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Moqua Well

2025-10-29T09:56:13Z

2600:8800:311B:4100:4B:C942:7B1E:DD98: Fixed grammar

{{Short description|Underground lake in Nauru}}
{{Infobox lake
| name = Moqua Well
| image = [[File:Moqua Well-en.svg|250px]]
| caption =
| image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[Yaren District|Yaren]]
| coords = {{Coord|-0.5466|166.920|type:waterbody_region:NR|display=inline,title}}
| type = [[underground lake]]
| pushpin_map = Nauru
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Moqua Well in Nauru
| pushpin_label_position =
| inflow =
| outflow =
| catchment =
| basin_countries = Nauru
| length =
| width =
| area = {{Convert|2000|m2|acre|abbr=on}}
| depth = {{convert|2.5|m|abbr=on}}
| max-depth = {{convert|5|m|abbr=on}}
| volume =
| residence_time =
| shore =
| elevation = {{convert|5|m|abbr=on}}
| frozen =
| islands =
| cities =
}}
The '''Moqua Well''' is a small [[underground lake]] in [[Nauru]].

==History==
During [[World War II]], Moqua Well was the primary source of drinking water for inhabitants of Nauru.<ref name=wondermondo>[http://www.wondermondo.com/Countries/Au/Nauru/Nauru/MoquaCaves.htm "Moqua Caves and Moqua Well"], Gatis Pāvils, 30 October 2011.</ref> It is for this reason that the body of water is referred to as a [[water well|well]] instead of a lake.<ref name=iexplore>[http://www.iexplore.com/travel-guides/australia-and-south-pacific/nauru/attractions "Nauru – Attractions"], iExplore.</ref>

In 2001, Nauruan authorities decided to put up a fence to prevent accidents, after an alcohol-related drowning in the same year.<ref name=wondermondo/><ref name=iexplore/>

==Location==

The well is located below the [[Yaren district]]. The Moqua Well is not well known, one of a few [[attractions]] in Nauru. Nearby are the '''Moqua Caves''', a series of [[cave]]s below Yaren.

===Linguistic disambiguation===

The name of the well 'Moqua' (sometimes referred to as 'Makwa') is derived from the former name by which [[Yaren district|Yaren]] was known.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Yaren District#Main sights]]
* [[Nauru]]
* [[Hydrography]]

[[Category:Lakes of Nauru]]
[[Category:Yaren District]]
[[Category:Underground lakes]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Nauru]]

{{Nauru-geo-stub}}

History of Nauru

2025-10-29T07:33:32Z

2600:8800:311B:4100:4B:C942:7B1E:DD98: Fixed grammar

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Expand French|Histoire de Nauru|fa=yes|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox
| name = Nauru history Navbar
| bodystyle = vcard
| title =
| titlestyle =
| above = History of Nauru
| abovestyle = background:#ccf;
| image = [[File:Flag of Nauru.svg|150px]]
| imagestyle =
| caption = The [[flag of Nauru]] reflects the 12 original tribes that inhabited the country
| captionstyle =
| headerstyle = background:#ccf;
| labelstyle =
| datastyle =
| header1 = Historical Periods
| label2 = Pre-history
| data2 = until 1888
| label3 = [[German Empire|German Rule]]
| data3 = 1888–1919
| label4 = Australia trust
| data4 = 1920–1967
| label5 = [[Japanese occupation of Nauru|Japanese Rule]]
| data5 = 1942–45
| label6 = Republic
| data6 = 1968–present
| header7 = Major Events
| label8 = [[Phosphate]] originally found
| data8 = 1900
| label10 = Collapse of phosphate industry
| data10 = 2002
}}

'''History of Nauru''', is about [[Nauru]], an [[island country]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Human activity is thought to have begun roughly 3,000 years ago when clans settled the island. A people and culture developed on the island, the [[Nauruans|Nauru]], which had 12 tribes. At the end of the 1700s, a British ship came, and this was the first known contact with the outside world. The British ship called it "pleasant island", and it was a friendly greeting; the British sailed on. Thirty years later, in 1830, an escaped Irish convict took over the island and was finally evicted in 1841. There were scattered interactions with passing vessels and trade. In the mid-to-late 19th century, a devastating civil war started, which took the lives of many Nauru. This war was ended when Germany annexed the island in 1888, and negotiations ended the fighting. In the 1900s, phosphate mining started, and the Germans built some modern facilities on the island. German control ended at the end of World War I, and it was passed to Australia as protectorate. This continued until WW2, when the Empire of Japan invaded the island. Although it was occupied for a few years, many Nauru died at this time, and much of the population was deported from the island and/or used for slave labor. With the surrender of Japan, the Nauru were returned to the island, and it was put under Australian administration again, under the condition it would become independent. This happened in 1968, and Nauru has been a stable democracy since that time. In the last three decades of the 20th century, Nauru had enormous per capita wealth from the phosphate mining, to the point they were some of the richest people on the planet. However, when this ended and the investments were depleted, it has had a harder time, and international aid is important in the 21st century.

== Early history ==
[[File:Nauruan-warrior-1880ers.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Nauruan warrior, 1880]]
Nauru was settled by [[Micronesians]] around 3,000 years ago, and there is evidence of possible
[[Polynesians|Polynesian]] influence.<ref name="UNCCD">Nauru Department of Economic Development and Environment. 2003. [http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/asia/national/2002/nauru-eng.pdf First National Report To the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)] Retrieved 2006-05-03 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514043420/http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/asia/national/2002/nauru-eng.pdf |date=14 May 2015 }}</ref> [[Nauruans]] subsisted on [[coconut]] and [[Pandanus tectorius|pandanus fruit]], and engaged in [[aquaculture]] by catching juvenile [[milkfish|''ibija'' fish]], [[Acclimatization|acclimated]] them to freshwater conditions, and raised them in [[Buada Lagoon]], providing an additional reliable source of food.<ref>{{cite book|author1=McDaniel, C. N. |author2=Gowdy, J. M. |year= 2000 | title= Paradise for Sale |publisher=University of California Press | isbn= 0-520-22229-6 | pages= 13–28}}</ref> Traditionally only men were permitted to fish on the reef, and did so from canoes or by using trained [[great frigatebird|man-of-war hawks]].

There were traditionally 12 clans or tribes on Nauru, which are represented in the 12-pointed star in the nation's [[flag of Nauru|flag]]. Nauruans traced their descent on the [[matrilineal|female side]]. The first Europeans to encounter the island were on the British whaling ship ''Hunter'', in 1798. When the ship approached, "many canoes ventured out to meet the ship. The ''Hunter''{{'}}s crew did not leave the ship nor did Nauruans board, but Captain [[John Fearn (whaler)|John Fearn]]'s positive impression of the island and its people" led to its English name, Pleasant Island.<ref>McDaniel, C. N. and Gowdy, J. M. 2000. ''Paradise for Sale''. University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-22229-8}} pp. 29–30</ref> This name was used until Germany annexed the island 90 years later.

From around 1830, Nauruans had contact with Europeans from whaling ships and traders who replenished their supplies (such as fresh water) at Nauru.<ref name="Ellis-1935">{{cite book |last1= Ellis |first1= Albert F. |author-link1= Albert Fuller Ellis |title= Ocean Island and Nauru; Their Story |year= 1935 |publisher= Angus and Robertson, limited|location= Sydney, Australia |oclc= 3444055 |page=29 }}</ref> The islanders traded food for alcoholic [[Palm wine|toddy]] and firearms. The first Europeans to live on the island, starting perhaps in 1830, were Patrick Burke and John Jones, Irish convicts who had escaped from [[Norfolk Island]], according to ''[[Paradise for Sale]]''.<ref>McDaniel, C. N. and Gowdy, J. M. 2000. ''Paradise for Sale''. University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-22229-8}} pp 30</ref> Jones became "Nauru's first and last dictator," who killed or banished several other beachcombers who arrived later, until the Nauruans banished Jones from the island in 1841.<ref>McDaniel, C. N. and Gowdy, J. M. 2000. ''Paradise for Sale''. University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-22229-8}} p. 31</ref>

The introduction of firearms and alcohol destroyed the peaceful coexistence of the 12 tribes living on the island. A 10-year [[Nauruan Civil War|civil war]] began in 1878 and resulted in a reduction of the population from 1,400 (1843) to around 900 (1888).<ref>{{cite web |title=Background Note: Nauru |url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/16447.htm |publisher=U.S. Department of State |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017054843/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/16447.htm |archive-date=October 17, 2012 |date=March 13, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Ultimately, alcohol was banned and some arms were confiscated.
[[File:Warrior suit, Nauru, 1891 - Staatlichen Museums für Völkerkunde München - DSC08287.JPG|thumb|180px|[[Nauruan people|Nauruan]] warrior suit, 1891. (Exhibit in the Oceanic collection of the Staatlichen Museums für Völkerkunde München)]]

