054__SS_Leo_IX__Epistolae_Et_Decreta__MLT.pdf.html Epistolae Et Decreta] .pdf – 1.9 Mb. See Col. 744B-769D (pp. 76–89) for Leo IX's letter.
* Mansi's, [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_50_1692-1769-_Mansi_JD.html ''Sacrorum Conciliorum''] ''Nova Amplissima Collection'', [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_1692-1769__Mansi_JD__Sacrorum_Conciliorum_Nova_Amplissima_Collectio_Vol_019__LT.pdf.html Vol. 19] (xix) .pdf – 66 Mb. See Col. 635–656.
* Massetti, Francesco (ed.) (2021). ''Un vescovo imperiale sulla cattedra di Pietro. Il pontificato di Leone IX (1049-1054) tra "regnum" e "sacerdotium"'' [An imperial bishop on the throne of Peter. The pontificate of Leo IX (1049-1054) between ‘regnum’ and ‘sacerdotium’]. Ordines, vol. 12. Milan: Vita e Pensiero, {{ISBN|978-88-343-4234-3}}.
* Massetti, Francesco (2025). ''Leo IX. und die papstgeschichtliche Wende (1049-1054)'' [Leo IX and the turning point in papal history (1049–1054)]. Papsttum im mittelalterlichen Europa, vol. 13. Vienna/Cologne: Böhlau, {{ISBN|978-3-412-53040-2}}.
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=rIkEAAAAQAAJ&q=Cornelius+Will+%22acta+et+scripta%22 ''Acta et scripta quae de controversiis ecclesiae Graecae et Latinae''], by Dr. Cornelius Will, 1861. This book has the text of the letters relevant to the Great Schism of 1054. The Greek and Latin texts of the Schism were studied by Michele Giuseppe D'Agostino, ''Il Primato della Sede di Roma in Leone IX (1049–1054). Studio dei testi nella controversia greco-romana nel periodo gregoriano'', Cinisello Balsamo 2008.

==External links==
* {{commons category-inline|Leo IX}}
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Baldwin II of Jerusalem

2025-10-26T19:48:05Z

2600:1011:A18F:F810:EC88:74CB:C4DC:37A9: correct citation template

{{Short description|King of Jerusalem from 1118 to 1131}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Baldwin II
| image = Balduin2.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| alt = A seated Baldwin wears his crown
| succession = [[King of Jerusalem]]
| reign = 2 April 1118 – 21 August 1131
| coronation = 25 December 1119
| cor-type=[[Coronations of the kings and queens of Jerusalem|Coronation]]
| predecessor = [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]]
| successor = [[Fulk, King of Jerusalem|Fulk]] and [[Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem|Melisende]]
| suc-type = Successors
| succession1 = [[Count of Edessa]]
| reign1 = 1100–1118
| predecessor1= Baldwin I
| successor1 = [[Joscelin I]]
| house = [[House of Rethel]]
| spouse = [[Morphia of Melitene]]
| issue = {{Plainlist|
* [[Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem]]
* [[Alice, Princess of Antioch]]
* [[Hodierna, Countess of Tripoli]]
* [[Ioveta, Abbess of Bethany]]
}}
| father = [[Hugh I, Count of Rethel]]
| mother = Melisende of Montlhéry
| birth_date = {{Circa|1075}}
| birth_place = [[Rethel]], [[Kingdom of France]]
| death_date = 21 August 1131 (aged {{Circa|56}})
| death_place = [[Jerusalem]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| place of burial = [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]], Jerusalem
}}

'''Baldwin II''', also known as '''Baldwin of Bourcq''' ({{Langx|fr|link=no|Baudouin}}; {{Circa|1075}} – 21{{nbs}}August 1131), was the [[count of Edessa]] from 1100 to 1118 and the [[king of Jerusalem]] from 1118 until his death. He accompanied [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] and [[Baldwin of Boulogne]] to the [[Holy Land]] during the [[First Crusade]]. He became the second count of Edessa when the first count, Baldwin of Boulogne, left the county for Jerusalem following his brother's death. He was captured at the [[Battle of Harran]] in 1104. He was held first by [[Sökmen (Artuqid)|Sökmen of Mardin]], then by [[Jikirmish|Jikirmish of Mosul]], and finally by [[Jawali Saqawa]]. During his captivity, [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]], the ruler of the [[Principality of Antioch]], and Tancred's cousin, [[Richard of Salerno]], governed Edessa as Baldwin's [[regent]]s.

Baldwin was ransomed by his cousin, [[Joscelin I, Count of Edessa|Joscelin of Courtenay]], lord of [[Turbessel]], in the summer of 1108. Tancred attempted to retain Edessa, but [[Bernard of Valence]], the [[Latin patriarch of Antioch]], persuaded him to restore the county to Baldwin. Baldwin allied with Jawali, but Tancred and his ally, [[Radwan of Aleppo]], defeated them at Turbessel. Baldwin and Tancred were reconciled at an assembly of the crusader leaders near [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] in April 1109. [[Mawdud]], the Atabeg of Mosul, and his successor, [[Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi]], launched a series of campaigns against Edessa in the early 1110s, devastating the eastern regions of the country. Baldwin accused Joscelin of treason for seizing the prosperous town of Turbessel from him in 1113 and captured the neighboring [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Armenian]] lordships in 1116 and 1117.

Baldwin I, the first king of Jerusalem, died on 2{{nbs}}April 1118. He bequeathed Jerusalem to his brother Count [[Eustace III of Boulogne]], stipulating that the throne was to be offered to Baldwin of Bourcq if Eustace failed to come to the Holy Land. [[Arnulf of Chocques]], the [[Latin patriarch of Jerusalem]], and Joscelin of Courtenay, who held the largest fief in the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], convinced their peers to elect Baldwin king. Baldwin II (as he then became) took possession of most towns in the kingdom and gave Edessa to Joscelin. After the army of the Principality of Antioch was almost annihilated on 28 June 1119, Baldwin was elected regent for the absent Prince [[Bohemond II of Antioch]]. The frequent Seljuq invasions of Antioch forced him to spend most of his time in the principality, which caused discontent in Jerusalem. After [[Belek Ghazi|Belek]] captured him in April 1123, a group of noblemen offered the throne to Count [[Charles I of Flanders]], but Charles refused. During his absence, the Jerusalemite troops captured [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] with the assistance of a Venetian fleet. After he was released in August 1124, he tried to [[Siege of Aleppo (1124)|capture Aleppo]], but al-Bursuqi forced him to abandon the siege in early 1125.

Bohemond II came to Syria in October 1126. Baldwin gave his second daughter, [[Alice of Antioch|Alice]], in marriage to him and also renounced the regency. Baldwin planned to conquer Damascus, but he needed external support to achieve his goal. He married off his eldest daughter, [[Melisende of Jerusalem|Melisende]], to the wealthy Count [[Fulk V of Anjou]] in 1129. The new troops who accompanied Fulk to Jerusalem enabled Baldwin to invade Damascene territory, but he could seize only Banias with the support of the [[Nizari Ismaili state|Nizari]] (or Assassins) in late 1129. After Bohemond II was killed in a battle in early 1130, Baldwin forced Alice to leave Antioch and assumed the regency for her daughter, [[Constance of Antioch|Constance]]. He fell seriously ill in Antioch and took monastic vows before he died in the [[Holy Sepulchre]]. Baldwin had been respected for his military talent, but he was notorious for his "love for money".

==Early life==

Baldwin's birth year is unknown. It is only known that his father, Count [[Hugh I of Rethel]], was born in the 1040s and Baldwin was already an adult by the 1090s. Baldwin was likely born a younger child of Hugh, possibly being his third son. Baldwin's family spoke the Champenois dialect of [[Old French]], but he was probably illiterate.{{sfn|Murray|2022b|p=18}} Baldwin was the lord of [[Bourcq]], a small village to the southeast of Rethel, when he joined the army of his kinsman [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] at the beginning of the [[First Crusade]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p=147}}{{sfn|Murray|2022b|p=14}} It is not known why Baldwin took the cross, but the chronicler [[William of Tyre]] describes him as very religious; Baldwin had callouses on his hands and knees from frequent prayer.{{sfn|Murray|2022b|p=25}}

The army departed for the Holy Land on 15{{nbs}}August 1096, and reached Constantinople on 23 December.{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=20–21}} The [[Byzantine emperor]], [[Alexios I Komnenos]], urged the crusader leaders to take an oath of [[fealty]] to him.{{sfn|Asbridge|2004|p=110}} Godfrey of Bouillon appointed Baldwin, [[Conon, Count of Montaigu|Conon of Montaigu]] and [[Geoffrey of Esch]] to represent him at a meeting with Alexios in January 1097.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p=150}} After Godfrey and his principal commanders swore fealty to the Emperor, the crusader army was shipped to Asia Minor in February.{{sfn|Asbridge|2004|pp=111, 117}}

