Arnica montana

2025-10-27T14:50:34Z

2601:197:4400:3620:6023:E41C:95C8:F840: deleted wolf's bane--that's a different plant

{{Short description|Species of European flowering plant}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2012}}
{{Speciesbox
|image = Arnica_montana_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-015.jpg
|image_caption = 1897 illustration<ref>illustration from Franz Eugen Köhler, ''Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen'', 1897</ref>
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{Cite iucn |title=''Arnica montana'' |vauthors=Falniowski A, Bazos I, Hodálová I, Lansdown R, Petrova A |name-list-style=amp |article-number= e.T162327A5574104 |date=2011 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T162327A5574104.en |access-date=23 January 2024}}</ref>
|genus = Arnica
|species = montana
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|synonyms =
*''Doronicum montanum'' Lam.
*''Doronicum oppositifolium'' Lam.
*''Arnica helvetica'' Loudon
*''Arnica petiolata'' Schur
*''Arnica plantaginifolia'' Gilib.
*''Arnica lowii'' Holm
*''Cineraria cernua'' Thore
| synonyms_ref = <ref>[http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/gcc-103364 The Plant List ''Arnica montana'' L. ]</ref>
}}

'''''Arnica montana''''', also known as , '''leopard's bane''', '''mountain tobacco''' and '''mountain arnica''',<ref name="FAO">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/AGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/pf000462.htm |title=''Arnica montana'' |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |author=Judith Ladner |access-date=March 16, 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100213173418/http://www.fao.org/ag/AGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/pf000462.htm| archive-date= February 13, 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> is a moderately toxic European [[flowering plant]] in the daisy family Asteraceae that has a large yellow [[head (botany)|flower head]]. The names "wolf's bane" and "leopard's bane" are also used for another plant, ''[[Aconitum]]'', which is extremely poisonous.

''Arnica montana'' has been used as a [[herbal medicine]], but there is insufficient [[evidence-based medicine|clinical evidence]] for its therapeutic use, and it is toxic when taken internally or applied to injured skin.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Arnica |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/arnica.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=25 November 2020 |date=6 May 2020}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Arnica montana 180605.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''Arnica montana'']]
''Arnica montana'' is a flowering plant about {{convert|18-60|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall [[Aromatic plant|aromatic]] fragrant, [[herbaceous]] [[Perennial plant|perennial]]. Its basal green [[Glossary of leaf morphology#Leaf and leaflet shapes|ovate]] leaves with rounded tips are bright coloured and level to the ground. In addition, they are somewhat downy on their upper surface, veined and aggregated in [[Rosette (botany)|rosettes]]. By contrast, the upper leaves are opposed, spear-shaped and smaller which is an exception within the [[Asteraceae]]. The chromosome number is 2n=38.

The flowering season is between May and August (Central Europe). The {{cvt|2|in|cm|1}} flower heads are composed of orange-yellow disc florets in the centre which are externally bordered by 10 to 15 yellow ray florets. The achenes have a one-piece rough pappus which opens in dry conditions.<ref>Arnica montana L., relevant European medical plant (2014). Waizel-Bucay J., Cruz-Juarez M. de L. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Forestales, Vol. 5 Issue 25 pp. 98–109</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.ufz.de/biolflor/taxonomie/taxonomie.jsp?ID_Taxonomie=286 |title=BiolFlor search system |access-date=November 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208162546/http://www2.ufz.de/biolflor/taxonomie/taxonomie.jsp?ID_Taxonomie=286 |archive-date=December 8, 2015 }}</ref> ''Arnica montana'' is a [[hemicryptophyte]],<ref>{{Cite web|title = FloraWeb: Daten und Informationen zu Wildpflanzen und zur Vegetation Deutschlands|url = http://www.floraweb.de/pflanzenarten/biologie.xsql?suchnr=585&|website = www.floraweb.de|access-date = 2015-11-25}}</ref> which helps the plant to survive the extreme overwintering condition of its habitat. In addition, ''Arnica'' forms [[rhizome]]s, which grow in a two-year cycle: the rosette part grows at its front while its tail is slowly dying.<ref name=":0" />

==Taxonomy==
The Latin [[Binomial nomenclature|specific epithet]] ''montana'' refers to mountains or coming from mountains.<ref>Archibald William Smith {{google books|ahNMkgoNJ7IC|A Gardener's Handbook of Plant Names: Their Meanings and Origins|page=239}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Location_of_Arnica_montana.svg|thumbnail|Distribution map of ''Arnica montana''.]]