==German protectorate==
{{Main|German New Guinea}}
[[File:Nauru Annexation Germany 1888 cropped.png|left|thumb|140x140px|2 October 1888: Annexation ceremony with King Aweida in the middle]]
In 1886 Germany was granted the island under the [[Anglo-German Declarations about the Western Pacific Ocean|Anglo-German Declaration]]. The island was annexed by Germany in 1888 and incorporated into Germany's [[German New Guinea|New Guinea]] Protectorate. Nauru was occupied on 16 April 1888 by German troops, which ended the [[Nauruan Civil War]]. On 1 October 1888 the German gunboat [[SMS Eber (1887)|SMS ''Eber'']] landed 36 men on Nauru.<ref name="gowdy">Carl N. McDaniel, John M. Gowdy: ''Paradise for Sale: A Parable of Nature'', University of California Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0520222296}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=x2GZH7mssNcC&q=%22dropped+a+landing+party+of+thirty-six+men%22&pg=PA35 page 35].</ref> Accompanied by [[William Harris (beachcomber)|William Harris]] the German marines marched around the island and returned with the twelve chiefs, the white settlers and a [[I-Kiribati|Gilbertese]] missionary.<ref name="gowdy"/> The chiefs were kept under house arrest until the morning of 2 October, when the annexation ceremony began with the raising of the German flag.<ref name="gowdy"/> The Germans told the chiefs that they had to surrender all weapons and ammunition within 24 hours or the chiefs would be taken prisoner.<ref name="gowdy"/> By the morning of 3 October 765 guns and 1,000 rounds of ammunition had been turned over.<ref name="gowdy"/> The Germans called the island Nawodo or Onawero. The arrival of the Germans ended the [[Nauruan Civil War|war]], and social changes brought about by the war established kings as rulers of the island, the most widely known being King [[Auweyida]]. Christian missionaries from the [[Gilbert Islands]] also arrived in 1888.<ref>Ellis, A. F. 1935. ''Ocean Island and Nauru – their story''. Angus and Robertson Limited. pp, 29–39</ref> The Germans ruled Nauru for almost three decades. [[Robert Rasch]], a German trader who married a native woman, was the first administrator, appointed in 1888.

At the time there were [[Nauruans#Tribes|twelve tribe]]s on Nauru: [[Deiboe]], [[Eamwidamit]], [[Eamwidara]], [[Eamwit]], [[Eamgum]], [[Eano]], [[Emeo|Emea]], [[Eoraru]], [[Irutsi]], [[Iruwa]], [[Iwi (tribe)|Iwi]] and [[Ranibok]]. Today the twelve tribes are represented by the twelve-pointed star in the [[flag of Nauru]].

Phosphate was discovered on Nauru in 1900 by the prospector [[Albert Fuller Ellis|Albert Ellis]].<ref name="Ellis 1935">{{cite book |last1= Ellis |first1= Albert F. |author-link1= Albert Fuller Ellis |title= Ocean Island and Nauru; Their Story |year= 1935 |publisher= Angus and Robertson, limited|location= Sydney, Australia |oclc= 3444055 }}</ref> The Pacific Phosphate Company started to exploit the reserves in 1906 by agreement with Germany. The company exported its first shipment in 1907.<ref>Ellis, A. F. 1935. ''Ocean Island and Nauru – their story''. Angus and Robertson Limited. pp. 127–139</ref><ref name="WM1985">{{cite book |last1= Maslyn Williams & Barrie Macdonald |title= The Phosphateers |year=1985 |publisher= Melbourne University Press |isbn=0-522-84302-6|page=11 }}</ref>

==World War I to World War II==
In 1914, following the outbreak of World War I, Nauru was captured by [[Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force|Australian troops]], which held control until 1920. Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom signed the Nauru Island Agreement in 1919, creating a board known as the [[British Phosphate Commission]] (BPC). This took over the rights to phosphate mining.<ref>{{cite book| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MAcIBRGr5JEC&q=British+Phosphate+Commission&pg=PA256 | title= Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia No. 35 – 1942 and 1943 | publisher=Austràlia Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (now [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]])}}</ref>
According to the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (now the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]), "In common with other natives, the islanders are very susceptible to tuberculosis and influenza, and in 1921 an influenza epidemic caused the deaths of 230 islanders." In 1923, the [[League of Nations]] gave Australia a trustee mandate over Nauru, with the [[United Kingdom]] and New Zealand as co-trustees.<ref>Cain, Timothy M., comp. "Nauru." The Book of Rule. 1st ed. 1 vols. New York: DK Inc., 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1923/11.html |title=Agreement (between Australia, New Zealand and United Kingdom) regarding Nauru |publisher=Austlii.edu.au |access-date=22 June 2010}}</ref> In 1932, the first [[Angam Day|Angam Baby]] was born.

==World War II==
[[File:Nauru Island under attack by Liberator bombers of the Seventh Air Force..jpg|left|thumb|220px|Nauru Island under attack by [[B-24 Liberator]] bombers of the [[Seventh Air Force]]]]

{{Main|Japanese occupation of Nauru}}
{{further|Pacific Islands home front during World War II}}

During World War II, Nauru was subject to significant damage from both Axis (German and Japanese) and Allied forces.

On 6 and 7 December 1940 the [[Nazi German]] [[auxiliary cruiser]]s [[German auxiliary cruiser Orion|''Orion'']] and [[German auxiliary cruiser Komet|''Komet'']] sank [[German attacks on Nauru|four merchant ships]]. On the next day, ''Komet'' shelled Nauru's phosphate mining areas, oil storage depots, and the shiploading cantilever.<ref name="PIM41-2">{{cite web| last = | first = | work= XI(7) Pacific Islands Monthly |title= How Nauru Took the Shelling |date =14 February 1941|url= https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-316032928/view?partId=nla.obj-316050130#page/n36/mode/1up| accessdate=28 September 2021}}</ref> The attacks seriously disrupted phosphate supplies to Australia and New Zealand (mostly used for munition and fertiliser purposes.)<ref name=PacMag/>

[[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] troops [[Operation Ry|occupied]] Nauru on 26 August 1942,<ref>Lundstrom, John B., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xtaTS-POl-UC The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign]'', Naval Institute Press, 1994, p. 175.</ref> and executed 7 Europeans.<ref name="PIM45-10">{{cite web| last =| first = | work= XVI(3) Pacific Islands Monthly |title= Nauru Officials Murdered By Japs|date =16 October 1945|url= https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-317552084/view?partId=nla.obj-317560904#page/n7/mode/1up| accessdate=29 September 2021}}</ref> The native Nauruans [[Japanese occupation of Nauru|were badly treated by the occupying forces]]. On one occasion, thirty-nine people with [[leprosy]] were reputedly loaded onto boats which were towed out to sea and sunk. The Japanese troops built two airfields on Nauru, which were bombed for the first time on 25 March 1943, preventing food supplies from being flown to Nauru.<ref name="PIM1946-6">{{cite web| last = | first = | work= XVI(11) Pacific Islands Monthly |title=Interesting Sidelights on Jap Occupation of Nauru|date =18 June 1946|url= https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-317564791/view?partId=nla.obj-317661362#page/n50/mode/1up| accessdate=29 September 2021}}</ref> In 1943 the Japanese deported 1,200 Nauruans to work as labourers in the [[Chuuk islands]].<ref name=PacMag>Haden, J. D. 2000. [http://166.122.164.43/archive/2000/April/04-03-19.htm Nauru: a middle ground in World War II] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208125727/http://166.122.164.43/archive/2000/April/04-03-19.htm |date=8 February 2012 }} ''Pacific Magazine'' Retrieved 5 May 2006</ref>

Nauru was liberated from the Japanese on 13 September 1945, when Captain Soeda, the commander of all the Japanese troops on Nauru, surrendered the island to the Royal Australian Navy and Army. This surrender was accepted by Brigadier J. R. Stevenson, who represented Lieutenant General [[Vernon Sturdee]], the commander of the [[First Australian Army]], on board the warship [[HMAS Diamantina (K377)|HMAS ''Diamantina'']]<ref>''The Times'', 14 September 1945</ref><ref name="PIM45-10"/> Arrangements were made to repatriate from Chuuk the 745 Nauruans who survived Japanese captivity there.<ref name="PIM1950-6">{{cite web| last =| first = | work= XX(10) Pacific Islands Monthly |title= Only 745 Returned|date =1 May 1950|url= https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-322270499/view?partId=nla.obj-322562760#page/n82/mode/1up| accessdate=30 September 2021}}</ref> They were returned to Nauru by the BPC ship ''Trienza'' on 1 January 1946.<ref>Garrett, J. 1996. ''Island Exiles''. ABC. {{ISBN|0-7333-0485-0}}. pp. 176–181</ref>

