https://wiki.sarg.dev/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=2601%3A441%3A4283%3A73A0%3A3CF3%3A29AD%3A1849%3A99A4Vero - Wikipedia - User contributions [en]2026-08-14T18:49:29ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.44.2https://wiki.sarg.dev/index.php?title=George_Mallory&diff=229416George Mallory2025-10-26T17:34:04Z<p>2601:441:4283:73A0:3CF3:29AD:1849:99A4: Updated short description</p>
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<div>{{short description|English mountaineer (1886–1924)}}<br />
{{for|the American pathologist|George Kenneth Mallory}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = George Mallory<br />
| image = George Mallory 1915.jpg<!--This photo of him in uniform, may not be from 1915. He was commissioned on 15 Dec 1915, so to have obtained a uniform and got leave to meet his wife may have taken till 1916, or it could be from even later in the war --><br />
| caption = George Mallory, {{circa|1916}}<br />
| birth_name = George Herbert Leigh Mallory,<!--Please do not alter. His birth name was Leigh Mallory without a hyphen. He became Leigh-Mallory in 1914 when his father adopted the surname by royal licence!--><br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1886|6|18|df=y}},<br />
| birth_place = [[Mobberley]], [[Cheshire]], England<br />
| death_date = 8 or 9 June 1924 (aged 37)<!--Pls don't alter! Mallory likely died in a fall from the Yellow Band on 8 June, but there is a possibility that he perished on 9 June.--><br />
| alma_mater = [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]]<br />
| death_place = [[North Face (Everest)]], [[Tibet (1912–1951)|Tibet]]<br />
| death_cause = [[Mountaineering]] accident<br />
| body_discovered = 1 May 1999<br />
| occupation = {{hlist|Teacher|lecturer|rock climber|mountaineer}}<br />
| networth = <br />
| spouse = {{marriage|Christiana Ruth Turner|1914}}<!--Please do not alter. Her name is not Ruth Dixon Turner!--><br />
| children = 3<br />
| website = <br />
| module = {{Infobox military person|embed=yes<br />
| allegiance = United Kingdom<br />
| branch = British Army<br />
| serviceyears = 1915–1918<br />
| rank = [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|Lieutenant]]<br />
| battles = [[First World War]]<br />
| awards =<br />
| laterwork =<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
{{MedalTop}}<br />
{{MedalSport|Men's [[Mountaineering|Alpinism]]}}<br />
{{MedalCountry|{{GBR}}}}<br />
{{MedalCompetition|[[Olympic Games]]}}<br />
{{MedalGold|[[1924 Winter Olympics|1924 Chamonix]]|[[1922 British Mount Everest expedition|Everest expedition]]}}<br />
{{MedalBottom}}<br />
<br />
'''George Herbert Leigh-Mallory''' (18 June 1886&nbsp;– 8 or 9 June 1924) was an English [[Mountaineering|mountaineer]] who participated in the first three British [[Mount Everest]] expeditions from the early to mid-1920s. He and climbing partner [[Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)|Andrew "Sandy" Irvine]] were reported to be last seen ascending near Everest's [[summit]] during the [[1924 British Mount Everest expedition|1924 expedition]], sparking debate as to whether they reached it before they died.<br />
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Born in [[Cheshire]], England, Mallory became a student at [[Winchester College]], where a teacher recruited him for an excursion in the [[Alps]], and he developed a strong natural climbing ability. After graduating from [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]], where he became friends with prominent intellectuals, he taught at [[Charterhouse School]] while honing his climbing skills in the Alps and the English [[Lake District]]. He pioneered new routes and became a respected figure in the British climbing community.<br />
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His service in the [[First World War]] interrupted his climbing, but he returned with renewed vigour after the war. Mallory's most notable contributions to mountaineering were his expeditions to Everest. In 1921, he participated in the first [[1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition|British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition]], which established the [[North Col]]-North Ridge as a viable route to the summit. In 1922, he took part in a [[1922 British Mount Everest expedition|second expedition]] to attempt the [[first ascent]] of Everest, in which his team achieved a world [[World altitude record (mountaineering)#British Everest expeditions|altitude record]] of {{convert|8321|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}}<ref name=MtWorld>{{cite book | title = Mountain World 1966/7 | date=1968| editor-first = Malcom | editor-last =Barnes | first = Anders| last=Bolinder |publisher =George Allen and Unwin Ltd |pages=228 | chapter= Height Records | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=02zwAAAAMAAJ | access-date = 10 February 2025 }}</ref> using [[Bottled oxygen (climbing)|supplemental oxygen]]. They were awarded [[Alpinism at the Olympic Games|Olympic gold medals for alpinism]].<br />
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During the 1924 expedition, Mallory and Irvine disappeared on Everest's Northeast Ridge. They were last seen alive approximately 800 vertical feet (240&nbsp;metres) from the summit, sparking debate as to whether one or both reached it before they died. Mallory's body was found in 1999 by the [[Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition]] at {{convert|26760|ft|m|abbr=off}}, along with personal effects. The discovery provided clues, but no definitive proof about whether they reached the summit. When asked by a reporter why he wanted to climb Everest, Mallory purportedly replied, "Because it's there."<br />
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==Early life and teaching career==<br />
===Childhood===<br />
[[File:St Wilfrid's Church.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[St Wilfrid's Church, Mobberley]], Cheshire, which Mallory climbed aged 7]]<br />
George Herbert Leigh-Mallory was born at [[Newton Hall, Mobberley|Newton Hall]], Mobberley, Cheshire, on 18 June 1886,{{sfn|Green|2005|p=13}}{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|p=6}} the first son and second child of [[the Reverend]] Herbert Leigh Mallory,{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}} [[Rector (ecclesiastical)|rector]] of the parish.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=15}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=25}} His mother was Annie Beridge Leigh-Mallory.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}} Mallory had two sisters, Mary Henrietta{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}} and Annie Victoria (Avie),{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}} and a younger brother, [[Trafford Leigh-Mallory|Trafford]],{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}} the Second World War [[Royal Air Force]] commander.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=223}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=21}}{{refn |In 1944, [[Trafford Leigh-Mallory|Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory]] was Commander-in-Chief of the [[Allied Expeditionary Air Force]]. On 14 November 1944, Trafford and his wife Doris (née Sawyer) died when his aircraft hit a mountain in the [[French Alps]], near [[Grenoble]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=223}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=560}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=78}}|group=n|name=sirtrafford}} At the end of 1891, the Mallorys moved from Newton Hall to Hobcroft House, Mobberley.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=25}} The family resided there until 1904, when they moved to [[Birkenhead]], Cheshire.<!--Please do not alter this historically correct information. Birkenhead is now part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral, Merseyside, but it was part of Cheshire until 1974. All the dates and information about Birkenhead in this article refer to pre-1974!-->{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=16}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=25}} Mallory exhibited early audaciousness for climbing.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=19}} Aged 7, he climbed the roof of his father's church, [[St Wilfrid's Church, Mobberley|St Wilfrid's]], in Mobberley.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=19}} His sister Avie recalls, "He climbed everything that it was at all possible to climb."{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=19}} Included in his climbing escapades were the drainpipes of Hobcroft House and the walls that divided the farmers' fields.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=19}}<br />
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====1896–1905: Glengorse and Winchester College====<br />
[[File:Winchester College Chapel.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Winchester College]] Chapel (right) and scholars' College (left), where Mallory was a scholar between 1900-05]]<br />
In 1896, Mallory was sent to [[Battle Abbey School|Glengorse]] boarding school in [[Eastbourne]] on the south coast of England, after the abrupt closure of his first [[Preparatory school (United Kingdom)|preparatory school]] in [[West Kirby]], following the death of its headmaster.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=18}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=27}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=15}}{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|p=9}} Mallory won a maths scholarship to [[Winchester College]], an English [[public school (United Kingdom)|public school]], where he started in September 1900.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=15}}{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=19}} At Winchester, he was proficient at sports, in addition to his academic ability.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=28}} He became the best [[Gymnastics|gymnast]] in the school, the only one capable of performing the [[Giant (gymnastics)|giant swing]] on the [[horizontal bar]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=20}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=28}} In July 1904, Mallory was a member of the Winchester team who won the [[Ashburton Shield]] for [[Shooting sports|rifle shooting]] at [[National Shooting Centre|Bisley]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=28}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=17}}<br />