Baldwin's cousin [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]] and [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred of Hauteville]] broke away from the main army to invade Cilicia around 15{{nbs}}September 1097.{{sfn|Asbridge|2004|pp=142–143}} Baldwin accompanied them in Boulogne's contingent.{{sfn|Asbridge|2004|p=143}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p=198}} He also participated in Boulogne's military campaigns against the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuq]] rulers of the fortresses on the plains near the River [[Euphrates]].{{sfn|Murray|2000|p=61}} After seizing [[Ravendel]], Turbessel and [[Edessa]], Boulogne established the first [[crusader state]], the County of Edessa, in early 1098.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=17}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=22–23}}

Baldwin rejoined the main crusader army, which was marching towards Jerusalem, near [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] in late May 1099.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p=276}} He and Tancred seized [[Bethlehem]]; there was no resistance as the town was inhabited by local Christians.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|pp=277–278}} The crusaders [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|laid siege to Jerusalem]], and shortly afterwards Baldwin and Tancred captured an elderly Muslim nobleman.{{sfn|Asbridge|2004|pp=308–309}} After he refused to convert to Christianity, Baldwin's soldiers beheaded him at the [[Tower of David]] to frighten the defenders of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Asbridge|2004|p=309}} Jerusalem fell to the crusaders on 15{{nbs}}July.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=25}} Baldwin left Jerusalem in the retinue of Count [[Robert II of Flanders]] in late August.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|pp=298–299}} Robert returned to Europe, but Baldwin remained in Syria.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p=299}} Godfrey of Bouillon died on 18{{nbs}}July 1100.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=25}} Baldwin of Boulogne decided to return to Jerusalem to take possession of Godfrey's inheritance.{{sfn|Asbridge|2004|p=332}}

==Count of Edessa==

===First years===
[[Image:Map Crusader states 1135-en.svg|thumb|right|The [[crusader state]]s around 1135]]
Baldwin was staying in Antioch when Baldwin of Boulogne decided to leave Edessa.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p=322}} He was a military commander of the troops of [[Bohemond I of Antioch]] who had recently been captured by [[Danishmend Gazi]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p=322}}{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=75}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|pp=380, 382}} Baldwin of Boulogne summoned Baldwin from Antioch and granted him the [[County of Edessa]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=62}}{{sfn|Murray|2000|p=94}} Baldwin swore fealty to Baldwin of Boulogne,{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=186}} who left Edessa for Jerusalem on 2{{nbs}}October 1100.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=381}}

Baldwin married [[Morphia of Melitene|Morphia]], the daughter of [[Gabriel of Melitene|Gabriel]], the Armenian lord of [[Melitene]],{{sfn|Murray|2000|p=186}} which enabled him to consolidate his position among his mainly Armenian subjects.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=186}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=36}} [[Sökmen (Artuqid)|Sökmen]], the Artuqid ruler of Mardin, attacked [[Saruj]] in early 1101.{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=78}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=37}} Baldwin attempted to relieve the town, but Sökmen routed his army, forcing him to return to Edessa.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=37}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=26}} When relating these events, the Armenian historian, [[Matthew of Edessa]], described Baldwin as a coward who was "pitiful in body".{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=78}} Sökmen captured the town, but the fortress resisted his siege.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=37}} Baldwin went to Antioch to raise new troops before returning to Saruj.{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=78}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=37}} He forced Sökmen to leave the town and executed all the townspeople who had cooperated with the Artuqids.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=37}}

One of his cousins, Joscelin of Courtenay, came to Edessa in 1102.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=186}} Baldwin granted him lands to the west of the Euphrates.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=186}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=38}} When the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Egyptians]] invaded the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] in May, Baldwin of Boulogne{{mdash}}who had been [[Coronations of the kings and queens of Jerusalem|crowned king of Jerusalem]]{{mdash}}sent envoys to Tancred (who ruled Antioch) and Baldwin, seeking their assistance.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=76, 80}} They assembled their troops and marched to Jerusalem together, but by the time they arrived in late September, the Egyptians had returned to their headquarters at [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=80}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=383}} The three crusader rulers made a raid against Ascalon, but Tancred and Baldwin soon returned to their realms.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=80–81}}

Tancred's ambitions in northern Syria irritated both Baldwin and Bernard of Valence, the Latin patriarch of Antioch.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=38}} They started negotiations with Danishmend Gazi regarding Bohemond's release.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=38}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=388}} [[Kogh Vasil]], the Armenian lord of [[Araban|Raban]] and [[Fortress of Kaysun|Kaisun]], and Bohemond's Italian kinsmen contributed to his ransom.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=38}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=388}} Bohemond was set free in May 1103.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=27}} Baldwin granted villages to the Armenian prelate, [[Parsegh of Cilicia|Barsegh Pahlavuni]],{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=85}} because he wanted to strengthen his position among his Armenian subjects.{{sfn|Fink|1969|pp=392–393}}

===First captivity===

Baldwin's troops made frequent raids against the fertile plains around [[Harran]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=41}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=82}} Sökmen and Jikirmish, the [[atabeg]] of [[Mosul]], made an alliance and invaded Edessa in May 1104.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=41}} While their troops were assembling at [[Ras al-Ayn]], Baldwin sent envoys to Joscelin and Bohemond and persuaded them to make a joint attack against Harran.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=41–42}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=389}} Baldwin, Bohemond and Joscelin went together to Harran and entered into negotiations with the Seljuq garrison for a peaceful surrender.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=42}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=389}} However, both Baldwin and Bohemond wanted to seize the wealthy town and the crusader army started disintegrating because of their conflict.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=82}}

Sökmen and Jikirmish attacked the crusaders' camp at Harran on 7{{nbs}}May.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=82}}{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=65}} Applying the tactic of [[feigned retreat]], they drew the crusaders into an ambush, capturing Baldwin and Joscelin.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=389}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=82}} Bohemond and Tancred rode to Edessa to save the town.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=43}} [[Benedict (archbishop of Edessa)|Benedict, Archbishop of Edessa]], who was also captured but quickly released, and the Edessene knights elected Tancred regent for the captive Baldwin.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=43}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=82}} Baldwin was first taken to Sökman's tent, but Jikirmish's soldiers broke into it and dragged him away.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=43, 44}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=390}} Joscelin remained in the custody of Sökmen, passing to [[Ilghazi]] upon the latter's death. The citizens of [[Turbessel]] paid a ransom for Joscelin in 1107.

Jikirmish laid siege to Edessa, but Tancred routed his troops, forcing him to flee.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=45}} Jikirmish then took Baldwin to Mosul.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=111}} Tancred captured a Seljuq princess of Jikirmish's household at Edessa.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=45}}{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=70}} Jikirmish offered to pay 15,000 bezants in ransom, or to release Baldwin in return for her liberty.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=45}}{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=70}} Bohemond and Tancred preferred the money and Baldwin remained imprisoned.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=45}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=84}} Before his departure for Europe in the autumn, Bohemond appointed Tancred to rule Antioch and their kinsman, Richard of Salerno, was entrusted with the administration of Edessa.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=28}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=393}}

A Turkish soldier of fortune, Jawali Saqawa, captured Jikirmish and seized Mosul in 1107.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=393}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=110–111}} Joscelin started negotiations with Jawali over the release of Baldwin.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=111}} Jawali demanded 60,000 dinars and the release of the Muslim prisoners from Edessa.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=111}} The Seljuq Sultan, [[Muhammad I Tapar]], made the [[Mamluk]] [[Mawdud]] atabeg of Mosul.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=111–112}} When Mawdud expelled Jawali from Mosul, Jawali fled to the fortress of Qalat Jabar, taking Baldwin with him.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=112}} Joscelin paid 30,000 dinars to Jawali and offered himself as hostage to guarantee the payment of the balance.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=112}}{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=124}} Jawali, who needed allies against Mawdud, accepted the offer and released Baldwin in the summer of 1108.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=112}}{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=66}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=29}}

===Conflicts===

[[File:Coin Baldwin2.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A coin depicting an armed man holding a sword|A coin of Baldwin struck in Edessa. 22 mm diameter.]]