==Trust Territory==
In 1947,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-13 |title=Nauru - Phosphate Mining, WWII, Geopolitics {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nauru/History |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> a trusteeship was established by the United Nations, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom became the U.N. trustees of the island, although practical administration was mostly handled by Australia. By 1965 the population reached 5,561, of which just under half were considered Nauruan.<ref name="Lal2006">{{cite book |author1=Brij V Lal |title=British Documents on the End of Empire Project Series B Volume 10: Fiji |date= 2006 |publisher=University of London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies |pages=299, 309 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2R3Nk3jUlsC |chapter='Pacific Island talks': Commonwealth Office notes on four-power talks in Washington |isbn=9780112905899 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2R3Nk3jUlsC&pg=PA297}}</ref> In July 1966 the Nauruan Head Chief spoke at the [[United Nations Trusteeship Council]], calling for independence by 31 January 1968. This was supported by the General Assembly in December of that year.<ref name="Lal2006"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/109.pdf |title=Question of the Trust Territory of Nauru |publisher=United Nations General Assembly |date=20 December 1966 |access-date=27 September 2021}}</ref> Australia and the other administering powers sought to arrange an alternative to independence, such as internal self-government similar to that of the [[West Indies Associated States]], or with Australia retaining a role in foreign affairs. Under these envisioned solutions, the resulting political settlement would be permanent, with no route to independence. This was due to concern over implications for other Pacific territories, and for the implication of such a [[Microstate|small community]] (the size of an "English village") gaining the full trappings of statehood. These suggestions were however rejected by Nauru, and Australia was concerned that even if they were accepted by Nauru, they might not be accepted by the UN. In June 1967 it was agreed that assets belonging to the [[British Phosphate Commission]] on the island would be sold to Nauru for 21 million Australian dollars. Nauru was granted unconditional independence on 31 January 1968.<ref name="Lal2006"/>

==Independence==
Nauru became self-governing in January 1966. The [[Parliament of Australia]] passed the ''[[Nauru Independence Act 1967]]'' on 10 November 1967, which granted Nauru independence on a date fixed by proclamation by the [[Governor-General of Australia]] and authorised the Legislative Council of Nauru to establish a constitutional convention.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/num_act/nia19671031967204/nia19671031967204.pdf|title=Nauru Independence Act 1967|publisher=AUSTLII|access-date=8 October 2024}}</ref> On 31 January 1968, following a two-year constitutional convention, Nauru became the world's smallest independent [[republic]]. It was led by founding president [[Hammer DeRoburt]]. In 1967, the people of Nauru purchased the assets of the British Phosphate Commissioners, and in June 1970, control passed to the locally owned [[Nauru Phosphate Corporation]]. Money gained from the exploitation of phosphate was put into the [[Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust]] and gave Nauruans the second highest GDP Per Capita (second only to the [[United Arab Emirates]]) and one of the highest standards of living in the [[Third World]].<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/7296832.stm Nauru seeks to regain lost fortunes] Nick Squires, 15 March 2008, BBC News Online. Retrieved 16 March 2008.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-03-31-mn-18785-story.html|title=Tiny Pacific Isle's Citizens Rich, Fat and Happy – Thanks to the Birds|date=1985-03-31|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-04}}</ref>

In 1989, Nauru took legal actions against Australia in the [[International Court of Justice]] over Australia's actions during its administration of Nauru. In particular, Nauru made a legal complaint against Australia's failure to remedy the environmental damage caused by phosphate mining.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Certain Phosphate Lands: Nauru v. Australia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2203821 |journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=87 |issue= |pages=282–288 |doi=10.2307/2203821 |jstor=2203821 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511143145/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&code=naus&case=80&k=e2 |archive-date=2011-05-11 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> ''Certain Phosphate Lands: Nauru v. Australia'' led to an out-of-court settlement to rehabilitate the mined-out areas of Nauru.

By the close of the twentieth century, the finite phosphate supplies were fast running out. Nauru finally joined the UN in 1999.

==Modern-day Nauru==
[[File:Nauru satellite.jpg|thumb|Nauru in 2002, as seen from space]]
As its phosphate stores began to run out (by 2006, its reserves were exhausted), the island was reduced to an environmental wasteland. Nauru appealed to the [[International Court of Justice]] to compensate for the damage from almost a century of phosphate strip-mining by foreign companies. In 1993, Australia offered Nauru an out-of-court settlement of [[Australian dollar|A$]]2.5 million annually for 20 years. New Zealand and the UK additionally agreed to pay a one-time settlement of $12 million each.<ref name=":0" /> Declining phosphate prices, the high cost of maintaining an international airline, and the government's financial mismanagement combined to make the economy collapse in the late 1990s. By the new millennium, Nauru was virtually bankrupt.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shenon|first=Philip|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/10/world/a-pacific-island-nation-is-stripped-of-everything.html|title=A Pacific Island Nation Is Stripped of Everything|date=1995-12-10|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-03-04|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In December 1999, four major United States banks banned dollar transactions with four Pacific island states, including Nauru. The United States Department of State issued a report identifying Nauru as a major [[money laundering]] centre, used by narcotics traffickers and Russian organized crime figures.

President [[Bernard Dowiyogo]] took office in April 2000 for his fourth and, after a minimal hiatus, fifth stints as Nauru's top executive. Dowiyogo first served as president from 1976 to 1978. He returned to that office in 1989, and was re-elected in 1992. A vote in parliament, however, forced him to yield power to Kinza Clodumar in 1995. Dowiyogo regained the presidency when the Clodumar government fell in mid-1998.

In 2001, Nauru was brought to world attention by the [[Tampa affair]], a Norwegian cargo ship at the centre of a diplomatic dispute between [[Australia]], [[Norway]] and [[Indonesia]]. The ship carried [[refugees|asylum seekers]], hailing primarily from [[Afghanistan]], who were rescued while attempting to reach Australia. After much debate many of the immigrants were transported to Nauru, an arrangement known in Australia as the "[[Pacific Solution]]". Shortly thereafter, the Nauruan government closed its borders to most international visitors, preventing outside observers from monitoring the refugees' condition.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

In December 2003, several dozen of these refugees, in protest of the conditions of their detention on Nauru, began a hunger strike.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-30 |title=Hazara asylum seekers hunger strike on Nauru, 2003–2004 |url=https://commonslibrary.org/hazara-asylum-seekers-hunger-strike-on-nauru-2003-2004/ |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=The Commons |language=en-AU}}</ref> The hunger strike was concluded in early January 2004 when an [[Australia]]n medical team agreed to visit the island. Since then, according to recent reports, all but two of the refugees have been allowed into Australia.

During 2002 Nauru severed diplomatic recognition with Taiwan ([[Republic of China]]) and signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]]. This move followed China's promise to provide more than U.S. $130 million in aid. In 2004, Nauru broke off relations with the PRC and re-established them with the ROC.

Nauru was also approached by the U.S. with a deal to modernize Nauru's infrastructure in exchange for suppression of the island's lax banking laws that allow activities that are illegal in other countries to flourish. Under this deal, allegedly, Nauru would also establish an [[embassy]] in China and perform certain "safehouse" and courier services for the U.S. government, in a scheme codenamed "[[Operation Weasel]]". Nauru agreed to the deal and instituted banking reform, but the U.S. later denied knowledge of the deal. The matter is being pursued in an Australian court, and initial judgments have been in favor of Nauru.

The government is desperately in need of money to pay off salary arrears of civil servants and to continue funding the welfare state built up in the heyday of phosphate mining (Nauruans pay no taxes).<ref>{{Cite news|last=Trumbull|first=Robert|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/07/magazine/world-s-richest-little-isle.html|title=World's Richest Little Isle|date=1982-03-07|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-03-04|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Nauru has yet to develop a plan to remove the innumerable coral pinnacles created by mining and make those lands suitable for human habitation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/the-new-rise-of-nauru-can-the-island-bounce-back-from-its-mining-boom-and-bust-62419|title=The new rise of Nauru: can the island bounce back from its mining boom and bust?|last=Ali|first=Saleem H.|website=The Conversation|date=14 July 2016 |language=en|access-date=2020-03-04}}</ref>