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The housemaster of College, the boarding house for scholars, [[Robert Lock Graham Irving|R. L. G. Irving]], was an accomplished [[Mountaineering|mountaineer]] and a member of the [[Alpine Club (UK)|Alpine Club]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=29}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=18}} In 1904, Irving was searching for new climbing companions after the death in an accident of the partner with whom he had done most of his climbing.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=29}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=18}} Irving recruited Mallory and fellow pupil and friend, Harry Gibson,<ref name="harry-os-gibson">{{cite web |url=https://www.winchestercollegeatwar.com/RollofHonour.aspx?RecID=179&TableName=ta_wwifactfile |title=Gibson, Harry Olivier Sumner |website=winchestercollegeatwar.com |publisher=[[Winchester College]] |location=Winchester, UK |access-date=23 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123140132/https://www.winchestercollegeatwar.com/RollofHonour.aspx?RecID=179&TableName=ta_wwifactfile |archive-date=23 January 2023}}</ref>{{refn |Harry Olivier Sumner Gibson was a photographer who travelled to [[Zermatt]] in 1899 and [[Grindelwald]] in 1902, accompanied by his father.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=22}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=29}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=18}}|group=n|name=harrygibson}} for a trip to the [[Alps]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=29}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=18}}{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=22}}{{sfn|Messner|2001|p=106}} In early August 1904, Irving, Mallory, and Gibson travelled to the Alps for Mallory's first high-altitude mountaineering.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=29}}{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=22}} In his final year at Winchester, Mallory studied history instead of mathematics.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=33}} After sitting his exams, he was awarded a history scholarship, known as a [[sizar]]ship, to [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=33}}<br />
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===1905–09: Magdalene College, Cambridge===<br />
[[File:MagdaleneCollegeCam.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|[[Magdalene College, Cambridge]]]]<br />
{{quote box |align = right |width = 28em |quote = "Mon dieu!—George Mallory!&nbsp;... My hand trembles, my heart palpitates, my whole being swoons&nbsp;... he's six foot high, with the body of an athlete by [[Praxiteles]], and a face—oh incredible—the mystery of [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]], the refinement and delicacy of a Chinese print, the youth and piquancy of an unimaginable English boy." |source = {{in5}}—{{hair space}}[[Lytton Strachey]], writing to [[Clive Bell|Clive]] and [[Vanessa Bell]] of his first meeting with Mallory. 21 May 1909.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=49–50}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=60–61}}{{sfn|Holroyd|1995|pp=205–206}}<ref name="odnb-g-mallory">{{cite ODNB |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-34847 |url-access=subscription |title=Mallory, George Herbert Leigh (1886–1924) |last=Hansen |first=Peter H. |date=6 January 2011 |orig-date=First published 23 September 2004 |location=Oxford, UK |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/34847 |access-date=6 June 2023}}</ref>}}<br />
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In October 1905 Mallory entered Magdalene College to study history;{{sfn|Green|2005|p=23}}<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.magdalenecambridge.com/page.aspx?pid=415 |website= Magdalene College Cambridge |title= Alumni & Development, Notable Members |access-date= 1 August 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131020063745/http://www.magdalenecambridge.com/page.aspx?pid=415 |archive-date= 20 October 2013 |url-status= dead |df= dmy-all}}</ref> [[A. C. Benson]] was his tutor, and became infatuated with Mallory.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=169-170}} On 6 February 1907, at [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]], Mallory dined with [[Charles Edward Sayle]], under-librarian at [[Cambridge University Library]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=35}} At Sayle's house on [[Trumpington Street]], Mallory met undergraduates with whom he established enduring friendships;{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=36}} painter [[Jacques Raverat]], surgeon and author [[Geoffrey Keynes]] were among them.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=36}} He became good friends with poet [[Rupert Brooke]] and psychoanalyst [[James Strachey]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=36 & 49}} On 12 February 1909, Mallory met [[Geoffrey Winthrop Young]] and developed a good friendship.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=46–47}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=31}} Through James and Geoffrey, Mallory got to know their brothers, [[Lytton Strachey]] and [[John Maynard Keynes]], who were members of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=49}}{{sfn|Thompson|2012|p=173}} Through the Stracheys, he befriended their cousin, painter [[Duncan Grant]],{{refn |In 1911, in [[Duncan Grant]]'s studio at 38 [[Brunswick Square]], London, Mallory posed for a series of nude photographs taken by Grant.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=< 65}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=98}} In 1912, also at 38 Brunswick Square, Grant painted a portrait of Mallory, which the [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] acquired.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=98}}<ref name="malloryportrait1">{{cite web |url=https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw07645/George-Leigh-Mallory?LinkID=mp02927&role=sit&rNo=1 |title=Portrait: George Leigh-Mallory |website=npg.org.uk |publisher=[[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] |location=London, UK |access-date=21 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220921170916/https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw07645/George-Leigh-Mallory?LinkID=mp02927&role=sit&rNo=1 |archive-date=21 September 2022 }}</ref> Grant painted a second portrait of Mallory, which bears the date 1913.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=98}}<ref name="malloryportrait2">{{cite web |url=https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6008668 |title=Duncan Grant (1885–1978) Portrait of George Mallory |website=christies.com |publisher=[[Christie's]] |location=London, UK |access-date=21 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921185422/https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6008668 <br />
|archive-date=21 September 2022}}</ref>|group=n|name=malloryduncangrant}} a Bloomsbury member.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=50}}{{sfn|Thompson|2012|p=173}} His letters attest to the flirtatious, [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]] aspect of these friendships. Following his engagement in 1914, he wrote to one-time sex partner<ref>Peter & Leni Gillman, ''The Wildest Dream: The Biography of George Mallory'', The Mountaineers Books, Seattle 2000, p120.</ref> James Strachey: "It can hardly be a shock to you that I desert the ranks of the fashionable homosexualists (and yet I am still in part of that persuasion) unless you think I have turned monogamist. But you may be assured that this last catastrophe has not happened."<ref name="gm-letters">{{cite news |last=Kennedy |first=Maev |author-link=Maev Kennedy |date=27 May 2015 |title=Camp correspondence: letters reveal George Mallory's flirtatious side |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/may/27/camp-correspondence-letters-reveal-george-mallorys-flirtatious-side |url-status=live |work=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=Guardian News & Media |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811184139/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/may/27/camp-correspondence-letters-reveal-george-mallorys-flirtatious-side |archive-date=11 August 2022 |access-date=11 August 2022}}</ref><br />
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Mallory developed into an accomplished [[Rowing (sport)|rower]] at Magdalene.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=35}}<ref>{{cite web |url= http://fombc.com/history_mbc.php |title= Friends of Magdalene Boat Club |website= Magdalene Boat Club |access-date=1 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020054844/http://fombc.com/history_mbc.php |archive-date=20 October 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In October 1906, he was elected secretary of the [[Magdalene Boat Club]] and captain of boats from 1907 to 1908.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=39 & 43}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=39 & 46}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=26}} Mallory joined the University [[Fabian Society]], and acted as college secretary on the University [[Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom|Women's Suffrage]] Association committee.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=38}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=25}} [[The Marlowe Society]] was established in 1907{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=39}} and Mallory acted in its first production ''[[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]]''.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=39}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=41 & 46}} <br />