''Arnica montana'' is widespread across most of Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Arnica montana [Arnica]|url = http://luirig.altervista.org/flora/taxa/index1.php?scientific-name=arnica+montana|website = luirig.altervista.org|access-date = 2015-11-26}}</ref> It is absent from the Celtic Isles and the Italian and Balkan peninsulas.<ref name="euromed.luomus.fi">{{Cite web |title=Map of Arnica Montana |url=http://euromed.luomus.fi/euromed_map.php?taxon=416903&size=medium |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=euromed.luomus.fi}}</ref> In addition, it is considered extinct in Hungary and Lithuania.<ref name="euromed.luomus.fi"/> ''Arnica montana'' grows in nutrient-poor siliceous meadows or clay soils.<ref name=":0" /> It mostly grows on alpine meadows and up to nearly {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. In more upland regions, it may also be found on nutrient-poor moors and heaths. However Arnica does not grow on lime soil,<ref name=":0" /> thus it is an extremely reliable bioindicator for nutrient poor and acidic soils. It is rare overall, but may be locally abundant. It is becoming rarer, particularly in the north of its distribution, largely due to increasingly intensive agriculture and commercial [[wildcrafting]] (foraging).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Advance home remedies|last = M. Finlay|first = Sandra|publisher = ask1on}}</ref> Nevertheless, it is cultivated on a large scale in Estonia.<ref name="euromed.luomus.fi"/>

==Chemical constituents==
[[File:Helenalin.svg|thumb|Chemical structure of helenalin]]
The main constituents of ''Arnica montana'' are [[essential oils]], [[fatty acids]], [[thymol]], [[Sesquiterpene lactone|pseudoguaianolide sesquiterpene lactones]] and [[flavanone glycoside]]s.<ref name="foods">{{cite journal|last1=Ivanova|first1=Daniela|last2=Deneva|first2=Vera|last3=Zheleva-Dimitrova|first3=Dimitrina|last4=Balabanova-Bozushka|first4=Vesela|last5=Nedeltcheva|first5=Daniela|last6=Gevrenova|first6=Reneta|last7=Antonov|first7=Liudmil|title=Quantitative Characterization of Arnicae flos by RP-HPLC-UV and NIR spectroscopy|journal=Foods|date=2019|volume=8|issue=1|page=9|doi=10.3390/foods8010009|pmid=30586911|pmc=6352279|doi-access=free}}</ref> Pseudoguaianolide sesquiterpenes constitute 0.2–0.8% of the flower head of ''Arnica montana''. They are the toxin [[helenalin]] and their [[Fatty acid ester|fatty esters]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=World Health Organization|title=Who monographs on selected medicinal plants. Volume 3|date=2007|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneve, Switzerland|isbn=978-92-4-154702-4|pages=77–87|chapter=Flos Arnicae}}</ref> [[2,5-Dimethoxy-p-cymene]] and thymol [[Methoxy group|methyl ether]] are the primary components of essential oils from both the plant's roots and [[rhizome]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pljevljakušić|first1=Dejan|last2=Rančić|first2=Dragana|last3=Ristić|first3=Mihailo|last4=Vujisić|first4=Ljubodrag|last5=Radanović|first5=Dragoja|last6=Dajić-Stevanović|first6=Zora|title=Rhizome and root yield of the cultivated Arnica montana L., chemical composition and histochemical localization of essential oil|journal=Industrial Crops and Products|date=2012|volume=39|pages=177–189|doi=10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.02.030}}</ref> The quality and chemical constitution of the plant substance Arnicae flos can be monitored by [[near-infrared spectroscopy]].<ref name="foods" />

==Cultivation==
[[File:Arnica montana MHNT.BOT.2011.18.5.jpg|thumb|''Arnica montana'' fruits and seeds]]
[[File:Arnica montana 4436.jpg|thumb|''Arnica montana:'' Photo taken at Botanical Garden in Erlangen, Germany.]]
''Arnica montana'' is propagated from seed. Generally, 20% of seeds do not germinate. For large scale planting, it is recommended to raise plants first in a nursery and then to transplant them in the field. Seeds sprout in 14–20 days but germination rate depends highly on the seed quality. Planting density for ''Arnica montana'' is of 20 plants/m2 such that the maximum yield density will be achieved in the second flowering season. While ''Arnica montana'' has high exigencies of [[soil quality]], analyses should be done before any fertilizer input.<ref>B.M.Smallfield & M.H. Douglas (2008) Arnica montana a grower‟s guide for commercial production in New Zealand. New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research Limited</ref>

The flowers are harvested when fully developed and dried without their [[bract]] nor [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacles]]. The roots can be harvested in autumn and dried as well after being carefully washed.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Heilmittel der Natur Arnika|last = Hofmann|first = Maria|publisher = Südwest|year = 1998|isbn = 3-517-08019-5}}</ref>