Baldwin went to Edessa after his release, but Tancred demanded his oath of fealty in exchange for the town.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=29}}{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=69}} Baldwin refused and went to Turbessel.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=65}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=112}} After Tancred carried out a raid against Turbessel, they started peace negotiations, but could not reach a compromise.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=112}} Baldwin made an alliance with Kogh Vasil against Tancred.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=112}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=393}} [[Oshin of Lampron]] also sent troops{{mdash}}300 [[Pechenegs|Pecheneg]] horsemen{{mdash}}to join them.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=112–113}} Their raids against the Principality of Antioch persuaded Tancred to accept the arbitration of the Catholic prelates,{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=65}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=113}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=394}} who decided in favor of Baldwin; he returned to Edessa on 18{{nbs}}September 1108.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=30}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=394}}

In accordance with his treaty with Jawali, Baldwin released most of the Muslim prisoners held in Edessa.{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=69}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=113}} He also allowed the Muslim burghers of Saruj to build a mosque, and executed the unpopular ''[[rais]]'' (or governor) of the town, who was a convert from Islam.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=113}}{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=70}} Jawali's alliance with Baldwin alarmed Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan, the Seljuq ruler of [[Aleppo]], which brought about a rapprochement between Radwan and Tancred.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=113}}{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=70}} When Jawali launched a military expedition against Aleppo, Baldwin and Joscelin of Courtney joined him, while Tancred came to assist Radwan.{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=65}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=113}} Radwan and Tancred routed Jawali, Baldwin and Joscelin near Turbessel in late September 1108.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=30}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=114}}

Baldwin fled the battlefield to a nearby fortress.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=30}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=114}} Tancred laid siege to it, but lifted the siege when he learnt of Jawali's approach.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=394}} Believing that Baldwin had died, the Armenian burghers of Edessa held an assembly to set up a provisional government.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=114}}{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=70}} After his return, Baldwin thought that the Armenians wanted to dethrone him and ordered the blinding of the ringleaders.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=114}}{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|pp=70–71}} The [[Bishopric of Edessa#Armenian bishops|Armenian bishop of the town]] was obliged to pay a huge fine.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=114}} To put an end to the conflicts between the crusader leaders, Baldwin I of Jerusalem summoned them in the name of the "Church of Jerusalem" to [[Mount Pilgrim]] near [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] in April 1109.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=30}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=397}} At the meeting, the king mediated a reconciliation between Baldwin and Tancred, who acknowledged Baldwin's rule in the County of Edessa in exchange for receiving [[Principality of Galilee|Galilee]] and other fiefs in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=115}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=398}} Thereafter Baldwin participated in the [[siege of Tripoli]], which ended with the capture of the town by the crusaders.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=30}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=115}}

===Mawdud's campaigns===

The Seljuq sultan instructed Mawdud to unite his troops with the [[Shah-Armens|Seljuq ruler of Armenia]], [[Sökmen el-Kutbî]], and the Artuqid [[Ilghazi]] against the crusaders.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=115}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=99}} They laid siege to Edessa in April 1110.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=30}} Baldwin sent envoys to Baldwin I of Jerusalem, who was [[Siege of Beirut (1110)|besieging Beirut]], urging him to come to his rescue, but the king did not abandon the siege until Beirut fell on 13{{nbs}}May.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=30}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=99}} Before departing for Edessa, Baldwin I celebrated Pentecost in Jerusalem.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=99}} The King persuaded [[Bertrand of Tripoli]], Joscelin of Courtenay and other crusader leaders to join his campaign, and the Armenian Kogh Vasil and [[Ablgharib]] also sent contingents.{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=91}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=99–100}} On their arrival, Mawdud and his allies lifted the siege of Edessa and withdrew towards Harran.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=100}}

Baldwin and Tancred accused each other of having incited the invasion.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=116}} Tancred also claimed sovereignty over the County of Edessa, saying that its territory had been subject to Antioch under the [[Byzantine Empire]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=116}} Baldwin I refuted Tancred's claim, declaring himself the head of the [[Outremer|Latin East]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=116}} After a short campaign against the neighboring Muslim territories, the rulers of the other crusader states decided to leave the county.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=116–117}} On the King's advice, Baldwin ordered the transfer of the local Christian (predominantly Armenian) peasants to the lands to the west of the Euphrates.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=116}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=399}} Taking advantage of the gathering of the Christian peasants by the river and their mainly Armenian escort, Mawdud attacked and massacred them.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=100}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=117}}{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=92}} Baldwin, who had already crossed the river along with the other crusader leaders, hastily returned and assaulted Mawdud's troops, although they outnumbered his small retinue.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=117–118}} Baldwin and his men were only saved by Baldwin I and Tancred, who had followed on the other bank of the river.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=118}}

In July 1111 Mawdud launched a new invasion against the county and laid siege to Turbessel.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=101}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=400}} While Mawdud was besieging Turbessel, [[Sultan ibn Munqidh|Sultan]], the [[Munqidhites|Munquidite]] emir (or ruler) of [[Shaizar]], sent envoys to him, seeking his assistance against Tancred.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=121–122}} Mawdud lifted the siege of Turbessel and moved to help Shaizar.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=122}} [[Toghtekin]], the atabeg of Damascus, joined him and they decided to reconquer Tripoli in September.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=122}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=31}} The concentration of Muslim forces alarmed the crusaders and Baldwin I of Jerusalem summoned all crusader rulers to his camp.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=122}} Baldwin complied, accompanied by his two powerful vassals, Joscelin and Pagan of Sajar.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=122}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=400}} The smaller Muslim rulers had meanwhile left Mawdud's camp and returned to Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=400}} Mawdud did not risk a pitched battle with the united crusader armies and retired first to Shaizar, and later to Mosul.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=123}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=400}} In April 1112, Mawdud returned and besieged Edessa.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=31}} His agents started secret negotiations with some Armenian soldiers in the town, but Joscelin, who was informed of the plot, warned Baldwin.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=400}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=124}} Mawdud could not capture the town and withdrew to Mosul in June.{{sfn|Fink|1969|pp=400–401}} Next year, he was murdered by [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]] at Damascus.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=32}}

Mawdud's invasions devastated the eastern regions of the county, but Joscelin's fief at Turbessel still flourished.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=399}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=124}} In 1113 Baldwin persuaded Joscelin to come to Edessa, saying that he was dying and wanted to make his last will.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=124}} Stating that Joscelin had not sent enough food to Edessa, Baldwin had him imprisoned and only released him after Joscelin renounced Turbessel.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=124}}{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=402}} Joscelin soon left the county for Jerusalem, where Baldwin I granted Galilee to him.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=402}} A new reconciliation between the crusader leaders was brought about by marriage alliances: Baldwin's sister, [[Cecilia of Le Bourcq|Cecilia]], was given in marriage to [[Roger of Salerno]], who had succeeded Tancred in Antioch in late 1112; and Joscelin married Roger's sister, Maria.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=125–126}}

===Expansion===

While Baldwin was away from his capital to take possession of Turbessel, the Armenians of Edessa continued to plot against him.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=129}} He returned to the town and ordered the transportation of the Armenian townspeople to Samosata.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=402}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=129}} After the Armenians started to move to Kaisun, Baldwin allowed those who remained in Samosata to return to Edessa in early 1114.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=402}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=129}}

Mawdud's successor, [[Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi]], invaded the county in May 1114, but Edessa resisted his siege, forcing him to return to Mosul.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=129}} The Sultan made [[Bursuq ibn Bursuq]] of Hamadan the supreme commander of the Seljuq armies.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=403}} Bursuq moved on Edessa in early 1115, but he soon left for Aleppo.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=404}} [[Lulu el-Yaya]], the atabeg of Aleppo, sought assistance from Ilghazi and Toghtekin, who also persuaded Roger of Salerno to join their coalition against Bursuq.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=404}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=104}} At Roger's request, Baldwin I of Jerusalem, [[Pons of Tripoli]] and Baldwin also gathered their troops at [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]] in August.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=404}} Bursuq chose to retreat and the crusader rulers dispersed.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=404}}

Taking advantage of the weakening of the Seljuqs' power after Roger of Salerno's victory at the [[Battle of Sarmin]], Baldwin decided to annex the small Armenian principalities in the valley of the Euphrates.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=405}} The Armenian [[Thoros I, Prince of Armenia|Thoros I of Cilicia]] captured Kogh Vasil's successor, [[Vasil Dgha]], who had made an alliance with Bursuq.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=129}} Thoros sold Vasil Dgha to Baldwin, who forced his prisoner to renounce Raban and Kaisun in 1116.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=405}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=129}} Next, Baldwin laid siege to Abu'l-Garib's fortress of [[Birejik]].{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=405}} The siege lasted for a year and Ablgharib was forced into surrender in 1117.{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=405}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=129}} Baldwin granted the fortress to his cousin, [[Waleran of Le Puiset]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=129}} In the same year, Kogh Vasil's brother, Bagrat, had to abandon [[Cyrrhus]] and Baldwin captured [[Constantine of Gargar]].{{sfn|Fink|1969|p=405}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=129–130}}

==King of Jerusalem==

===Accession to the throne===

The childless Baldwin I of Jerusalem died on 2{{nbs}}April 1118, during a campaign against Egypt.{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=1}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=117}} According to the contemporaneous [[Albert of Aachen]] he had willed the kingdom to his eldest brother, Eustace III of Boulogne, "if by chance he would come", but also stipulated that Baldwin of Bourcq should be elected king if Eustace were unable to come "because of his age".{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=117}}{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=61}} Baldwin arrived in Jerusalem around the day when the late king's body was carried into the town.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=117}} Albert of Aachen stated that Baldwin had come to celebrate Easter in Jerusalem without having any knowledge of the King's death.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=117}} Decades later, [[William of Tyre]] recorded that Baldwin had been informed of his kinsman's death during his journey to Jerusalem.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=117–118}}
[[File:Balduin2 korunovace.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Two bishops place a crown on the head of a man sitting on a throne|Baldwin's coronation]]