Following parliamentary [[2013 Nauruan parliamentary election|elections]] in 2013, [[Baron Waqa]] was [[2013 Nauruan presidential election|elected]] president. He held the presidential title six years from 2013 to 2019. President Waqa was a strong supporter of Australia keeping refugees in a refugee camp on Nauru soil. The incumbent president lost his parliamentary seat in [[2019 Nauruan parliamentary election]], meaning he lost his bid for re-election.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/nauru-president-baron-waqa-loses-election/a-50155856|title = Nauru President Baron Waqa loses election | DW | 25.08.2019| website=[[Deutsche Welle]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-25/naurus-president-loses-bid-for-re-election/11446064|title=Nauru's President ousted during national election|newspaper=ABC News |date=25 August 2019}}</ref> In August 2019 the parliament elected former human rights lawyer [[Lionel Aingimea]] as the new President of Nauru.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-27/nauru-parliament-elects-new-president-lionel-aingimea/11454598|title = Former human rights lawyer Lionel Aingimea becomes Nauru leader| newspaper=ABC News |date = 27 August 2019}}</ref> Following the [[2022 Nauruan parliamentary election]], [[Russ Kun]] was elected president to succeed Aingimea.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hopes for change as Russ Kun elected as Nauru's president |url=https://www.abc.net.au/pacific/programs/pacificbeat/nauru-elects-russ-kun-as-new-president-/101484814 |work=ABC Pacific |date=28 September 2022 |language=en-AU}}</ref> On 30 October 2023, [[David Adeang|David Ranibok Adeang]] was elected President of the Republic of Nauru.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Government of the Republic of Nauru - The Government of the Republic of Nauru |url=http://www.nauru.gov.nr/ |website=www.nauru.gov.nr}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Nauruan Civil War]]
* [[Angam Day]]
* [[Japanese occupation of Nauru]]
* [[History of Oceania]]
* [[President of Nauru]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Nauru]]
* [[Nauru Phosphate Corporation]]
* [[Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust]]
* [[Politics of Nauru]]
* [[1948 Nauru riots]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|first=Cait|last=Storr|year=2020|doi=10.1017/9781108682602|title=International Status in the Shadow of Empire: Nauru and the Histories of International Law|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108682602}}
* {{cite book | last=Fabricius | first=Wilhelm | year=1992 | others=ed. and trans. Dymphana Clark and Stewart Firth | title= Nauru 1888–1900 | publisher=[[Australian National University]] | location= Canberra | isbn=0-7315-1367-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1= Williams, Maslyn & Macdonald, Barrie |title= The Phosphateers |year=1985 |publisher= Melbourne University Press |isbn=0-522-84302-6}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15433901 Timeline] BBC News
* [https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/16447.htm U.S. State Department Background Note: Nauru]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Gilberts/ United States Army in World War II – The War in the Pacific – Seizure of the Gilberts and Marshalls]

{{Nauru topics}}
{{History of Oceania}}
{{British overseas territories}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Nauru}}
[[Category:History of Nauru| ]]
[[Category:Former countries of the interwar period]]

Aweida

2025-10-29T06:35:04Z

2600:8800:311B:4100:4B:C942:7B1E:DD98: Fixed grammar

{{Short description|King of Nauru from 1875-1921}}{{One source|date=February 2025}}{{Infobox royalty
| name = Aweida
| title = King of Nauru
| image = Oweida King of Nauru and the Royal Pandanas fruit holder.jpg
| image_size = 220px
| succession = [[Nauru#History|King of Nauru]]
| reign = {{circa}} 1875 – 1921
| predecessor = Monarchy established
| successor = Moses Ballarat
| birth_name = Aweijeda Jim
| birth_date = {{circa}} 1850
| birth_place = Boe, [[Nauru]]
| death_date = {{circa}} {{death year|1921}} (aged 70–71)
| death_place = [[Nauru]]
| spouse = {{plain list|
* Eibinua
* [[Eigamoiya|Eidukiri]]
}}
| father = Chief Jim
| mother = Eidingab
| religion = [[Methodism]]
| succession1 = [[Head Chief of Nauru]]
| reign1 = {{circa}} 1911 - 1921
| predecessor1 = Chief Jim
| successor1 = [[Daimon (Head Chief)]]
| native_lang1 =
| native_lang1_name1 =
| dynasty = House of Emea
}}

'''King Aweida of Nauru''' ([[Nauruan language|Nauruan]]: ''Aweijeda'' ''Jim'' ''Naoero'') ({{circa}} 1850 – 1921) or formally '''King Aweida''' was the [[King]] and later [[Head Chief of Nauru|Head Chief]] of [[Nauru]] from 1875 until his death in 1921. He was succeeded by his son [[Moses Ballarat]].

==Biography==
[[File:Nauru Annexation Germany 1888 cropped.png|left|thumb|King Aweida standing in the middle before a flag of German [[Imperial Colonial Office]].]]
Aweida was born '''Aweijeda''' in 1850(?) at [[Boe District|Boe]], Nauru. Before Nauru came under European rule, it was governed by a [[Head Chief of Nauru|head chief]] who made laws that were enforced by local chiefs. After his father's death in 1911, he gained the title of head chief and would hold the title until his death.

Aweijeda was born to Chief Jim.<ref name="international">{{cite book |last=Storr|first=Cait|date=2020|title=International Status in the Shadow of Empire|trans-title= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D2b6DwAAQBAJ|language=English |location=|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=106|isbn=9781108579988}}</ref> His first marriage was to a chieftain's daughter, Eibinua of the Eamwit tribe from Bush village. They had several children.

Aweida was known to wear Western attire on special occasions, which was, back then, a very rare practice amongst Nauruans.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=1920-10-07 |title=Nauru Loses "King" |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/242248464?searchTerm=King%20Aweida |access-date=2025-02-19 |work=Herald}}</ref>

When [[German Empire|Germany]] annexed Nauru into the [[German Marshall Islands|Marshall Islands Protectorate]], and later [[German New Guinea]], Aweida retained his [[sovereignty]] as king of Nauru and remained the head chief of the [[Nauruan people]]. He reigned as King and Head Chief from 1875 until his death in 1921. Very little his known about him due to the lack of documentation about him and his family.

After Eibinua died, Aweida remarried, this time to [[Eigamoiya|Eidukiri]], also of the Eamwit tribe, but they had no children.<ref>Professor Paul Hambruch Documents</ref> Aweida was the de-facto king during the [[Nauruan Civil War]] from 1878–1888. After [[Australian occupation of Nauru|Australia invaded the island in World War I]], he retained his position, still having the loyalty of most local chiefs.

On October 7th, 1921, Aweida drowned near the [[Gabab Channel]]. He was brought to shore by the natives of Nauru and was put near a fire, but he collapsed and was declared dead. One of Aweida's sons, [[Moses Ballarat]] (King Moses), was proclaimed as King of Nauru after Aweida's death.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==
*[[Eigamoiya]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{NauruPres}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aweida}}
[[Category:1850s births]]
[[Category:1921 deaths]]
[[Category:Nauruan royalty]]
[[Category:Head Chiefs of Nauru]]
[[Category:People from Boe District]]
[[Category:19th-century monarchs in Oceania]]
[[Category:19th-century Nauruan people]]

{{Nauru-bio-stub}}
{{royal-stub}}

Buada District

2025-10-29T05:41:49Z

2600:8800:311B:4100:4B:C942:7B1E:DD98: Fixed grammar

{{More citations needed|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Buada
| settlement_type = [[Districts of Nauru|District]]
| image_skyline = Buada Lagoon, Nauru 2007.jpg
| imagesize = 250px
| image_caption = [[Buada Lagoon]]
| image_flag =
| image_shield =
| nickname =
| motto =
| image_map = Buada in Nauru.svg
| mapsize =
| map_caption = Buada District within Nauru
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{NRU}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Constituencies of Nauru|Constituency]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Buada Constituency|Buada]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| established_title1 = 
| established_date1 =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| area_magnitude =
| area_total_km2 = 2.6
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| population_as_of = 2021
| population_note =
| population_total = 969<ref name=population>{{Citation
| date = 9 August 2023
| title = Nauru 2021 Population and Housing Census - Analytical Report
| publisher = Pacific Community (SPC) and Government of the Republic of Nauru (Nauru) 2023
| publication-place = Noumea
| page = 27
| url = https://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Get/kzvm2
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230907203022/https://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Get/kzvm2
| archive-date = 7 September 2023
| access-date = 3 May 2024
}}</ref>
| population_footnotes =
| population_metro =
| population_density_km2 =
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map1 =
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| pushpin_map_caption1 =
| pushpin_mapsize =
| coordinates = {{coord|0|32|0|S|166|55|0|E|display=inline,title}}
| timezone = ([[UTC+12:00|UTC+12]])
| utc_offset =
| elevation_m = 20
| postal_code_type = [[Postal code]]|
| postal_code =
| area_code = [[Telephone numbers in Nauru|+674]]
| blank_info =
| blank1_info =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Buada''' is a [[Districts of Nauru|district]] in the [[Pacific]] nation of [[Nauru]]. It is the only district in [[Buada Constituency]]. It has a population of 969 (2021).<ref name=population></ref> Several things are special about Buada compared to the coastal areas, it is entirely inland, it has a lagoon, and the soil and vegetation here are richer.