''Arnica montana'' is sometimes grown in herb gardens.<ref name="efloras"/>

==Use in herbal medicine==
{{See also|Helenalin}}

''Arnica montana'' has been used as a herbal medicine.<ref name="efloras">{{cite web |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=102636 |title=''Arnica'' |work=[[Flora of North America]] |publisher=efloras.org |access-date=March 16, 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100404091413/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=102636| archive-date= April 4, 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> When used as a [[topical medication]] in a [[gel]] at 50% concentration, ''A. montana'' was found to have the same effectiveness (albeit with possibly worse side effects) as a 5% [[ibuprofen]] gel for treating the symptoms of hand [[osteoarthritis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cameron|first1=M|last2=Chrubasik|first2=S|title=Topical herbal therapies for treating osteoarthritis.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=31 May 2013|volume=2013|issue=5|article-number=CD010538|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010538|pmid=23728701|pmc=4105203}}</ref> A 2014 review found that ''A. montana'' was ineffective at concentrations of 10% or less for pain, swelling, and bruises.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brito|first1=Noe|last2=Knipschild|first2=Paul|last3=Doreste-Alonso|first3=Jorge|title=Systematic Review on the Efficacy of Topical ''Arnica montana'' for the Treatment of Pain, Swelling and Bruises|journal=Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain|date=11 April 2014|volume=22|issue=2|pages=216–223|doi=10.3109/10582452.2014.883012|s2cid=76330596}}</ref> A 1998 review of [[homeopathy|homeopathic]] ''A. montana'' (all such preparations are so dilute that they contain none of the plant) found it is no more effective than a [[placebo]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1001/archsurg.133.11.1187| title = Efficacy of Homeopathic Arnica| journal = Archives of Surgery| volume = 133| issue = 11| year = 1998| last1 = Ernst| first1 = E.| last2 = Pittler| first2 = M. H.| pmid=9820349| pages=1187–90| doi-access = }}</ref>

===Toxicity===
The [[US Food and Drug Administration]] has classified ''Arnica montana'' as an unsafe herb because of its [[toxicity]].<ref name=drugs/> It should not be taken orally or applied to broken skin where absorption can occur.<ref name=drugs/> ''Arnica'' irritates [[mucous membrane]]s and may elicit stomach pain, [[diarrhea]], and vomiting.<ref name=drugs/> It may produce [[contact dermatitis]] when applied to skin.<ref name=drugs/>

''Arnica montana'' contains the toxin [[helenalin]], which can be poisonous if large amounts of the plant are eaten or small amounts of concentrated Arnica are used. Consumption of ''A. montana'' can produce severe [[gastroenteritis]], internal bleeding of the digestive tract, raised liver enzymes (which can indicate inflammation of the liver), nervousness, accelerated heart rate, muscular weakness, and death if enough is ingested.<ref>{{cite book |title=Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West |author=Gregory L. Tilford |isbn=0-87842-359-1 |year=1997 |publisher=Mountain Press}}</ref><ref name=pmid11558636>{{cite journal | pmid = 11558636| year = 2001| title = Final report on the safety assessment of Arnica montana extract and Arnica montana| journal = International Journal of Toxicology| volume = 20 Suppl 2| issue = 2| pages = 1–11| doi=10.1080/10915810160233712}}</ref> Contact with the plant can also cause skin irritation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/poison/Arnicmo.htm |title=Poisonous Plants: ''Arnica montana'' |publisher=[[North Carolina State University]] |access-date=January 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017023928/http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/poison/Arnicmo.htm |archive-date=October 17, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rudzki E |author2=Grzywa Z |title=Dermatitis from ''Arnica montana'' |journal=Contact Dermatitis |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=281–2 |date=October 1977 |pmid=145351 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0536.1977.tb03682.x|s2cid=46223008 }}</ref> In the [[Ames test]], an extract of ''A. montana'' was found to be [[mutagen]]ic.<ref name=pmid11558636/>

==Market==
The demand for ''A. montana'' is 50 tonnes per year in Europe, but the supply does not cover the demand.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} The plant is rare; it is protected in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, and in some regions of Switzerland.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} France and Romania produce ''A. montana'' for the international market.<ref>Pasquier, B., Godin, M. (2014) L'arnica des montagnes, entre culture et cueillette. Dossier simple et aromatique, Jardins de France 630.</ref> Changes in agriculture in Europe during the last decades have led to a decline in the occurrence of ''A. montana''. [[Extensive farming|Extensive agriculture]] has been replaced by [[Intensive farming|intensive management]].<ref>Michler, B. (2007) Conservation of Eastern European Medicinal Plants Arnica Montana in Romania</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060928145529/http://www.rsm.ac.uk/media/downloads/japr02ernst.pdf Article concerning testing involving Arnica] at the Royal Society of Medicine (archived)

{{Taxonbar|from=Q207848}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Arnica|montana]]
[[Category:Alpine flora]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Europe]]
[[Category:Flora of Europe]]
[[Category:Flora of the Alps]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Habitats Directive species]]

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Arnica montana