The question of Baldwin I's succession divided the barons and the prelates, according to William of Tyre.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=61}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=118}} The highest-ranking prelate, Arnulf of Chocques, the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, and Joscelin of Courtenay, who held the largest fief in the kingdom, argued that Baldwin should be elected without delay to avoid an interregnum.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=61}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=118}} Others maintained that the crown should first be offered to Eustace in accordance with Baldwin I's last will.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=61}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=118}} Some "great nobles", whom William of Tyre did not name, were appointed to inform Eustace of his brother's death.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=118}} However, shortly after their departure, on Easter Day (14 April), Baldwin was [[anointing|anointed]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=118–119}} His coronation was delayed for unknown reasons.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=119}}{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=139}} Historian [[Malcolm Barber]] believes that Baldwin wished to be crowned along with his wife, who was not in the kingdom at the time.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=120}}

Baldwin promised the County of Edessa to Joscelin, but Joscelin remained in the kingdom to secure the defence of Galilee.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=146}} Baldwin convoked the noblemen to an assembly "on an appointed day" to receive "fealty and an oath of allegiance from them", according to Albert of Aachen.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=118}} He also secured the direct royal control of eight important towns, including [[Nablus]], [[Jaffa]], [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Sidon]] and [[Tiberias]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=118}}{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=128}} The modern historian Alan Murray argues that Albert of Aachen's words are evidence that Baldwin "carried out a major distribution of fiefs, granting out some lordships but retaining other towns and territories as domain lands" in 1118.{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=128}} Baldwin also reorganized the royal household, making [[Hugh Caulis]] [[Constable of Jerusalem|constable]], [[Pagan the Butler|Pagan]] butler, and John the chamberlain.{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=128}}

Eustace accepted the barons' invitation and left Boulogne for Jerusalem.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=139}} He had travelled as far as Apulia when he was informed of Baldwin's accession to the throne.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=139}} The delegates tried to convince him to continue his journey, saying that Baldwin's election was illegal, but Eustace preferred to return home.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=139}}

===Muslim threat===

His predecessor's last campaign against Egypt brought about a rapprochement between Egypt and Damascus.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=146}} Baldwin sent envoys to Toghtekin in Damascus to argue against his making an alliance with the Egyptian vizier, [[Al-Afdal Shahanshah]], but Toghtekin demanded [[Oultrejourdain]] in return for his neutrality.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=146}} Toghtekin launched an incursion against Galilee and Al-Afdal gathered his troops near [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]] in May or June 1118.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=146}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=34}} Baldwin hurried to the southern frontier and urged Roger and Pons to send reinforcements from Antioch and Tripoli.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=146}} Neither the Egyptians nor the crusaders risked a pitched battle and both armies were dissolved three months later.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=146}} Baldwin and Joscelin made a raid against Damascene territory in the autumn and defeated Toghtekin's son, [[Taj al-Muluk Buri]] near [[Daraa]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=146}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=34}}

Ilghazi, Toghtekin and the Munquidites of Shaizar made an alliance and their troops started raiding Antioch and Edessa in May 1119.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=148}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=122}} Roger sent envoys to Baldwin, urging him to come to the north to fight against the invaders.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=148}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=122}} The envoys met with Baldwin in Tiberias, because he had just concluded a short campaign against a Bedouin tribe in Oultrejourdain.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=147}} He gathered troops and departed for Antioch, taking a portion of the [[True Cross]] with him.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=148}} Roger did not wait until Baldwin's arrival and marched from Antioch. On the plains of [[Sarmada]]{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=123}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=149}} Ilghazi's army encircled the crusaders' camp and on 28{{nbs}}June inflicted a major defeat in the [[Battle of Ager Sanguinis|Battle of the "Field of Blood"]].{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=34}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=123, 360}} Roger and hundreds of his soldiers died fighting and most who survived the battle were taken prisoner. Antioch was left almost undefended, but Ilghazi did not attack the city.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=123–124}}

Baldwin and Pons of Tripoli reached Antioch in late July or early August.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=152}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=124}} The leaders of the city acknowledged Baldwin as regent for the lawful prince, the ten-year old Bohemond II, who was living in southern Italy.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=152}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=125}} Baldwin distributed the estates of the noblemen who had perished in the Field of Blood among his retainers, mainly through giving the widows of the deceased lords to them in marriage.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=152}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=129}} Meanwhile, Ilghazi and Toghtekin joined their forces and started to capture the Antiochene fortresses to the east of the [[Orontes River]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=153}} Baldwin gathered almost all available crusader troops and marched against the Muslims as far as [[Tell Danith]] near [[Zardana]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=153}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=125}} The crusaders and the united armies of Toghtekin and Ilghazi clashed in the [[Battle of Hab]] on 14{{nbs}}August.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=34}} According to [[Walter the Chancellor]], the crusaders routed the Muslims, but Matthew of Edessa stated that "neither side was defeated nor was victorious".{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=125}} Baldwin returned to Antioch two days later, where the townspeople and the patriarch gave him a "victor's welcome".{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=125}} Before leaving Antioch, he granted the County of Edessa to Joscelin of Courtenay.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=34}}
[[File:Baldwin II of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A crowned man sitting on a throne and a group of people|Baldwin presiding at a council]]

Baldwin and his wife were crowned king and queen in Bethlehem on Christmas Day.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=119, 129}} He and the Patriarch held a general assembly at the [[Council of Nablus]] on 16{{nbs}}January 1120.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=129}} The prelates and noblemen who attended the meeting confirmed the clergy's right to collect the tithe and to bear arms "in the cause of defense".{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=131}} The council also ordered the punishment of adulterers, pimps, sodomites and bigamists, and prohibited sexual relations between Christians and Muslims.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=131}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=206}} Other decrees established penalties against thieves and those who falsely accused others of crimes.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=131}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=206}} The decisions of the council were the first examples of law making in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=34}}

A confraternity of knights established by [[Hugh of Payns]] and [[Godfrey de Saint-Omer]] to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land most probably received official recognition at the council, according to historians Malcolm Barber and [[Christopher Tyerman]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=134}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=254}} Baldwin temporarily lodged the knights in the royal palace on the [[Temple Mount]] and they became known as the [[Knights Templar]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=134}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=254}} He offered [[Nabi Samwil]] to the [[Cistercians]], but [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] ceded the place to the [[Premonstratensians]] who built a monastery.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=135}} Shortly after the council, Baldwin and Patriarch Warmund also sent letters to [[Pope Calixtus II]] and the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]], urging them to support the defense of the Holy Land.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=139}} The crusaders especially needed the Venetians' ships against the Egyptians.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=139}}

Ilghazi and his nephew, [[Belek Ghazi]], invaded Edessa and Antioch in May 1120.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=35}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=158}} Being responsible for the defense of the northern crusader states, Baldwin decided to again lead his troops to Antioch, but a significant group of the Jerusalemite noblemen and clergy opposed the expedition.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=67}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=137}} Patriarch Warmund refused to accompany the royal army and allowed Baldwin to take the True Cross with him only after lengthy negotiations.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=67}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=137}} Baldwin and his army reached Antioch in June.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=35}} Ilghazi agreed to sign a one-year truce, which secured the possession of [[Kafartab]] and two other fortresses for the crusaders.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=35}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=159}}

Baldwin returned to Jerusalem only in early 1121, after Toghtekin made a raid against Galilee.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=159}} In July, he invaded Damascene territory and destroyed a fortress that Toghtekin had recently erected near [[Jerash]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=159}} [[David IV of Georgia]] [[Battle of Didgori|routed the united armies]] of Ilghazi and the Seljuq prince Toghrul Arslan in August.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=159}} Taking advantage of Ilghazi's weakness, Baldwin launched a military campaign across the [[Orontes River|Orontes]]. In November this forced Ilghazi's son to hand over to the crusaders Zardana, [[Atarib]] and other forts that Ilghazi had captured the previous year.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=35}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=159}}

In early 1122 Pons of Tripoli refused to pledge allegiance to Baldwin for unknown reasons.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=35}}{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=67}} After Baldwin mustered his troops and marched against Tripoli, Pons paid homage to him without resistance.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=160}} Ilghazi and Belek laid siege to Zardana in June, but Baldwin and Joscelin of Edessa's arrival forced them to lift the siege in July.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=35}} Belek ambushed and captured Joscelin near Saruj on 13{{nbs}}September.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=36}} Ilghazi reoccupied Atarib,{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=162}} but he died on 3{{nbs}}November 1122.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=36}} His lands were divided among his sons and nephews.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=162}} Baldwin, who was still in Antioch, persuaded Badr ad-Daulah Suleiman, the new ruler of Aleppo, to restore Atarib to the crusaders on 2{{nbs}}April 1123.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=162}} Baldwin recaptured Birejik and made [[Geoffrey the Monk|Geoffrey, Lord of Marash]], regent of Edessa.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=162}}

===Second captivity===
[[File:Baldwin II of Jerusalem pris.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Bearded and dark-skinned horsemen and a white-skinned man|Baldwin is captured]]