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Academically, in May 1907, Mallory sat Part I of the history [[tripos]], achieving a third class.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=42}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=28}} In 1908, in Part II, he attained a second class [[Academic degree#United Kingdom|degree]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=47}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=28}} Mallory had to consider a future career.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=48}} In 1907,{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=38}} he had consulted deputy headmaster of [[Winchester College|Winchester]], Howard Rendall, about becoming a teacher there, but Rendall gave him a stern retort;{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=48}} Mallory informed his tutor, [[A. C. Benson]]; "He says that as I have nothing to teach and would probably teach it badly, there is not the least chance of ever getting to Winchester."{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=38}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=48}} Rendall suggested he go into the church and Mallory unenthusiastically pondered following in his father's footsteps, contemplating "parish work of some kind&nbsp;... I'm at variance with so many parsons that I meet. They're excessively good, most of them much better than I can ever hope to be, but their sense of goodness seems sometimes to displace their reason."{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=38}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=48}}{{sfn|Green|2005|pp=32–33}} Benson suggested Mallory return to Magdalene for a fourth year, where he could improve upon his degree,{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=48–49}} Mallory agreed and settled into rooms at [[School of Pythagoras|Pythagoras House]], a short distance from Magdalene.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=28}}<br />
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In February 1909, [[Geoffrey Winthrop Young]] invited Mallory to [[Wales]] for a climbing trip at Easter.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=32}} After Mallory's return to Magdalene, Young sent him an application form for the [[Climbers' Club]], and in May 1909, Mallory was elected a member.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=32}} The subject for the Members' Prize Essay in 1909 was [[James Boswell]], biographer of [[Samuel Johnson]]; and Mallory decided to enter.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=46}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=28}} He was awarded second place;{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=61}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=72}} Benson encouraged Mallory to submit his essay for publication{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=94}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=47}} and in 1912, his ''Boswell the Biographer'', was published by [[Smith, Elder & Co.]]{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=257}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=102}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=48}} In July 1909, Mallory's education at Magdalene was complete.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=33}}<br />
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===1909–10: Interim===<br />
In October 1909, the painter [[Simon Bussy]], whose wife [[Dorothy Bussy|Dorothy]] was the sister of Lytton and James Strachey, invited Mallory to spend the winter with them at their villa in [[Roquebrune-Cap-Martin|Roquebrune]] in the [[Alpes-Maritimes]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=70–71}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=39}} Mallory, who had recently received a small family [[inheritance]], accepted their offer and travelled to France in early November to stay with them.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=71}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=33}} He stayed in Paris for a month to improve his French by reading, attending the theatre, [[Music hall#Music halls of Paris|music hall]], [[Sorbonne (building)|Sorbonne]] lectures, and conversing.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=61}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=74–75}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=40}}<br />
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In April 1910, Mallory returned to Cambridge, contemplating his career prospects.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=62}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=75}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=40}} In May he took a temporary teaching post at the [[Britannia Royal Naval College|Royal Naval College]], Dartmouth, which lasted two weeks.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=62}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=75–76}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=40}} In July, Mallory received a letter from the headmaster of [[Charterhouse School|Charterhouse]], an English public school, [[Gerald Henry Rendall]],{{refn |[[Gerald Henry Rendall]] was a cousin of Howard Rendall, the deputy headmaster of [[Winchester College]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=76}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=41}}|group=n|name=geraldcousinhoward}} offering a job teaching [[Latin]], mathematics, history, and French, which Mallory accepted.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=63}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=76}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=41}}<br />
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===1910–14: Charterhouse School===<br />
{{quote box |align =right|width = 28em |quote = "He was wasted at Charterhouse&nbsp;... the boys generally despised him as neither a disciplinarian nor interested in cricket or football. He tried to treat his classes in a friendly way, which puzzled and offended them because of the school tradition of concealed warfare between boys and masters." |source = {{in5}}—{{hair space}}[[Robert Graves]], one of Mallory's students at Charterhouse.{{sfn|Graves|1998|p=62}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=182}}}}<br />
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In September 1910, Mallory began teaching at Charterhouse, as an assistant headmaster.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=64}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=79}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=44}} One problem was his youthful appearance, and so he was often mistaken by parents for a student.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=80}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=45}} His teaching methods relied on infectious enthusiasm and avuncular mannerisms rather than imposing his authority.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=66}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=45}} He followed the styles of Irving and Benson, who sought to educate through mutual respect, getting to know pupils as individuals and repudiating the authoritarianism of most British schools.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=79}} Several colleagues developed a hostile attitude towards him, due to his informal teaching methods, which they considered undermined discipline.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=45}} He recommended students read literature extensively, write essays on subjects such as [[hypocrisy]], candour, and popularity, and he engaged them in discussion on politics and literature.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=80}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=45}} He took them on excursions to places of aesthetic scenery and architectural landmarks.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=80}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=45}} <br />
<br />
[[Robert Graves]], a student from 1909 to 1914, said Mallory was the best teacher and first genuine friend he ever had.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=80–81}}{{refn |On 23 January 1918, Mallory and his wife Ruth attended the wedding and [[Wedding reception|reception]] of Graves and [[Nancy Nicholson]]. They were married at [[St James's Church, Piccadilly|St James's Church]], [[Piccadilly]], with Mallory acting as [[Groomsman#Best man|best man]].{{sfn|Graves|1998|p=272}}{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=121}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=149}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=92 & 195}}|group=n|name=bestmanmallory}} In his autobiography, ''[[Good-Bye to All That]]'', Graves wrote fondly of Mallory, who encouraged him in poetry{{sfn|Graves|1998|p=51}} and took him climbing in [[Snowdon]].{{sfn|Graves|1998|p=61}} Irving and Geoffrey Winthrop Young proposed Mallory for the Alpine Club, and in December 1910, he was elected a member.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=67}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=83}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=54}} During the summer of 1913, Mallory collaborated with Graves and other students to produce a [[magazine]] called ''Green Chartreuse'', intended to rival other school magazines, with its first publication on Old Carthusian Day, 5 July 1913.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=86}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=104}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=49}} Mallory presented lectures on Italian painting in spring 1914, engaging students in a "rather philosophical" discussion about [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]], [[Michelangelo]], and [[Raphael]].{{sfn|Green|2005|p=49}}<br />
<br />
==Climbing in Europe==<br />
<br />
===The Alps===<br />
[[File:Aiguille des Grands Charmoz.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|Mallory, with Harold Porter, established a new route on the [[Aiguille des Grands Charmoz]] in [[Haute-Savoie]], France in 1919]]<br />
<br />