==Geography==
The only landlocked district in the Republic of Nauru, it is in the southwestern part of the island and covers the central [[Buada Lagoon]]. Buada is a fertile piece in Nauru and mostly wet and tropical due to the mass vegetation (compared to the rest of the island). It covers an area of {{convert|2.6|km2|abbr=on}}, which in comparison with other of Nauru's districts, makes it among the largest.

Buada has retained more vegetation than other districts, where, because of mining, much vegetation has been lost. The proximity of the Buada Lagoon has been relevant to the survival of vegetation.

==Climate==
Buada has a [[tropical rainforest climate]] (Af) with heavy rainfall year-round.
{{Weather box
|width = auto
| location = Buada
| metric first = Yes
| single line = Yes
| Jan high C = 30.7
| Feb high C = 30.6
| Mar high C = 30.4
| Apr high C = 30.4
| May high C = 30.6
| Jun high C = 30.4
| Jul high C = 30.3
| Aug high C = 30.4
| Sep high C = 30.7
| Oct high C = 31.0
| Nov high C = 31.2
| Dec high C = 30.8

| Jan mean C = 27.7
| Feb mean C = 27.7
| Mar mean C = 27.6
| Apr mean C = 27.6
| May mean C = 27.8
| Jun mean C = 27.7
| Jul mean C = 27.5
| Aug mean C = 27.5
| Sep mean C = 27.7
| Oct mean C = 28.0
| Nov mean C = 28.0
| Dec mean C = 27.7
| year mean C =
| Jan low C = 24.7
| Feb low C = 24.9
| Mar low C = 24.9
| Apr low C = 24.9
| May low C = 25.1
| Jun low C = 25.0
| Jul low C = 24.8
| Aug low C = 24.7
| Sep low C = 24.8
| Oct low C = 25.0
| Nov low C = 24.8
| Dec low C = 24.7
|precipitation colour=
|Jan precipitation mm=284
|Feb precipitation mm=251
|Mar precipitation mm=206
|Apr precipitation mm=204
|May precipitation mm=129
|Jun precipitation mm=111
|Jul precipitation mm=146
|Aug precipitation mm=140
|Sep precipitation mm=117
|Oct precipitation mm=105
|Nov precipitation mm=115
|Dec precipitation mm=255
|source 1 = Climate-Data.org<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://en.climate-data.org/location/222606/
|title = Climate: Buada
|publisher=Climate-Data.org
|accessdate = July 28, 2020}}</ref>
}}

==History==
The district held the ancient name Arenibok as early as the 1500s to the late 1800s. The Germans referred to it as 'Bush Village' (1889) after agreeing to its new boundaries located by the Germans, the locals during 1890 named it Buada (ghost land) which is still referred to nowadays.

The last of the few Irutsi clans consisting of four members only, along with the largest of all clans, the Eamwit, inhabited Buada ever since it was known by its original name Arenibok. Few of the other two clans, namely the Emea and the Deiboe clans, also resided with their relatives in Buada

The 10 years [[Nauruan Tribal War]] began in this district during a wedding festival in Aujo hamlet in 1878, when a drunk white opened fire and accidentally killed the lad Giubu of the Eamwit clan, nephew of chief Teiauw of the Eaoru clan and a great-nephew of the chief Aremwa.

Arenibok (now Buada) had four main villages, namely Arenibok and Redeto, villages on the banks of the great Arenibok Sea (now Buada Lagoon) and two other villages of Noreo on the steep slopes towards the south and Aujo with its few hamlets towards inland to the north.

==Notable people==
*[[Ruben Kun]], who represented Buada in the [[Parliament of Nauru]], served as [[President of Nauru]] from 1996 to 1997.
*[[Roland Kun]] (son of Ruben Kun) is the current (2012) representative for Buada district to the Parliament of Nauru.

==See also==
* [[List of settlements in Nauru]]
* [[Rail transport in Nauru]]
*[[History of Nauru]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline|Buada|'''Buada'''}}

{{Districts of Nauru}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Districts of Nauru]]
[[Category:Populated places in Nauru]]

Milkfish

2025-10-29T05:33:12Z

2600:8800:311B:4100:4B:C942:7B1E:DD98: Fixed grammar

{{Short description|Species of fish}}
{{Redirect|Bangus|the valley in India|Bangus Valley}}
{{For|the electronic musician|Underscores (musician)}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Milkfish
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|63|0|refs=<ref name=GC25>{{Cite journal|last1=Guadarrama |first1=A. |last2=Cantalice |first2=K. M. |title=Two contemporaneous morphs of fossil ''Chanos'' Lacepède, 1803 (Gonorynchiformes, Chanidae) from Paleocene (Danian) outcrops near Palenque (Mexico) revealed by geometric morphometrics indicate conservatism in milkfishes after the K/Pg boundary |year=2025 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=20 |issue=3 |at=e0313912 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0313912 |pmid=40043070 |pmc=11882075 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}}[[Early Paleocene]]–present
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucnredlist>{{cite iucn |author=Freyhof, J. |author2=Sparks, J.S. |author3=Kaymaram, F. |author4=Feary, D. |author5=Bishop, J. |author6=Al-Husaini, M. |author7=Almukhtar, M. |author8=Hartmann, S. |author9=Alam, S. |author10=Al-Khalaf, K. |date=2019 |title=''Chanos chanos'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T60324A151598011 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T60324A151598011.en |access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>
| image = Chanidae - Chanos chanos.JPG
| image_caption = [[French Polynesia]]
| image2 = Milkfish (Chanos chanos) locally called 'bangus' in a Philippine market.jpg
| image2_caption = Milkfish (locally ''bangús'') in a [[Philippine]] [[fish market]]
| genus = Chanos
| parent_authority = [[Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, Comte de Lacépède|Lacépède]], 1803
| display_parents = 2
| species = chanos
| authority = ([[Peter Forsskål|Forsskål]], 1775)
| synonyms = *''Butirinus argenteus'' [[Thomas C. Jerdon|Jerdon]], 1849
*''Butirinus maderaspatensis'' Jerdon, 1849
*''Chanos arabicus'' [[Bernard Germain de Lacépède|Lacepède]], 1803
*''Chanos chloropterus'' [[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]], 1847
*''Chanos cyprinella'' Valenciennes, 1847
*''Chanos gardineri'' [[Charles Tate Regan|Regan]], 1902
*''Chanos indicus'' ([[Johan Coenraad van Hasselt|van Hasselt]], 1823)
*''Chanos lubina'' Valenciennes, 1847
*''Chanos mento'' Valenciennes, 1847
*''Chanos mossambicus'' ([[Wilhelm Peters|Peters]], 1852)
*''Chanos nuchalis'' Valenciennes, 1847
*''Chanos orientalis'' Valenciennes, 1847
*''Chanos salmoneus'' ([[Johann Reinhold Forster|Forster]], 1801)
*''Chanos salmonoides'' Günther, 1879
*''Cyprinus pala'' [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1829
*''Cyprinus palah'' (Cuvier, 1829)
*''Cyprinus tolo'' Cuvier, 1829
*''Leuciscus palah'' Cuvier, 1829
*''Leuciscus salmoneus'' (Forster, 1801)
*''Leuciscus zeylonicus'' [[Edward Turner Bennett|Bennett]], 1833
*''Lutodeira chanos'' ([[Peter Forsskål|Forsskål]], 1775)
*''Lutodeira chloropterus'' (Valenciennes, 1847)
*''Lutodeira indica'' van Hasselt, 1823
*''Lutodeira mossambica'' Peters, 1852
*''Lutodeira mossambicus'' Peters, 1852
*''Lutodeira salmonea'' (Forster, 1801)
*''Mugil chanos'' Forsskål, 1775
*''Mugil salmoneus'' Forster, 1801
}}

The '''milkfish''' ('''''Chanos chanos''''') is a widespread species of [[Actinopterygii|ray-finned fish]] found throughout the [[Indo-Pacific]]. It is the sole living [[species]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Chanidae]], and the only living member of the genus '''''Chanos'''''.<ref name=CoF>{{cite web |url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/SpeciesByFamily.asp |title=Catalog of Fishes |editor=Eschmeyer, W. N. |editor2=R. Fricke |date=4 January 2016 |publisher=California Academy of Sciences |access-date=25 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{FishBase family |family=Chanidae |month=October |year=2015}}</ref><ref name=Nelson>{{Cite book| last = Nelson| first = J. S.| title = [[Fishes of the World]]| author-link = Joseph S. Nelson| location = Hoboken, NJ| date = 2006| edition = 4th| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-25031-9| pages=135–136}}</ref>
The repeating scientific name ([[tautonym]]) is from Greek {{transliteration|grc|khanos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|χάνος}} 'mouth').<ref>{{M-W|Chanidae}} "from Greek ''chanos'' mouth"</ref><ref name="JordanEvermann1896">{{cite book | author1 = David Starr Jordan |display-authors=etal | date = 1896 | title = The Fishes of North and Middle America, pt. 1 | publisher = Government Printing Office | page = 414 | oclc = 1052833 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xaEbAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA414 |quote= from {{lang|grc|χάνος}}, the open mouth}}</ref> They are grouped in the order [[Gonorhynchiformes]] and are most closely related to the [[Ostariophysi]]—freshwater fishes such as [[carps]], [[catfish]], and [[loaches]].<ref name = "EF"> Bagarinao, T. (1999). ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10862/2976 Ecology and farming of milkfish]''. Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.</ref>