Baldwin made a raid towards [[Kharput]] where Belek held Joscelin and other knights' captive, but he stopped near Gargar.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=68}} While Baldwin was preparing to practice falconry on the morning of 18{{nbs}}April 1123, Belek attacked his camp and captured him.{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=95}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=138}} Baldwin was taken to the fortress of Kharput.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=138}} While Belek was away in Aleppo in June, Joscelin's fifty Armenian supporters came to Kharput, disguising themselves as monks, and expelled the Seljuq garrison from the fortress.{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=93}} Joscelin left Kharput to gather troops in Turbessel and Antioch, but Baldwin and the Armenian soldiers remained in the fortress to defend it against Belek.{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=93}} Belek returned to Kharput and forced Baldwin to surrender.{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=94}} Belek ordered the execution of the Armenians and transferred Baldwin to Harran.{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=94}} Baldwin was later imprisoned in the [[Citadel of Aleppo]].{{sfn|Bianca|2007|p=106}}

On learning of Baldwin's captivity, Patriarch Warmund convoked the prelates and barons to an assembly which elected [[Eustace Grenier]] [[Bailiff of Jerusalem|bailiff]] (or regent) of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=68}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=162–163}} After Grenier died on 15{{nbs}}June, William of Bures succeeded him as regent.{{sfn|Murray|1992|pp=194, 236}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=140}} The bailiffs and the patriarch closely cooperated with each other and other high-ranking officials in administering the kingdom during Baldwin's captivity.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=68}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=204}} They made an alliance{{mdash}}the so-called ''[[Pactum Warmundi]]''{{mdash}}with [[Domenico Michiel]], the [[Doge of Venice]], offering commercial privileges to the Venetians in return for their military assistance against the Egyptian towns on the coast.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=167–168}} They captured Tyre on 7{{nbs}}or 8{{nbs}}July 1124.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=141}}{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=97}}

The contemporaneous [[Galbert of Bruges]] recorded that delegates came to Flanders from Jerusalem during Baldwin's captivity.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=143}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=207}} They stated that Baldwin "was grasping and penurious and had not governed the [[people of God]] well".<ref name=Galbert_of_Bruges>Galbert of Bruges: ''The Murder of Charles the Good'' (ch. 5.), p. 93.</ref>{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=143–144}} They offered the crown to [[Charles the Good]], the [[Count of Flanders]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=144}} Bruges's report shows that a faction of the Jerusalemite nobility attempted to dethrone the captive Baldwin.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=143}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=207}}{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=73}} Being the head of the lineage from which the first two rulers of Jerusalem were descended, and also the overlord of their brother, Eustace, Charles the Good was an ideal candidate for the throne. However, he refused the offer.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=144}} Murray tentatively associates the leader of the discontented noblemen with the Flemish [[Eustace Grenier]].{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=73}}

Belek died fighting against one of his rebellious officials on 6{{nbs}}May 1124,{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=37}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=165}} and Baldwin was seized by Ilghazi's son, [[Husam al-Din Timurtash|Timurtash]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=171}} Timurtash entrusted [[Banu Munqidh#Reign of Sultan|Sultan]], the emir of Shaizar, with commencing negotiations for Baldwin's release with Joscelin and Morphia.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=171}} According to their agreement, Baldwin was to pay 80,000 dinars and to cede Atarib, Zardana, [[Azaz]] and other Antiochene fortresses to Timurtash.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=171}}{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=113}} Baldwin also promised that he would assist Timurtash against the Bedouin warlord, [[Dubays ibn Sadaqa]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=171}}{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=113}} After a quarter of Baldwin's ransom was paid and a dozen hostages (including Baldwin's youngest daughter [[Ioveta of Bethany|Ioveta]] and Joscelin's son [[Joscelin II, Count of Edessa|Joscelin II]]) were handed over to Timurtash to secure the payment of the balance, Baldwin was released on 29{{nbs}}August 1124.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=37}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=171}}

===Wars===

Baldwin went to Antioch where Patriarch Bernard reminded him that he had not been authorized to renounce Antiochene territories and on 6{{nbs}}September 1124 forbade him to cede fortresses to Timurtash.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=37}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=172}}{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=114}} On 6{{nbs}}October, Baldwin laid [[Siege of Aleppo (1124)|siege to Aleppo]] where the hostages for his ransom were held.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=37}}{{sfn|Köhler|2013|p=114}} Dubays ibn Sadaqa, and two Seljuq princes, [[Sultan Shah ibn Radwan|Sultan Shah]] and [[Toghrul Arslan]], joined him and Timurtash did not support the besieged town.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=172}} Al-Bursuqi decided to intervene and gathered his troops.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=173}} On learning of al-Bursuqi's approach, Dubays ibn Sadaqa withdrew from Aleppo, which forced Baldwin to lift the siege on 25{{nbs}}January 1125.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=173}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=38}}

After more than two years absence, Baldwin returned to Jerusalem on 3{{nbs}}April.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=173}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=38}} He renegotiated the ''Pactum Warmundi'' with the Venetians, approving most of its terms in the so-called ''Pactum Balduini'', but also stipulating that the Venetians were to provide military assistance to the kingdom.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=142}} After al-Bursuqi, Toghtekin and Khirkan of [[Homs]] captured Kafartab and laid siege to Zardana, Baldwin again went north.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=173}} Few knights accompanied him from the kingdom, which according to Murray and Barber may have been a sign of discontent over his frequent campaigns.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=143}}{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=79}} Pons of Tripoli and Joscelin of Edessa joined him and they defeated the Seljuqs at the [[Battle of Azaz (1125)|Battle of Azaz]] in late May. The battle has been described by historian Peter Lock as "one of the bloodiest engagements in the history of the crusader states".{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=38}} Spoils seized enabled Baldwin to pay off his ransom before his return to Jerusalem.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=173–174}}

The careers of some influential lords started around the time when Baldwin returned to Jerusalem in 1125.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=76}} [[Walter I Brisebarre]] witnessed the ''Pactum Balduini'' as [[lord of Beirut]] on 2{{nbs}}May 1125; [[Pagan the Butler]] was first mentioned as [[lord of Oultrejordain]] in 1126.{{sfn|Murray|1994|pp=76–77}} According to William of Tyre, Pagan seized Oultrejordain after [[Roman of Le Puy]] and his son, Ralph, had been deprived of the territory.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=78}} Murray argues that Baldwin must have confiscated Oultrejordain from Roman because Roman had been one of his opponents during his captivity.{{sfn|Murray|1994|p=78}} Murray also says that Baldwin allegedly adopted an expansionist policy against Damascus in the late 1120s to assuage the Jerusalemite noblemen's discontent.{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=149}} He made a raid against Damascene territory across the Jordan in early 1126.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=38}}{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=149}} Accompanied by almost the whole army, Baldwin routed Toghtekin on 25{{nbs}}January and returned to the kingdom laden with booty.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=38}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=174}} Shortly thereafter he supported Pons of Tripoli in capturing [[Raphanea|Rafniye]] and in raiding Homs.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=174}} Al-Bursuqi laid siege to [[Atarib]] in July 1126.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=38}} Baldwin again marched north and Joscelin of Edessa joined him at [[Artah]].{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=38}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=175}} Both sides wanted to avoid a pitched battle, and al-Bursuqi retired to Aleppo.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=175}}

===Succession===

After reaching the age of majority, Bohemond II of Antioch came to Syria to claim his inheritance in October 1126.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=39}} His arrival put an end to Baldwin's rule in Antioch, but Bohemond married Baldwin's second daughter, Alice.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=143–144}} Baldwin, who had no sons, made his eldest daughter, Melisende, his heir in 1126 or 1127.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=139}}

Baldwin had already realized that the Franks were unable to conquer Damascus without further reinforcements from Europe.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=145}} After consulting with his nobles, he sent [[William I of Bures]] and [[Guy I Brisebarre]] to France to offer Melisende's hand to the powerful [[count of Anjou]], [[Fulk V]], in the autumn of 1127.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=140}} Hugh of Payns and his five fellows accompanied the envoys.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=145}} The embassy first visited [[Louis VI of France]], who gave consent to the marriage.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=142}} The negotiations between Fulk and Baldwin's envoys lasted for months.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=142}} In August or September 1127, Baldwin launched a new military campaign against Damascene territory.{{sfn|Tibble|1989|p=82}} Historian Steven Tibble proposes that the royal fortress at [[Wadi Musa]] was built shortly after this.{{sfn|Tibble|1989|pp=82–83}}

Baldwin dispatched Archbishop [[William I of Tyre]] and Bishop [[Robert of Rouen (bishop of Lydda and Ramla)|Robert of Lydda and Ramla]] to the Holy See.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|pp=142–143}} [[Pope Honorius II]] stated that Baldwin was the lawful ruler of Jerusalem in a letter of 29{{nbs}}May 1129.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=143}} [[Christopher Tyerman]] and [[Hans Eberhard Mayer]] agree that the pope wrote his letter to remove any doubts about the legitimacy of Baldwin's rule.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p=207}}{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=143}} On the other hand, [[Stephen of La Ferté]], who had succeeded Warmund of Picquigny as patriarch in July 1128, turned against Baldwin and demanded Jerusalem for the patriarchate.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=151}}