Mallory embarked on eight expeditions in the Alps and achieved four first ascents. His first climb was on 5 August 1904, when he, Irving, and Gibson ascended [[Mont Vélan]] on the Swiss-Italian [[border]], but had to retreat {{convert|183|m|abbr=on|sigfig=1|order=flip}} below the summit because Mallory and Gibson suffered from [[altitude sickness]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=22–23}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=30}} On 13 August, they reached the summit of [[Dufourspitze]], the [[List of mountains of the Alps over 4000 metres|third-highest]] peak in [[Western Europe]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=25}} On 26 August, Irving and Mallory summited [[Mont Blanc]], at {{convert|4807.81|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}}, the highest mountain in Western Europe, marking Mallory's entry into high-altitude mountaineering.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=22}}<br />
<br />
In January 1905, Graham Irving established the Winchester Ice Club;{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=33}} Mallory, Gibson, Harry Tyndale,{{sfn|Irving|1948|pp=386–390}} and [[Guy Bullock]] became members.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=30}} In August, the Ice Club travelled to the Alps.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=33}} Mallory would not return for another four years, when he achieved a first ascent of the Southeast Ridge of [[Nesthorn]] with Young and Charles Robertson on 4 August 1909.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=66}} Mallory wrote to his mother, "We were out 21 hours and were altogether pleased with ourselves."{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=177}} Mallory almost died after missing a hold above an overhang. On 7 August, they crossed the [[mountain pass]] [[Grünhornlücke]], followed by the [[Fiescher Glacier]], and climbed to the summit via the Southeast Ridge of the highest mountain in the [[Bernese Alps]], [[Finsteraarhorn]], at {{convert|4274|m|abbr=on|sigfig=5|order=flip}},{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=57}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=67}} graded approximately [[Grade (climbing)#Comparison tables|5.8]], using the [[Yosemite Decimal System]] (YDS). One of Mallory's closest friends and climbing companions, whom he met in Switzerland on this trip, was a woman named [[Ann Bridge|Cottie Sanders]], who became a [[novelist]] using the [[pseudonym]] of Ann Bridge.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=69, 74–75, 77–78, 83–92, 95–96, & 98}}<ref name="cottie-sanders">{{cite ODNB |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-57596 |url-access=subscription |title=O'Malley [née Sanders], Mary Dolling, Lady O'Malley [pseud. Ann Bridge] (1889–1974) |last=Beauman |first=Nicola |author-link=Nicola Beauman |date=23 September 2004 |location=Oxford, UK |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/57596 |access-date=12 February 2023}}</ref> Their relationship was elusive; Sanders was either a "climbing friend" or "casual sweetheart."{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=100–109, 112, 114, 123, & 195}} After Mallory died, Cottie wrote a [[memoir]] of him, which was never published but provided much of the material used by later [[Biography|biographers]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=69 & 273}}{{sfn|Neff|2015|pp=''Everest Dream''}}<br />
<br />
At the beginning of August 1911, Mallory returned to the Alps with Irving and Tyndale.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=60}} On 9 August, they reached the summit of [[Herbétet]], by way of a first ascent of its Western Ridge.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=89}}{{sfn|Irving|1911|pp=735–736}} On 18 August, Irving, Mallory, and Tyndale reached the summit of [[Mont Maudit]], via the third ascent of its Southeast Ridge, and Mont Blanc.<ref name="frontierridge-maudit">{{cite web |url=https://www.summitpost.org/mont-maudit/150781 |title=Mont Maudit |website=summitpost.org |publisher=SummitPost |location=Crystal City, Missouri, U.S. |access-date=2 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202193816/https://www.summitpost.org/mont-maudit/150781 |archive-date=2 February 2023}}</ref> In 1917, Mallory rewrote an impassioned account about the Maudit ascent.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=120}} It was published in the ''[[Alpine Journal]]'' of 1918 and contained the question, "Have we vanquished an enemy? None but ourselves."{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=121}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=90–91}}<br />
<br />
In August 1912, Mallory undertook his sixth expedition to the Alps, along with Harold Porter and Hugh Pope.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=99–100}}{{refn|Hugh Pope (1889–1912) died in a mountaineering accident while climbing solo on [[Pic du Midi d'Ossau]] in the [[Pyrenees]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=102}}{{sfn|Young|1912|pp=457–458}}<ref name="obituary-hugh-pope">{{cite web |url=https://www.climbers-club.co.uk/cms/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Obituaries.pdf |title=Climbers' Club – Obituaries |website=The Climbers' Club |location=UK |at=page 9 |access-date=5 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205182309/https://www.climbers-club.co.uk/cms/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Obituaries.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2023}}</ref>|group=n|name=hughrosepope}} On 17 August, they established a new line on the West Face of [[Dent Blanche]], graded 5.6–5.7.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=83–84}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=100}}{{sfn|Mallory|1912|pp=462–463}} On 2 August 1919, Mallory and Porter set out from Montenvers and proceeded up the [[Mer de Glace]] to the Glacier de Trélaporte, from where they ascended a new route to the summit of [[Aiguille des Grands Charmoz]], likely graded 5.7.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=159}}{{sfn|Mallory|Porter|1920|pp=132–133}} Three days later, they climbed a new route to the summit of [[Aiguille du Midi]],{{sfn|Russell|2019|p=242}} at {{convert|3842|m|abbr=on|sigfig=5|order=flip}}. This route, rectified by the climber Jean-Louis Urquizar in 1971, is now known as ''Rectified Mallory-Porter'', totalling {{convert|1530|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} in elevation gain and graded approximately 5.8–5.9.<ref name="mallory-porter-route">{{cite web |url=https://www.summitpost.org/mallory-porter/757862 |title=Mallory-Porter |website=summitpost.org |publisher=SummitPost |location=Crystal City, Missouri, U.S. |access-date=9 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209191958/https://www.summitpost.org/mallory-porter/757862 |archive-date=9 February 2023}}</ref><ref name="aiguille-du-midi-mpr">{{cite web |url=https://www.mountainproject.com/route/122158939/mallory-porter-rectified |title=Mallory-Porter (rectified) |website=[[Mountain Project]] |publisher=Adventure Projects Inc. |location=Missoula, Montana, U.S. |access-date=9 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230209195942/https://www.mountainproject.com/route/122158939/mallory-porter-rectified |archive-date=9 February 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Scotland===<br />
[[File:Ben N Face annotated.jpg|thumb|right|North Face of [[Ben Nevis]]]]<br />
On 6 April 1906, Mallory, Irving, and Leach reached the summit of [[Ben Nevis]],{{refn |With an elevation of {{convert|1345|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}}, Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in the [[British Isles]].<ref name="ben-nevis">{{cite web |last=Survey |first=Ordnance |author-link=Ordnance Survey |url=https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/newsroom/blog/britains-tallest-mountain-is-taller |title=Great Britain's tallest mountain is taller |website=ordnancesurvey.co.uk |date=18 March 2016 |publisher=Ordnance Survey Ltd |location=Southampton, UK |access-date=21 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221150606/https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/newsroom/blog/britains-tallest-mountain-is-taller |archive-date=21 December 2022}}</ref><ref name="mount-hope">{{cite news |last=Nugent |first=Ciara |date=11 December 2017 |title=Mount Hope becomes UK's new highest mountain after satellites reveal previous measurement was wrong |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/mount-hope-height-tallest-uk-mountain-measurement-satellites-a8104461.html |url-status=live |work=[[The Independent]] |publisher=Independent Digital News & Media Limited |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221162805/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/mount-hope-height-tallest-uk-mountain-measurement-satellites-a8104461.html |archive-date=21 December 2022 |access-date=21 December 2022}}</ref>|group=n|name=bennevistallestmt}} climbing in snow via Observatory Gully and Tower Gully on the northeast face.{{sfn|Gillman|2011|pp=201–202}} The following day, the trio ascended [[Stob Bàn (Mamores)|Stob Bàn]], following the [[Snow cornice|corniced]] main [[Glossary of climbing terms#arête|arête]] to the summit.{{sfn|Gillman|2011|p=202}} On 9 April, they climbed to the summit of [[Càrn Mòr Dearg]], which preceded a second successful ascent of Ben Nevis on the same day via North Trident Buttress.{{sfn|Gillman|2011|pp=202–203}} On 10 April, they successfully climbed a feature on Ben Nevis—that they termed East Zmutt Ridge after Zmutt Ridge on the [[Matterhorn]]—likely graded YDS 5.5–5.6.{{sfn|Gillman|2011|p=203}} On 12 April, Mallory, Irving, and Leach attained a successful ascent of Ben Nevis in snow and ice via North-East Buttress.{{sfn|Gillman|2011|pp=203–204}} Their achievement was the second recorded winter ascent of this route, after the first in 1896.{{sfn|Gillman|2011|p=203}}{{sfn|Crocket|1986|p=37}}<br />
<br />
On 28 July 1918, Mallory, [[David Pye (engineer)|David Randall Pye]], and Leslie Garnet Shadbolt,{{sfn|Bicknell|1975|pp=302–303}} climbing together, made a new route on the North Face of [[Sgùrr a' Mhadaidh]] on the [[Isle of Skye]], Scotland, graded 5.5–5.6.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=121}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=149–150}} On 31 July, the trio established another new route with Mallory leading on the Western Buttress of the crag, Sron na Ciche, located in the [[Cuillin]] mountains; this route is now known as ''Mallory's Slab and Groove'', and graded about 5.5.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=150}}{{sfn|Howett|2001|pp=213–215}}{{sfn|Mackenzie|Williams|2005|pp=124–125}}<br />