The species has many common names. The [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] name for the fish is ''awa'', and in [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] it is ''ava''. It is called ''bangús'' ({{IPA|tl|bɐˈŋus|lang}}) in the [[Philippines]], where it is popularly known as the [[national animal|national fish]], although the [[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]] has stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law.<ref>{{cite web | last=Pangilinan | first=Leon Jr. | title=In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols | url=http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ | date=3 October 2014 | access-date=8 January 2019 | publisher=[[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]] | archive-date=26 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126154959/http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ }}</ref> In the [[Nauruan language]], it is referred to as {{transliteration|na|ibiya}}. Milkfish is also called ''bandeng'' or ''bolu'' in [[Indonesia]].<ref name=FishBase/>
==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Indo-Pacific map outlines with ASEAN overlay.jpg|thumb|left|Estimated geographical range of ''Chanos'' in the Indo-Pacific ]]
''Chanos chanos'' occurs in the [[Indian Ocean]] and across the [[Pacific Ocean]], from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia. A single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.<ref>Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (''Chanos chanos''). 2nd Edition. 2021. 366p. CIESM Publishers, Paris, Monaco.https://ciesm.org/atlas/fishes_2nd_edition/Chanos_chanos.pdf</ref>
In 1877, the [[California Fish and Game Commission]] introduced one hundred milkfish from Hawaii to the inland waters of [[Solano County, California]]. The introduced population could not establish itself permanently and it is currently unknown how their presence affected the native ecosystem.<ref>Duffy, J. M., & Bernard, H. J. (1985). ''[https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=413 MILKFISH, CHANOS-CHANOS (FORSSKAL, 1775), TAKEN IN SOUTHERN-CALIFORNIA ADDS NEW FAMILY (CHANIDAE) TO THE CALIFORNIA MARINE FAUNA.]'' California Fish and Game, 71(2), 122–125.</ref>

Milkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of {{cvt|1|to|30|m}}. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.<ref name="FishBase" />

==Taxonomy==
''Chanos'' is the only surviving genus of the ancient family [[Chanidae]], which has existed since the [[Early Cretaceous]]. The only surviving species is the widespread ''C. chanos''. The genus ''Chanos'' originated in North America, with the oldest known fossil species dating as far back as the earliest [[Paleocene]] around {{Ma|63}} in Mexico.<ref name=GC25/> The earliest fossil Chanos were found in freshwater Eocene deposits in Europe and North America—hinting that the species first appeared in freshwater environments 40–50 million years ago. It is possible that their invasion into the ocean happened during high sea-level or flooding events after the Eocene. Global cooling during the Mid-Eocene likely wiped out the population of milkfish in the Atlantic, but the species persisted in the Indo-Pacific.<ref name = "SDGL"> Bagarinao, T. (1994). [http://hdl.handle.net/10862/1443 Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos.] ''Environmental biology of fishes'', 39, 23–41.</ref>

The following fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known:<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Taverne |first=Emmanuel Fara, Mireille Gayet, Louis |title=The Fossil Record of Gonorynchiformes |date=2010 |work=Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships |pages=173-226 |url=https://hal.science/hal-00441945v1/file/Fara2009.pdf |access-date=2024-04-03 |publisher=CRC Press |doi=10.1201/b10194-6 |isbn=978-0-429-06156-1}}</ref><ref name=GC25/>

* †''[[Chanos brevis|C. brevis]]'' ([[Johann Jakob Heckel|Heckel]], 1854) - Oligocene of the Chiavon Limestone, Italy
* †''[[Chanos chautus|C. chautus]]'' Guadarrama & Cantalice, 2025 - Danian of the [[Tenejapa-Lacandón Formation]], Mexico
* †''[[Chanos compressus|C. compressus]]'' Stinton, 1977 [<nowiki/>[[otolith]]] - Late [[Ypresian]] of the [[Wittering Formation]], England
* †''[[Chanos forcipatus|C. forcipatus]]'' [[Rudolf Kner|Kner]] & [[Franz Steindachner|Steindachner]], 1863 - Late Ypresian of [[Monte Bolca]], Italy
* †''[[Chanos torosus|C. torosus]]'' Daniltshenko, 1968 - Earliest Ypresian of the [[Danata Formation]], [[Turkmenistan]]
* †''[[Chanos zignoi|C. zignoi]]'' Kner & Steindachner, 1863 - Oligocene of the Chiavon Limestone, Italy

The extinct ''[[Caeus|Caeus leopoldi]]'' from the [[Early Cretaceous]] ([[Albian]]) of Italy is also sometimes placed in ''Chanos'' as ''Chanos leopoldi'', which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back. However, more recent studies have affirmed it being a distinct genus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Taverne |first1=Louis |last2=Capasso |first2=Luigi |date=2017 |title=Osteology and relationships of Caeus (" Chanos ") leopoldi (Teleostei, Gonorynchiformes, Chanidae) from the marine Albian (Early Cretaceous) of Pietraroja (Campania, southern Italy) |url=https://museodistorianaturale.comune.verona.it/media/_Musei/_StoriaNaturale/_Allegati/Biblioteca/Bollettino/Bollettino%2041(2017)/Geologia/01_Taverne_Capasso_bassa.pdf |journal=Bollettino del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona |volume=41 |pages=03–20}}</ref>

==Anatomy==
The milkfish can grow to {{convert|1.80|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}}, but are most often no more than {{convert|1|m|in|abbr=on}} in length. They can reach a weight of about {{convert|14|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. and an age of 15 years. They have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked [[caudal fin]]. The head is small relative to the body. The mouth is small and toothless. The body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins. They have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays. There are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see "Consumption" below).<ref name=FishBase>{{FishBase |genus=Chanos |species=chanos |month=October |year=2015}}</ref>

Their silvery complexion is similar to many other fish species of the Indo-Pacific. They are often mistaken for species of Clupeidae, ''Megalops cyprinoides'', ''Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus'', and ''Elops machnata''. ''Chanos'' can be distinguished from these species by their size, absence of scutes, tubercle on the lower jaw, fin placement, no gular plate between arms of the lower jaw, and having only four branchiostegal rays.<ref> Fischer, W. and G. Bianchi (eds), [https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/publications/query/Hypoplectrus%20indigo,Indigo%20hamlet* FAO species 1984 identification sheets for fishery purposes. Western Indian Ocean]; (Fishing Area 51). Prepared and printed with the support of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, vols 1–6:pag. var.</ref>

Variant milkfish body types have occasionally been found. The "goldfish-type" milkfish was discovered in the Philippines and is characterized by distinctly elongated dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins, and a caudal fin as long as the body. In Hawaii, Indonesia, and Australia, dwarf or hunchback 'shad-type' specimens have been recorded. They have a standard length-to-depth ratio of 2.0-2.5 instead of the usual 3.5-4.0. In Northern Australia, a milkfish with a red head, red fins, and blue dorsal coloration was reported.<ref name=SDGL />

==Life history==
Reproduction of milkfish in nature is far less understood than populations of milkfish bred and propagated in captivity (see "Aquaculture" below). In the wild, milkfish take 3–5 years to mature. Females can produce 0.5-6 million eggs and have the ability to spawn more than once a year. Spawning takes place at night, may be lunar periodic, and is strongly seasonal. Milkfish eggs are [[pelagic]] and range between {{cvt|1.1|and|1.25|mm}} in diameter. Spawning sites are clear, warm, shallow waters above sand or coral reefs. It is believed milkfish prefer these locations to minimize predation from benthic [[planktivores]].<ref name=SDGL />

Milkfish larvae have a pelagic planktonic stage. Younger larvae occur mostly at the surface, or sometimes deeper ({{cvt|20|–|30|m}}). Older larvae are only found at the surface and in near-shore environments.<ref name=SDGL /> Larvae metamorphose into fry and become benthic-feeding juveniles that are opportunistically [[herbivorous]], [[detritivorous]], or [[omnivorous]], depending on the predominant food types in the habitat.<ref>Kumagai, S., & Bagarinao, T. (1981). [http://hdl.handle.net/10862/1115 Studies on the habitat and food of juvenile milkfish in the wild.] ''Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines'', 6(1), 1–10.</ref>