Fulk of Anjou arrived to the Holy Land in the spring of 1129.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=146}} He married Melisende and Baldwin granted them the two wealthiest towns of the kingdom, Tyre and Acre.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=146}} Hugh of Payns, who had achieved the adoption of the statutes of the Knights Templar at the [[Council of Troyes (1129)|Council of Troyes]], returned to the kingdom accompanied by new crusaders.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=146–147}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=40}}

[[File:Balduin2 pocta.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A crowned dead man is carried across a gate of a fortress by 10 people and they are accompanied by armed knights|Baldwin's funeral]]

Toghtekin's successor, [[Taj al-Muluk Buri]], ordered the massacre of the Nizari in Damascus in September 1129.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=147}} The Nizari's local leader, Ismail al-Ajami, sent envoys to Baldwin and offered the fortress of [[Banias]] to the crusaders in return for receiving asylum in the kingdom.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=147}} Baldwin accepted the offer and his troops seized Banyas.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=40}} Taking advantage of the presence of the new crusaders, he also decided to launch an [[Crusade of 1129|attack on Damascus]].{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=180}} He gathered all available troops and marched as far as the Wooden Bridge, about {{convert|10|km|mi}} south-west of the town, in November.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=180}} After Buri's Turcoman horsemen routed a detachment of the crusader army and a heavy storm turned the plains around Damascus into a large marshland, Baldwin had to return to Jerusalem in early December.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=180}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=147–148}}

After the [[Danishmend]] [[Gazi Gümüshtigin]] ambushed and killed Bohemond II in February 1130, Baldwin travelled to Antioch to make arrangements for the administration of the principality.{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=115}} Alice, however, wanted to establish herself as regent during the minority of her and Bohemond's infant daughter, [[Constance of Antioch|Constance]], and did not allow Baldwin to enter Antioch.{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=115}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=152}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=184}} She even sent envoys to [[Imad ad-Din Zengi]], the atabeg of Mosul, to seek his assistance against her father, according to the contemporaneous [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]].{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=115}} The Antiochene noblemen were strongly opposed to her plan and opened two gates of the town, which enabled Baldwin to enter.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=184}} He forgave his daughter but forbade her to stay in Antioch during Constance's minority.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=184}}{{sfn|Maalouf|1984|p=116}} After the Antiochene noblemen swore fealty to him and Constance, Baldwin appointed Joscelin of Edessa to administer the principality.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=184}}

According to William of Tyre, Baldwin fell seriously ill after his return from Antioch.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=149}} He was already dying when he made arrangements for his succession in August 1131.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=184–185}} He was transferred to the patriarch's palace near the Holy Sepulchre where he bequeathed the kingdom to Fulk, Melisende and their infant son, [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin]].{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=149}} He took monastic vows and entered the collegiate chapter of the Holy Sepulchre, where he died on 21 August.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=185}} He was buried in the Holy Sepulchre.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=149}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hunt |first=Lucy-Anne |title=Byzantium, Eastern Christendom and Islam |date=1998 |publisher=Pindar |isbn=978-1-899828-23-4 |page=284 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j6npAAAAMAAJ |quote= the tombs of the Latin Kings of Jerusalem were located inside entrance to the Holy Sepulchre, just beyond the eastern entrance […]. Theoderich [a pilgrim {{circa|1172}}] identifies the fifth tomb, that of Baldwin II, as "that of the father of the abbess of St Lazarus".}} (His daughter was the abbess [[Ioveta of Bethany|Ioveta]].)</ref>

==Ancestry==
Baldwin was a younger son of [[Hugh I, Count of Rethel]] and Melisende of Montlhéry.{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=5}} He was closely related to the lords of [[House of Courtenay|Courtenay]] and [[Houses of Montlhéry and Le Puiset|Le Puiset]], and other noble families in the [[Ile-de-France]].{{sfn|Murray|1992|pp=7–9}} He was also a kinsman of the brothers [[Eustace III of Boulogne]], [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], and [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]], but their exact relationship is unknown.{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=55, 62}}

The main concern are the identities of Baldwin II's paternal grandmother and great-grandmother. The Chronicles of [[Alberic of Trois-Fontaines|Alberic of Trois-Fontaine]]<ref>[https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k93452w {{'}}''Chronica Albrici Monachi Trium Fontium''{{'}}], ed. Paulus Scheffer-Boichorst, in ''Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptorum'', vol. 23 (Hanover, 1874), pp. 631–950.</ref> (written in 1119) describes Yvette, sister of [[Ebles I of Roucy]] as "mother of [[Hugh I, Count of Rethel]]". This is the traditional genealogy given for Baldwin II.{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=26}} Notwithstanding, considering her family history, such assertion is chronologically impossible. Jean-Nöel Mathieu raises the fundamental objection that Ebles I (who died in 1033), could not have had a sister who was still alive in 1081, instead he argues that she must have been confused with the wife of Manasses II.<ref name="Mathieu 1997">{{Cite journal|last=Mathieu|first=Jean-Nöel|year=1997|title=Sur les comtesses de Rethel au XI siècle|journal=L'Histoire des Comtes de Rethel et les Comtes de Porcien|volume=revue historique ardennaise 32|pages=3–19}}</ref><ref name="Mathieu 2000 pp.75–84">{{Cite book|last=Mathieu|first=Jean-Nöel |title=La Succession au comté de Roucy aux environs de l'an mil |publisher=Onomastique et Parenté dans l'Occident médiéval |year=2000 |isbn=1-900934-01-9 |volume=Prosopographica et Genealogica / 3 |location=Oxford |pages=75–84}}</ref>

''Li Estoire de Jerusalem et d'Antioche'',<ref>[[Fulcher of Chartres|de Chartres, Foucher]] (1895) [1122]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=0wAcuAAACAAJ Li Estoire de Jerusalem et d'Antioche]. Volume 5 de Recuil des Croisades, Historiens occidentaux.</ref> written in the 12th century, indicates that Manasses III was married to a daughter of [[Godfrey III, Duke of Lower Lorraine]]. This would also explain the connection between the two Baldwins of Jerusalem, as well as the fact that Godfrey made a donation to Manasses in 1065.<ref name="Cartulaire">''<nowiki/>'Cartulaire de Saint-Vanne de Verdun'<nowiki/>'' of 1065: Godfrey II, Duke of Lower Lorraine and his wife Beatrice confirm a donation made to Count Manasses and his son Renauld. The problem here is that nothing indicates this Manasses is the Count of Rethel or another Count Manasses who lived in the same period.</ref>

Alan V. Murray says that the primary sources suggest that Baldwin II's connection to his predecessors "was not particularly close", and that Baldwin was most probably related to their mother, [[Ida of Lorraine]].{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=6}} [[Thomas Asbridge]] says that Baldwin was their second cousin instead.{{sfn|Asbridge|2004|pp=308–309}}

The family tree below is the reconstruction based on the above two records, which makes Baldwin II a first cousin once removed of his predecessors through their mother. Asbridge's view would match the alternate hypothesis that has Godfrey III's wife Doda as Manasses III's sister instead of his mother-in-law. There is also a hypothesis that Judith was Eustace II's sister.<ref name="Mathieu 1997" /> However, Murray objects that there is no allusion of this daughter nor of any other connection between the Rethel and Boulogne families in Genealogica comitum Boloniensium', a compilation of the Boulogne genealogy which was being copied and extended by the mid-twelfth century, when the descendants of Manasses III were ruling the kingdom of Jerusalem. The three women in question are in italics.

{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| Ma2 |v| Yve | | Ebl | | God |v| Dod |Ma2=[[Manasses II, Count of Rethel|Manasses II of Rethel]]|Yve=''Yvette''|Ebl=[[Ebles I of Roucy]]|God=[[Godfrey III, Duke of Lower Lorraine|Godfrey III of Lower Lorraine]]|Dod=''Doda''}}
{{tree chart| | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|.| |}}
{{tree chart| | | Ma3 |v| Jud | | | | Eu2 |v| Ida |Ma3=[[Manasses III, Count of Rethel|Manasses III of Rethel]]|Jud=''Judith''|Eu2=[[Eustace II, Count of Boulogne|Eustace II of Boulogne]]|Ida=[[Ida of Lorraine|Ida of Lower Lorraine]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |!| | | | | | | |,|-|+|-|.| |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | Hug |v| Mel | | God |!| Ba1 |Hug=[[Hugh I, Count of Rethel|Hugh I of Rethel]]|Mel=Melisende, daughter of [[Guy I of Montlhéry]]|God=[[Godfrey of Bouillon]]|Ba1=[[Baldwin I of Jerusalem]]}}
{{tree chart| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | Ger | | Ba2 | | Mat | | Eu3 | | |Ger=[[Gervais, Count of Rethel|Gervais of Rethel]]|Ba2='''Baldwin II of Jerusalem'''|Mat=[[Matilda, Countess of Rethel|Matilda of Rethel]]|Eu3=[[Eustace III, Count of Boulogne|Eustace III of Boulogne]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | Jer | | Ret | | Bou | | |Jer=''[[King of Jerusalem#House of Rethel (1118–1153)|Kingdom of Jerusalem]]''|Ret=''[[Counts and dukes of Rethel#Vitre dynasty|County of Rethel]]''|Bou=''[[Count of Boulogne#House of Flanders|County of Boulogne]]''}}
{{tree chart/end}}