<br />
===Wales===<br />
[[File:Llyn Llydaw - geograph.org.uk - 1432381.jpg|thumb|right|Mallory, climbing solo, established the first ascent of ''The Slab Climb'' on the East Buttress of [[Y Lliwedd]]]]<br />
On 14 September 1907, Mallory accomplished his first two climbs in Wales: ''North Gully''{{sfn|Hankinson|1977|pp=50–52}} and ''North Buttress'' on Tryfan.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=45}}{{sfn|Hankinson|1977|pp=87–89}}{{sfn|Russell|1999|p=208}} On 18 September,{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=45}} Mallory, Keynes, and Wilson climbed ''Terminal Arête'', on Lliwedd's East Buttress,{{sfn|Neal|1998|p=33}} and inadvertently dislodged a large rock when finishing their climb.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=45–46}}{{sfn|Hankinson|1977|pp=116–118 & 124–125}} Much to their consternation, the rock almost hit [[J. M. Archer Thomson|James Thomson]] and partner E.S. Reynolds as they climbed below on a new route, which they aptly named ''Avalanche Route''.{{sfn|Green|2005|pp=26–27}}{{sfn|Hankinson|1977|pp=116–118}}<br />
<br />
On Craig yr Ysfa, the triad climbed two routes: ''Great Gully'', at {{convert|223|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}},{{sfn|Hankinson|1977|p=85}}{{sfn|Williams|1990|p=52}} and ''Amphitheatre Buttress'', at {{convert|293|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}}, both graded about 5.5.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=45}}{{sfn|Williams|1990|p=47}} Mallory returned to Snowdonia in August 1908, accompanied by his brother, Trafford.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=49}} Mallory, climbing solo, established the first ascent of ''The Slab Climb'' on the East Buttress of Lliwedd,{{sfn|Thomson|Andrews|1909|pp=45, 49–50 & 99}} now known as ''Mallory's Slab'', at {{convert|67|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}}, and graded 5.5.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=49}}{{sfn|Neal|1998|pp=39–40 & 87}} The ascent of ''The Slab Climb'' occurred due to Mallory scaling it to retrieve his [[Tobacco pipe|pipe]], which he had left behind on a ledge known as Bowling Green.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=49–50}} In April 1909, Mallory and Geoffrey Winthrop Young journeyed to [[Pen-y-Pass]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=58}} On the cliffs of Craig yr Ysfa, Mallory and Young established three new ascents and climbed ''The Slab Climb (Mallory's Slab)'' on the East Buttress of Lliwedd, which Young described as "The hardest rocks I have done."{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=58}}<br />
<br />
In September 1911, Mallory and his sister Mary were joined by Harold Porter, Mallory's climbing partner, and stayed at the Snowdon Ranger Inn on the shore of [[Llyn Cwellyn]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=77}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=61}} Mallory and Porter pioneered new routes that elevated Mallory to the pinnacle of British climbing.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=91}} On [[Y Garn (Nantlle Ridge)|Y Garn]], with Porter leading Mallory on the [[Crux (climbing)|crux]], they ascended a new route, now known as ''Mallory's Ridge'', at {{convert|120|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}}, graded 5.9–5.10a.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=91}}<ref name="mallory's-ridge">{{cite web |url=https://www.ukclimbing.com/logbook/crags/y_garn_gwynedd-9101/mallorys_ridge-97605 |title=Mallory's Ridge |website=UKClimbing |publisher=UKClimbing Limited |location=Sheffield, UK |access-date=15 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115180944/https://www.ukclimbing.com/logbook/crags/y_garn_gwynedd-9101/mallorys_ridge-97605 |archive-date=15 January 2023}}</ref> This route defeated James Thomson in 1910, who abandoned it on the most challenging [[Pitch (ascent/descent)|pitch]], a sixty-foot segment of vertical rock.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=91}}<br />
<br />
===England===<br />
[[File:Napes Needle.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|''Napes Needle'' on Great Gable]]<br />
Mallory's first rock climbing experience in England transpired during a nine-day excursion to the [[Lake District]] in September 1908 with [[Geoffrey Keynes]], Harry Gibson, and Harold Porter.{{sfn|Elliott|Russell|1974|pp=283–284}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=50}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=27}} Their initial climb was ''Kern Knotts Crack'' on [[Great Gable]], which is graded 5.5.{{sfn|Birkett|1989|p=35}} The following day they climbed ''Napes Needle'', a rock [[Pinnacle (geology)|pinnacle]] on Great Gable, at {{convert|17|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}}, graded approximately 5.5.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=50}}{{sfn|Birkett|1989|p=31}} Also on Great Gable, they climbed ''Eagle's Nest Ridge Direct,'' graded approximately 5.8.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=50}}{{sfn|Birkett|1989|p=31}} They accomplished a successful ascent of ''North Climb'' on [[Pillar (Lake District)#Pillar Rock|Pillar Rock]],{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=44}} graded YDS 5.6.{{sfn|Birkett|Cram|Eilbeck|Roper|1987|pp=265–266}}{{sfn|Russell|1991|p=221}}<br />
<br />
On 21 September 1908, they claimed two new routes on the [[Ennerdale, Cumbria|Ennerdale]] face of Great Gable:{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=44}} ''Mallory's Left-Hand Route'', at {{convert|30|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}}, graded YDS 5.5, and ''Mallory's Right-Hand Route'', at {{convert|37|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}}, graded about 5.8.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=50}}<ref name="mallory's-left-hand-route">{{cite web |url=https://www.thecrag.com/en/climbing/united-kingdom/gable-pillar/gable-crag/route/19955197 |title=Mallory's Left-Hand Route |website=theCrag |publisher=theCrag Proprietary Limited |location=Northcote, Victoria, Australia |access-date=2 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102193130/https://www.thecrag.com/en/climbing/united-kingdom/gable-pillar/gable-crag/route/19955197 |archive-date=2 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="mallory's-right-hand-route">{{cite web |url=https://www.thecrag.com/en/climbing/united-kingdom/gable-pillar/gable-crag/route/19955437 |title=Mallory's Right-Hand Route |website=theCrag |publisher=theCrag Proprietary Limited |location=Northcote, Victoria, Australia |access-date=2 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102193157/https://www.thecrag.com/en/climbing/united-kingdom/gable-pillar/gable-crag/route/19955437 |archive-date=2 January 2023}}</ref> In August 1913,{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=105}} Mallory and [[Geoffrey Winthrop Young]] achieved a new route, ''Pinnacle Traverse'', at {{convert|60|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}}, graded 5.4, on the [[Glossary of climbing terms#crag|crag]], Carn Lés Boel, in [[Cornwall]].{{sfn|Jones|1993|pp=16–17}}<ref name="pinnacle-traverse">{{cite web |url=https://www.ukclimbing.com/logbook/crags/carn_les_boel_area-513/pinnacle_traverse-598213 |title=Pinnacle Traverse |website=UKClimbing |publisher=UKClimbing Limited |location=Sheffield, UK |access-date=4 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104002337/https://www.ukclimbing.com/logbook/crags/carn_les_boel_area-513/pinnacle_traverse-598213 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref> On 7 September 1913, Mallory and Alan Goodfellow, a Charterhouse student, created ''Mallory's Variation'', a new route on Abbey Buttress, Great Gable, where Mallory finished the route by ascending a twenty-foot slab on tenuous grips, rather than exiting to the right.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=106}}{{sfn|Reid|2006|p=678}} On 8 September, with Mallory leading Goodfellow, the pair established another new route, this time on the West Face of Low Man, Pillar Rock, at {{convert|65|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}}, and graded 5.9–5.10a, which they named ''North-West by West'' and now known as ''Mallory's Route''.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=106}}{{sfn|Reid|2006|pp=678–687}} Climbers have rated Everest's [[Three Steps|Second Step]] at about 5.9.{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=153}}<ref name="mallory-irvine-?"/><br />
<br />
==Marriage and the First World War==<br />
[[File:Ruth Turner Mallory.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|left|Christiana Ruth Leigh-Mallory (née Turner)]]<br />