Juvenile milkfish larger than {{cvt|20|mm}} typically bear the characteristics of adults. They have complete fin rays, a forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration. Juveniles have been found to inhabit a diverse range of shallow-water ecosystems such as [[coral lagoons]], [[estuaries]], [[marsh flats]], [[tidal creeks]], and [[tide pools]].<ref name=SDGL />

===Diet===
Milkfish are omnivorous opportunistic feeders. Juvenile milkfish eat a variety of foods including [[phytoplankton]], [[zooplankton]], filamentous [[green algae]], and small [[invertebrates]]. Similarly to juveniles, adults also eat benthic invertebrates and additionally planktonic and [[nektonic]] items such as [[clupeid]] juveniles.<ref name=SDGL />

===Habitat===
Adults tend to [[Shoaling and schooling|school]] around [[coast]]s and [[island]]s with [[coral reef]]s. The young [[Spawn (biology)#Fry|fry]] live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage to [[mangrove]] swamps, [[estuary|estuaries]], and sometimes [[lake]]s, and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce. Juveniles prefer to settle in undisturbed coastal ecosystems that are semi-enclosed, calm, shallow, free from predators, and rich in aquatic vegetation. In their natural habitats, milkfish are very adaptable to both changes in environmental conditions and diet.<ref>Kumagai, S., Bagarinao, T., & Unggui, A. (1985). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250213986_Growth_of_juvenile_milkfish_Chanos_chanos_in_a_natural_habitat Growth of juvenile milkfish Chanos chanos in a natural habitat.] ''Marine ecology progress series''. Oldendorf, 22(1), 1–6.</ref> Milkfish are good [[osmoregulation|osmoregulators]] and extremely [[euryhaline]].<ref>Swanson, C. (1998). [https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/201/24/3355/13539/Interactive-Effects-of-Salinity-On-Metabolic-Rate Interactive effects of salinity on metabolic rate, activity, growth and osmoregulation in the euryhaline milkfish (Chanos chanos)]. ''Journal of Experimental Biology'', 201(24), 3355–3366.</ref>

The wide geographic distribution of milkfish has led to genetic variation in the species across the Indo-Pacific. Milkfish populations differ between the Hawaiian islands, the central Pacific islands, Tonga, Tahiti, Philippines-Taiwan-Indonesia, Thailand-Malaysia, India, and Africa. However, all populations are thought to be inter-breeding, thus they are all considered one species, and their genetic diversity is low. However, populations may still differ in their reproductive, migratory, and survival methods.<ref name=SDGL />

==Conservation status==
According to the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]], as of 2019, milkfish were not a threatened species.<ref name=iucnredlist/> However, little information is available on wild stocks.<ref name=iucnredlist/>

Although milkfish populations are not threatened with extinction, they are at risk of ingesting or absorbing pollutants. Milkfish frequent environments that have been affected by [[industrial pollution|industrial pollutants]], [[land runoff]], and plastics. Asia is one of the largest contributors of plastic litter into both the ocean and freshwater systems. A population of milkfish from [[San Jose, Northern Samar|San Jose]], [[Northern Samar]], Philippines, was found to have concentrations of lead in the meaty part of their bodies.<ref>Dagalea, F. M. S., Somoray, M. J. M., Alvarez, M. L. C., & Lim, K. M. C. (2022). [https://journalcsij.com/index.php/CSIJ/article/view/808 Qualitative Test of Heavy Metals in Chanos chanos (Bangus) Found in the First District of Northern Samar.] ''Chemical Science International Journal'', 31(2), 15–20.</ref> Pollutants have also affected the aquaculture industry. In an aquaculture system in [[Butuan]], Philippines, 97% of the fish sampled had [[microplastics]] in their gastrointestinal tracts. A similar study in Indonesia showed similar results. The presence of pollutants in milkfish poses a threat to the species' health, aquaculture, and humans.<ref>Similatan, K. M., Arcadio, C. G. L. A., Navarro, C. K. P., Capangpangan, R. Y., & Bacosa, H. P. (2023). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115409 Microplastic ingestion by adult milkfish Chanos chanos (Forsskål, 1775) in aquaculture system: The case of Butuan Bay, Philippines.] ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', 194, 115409.</ref>

==Fishing==
In the Philippines, it is prohibited to fish for adult milkfish, also known as ''sabalo'', over {{cvt|60|cm}}. The government enacted this law in 1975 in an effort to protect spawning stocks of fish. However, ''sabalo'' are incidentally caught in [[fish corral]]s and are products of [[bycatch]] from fisheries. The ban was reinforced by the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 and violations are punishable by imprisonment for 6 months to 8 years, and/or a fine of {{Philippine peso|80,000|link=yes}}, forfeiture of the catch and fishing equipment used, and revocation of the fishing license.<ref name=SDGL />

==Consumption==
[[File:Bandeng Asap, Indonesian Smoked Milkfish.JPG|thumb|left|[[Smoked fish|Smoked]] milkfish, sold in [[Juanda International Airport]], [[Surabaya]].]]The milkfish is an important seafood in [[Southeast Asia]] and some Pacific Islands. Because it is notorious for being much bonier than other food fish, deboned milkfish, called "boneless ''bangús''" in the Philippines, has become popular in stores and markets. Despite the notoriety however, many people in the Philippines continue to enjoy the fish cooked regularly or even raw using [[Calamondin|kalamansi]] juice or vinegar to make ''[[Kinilaw|kinilaw na bangus]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atbp.ph/2017/01/20/kilawin-na-bangus-milkfish-ceviche/|title=Kilawin na Bangus (Milkfish Ceviche)|last=Atbp|date=2017-01-20|website=ATBP|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-24}}</ref>

Popular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia include ''bandeng duri lunak'' (soft-boned milkfish, ''ikan bandeng'' is Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java or ''[[:id:bandeng presto|bandeng presto]]'', which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, and ''bandeng asap'' or [[Smoked fish|smoked]] milkfish. Either fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near [[Semarang]] in Central Java, and [[Sidoarjo]] near [[Surabaya]] in East Java.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}
[[File:Food 乾煎虱目魚, 阿英台灣料理, 阿英台灣小吃, 台北 (18403495293).jpg|left|thumb|Fried milkfish belly fillet served at restaurant in [[Taipei]], Taiwan.]]
Milkfish is the most popular fish in [[Taiwanese cuisine]]; it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price. Popular presentations include as a topping for [[Milkfish congee|congee]], pan fried, braised, and as fish balls. There is a milkfish museum in [[Anping District]] and city of [[Kaohsiung]] holds an annual milkfish festival.<ref name="CNN 2015" >{{cite web |last1=Hiufu Wong |first1=Maggie |title=40 of the best Taiwanese foods and drinks |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/40-taiwan-food/index.html |website=www.cnn.com |date=24 July 2015 |publisher=CNN |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref>

Milkfish is an [[oily fish]], and is rich in [[omega-3 fatty acids]].

==Aquaculture==

===History===
[[File:Bangus22jf.JPG|thumb|left|A grilled ''bangus'' (milkfish) in the [[Philippine cuisine|Philippines]].]]
[[File:Milkfish, aquaculture production, million tonnes, 1950-2022.svg|thumb|Global aquaculture production of Milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') in million tonnes from 1950 to 2022, as reported by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fisheries and Aquaculture - Global Production |url=https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/collection/global_production?lang=en |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)}}</ref>]]
Milkfish [[aquaculture]] first occurred around 1800 years ago in the Philippines and spread to Indonesia, Taiwan, and into the Pacific.<ref name=fao/> Traditional milkfish aquaculture relied upon restocking [[pond]]s by collecting wild fry. This led to a wide range of variability in quality and quantity between seasons and regions.<ref name=fao/>

In the late 1970s, farmers first successfully spawned breeding fish. However, they were hard to obtain and produced unreliable egg viability.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.mixph.com/2008/08/milkfish-bangus-breeding-and-fry-hatchery-technology.html|title= Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology|access-date= 2010-09-12|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131213081533/http://www.mixph.com/2008/08/milkfish-bangus-breeding-and-fry-hatchery-technology.html|archive-date= 2013-12-13}}</ref> In 1980, the first spontaneous spawning happened in sea cages. These eggs were found to be sufficient to generate a constant supply for farms.<ref name=" Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology ">Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology</ref>

Milkfish aquaculture accounts for 14% of all aquaculture production worldwide. Indonesia and the Philippines were the leading producers of the species in 2017. The fish is especially desirable for aquaculture because of its rapid growth rate, disease resistance, acclimation to captivity, low mortality, high market value, and high-quality flesh.<ref>Jose, D. M., & Divya, P. R. (2022). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371139001_A_REVIEW_ON_AQUACULTURE_IMPORTANT_FISH_Chanos_chanos_FORSSKAL_1775_THE_MILKFISH A REVIEW ON AQUACULTURE IMPORTANT FISH Chanos chanos, FORSSKÅL 1775, THE MILKFISH.] ''Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics'', 37(1-4), 1–26.</ref>