==Family==

Most Armenians adhered to the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], but Baldwin's wife, Morphia, was born to an Orthodox noble family.{{sfn|Murray|1992|p=186}}{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=78}} Her father, Gabriel, gave her in marriage to Baldwin, because he needed the crusaders' support against his enemies.{{sfn|MacEvitt|2010|p=77}} Morphia gave birth to four daughters.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=140}} She died on 1{{nbs}}October 1126 or 1127.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=139}}

The eldest daughter of Baldwin and Morphia, Melisende, succeeded Baldwin along with her husband, Fulk.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=149}} They were crowned in the Holy Sepulchre on 14{{nbs}}September 1131.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=149}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=41}} Baldwin's second daughter, [[Alice of Antioch|Alice]], made several attempts to administer Antioch after Baldwin's death.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=41}} [[Hodierna of Tripoli|Hodierna]] was Baldwin and Morphia's third daughter.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=140}} She was given in marriage to [[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli]] before 1138.{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=140}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=157}} [[Ioveta of Bethany|Ioveta]] was her parents' youngest daughter, and their only child "[[Porphyrogennetos|born into the purple]]" (that is after her father's coronation).{{sfn|Mayer|1985|p=140}} She entered the [[Church of Saint Anne, Jerusalem|Convent of Saint Anne]] in Jerusalem around 1134.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=146}} About 10 years later, she became the second abbess of the convent that Melisende had established at the [[Tomb of Lazarus]] in Bethany.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp=158, 160}}

==Legacy==

Baldwin's contemporaries often criticized him.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=150}} Matthew of Edessa, who recorded the Armenians' grievances during Baldwin's reign in Edessa, described him as a greedy ruler who had "an intolerable love for money".{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=150}} Bernard of Blois, an ascetic monk who settled in the [[Amanus Mountains]], blamed him for "certain enormities in his way of life".{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=150}} [[Fulcher of Chartres]] hinted that Baldwin's captivity was a punishment for sin, because he had never seen other kings who were imprisoned.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=150}}

William of Tyre described Baldwin as "a devout and God-fearing man, notable for his loyalty and for his great experience in military matters," and said that he was nicknamed "the Thorny" (''cognominatus est Aculeus'').{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} Ibn al-Qalanisi, who calls him "Baldwin the Little" (''Baghdawin al-ru'aiuis'') to distinguish him from Baldwin I, remarked that "after him there was none left amongst them possessed of sound judgment and capacity to govern".{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==

===Primary sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* [[William of Tyre]], ''A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea'', trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey. Columbia University Press, 1943.
* [[Galbert of Bruges]]: ''The Murder of Charles the Good'' (Translated by James Bruce Ross) (1959). Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-231-13671-6}}
{{Refend}}

===Secondary sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Asbridge |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Asbridge |year=2004 |title=The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517823-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/firstcrusadenewh00asbr }}
* {{cite book |last=Barber |first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Barber |year=2012 |title=The Crusader States |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-11312-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bianca |first=Stefano |year=2007 |title=Syria: Medieval Citadels Between East and West |publisher=Umberto Allemandi for Aga Khan Trust for Culture |isbn=978-8-84221-449-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fink |first=Harold S. |editor1-last=Setton |editor1-first=Kenneth M. |editor2-last=Baldwin |editor2-first=Marshall W. |title=A History of the Crusades, Volume One: The First Hundred Years |publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press |year=1969 |pages=368–409 |chapter=The Foundation of the Latin States, 1099–1118 |isbn=978-1-58684-251-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Köhler |first=Michael |year=2013 |title=Alliances and Treaties between Frankish and Muslim Rulers in the Middle East: Cross-Cultural Diplomacy in the Period of the Crusades |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-24857-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Lock |first=Peter |year=2006 |title=The Routledge Companion to the Crusades |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9-78-0-415-39312-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Maalouf |first=Amin |author-link=Amin Maalouf |year=1984 |title=The Crusades Through Arab Eyes |publisher=SAQI |isbn=978-0-86356-023-1 |title-link=The Crusades Through Arab Eyes }}
* {{cite book |last=MacEvitt |first=Christopher |year=2010 |title=The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4050-4 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Mayer |first=Hans Eberhard |author-link=Hans Eberhard Mayer |title=The Succession to Baldwin II of Jerusalem: English Impact on the East |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=38 |pages=139–147 |year=1985 |doi=10.2307/1291522 |jstor=1291522 |issn=0070-7546 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Murray |first=Alan V. |title=Dynastic continuity or dynastic change? Accession of Baldwin II and the nobility of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |journal=Medieval Prosopography |volume=13 |pages=1–27 |year=1992 |issn=0198-9405 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Murray |first=Alan V. |title=Baldwin II and his Nobles: Baronial Factionalism and Dissent in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1118–1134 |journal=Nottingham Medieval Studies |volume=38 |pages=60–85 |year=1994 |doi=10.1484/J.NMS.3.229 |issn=0078-2122 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Murray |first=Alan V. |title=The Greek Inscriptions on the Coinage of Count Baldwin II of Edessa (1100–18) |journal=Numismatic Chronicle |volume=182 |pages=243–248 |year=2022a }}
* {{cite book |last=Murray |first=Alan V. |year=2022b |title=Baldwin of Bourcq: Count of Edessa and King of Jerusalem, 1100–1131 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780367545307|series=Rulers of the Latin East}}
* {{cite book |last=Murray |first=Alan V. |year=2000 |title=The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Dynastic History, 1099–1125 |publisher=Prosopographica et Geneologica |isbn=978-1-9009-3403-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |year=1989a |title=A History of the Crusades, Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundations of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-06161-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofcrusade00runc }}
* {{cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |year=1989b |title=A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-06162-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tibble |first=Steven |year=1989 |title=Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099–1291 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-822731-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tyerman |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Tyerman |year=2006 |title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02387-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |first=Monique |last=Amouroux-Mourad |title=Le comté d'Edesse, 1098–1150 |publisher=P. Geuthner |year=1988}}
* {{cite book |last=Asbridge |first=Thomas |title=How the Crusades Could Have Been Won: King Baldwin II of Jerusalem's Campaigns against Aleppo (1124–5) and Damascus (1129) |chapter=How the Crusades Could Have Been Won |pages=73–94 |publisher=Journal of Medieval Military History, Boydell & Brewer |volume=11 |year=2013 |doi= 10.1515/9781782041672-005|jstor=10.7722/j.ctt31njvf.7 |isbn=9781843838609 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ferdinandi |first=Sergio |year=2017 |title=La Contea Franca di Edessa. Fondazione e Profilo Storico del Primo Principato Crociato nel Levante (1098–1150) ''[The Frankish County of Edessa. The Establishment and Historical Profile of the First Crusader State in the Levant (1098–1150)]''|publisher= Pontificia Università Antonianum – Rome |isbn=978-88-7257-103-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Jonathan |title=Defenders of the Holy Land: Relations between the Latin East and the West, 1119–1187 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Schaeffer |first=Paul Bigelow |title=Some Aspects of the Government of Baldwin II, Second Latin King of Jerusalem |type=MA thesis |institution=University of Wisconsin |year=1915}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Baldwin II. (king of Jerusalem)}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef| rows = 2 | before = [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]] }}
{{s-ttl| title = [[County of Edessa|Count of Edessa]]
| years = 1100–1118 }}
{{s-aft| after = [[Joscelin I of Edessa|Joscelin I]] }}
{{s-ttl| title = [[King of Jerusalem]]
| years = 1118–1131 }}
{{s-aft| after = [[Melisende of Jerusalem|Melisende]]|after2=[[Fulk of Jerusalem|Fulk]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{Jerusalem Monarchs}}
{{Antioch Monarchs}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baldwin 02 Of Jerusalem}}
[[Category:1070s births]]
[[Category:1131 deaths]]
[[Category:12th-century monarchs of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Counts of Edessa]]
[[Category:Kings of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Regents of Antioch]]
[[Category:Burials at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]
[[Category:Christians of the First Crusade]]
[[Category:12th-century regents]]
[[Category:Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime]]