Christiana Ruth Turner<ref name="ruth-turner-ancestry">{{cite web |url=https://www.ancestry.co.uk/genealogy/records/christiana-ruth-turner-24-1k0hbn |title=Christiana Ruth Turner (1891–1942) |website=[[Ancestry.com|ancestry.co.uk]] |publisher=Ancestry Ireland Unlimited Company |location=Dublin, Ireland |access-date=18 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220918164937/https://www.ancestry.co.uk/genealogy/records/christiana-ruth-turner-24-1k0hbn |archive-date=18 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="ruth-mallory-bio">{{cite web |editor-last=Simkin |editor-first=John |url= https://spartacus-educational.com/FWWmalloryR.htm |title=Ruth Mallory: Biography |website=Spartacus Educational |publisher=Spartacus Educational Publishers Ltd |location=Worthing, West Sussex, UK |access-date=2 September 2022 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902000036/https://spartacus-educational.com/FWWmalloryR.htm |archive-date=2 September 2022}}</ref> was a daughter of architect [[Hugh Thackeray Turner]]{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}} and [[embroidery|embroiderer]] [[Mary Elizabeth Turner]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}}{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=92–93}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=111 & 114}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=50}}{{refn|She died after developing [[pneumonia]] when Ruth was fifteen.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=116}}|group=n|name=pneu}} Mallory and the Turner family developed a close friendship and he regularly visited their dwelling at Westbrook.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=50}} In April 1914, Mallory joined Thackeray and his daughters on a holiday in [[Venice]], where Mallory and Ruth fell precipitately in love.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=94}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=112}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=50}} On 1 May 1914, at Westbrook, Mallory and Ruth became [[engaged]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=94}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=50}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=184}} Thackeray purchased a six-bedroom house for them, named The Holt, in [[Godalming]], Surrey.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=119–120}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=184}} On 29 July 1914, six days before Britain entered the First World War, Mallory and Ruth were married in Godalming,{{refn |In 1939, Ruth married her longstanding family friend, [[William Arnold-Forster]], to whom Mallory had first disclosed his love for Ruth. In 1942, aged 50, Ruth died of cancer.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=265–266}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=560}}|group=n|name=ruth&arnold}} with Mallory's father performing the ceremony and [[Geoffrey Winthrop Young]] acting as best man.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=99}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=119 & 121}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=53}} Mallory and Ruth had two daughters and a son: Frances Clare (1915–2001),{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=105}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}}{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|p=28}} Beridge Ruth, known as "Berry" (1917–1953),{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=22 & 147}}{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|p=30}} and John (1920–2011).{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=22}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=90}}{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|p=34}}<ref name="george-mallory-surrey">{{cite web |last=Badham |first=Phil |url=https://www.surreyinthegreatwar.org.uk/story/george-leigh-mallory-godalming-to-everest-via-the-western-front/ |title=George Leigh Mallory – Godalming to Everest via the Western Front |website=surreyinthegreatwar.org |date=18 November 2020 |publisher=Surrey Heritage |location=Woking, Surrey, UK |access-date=5 September 2022 }}{{dead link|date=August 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} [https://archive.org/details/george-leigh-mallory-godalming-to-everest-via-the-western-front Alt URL]</ref><br />
<br />
Mallory enlisted in the war effort and started artillery training at Weymouth Camp in January 1916.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=130–131}} Frank Fletcher, headmaster of Charterhouse, had initially challenged Mallory's inquiries about enlisting and asked the government about policies regarding schoolmasters enlisting.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=101}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=124}}{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=101–102}} Mallory received additional training at the School of Siege Artillery at [[Lydd]] Camp.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=106}} He arrived in France in May 1916{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=132}} and fought at the [[Battle of the Somme]] in the 40th Siege Battery.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=136}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=190}} Later that year, he was granted leave,{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=142}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=193}} spending ten days at Westbrook House with Ruth and daughter Clare before returning to France on [[Boxing Day]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=142–143}}<br />
<br />
He was reassigned as an orderly officer, serving as a colonel's assistant at the 30th Heavy Artillery Group headquarters, three miles behind the front line, for the first weeks of 1917.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=117}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=143}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=193}} At the beginning of February 1917, the command recommended Mallory for a staff lieutenancy; he rejected it and was instead assigned a [[Liaison officer#Military Liaison Officers (MLO)|liaison officer]] position to a French unit.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=117}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=144}} At the end of March, he applied&nbsp;to rejoin the 40th Siege Battery,&nbsp;which had moved to a&nbsp;new location.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=144}} On 7 April, during the prelude to the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]], he was back at the front with the 40th Siege Battery in an exposed observation post, directing artillery fire.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=193}}{{quote box<br />
| align = right<br />
| width = 32em<br />
| quote = "The trenches were in a filthy state, owing to a more or less futile attack made by our men the night before. I don't object to corpses so long as they are fresh. I soon found that I could reason thus with them&nbsp;... But this is an accepted fact that men are killed&nbsp;... your jaw hangs and your flesh changes colour and blood oozes from your wounds. With the wounded it is different. It always distresses me to see them."<br />
| source = {{in5}}—{{hair space}}Mallory, in a letter to his wife, Ruth. 15 August 1916.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=112}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=192}}<br />
}}In September Mallory was sent, under new orders, to [[Avington, Hampshire|Avington]] Park Camp near [[Winchester]], and was transferred from the Siege Battery to a Heavy Battery. Mallory trained at the camp with the [[Royal Artillery]]'s new generation of [[BL 60-pounder gun|60-pounder]] heavy guns.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=75}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=194}}<ref name="60-pounder">{{cite web |url=https://www.keymilitary.com/article/ordnance-bl-60-pounder |url-access=subscription |title=Ordnance BL 60-pounder |last=Langham |first=Rob <br />
|date=26 March 2020 |website=Key Military |publisher=Key Publishing Limited |location=Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK |access-date=13 June 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613180535/https://www.keymilitary.com/article/ordnance-bl-60-pounder |archive-date=13 June 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
In October 1917, Mallory was promoted [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|lieutenant]] and commenced a training course for newly promoted officers at Avington Park Camp.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=148}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=194}}<ref name="lieutenantrga">{{London Gazette |issue=30315 |date=1 October 1917 |pages=10139–10142 |supp=y |title=Royal Garrison Artillery: The undermentioned 2nd Lts. to be Lts.}}</ref> On 23 September 1918, Mallory was reassigned to the 515th Siege Battery, stationed between [[Arras]] and the French coast.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=122}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=196}} On the evening of 11 November, at the [[Military officers' club|officers' club]] in Cambrai, Mallory celebrated peace with his brother [[Trafford Leigh-Mallory|Trafford]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=122}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=152}}{{refn |Four in every ten undergraduates with whom Mallory had been at Magdalene, died in battle during the First World War.{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|p=31}}|group=n|name=cambridgedeaths}} Due to the British requirement to [[Demobilization|demobilise]] more than a million men and the dearth of ships, Mallory did not return to England until January 1919.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=152 & 154}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=79}}{{refn |On 21 February 1920, Mallory resigned his commission in the [[Royal Garrison Artillery]], retaining the rank of [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|lieutenant]].<ref name="resignfromrga">{{London Gazette |issue=31789 |date=20 February 1920 |page=2153 |title=ROYAL GARRISON ARTILLERY. The undermentioned resign their commns. 21st Feb. 1920 (Lts., and retain the rank of Lt.)}}</ref>|group=n|name=resignrga}}<br />
<br />
==The lure of Everest==<br />
Following his return from France, Mallory and his family re-established themselves in their previous residence, The Holt in [[Godalming]], Surrey.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=154}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=79}} At the end of January 1919, Mallory resumed his teaching position at Charterhouse, where he taught English and history.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=124}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=199}} Mallory felt dissatisfied as a schoolmaster, devoting more attention to mountaineering issues, the direction of international&nbsp;politics, and the fundamental objectives of education, and pondering&nbsp;how he could find&nbsp;more time for writing.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=124–125}}{{sfn|Green|2005|pp=80–81}}<br />
<br />
[[File:FrancisYounghusband.jpg|thumb|left|Sir Francis Younghusband]]<br />