===Farming methods===
[[File:Cardona,Rizaljf5184 09.JPG|thumb|left|Milkfish aquaculture in fish ponds in [[Cardona, Rizal]], the Philippines.]]
Fry are raised in either sea cages, large [[Saline water|saline]] ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).<ref name=fao>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Chanos_chanos/en |title=''Chanos chanos'' (Forsskal, 1775) |work=Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme |publisher=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department }}</ref> Milkfish reach sexual maturity at {{convert|1.5|kg|abbr=on}}, which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks. Once they reach {{convert|6|kg|abbr=on}}, (eight years), 3–4 million [[egg (biology)|eggs]] are produced each breeding cycle.<ref name=fao/> This is mainly done using natural environmental cues. However, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/Aquaculture/AquacultureProfileSummary.php?ID=80&GenusName=Chanos&SpeciesName=chanos|title=Aquaculture|website=fishbase.mnhn.fr}}</ref> Some still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets.<ref name=fao/>
Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, [[rotifer]]s, [[green algae]], and [[brine shrimp]], as well as the target species.<ref name=fao/><ref name=leeleung>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=C.-S.|last2=Leung|first2=P.-S.|last3=Su|first3=M.-S. |year=1997 |title=Bioeconomic evaluation of different fry production systems for milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') |journal=Aquaculture |volume=155 |issue=1–4 |pages=367–376 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(97)00104-X|bibcode=1997Aquac.155..367L }}</ref> They can either be intensive or semi-intensive.<ref name=fao/> Semi-intensive methods are more profitable at {{US$|6.67|link=yes|1998}} per thousand fry in 1998, compared with {{US$|27.40|1998}} for intensive methods.<ref name=leeleung/> However, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive.<ref name=leeleung/>
Milkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.<ref name=fao/> Indonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.<ref name=fao/> The Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.<ref name=fao/>
The three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture.
* Shallow ponds are found mainly in Indonesia and the Philippines. These are shallow ({{cvt|30|-|40|cm}}), brackish ponds with benthic algae, usually used as feed.<ref name=fao/> They are usually excavated from ''nipa'' or [[mangrove]] areas and produce about {{cvt|800|kg/ha}} per year. Deep ponds ({{cvt|2|–|3|m}}) have more stable environments and their use began in 1970. They so far have shown less susceptibility to disease than shallow ponds.<ref name=fao/>
* In 1979, pen culture was introduced in [[Laguna de Bay]], which had high primary production.<ref name=fao/> This provided an excellent food source. Once this ran out, fertilizer was applied.<ref name=fao/> They are susceptible to disease.
* Cage culture occurs in coastal bays.<ref name=fao/> These consist of large cages suspended in open water. They rely largely on natural sources of food.<ref name=fao/>
Most food is natural (known as ''lab-lab'') or a combination of [[phytoplankton]] and [[macroalgae]].<ref name=fao/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gapasin|first1=R.S.J|last2=Bombeo|first2=R|last3=Lavens|first3=P|last4=Sorgeloos|first4=P|last5=Nelis|first5=H |year=1998 |title=Enrichment of live food with essential fatty acids and vitamin C: effects on milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') larval performance |journal=Aquaculture |volume=162 |issue=3–4 |pages=269–286 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(98)00205-1|bibcode=1998Aquac.162..269G }}</ref> Traditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order.<ref name=fao/>
Harvest occurs when the individuals are {{cvt|20|to|40|cm}} long and {{cvt|250|to|500|g}} in weight. Partial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with [[seine net]]s or [[gill net]]s. Total harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes. Forced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed.
Possible parasites include [[nematode]]s, [[copepod]]s, [[protozoa]], and [[helminth]]s. Many of these are treatable with chemicals and [[antibiotics]].<ref name=fao/>

===Challenges===
Modern milkfish aquaculture faces some challenges: acquiring viable milkfish fry, overcoming their status as a low-value species, attempting to expand outside of an ethnic market and struggling to find a sustainable cost-production balance. In 1987, Taiwan developed the outdoor hatchery technique, which resulted in lower-cost technology, and their fry production surpassed that of the wild. Since then, Taiwan has been one of the biggest hatchery fry producers in the Indo-Pacific. To stimulate market demand, sellers have been taking a fast-food approach, to make the product more accessible and desirable to common consumers.<ref>Su, M. S., Lee, C. S., & Liao, I. C. (2002). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248945500_Technical_Responses_to_Challenges_in_Milkfish_Aquaculture Technical responses to challenges in milkfish aquaculture.] ''Reviews in Fisheries Science'', 10(3-4), 451–464.</ref>

===Processing and marketing===
Traditional post-harvest processing include [[Smoked fish|smoking]], drying, and fermenting. Bottling, canning, and freezing are of recent origin.<ref name=fao/>
Demand has been steadily increasing since 1950.<ref name=fao/> In 2005, {{convert|595,000|t}} were harvested worth US$616 million.<ref name=fao/>

A trend toward value-added products is occurring.<ref name=fao/> In recent years, the possibility of using milkfish juveniles as bait for [[tuna]] long-lining has started to be investigated, opening up new markets for fry hatcheries.<ref>{{cite book|author=FitzGerald, William J. |year=2004 |title=Milkfish aquaculture in the Pacific: potential for the tuna longline fishery bait market |publisher=Noumea, New Caledonia: Secretariat of the Pacific Community |url=http://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/Reports/FitzGerald_04_Milkf.pdf}}</ref>

===Golden ''bangus''===
On April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the Philippine [[Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources]], which was later on called the "golden ''bangus''".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sunstar.com.ph/pangasinan/local-news/2012/04/21/fisheries-bureau-releases-golden-milkfish-217502|title=Fisheries bureau releases golden milkfish|website=[[SunStar]] }}</ref> However, the fish soon died, allegedly because of a lower level of [[oxygen]] in the pond to which it was transferred.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/238401/plan-to-breed-golden-bangus-dies-with-lone-specimen|title= Plan to breed 'golden' bangus dies with lone specimen|date= 28 July 2012}}</ref>

==Cultural significance==
Milkfish have appeared in the traditions and mythology of the native Pohnpeians, Hawaiians, Tongans, and Nauruans in the Pacific.<ref name=SDGL />

===''Bangus'' Festival===
[[File:Bangus Festival of Dagupan City.jpg|thumb|Street dancers in Dagupan depicting the bountiful harvest of ''bangus'']]
In the city of [[Dagupan]] in [[Pangasinan]], Philippines, they host an annual ''Bangus'' Festival. The festival was initially a bangus harvest or '<nowiki />''Gilon''<nowiki />' conceptualized in the 1990s by Mayor Al Fernandez. Now, the festival has become an extravagant event including street dance competitions. The street dance competition named ''Gilon-gilon ed Dalan'' was established to celebrate the ''bangus'' harvest. The festival also honors the city's patron Saint John, who was originally a fisherman and figured prominently in biblical stories of bountiful fish harvests.<ref>Bangus Festival Archives. The Official Website of the City Government of Dagupan. (2023). https://www.dagupan.gov.ph/category/bangus-festival/</ref> The Dagupan province is considered the country's top producer of milkfish cultured in marine cages and pens. Two 'species' of milkfish are cultured in the city—the more popular of the two is the Bonuan ''Bangus''.<ref>Mendoza, C. (2015). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373756224_Historical_Socio-Political_and_Economic_Implications_of_Festival_Celebrations_in_Pangasinan Historical, Socio-Political and Economic Implications of Festival Celebrations in Pangasinan.] </ref>

==See also==
* ''[[Sate Bandeng]]''
* [[Milkfish congee]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Francisco José Poyato-Ariza, ''A revision of the ostariophysan fish family Chanidae, with special reference to the Mesozoic forms'' (Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 1996)

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Chanos chanos}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Chanos chanos}}
* [http://www.bonelessbangus.com Boneless Bangus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717065802/https://bonelessbangus.com/ |date=2020-07-17 }}
* [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?id=80 FishBase entry for milkfish]
* [http://www.seafdec.org.ph/commodities/milkfish_hatchery.html SEAFDEC milkfish hatchery info]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070913041849/http://www.bar.gov.ph/Agritech/Fisheries/Bangus/bangus_description.htm DA, Philippines, About Bangus]
* {{sealifephotos|217625}}

{{Symbols of the Philippines}}
{{Seafood}}
{{Meat|state=expanded}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q465261}}

[[Category:Chanidae]]
[[Category:Fish of the Pacific Ocean]]
[[Category:Fish of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Fish of the Philippines]]
[[Category:Filipino cuisine]]
[[Category:Fish of the Red Sea]]
[[Category:Fish of Hawaii]]
[[Category:Fish of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Fish of Palau]]

[[Category:Fish described in 1775]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Peter Forsskål]]
[[Category:Extant Ypresian first appearances]]