Battle of the Field of Blood

2025-10-26T19:27:54Z

2600:1011:A18F:F810:EC88:74CB:C4DC:37A9: endash

{{Short description|Battle in the Middle East in 1119}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Ager Sanguinis
| image = Battle-of-Ager-Sanguinis.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = Battle of Ager-Sanguinis, 1337 miniature
| partof = the [[Crusade]]s
| date = 28 June 1119
| place = Balat, near [[Sarmada]]{{efn|The location of the battle was described by contemporary historians, as follows:
*[[Matthew of Edessa]]: "After that he went to [[Bizaah|Buzaa]] and set up camp here" or "within the fortress of al-Atarib".
*[[Ibn al-Adim]]: "Roger is located in al-Balat, between two mountains, near the Sarmada mountain pass, north of al-Atarib."
*[[Ibn al-Qalanisi]]: "in a place known as Sarmada, while others said that in Danit al-Bakal, between Antioch and Aleppo."
*[[Usama ibn Munqidh]]: "at al-Balat" or "at Badanis".
*[[Fulcher of Chartres]]: "Roger ... fell dead near fort Artasia."}}
| result = Artuqid victory
| combatant1 = [[Artuqids]] of [[Aleppo]]
| combatant2 = [[Principality of Antioch]]
| commander1 = [[Ilghazi]] [[Ibn al-Khashshab (died 1125)|Ibn al-Khashshab]]
| commander2 = [[Roger of Salerno]]{{KIA}}
| strength1 = 20,000{{sfn|Tibble|2018|p=273}}
| strength2 = 700 knights{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=103}} 500 Armenian cavalry{{sfn|Smail|1995|p=47}} 3,000 infantry{{sfn|Tibble|2018|p=272}} Turcopoles and auxiliaries{{sfn|Tibble|2018|p=273}} '''Total:''' 7,000–11,000{{sfn|Tibble|2018|p=273}}
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = Most killed 570 captured, of whom 30 executed{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
{{Campaignbox Seljuk–Crusader War}}
In the '''Battle of ''Ager Sanguinis''''', also known as the '''Battle of the Field of Blood''', the '''Battle of Sarmada''', or the '''Battle of Balat''', [[Roger of Salerno]]'s Crusader army of the [[Principality of Antioch]] was annihilated by the army of [[Ilghazi|Ilghazi of Mardin]], the [[Artuqid]] ruler of [[Aleppo]] on 28 June 1119.
==Background==
[[Antioch]] and the other [[Crusader States]] were constantly at war with the Muslim states of Northern [[Syria]] and [[Al Jazira, Mesopotamia|the Jazeerah]], principally Aleppo and [[Mosul]]. When [[Ridwan of Aleppo]] died in 1113, there was a period of peace, at least for a few years. However, [[Roger of Salerno]], who was ruling Antioch as regent for [[Bohemond II of Antioch|Bohemond II]], did not take advantage of Ridwan's death; likewise, [[Baldwin II of Edessa|Baldwin II]], [[county of Edessa|count of Edessa]], and [[Pons of Tripoli|Pons]], [[county of Tripoli|count of Tripoli]], looked after their own interests and did not ally with Roger against Aleppo. In 1115, Roger defeated a [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk]] Turkish invasion force led by [[Bursuq ibn Bursuq]] at the [[Battle of Sarmin]].

In 1117, Aleppo came under the rule of the Artuqid [[atabeg]] [[Ilghazi]].{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=102}} In 1118, Roger captured [[Azaz]], which left Aleppo open to attack from the Crusaders; in response, Ilghazi invaded the Principality in 1119.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=103}} Roger marched out from [[Artah]] with [[Bernard of Valence]], the [[Latin Patriarch of Antioch]].{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=103}} Bernard suggested they remain there, as Artah was a well-defended fortress only a short distance away from Antioch, and Ilghazi would not be able to pass if they were stationed there. The [[Patriarch]] also advised Roger to call for help from Baldwin, now [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|king of Jerusalem]], and Pons, but Roger felt he could not wait for them to arrive.

Roger camped in the pass of [[Sarmada]], while Ilghazi besieged the fort of [[Atarib|al-Atharib]].{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}} A force under Robert of Vieux-Pont set out to break the siege, and Ilghazi feigned a retreat, Robert's men were drawn out from the fort and ambushed.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}}

==Battle==
Ilghazi was also waiting for reinforcements from [[Toghtekin]], the [[Burid]] emir of [[Damascus]], but he too was tired of waiting.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}} Using little-used paths, his army quickly surrounded Roger's camp during the night of 27 June.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}} The prince had recklessly chosen a campsite in a wooded valley with steep sides and few avenues of escape.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}} Roger's army of 700 knights, 500 Armenian cavalry and 3,000 foot soldiers, including [[turcopoles]], hastily formed into five divisions.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=103–104}} These drew up in a V-shaped line with the tip farthest from the Muslim battle array. From left to right, the divisions were commanded by Robert of St. Lo, Prince Roger, Guy de Frenelle, Geoffrey the Monk and Peter. Meanwhile, Roger held back a sixth division under Renaud Mansoer to protect the Antiochene rear.{{sfn|Smail|1995|p=179}}

As the Muslim army waited, the ''qadi'' [[ibn al-Khashshab|Abu al-Fadl ibn al-Khashshab]], wearing his lawyer's turban but brandishing a lance, rode out in front of the troopers. At first they were incredulous at being harangued by a scholar but at the end of his passionate evocation of the duties and merits of the [[jihad]] warrior, according to Kamal ad-Din, the contemporary historian of Aleppo, these hardened professionals wept with emotion and rode into battle.

That morning, 28 June, the battle was begun by an archery duel between the Antiochene infantry, posted in front of the knights, and the Turkish bowmen. The crusader army was at first successful when the right-hand divisions of Peter and Geoffrey the Monk attacked and defeated the Artuqids opposed to them. Guy de Frenelle's center division had some success also, but the battle was soon decided on the left flank.{{sfn|Smail|1995|p=180}} [[Robert of St. Lo]] and the [[Turcopoles]] were driven back into Roger's division, disrupting it. A north wind blew dust in the faces of the Antioch knights and footmen, confusing them further.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}} Soon, Artuqid flanking forces enveloped the crusaders.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}}

During the fighting, Roger was killed by a sword in the face at the foot of the great [[Crux gemmata|jewelled cross]] which had served as his standard.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}} The rest of the army was killed or captured; only two knights survived. Renaud Mansoer took refuge in the fort of Sarmada to wait for King Baldwin, but was later taken captive by Ilghazi. Among the other prisoners was likely [[Walter the Chancellor]], who later wrote an account of the battle. The massacre led to the name of the battle, ''ager sanguinis'', [[Latin]] for "the field of blood."

==Name "ager sanguinis"==
The description ''ager sanguinis'' is possibly a [[Bible|Biblical]] reference to the field purchased by [[Judas Iscariot|Judas]] with the money he had been given to betray [[Jesus]]. The [[Acts of the Apostles]] records that Judas killed himself in the field, and it was thus known as ''[[Akeldama|acheldemach]]''{{dubious|Not a common spelling, and unsourced.|date=May 2020}} in [[Aramaic]], and ''ager sanguinis'' in the [[Vulgate]].{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

==Casualties==
The Muslims captured 70 knights and 500 soldiers of inferior rank. The high-ranking prisoners were [[ransom]]ed and 30 men{{dubious|"Men" probably meaning knights, not sargeants or footsoldiers, but then say so.|date=May 2020}} who could not pay their way out were executed.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=104}}

==Aftermath==
Ilghazi soon went on an alcoholic binge and did not advance to Antioch,{{sfn|Smail|1995|p=30}} where Patriarch Bernard was organizing whatever defense he could. Even so, because of the loss of the Antiochene field army, Atharib, [[Zardana|Zerdana]], [[Sarmin]], [[Ma'arrat al-Numan]] and [[Kafartab|Kafr Tab]] rapidly fell into Muslim hands.{{sfn|Smail|1995|p=30}}

Ilghazi was defeated by [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem]] and Count Pons at the [[Battle of Hab]] on 14 August and Baldwin took over the regency of Antioch.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=105}} Subsequently, Baldwin recovered some of the lost towns.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=106}} Even so, the defeat at the Field of Blood left Antioch severely weakened, and subject to repeated attacks by the Muslims in the following decade. Eventually, the Principality came under the influence of a resurgent [[Byzantine Empire]].

The Crusaders regained some of their influence in Syria at the [[Battle of Azaz (1125)|Battle of Azaz]] six years later in 1125.

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* [[Thomas S. Asbridge]] and Susan B. Edgington, trans. & eds. ''[[Walter the Chancellor]]'s The Antiochene Wars: a translation and commentary.'' Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999. {{ISBN|1-84014-263-4}} (Appendices also contain the accounts of [[Fulcher of Chartres]], [[Albert of Aix]], [[Matthew of Edessa]], [[Orderic Vitalis]], and [[William of Tyre]].)
* Geoffrey Hindley, ''The Crusades: a history of armed pilgrimage and holy war''. London: Constable, 2003 {{ISBN|1-84119-597-9}}
*{{Runciman-A History of the Crusades|volume=2}}
* {{cite book |first=R. C. |last=Smail |title=Crusading Warfare 1097–1193 |edition=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-521-48029-9 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=W |title=The Crusaders in the East: a brief history of the wars of Islam with the Latins in Syria during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1907 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tibble|first=Steve |title=The Crusader Armies 1099–1187 |year=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven and London|isbn= 978-0-300-21814-5 }}
{{Refend}}

{{Authority control}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Ager Sanguinis, Battle of}}
[[Category:Battles involving the Principality of Antioch]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1119]]
[[Category:12th century in the Seljuk Empire]]
[[Category:1119 in Asia]]
[[Category:1110s in the Crusader states]]