In January 1921, representatives of the [[Royal Geographical Society]] and the [[Alpine Club (UK)|Alpine Club]] jointly established the [[Mount Everest Committee]] to organise and finance an expedition to Mount Everest.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=147–148}}{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|pp=16–20}} The committee consisted of four RGS members and four Alpine Club members; from the RGS were [[Francis Younghusband|Sir Francis Younghusband]], [[Arthur Robert Hinks]], Edward Lygon Somers-Cocks, and Colonel Evan Maclean Jack; from the Alpine Club were [[J. Norman Collie|Professor John Norman Collie]], [[John Percy Farrar]], [[Charles Francis Meade]], and John Edward Caldwell Eaton.{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|West|2003|p=1708}} The committee's primary objective in 1921 was a thorough reconnaissance of the mountain and its approaches to determine the most viable route to the [[summit]], and in 1922 to return for a second expedition, using this route for an all-out attempt to reach the summit.{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|p=18}} On 23 January 1921, Mallory received written correspondence from John Percy Farrar, secretary of the Alpine Club, its former president and the nascent Mount Everest Committee member.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=166}} In the letter, Farrar asked Mallory if he would be interested in participating in an expedition to Everest: "It appears an attempt on Everest will occur this summer. The party would depart in early April and return in October. Any ambitions?"{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=166}}<br />
<br />
Although grateful for the invitation, Mallory initially felt reluctant to accept it, knowing that his participation would mean a lengthy separation from his wife and young children, and he also expressed scepticism regarding the viability of the expedition.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=171}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=102}} Geoffrey Winthrop Young visited him at the Holt, Godalming when he learned of his hesitance and swiftly persuaded him and Ruth not to disregard the opportunity, saying that it would be an incredible adventure and earn him reputable renown for prospects in future professions as an educator or writer.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=148}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=171}} Young's arguments convinced Ruth, and she concurred that Mallory should join the expedition; realising it was "the opportunity of a lifetime," Mallory decided to participate.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=102}} On 9 February 1921, in [[Mayfair]], London, Mallory met with Sir Francis Younghusband, chairman of the Mount Everest Committee; John Percy Farrar, a committee member; and [[Harold Raeburn]], the assigned mountaineering leader of the [[1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=171–172}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=102}} At the meeting, Younghusband formally invited Mallory to join the expedition and was surprised to observe that he accepted without any evident emotion and exhibited no indication that he was brimming with enthusiasm.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=172}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=102}} In February 1921, Mallory officially tendered his resignation from his mastership at Charterhouse, changing his previous intended decision of resigning at the end of the summer term.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=102}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Mount Everest North Face.jpg|thumb|right|[[North Face (Everest)|North Face]] of Mount Everest]]<br />
On 8 April 1921, Mallory departed from the [[Port of Tilbury]] in Essex, England, on board SS ''Sardinia'', and brought the final shipment of expedition supplies.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=174 & 177}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=109}} It was a solitary voyage, as the other expedition members had already departed or were in India.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=177}}<br />
<br />
==Everest expeditions==<br />
===1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition===<br />
{{Main|1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition}}<br />
[[File:Sandy Wollaston.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Eight members of the 1921 Everest expedition. Standing left to right are [[Guy Bullock]], [[Henry Morshead]], [[Oliver Wheeler]], and George Mallory. [[Alexander Heron]], [[Sandy Wollaston]], [[Charles Howard-Bury]], and [[Harold Raeburn]] are seated left to right.{{refn |On 5 June 1921, during the march to the [[Mount Everest]] region, the ninth member of the 1921 Mount Everest expedition, [[Alexander Kellas|Alexander Mitchell Kellas]], who the [[Mount Everest Committee]] designated as a mountaineer, died from suspected heart failure near [[Kampa Dzong]], Tibet.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=154–155}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=13–14}}{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|pp=18 & 53–54}}|group=n|name=kellas}}]]<br />
The first Everest expedition in 1921 had the express objective of undertaking a reconnaissance of the mountain and its approaches to discover the most accessible route to its summit.{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|pp=16–20}} Expedition [[Surveying|surveyors]] [[Henry Morshead]], [[Oliver Wheeler]] and Indian surveyors, produced the first accurate maps of the region.{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|pp=20 & 319–337}}{{sfn|Morshead|1923|p=357}}<ref name="oliver-wheeler-1921">{{cite news |last=Boswell |first=Randy |date=13 November 2011 |title=Canadian geographer conquered Mount Everest in 'epic quest' |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/canadian-geographer-conquered-mount-everest-in-epic-quest |url-status=live |work=[[National Post]] |publisher=[[Postmedia Network|Postmedia]] |location=Toronto, Ontario, Canada |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220813130142/https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/canadian-geographer-conquered-mount-everest-in-epic-quest/ |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022}}</ref> On 18 August at 3&nbsp;am, after an arduous two-month-long reconnaissance of Everest's northern and eastern approaches, Mallory, [[Guy Bullock]], Henry Morshead, and a [[Porter (carrier)|porter]] left their high camp at approximately {{convert|6096|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=156–157 & 169–170}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=188}} From the western head of the [[Kharta Glacier]], they ascended to the [[col]] of [[Lhakpa La]], at {{convert|6849|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=188}}{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|p=245}} From the col of Lhakpa La, {{convert|366|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} directly below them, was the head of the East [[Rongbuk Glacier]], across which rises a {{convert|305|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} wall of snow and ice leading to Everest's [[North Col]], at {{convert|7020|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, from where mountaineers can attain the summit via the North Col-North Ridge-Northeast Ridge route.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=188}}{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|pp=242–249}} Their preliminary reconnaissance was complete: they had discovered the gateway to the mountain.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=188}}{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|pp=248–249}} On 23 September Mallory, Bullock, Wheeler, and ten porters left their camp on Lhakpa La, descended into the East Rongbuk Glacier, and pitched camp at an elevation of {{convert|6706|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}},{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|p=258}} {{convert|1|mi|km}} from the beginning of the ascent to the North Col.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=175}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=190}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=355–356}} On 24 September, the three expedition members and three porters departed their camp, traversed {{convert|1|mi|km}} across the East Rongbuk Glacier to the foot of the {{convert|305|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} precipitous wall of snow and ice, which they arduously ascended, and reached the North Col.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=175}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=190}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=356–357}} On the col and above, [[gale]] force winds blew from the northwest, which made progress impossible, and they descended to their camp on the East Rongbuk Glacier.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=175–176}} Wheeler suffered from [[frostbite]] in his lower extremities, and Bullock was exhausted.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=176}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=359–360}} The next day, the severe winds had not abated and the porters were at the limits of their physical reserves, so Mallory decided to end the expedition.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=361}}{{sfn|Murray|1953|p=41}}{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|pp=260–261}}<br />
<br />
On 29 October, Mallory departed from [[Bombay]], India, on board SS ''Malwa''.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=122}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=364}} On 9 November, Younghusband wrote to Mallory requesting he participate in the second expedition in [[1922 British Mount Everest expedition|1922]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=179}} He expressed that waiting until 1923 was unviable as they could not afford to squander the opportunity the current benevolence of the [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] presented.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=179}} The letter awaited Mallory in [[Marseille]], France.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=122}} Mallory wrote to his sister Avie, expressing reservations about returning to Everest in 1922.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=194}} His wife Ruth awaited him in Marseille, where they spent a holiday touring [[Provence]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=196}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=122}} They discussed his participation in the 1922 expedition and concluded he should not decline the opportunity.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=196}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=123}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=123}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=371}} On 25 November, they arrived home;{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=196}} a few days afterwards Mallory met Hinks in London and within a week was included on a list of mountaineers who assented to participate in the 1922 expedition.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=196}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=123}}<br />
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===Lectures, writing, and preparation for the 1922 expedition===<br />
[[File:Charles Howard-Bury, Mount Everest, 1921.png|thumb|left|upright=.8|Charles Howard-Bury]]<br />
On 20 December, in the [[Queen's Hall]], London, Mallory and [[Charles Howard-Bury]] delivered a narrative on the 1921 expedition at a combined meeting of the Royal Geographical Society and Alpine Club.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=179}} In exchange for a quarter of the&nbsp;revenue earned, the Mount Everest Committee requested Mallory deliver lectures throughout [[Great Britain|Britain]] and contribute to the official expedition book, ''Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance, 1921''.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=196}} On 10 January 1922, Mallory delivered his initial public speech in the Queen's Hall and then journeyed extensively around Britain, filling 30 lecture engagements.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=179}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=123}} The financial results were lucrative, as his 25%&nbsp;per cent share earned him [[Pound sign|£]]400, which exceeded his&nbsp;annual&nbsp;salary&nbsp;as a [[Charterhouse School|Charterhouse]] teacher.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=199–200}} Preceding his departure for the [[1922 British Mount Everest expedition]], Mallory completed his written contribution to ''Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance, 1921'',{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=179}} titled ''The Reconnaissance Of The Mountain'', consisting of six chapters: ''The Northern Approach'', ''The Northern Approach (continued)'', ''The Eastern Approach'', ''The Assault'', ''Weather And Conditions Of Snow'' and ''The Route To The Summit''.{{sfn|Howard-Bury|1922|loc=Contents|p=VII}} He reviewed expedition&nbsp;equipment and assisted the Committee in preparations for the 1922 expedition.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=380}}<br />
<br />
===1922 British Mount Everest expedition===<br />
{{Main|1922 British Mount Everest expedition}}<br />
[[File:Rongbuk Monastery Everest.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The [[Rongbuk Monastery]], with [[Mount Everest]] in the background]]<br />
Mallory returned to the Himalayas as a member of the 1922 British Everest expedition.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=3–13}} The expedition's objective was to become the first to summit Everest.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=17}} On 2 March, Mallory, [[Howard Somervell]], [[John Baptist Lucius Noel|John Noel]], [[Edward Lisle Strutt|Edward Strutt]], [[George Finch (chemist)|George Finch]], and [[Arthur Wakefield (physician)|Arthur Wakefield]],{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=201}} crossed the [[English Channel]], travelled by train to Marseille and departed on board the [[Ocean liner|passenger liner]] ''Caledonia''<ref name="caledonia-1894">{{cite web |url=https://www.poheritage.com/Upload/Mimsy/Media/factsheet/92869CALEDONIA-1894pdf.pdf |title=Caledonia (1894) |website=poheritage.com |date=November 2008 |publisher=[[P&O (company)|P&OSNCo.]] |location=London, UK |access-date=16 November 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116185306/https://www.poheritage.com/Upload/Mimsy/Media/factsheet/92869CALEDONIA-1894pdf.pdf |archive-date=16 November 2022}}</ref> on 3 March.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=379}}{{sfn|Somervell|1947|p=50}} Mallory engaged in&nbsp;[[deck tennis]] with Somervell and Wakefield and&nbsp;attended Finch's [[Bottled oxygen (climbing)|oxygen]] class, which enabled him to&nbsp;overcome his ambivalence about its implementation.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=127}} After docking in Bombay, they arrived in [[Darjeeling]] on 20 March, where they coalesced with the rest of the expedition.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=389}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=19–20}} Members left in groups for the march to [[Phari]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=184}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=394–395}} Mallory's group departed under expedition leader General [[Charles Granville Bruce]],{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=184}} arriving in Phari on 6 April and joined the following day by the remainder of the expedition.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=30}} They arrived at the [[Rongbuk Monastery]] on 30 April.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=404}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=40}} On 1 May, the expedition pitched [[Everest base camps|Base Camp]] at an [[altitude]] of {{convert|5029|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, {{convert|2.75|mi|km}} below the junction of the [[Rongbuk Glacier]] and [[East Rongbuk Glacier]].{{sfn|Green|2005|p=129}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=49–50 & Maps: Sketch Map of Mount Everest and the Rongbuk Glaciers ''At end of book''}}<br />
<br />
====First summit attempt, Mallory, Somervell, Norton, and Morshead====<br />
On 20 May, at 7:30{{nbsp}}am, Mallory, [[Howard Somervell]], [[Edward F. Norton|Edward Norton]], [[Henry Morshead]], and four porters began their day at Camp IV, on the North Col at an elevation of {{convert|7010|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|pp=113–114}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=183–185}} At 8{{nbsp}}am, after getting roped up, the eight men commenced their ascent without [[Bottled oxygen (climbing)|supplemental oxygen]].{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|pp=114–115}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=185}} They aimed to climb the North Ridge and establish Camp V at an altitude of {{convert|7925|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, from where they planned an attempt to reach the summit.{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|p=114}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=184 & 191}} At 11:30{{nbsp}}am, they attained an elevation of {{convert|7620|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, a gain of {{convert|610|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} from the North Col, in {{frac|3|1|2}}&nbsp;hours, a vertical climbing rate of {{convert|174|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} per hour, including stops.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=190–191}} Mallory estimated that from their present position, it would necessitate three hours to ascend {{convert|305|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} and pitch Camp V there, which left little time for the porters to return to Camp IV on the North Col before nightfall, and was uncertain of finding a well-sheltered area from the strong winds on the lee-side of the North Ridge above them.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=205}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=193–194}} Therefore, they abandoned their initial plan and erected Camp V at their current altitude of {{convert|7620|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=205}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=193–194}} The four porters departed for the North Col camp at 3{{nbsp}}pm, and Mallory, Somervell, Norton, and Morshead spent the night at Camp V.{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|p=115}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=196}}<br />
[[File:1922 Mount Everest Expedition High Points.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Everest's North Face, with illustrations of the maximum elevations attained by the 1922 expeditions' first and second summit attempts.{{refn |The two altitudes shown in this image are from the official expedition book, ''The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922''.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=210 & 246}} Mallory, [[Howard Somervell|Somervell]], and [[Edward F. Norton|Norton]] recorded their maximum elevation with an [[Barometer#Aneroid barometers|aneroid barometer]] as {{convert|8169|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, a height later rectified and confirmed as {{convert|8225|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} by a [[theodolite]], leading to uncertainty about the actual altitude attained.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=13 & 185}} When compared, an image taken during the expedition and the area's [[topography]] demonstrates that their high point was no lower than {{convert|8370|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} and&nbsp;possibly as high as {{convert|8400|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=13 & 185}}|group=n|name=highpoints1922}}{{refn |In the official 1924 expedition book, ''The Fight for Everest: 1924'', as Norton, Somervell, and their three porters ascended from Camp V to where they established Camp VI at {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, Norton states, "Sometime after midday, we recognised and passed the highest point that Mallory, Somervell, and I had reached in 1922&nbsp;... I remember a momentary uplift at the thought that we were actually going to camp higher than the highest point ever reached without oxygen&nbsp;... About 1:30{{nbsp}}p.m., it became evident that it would be impossible to urge the gallant Semchumbi much farther, so I selected a site for our tent."{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=108–109}} The 1924 expedition Camp VI was discovered by the [[Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition#Subsequent expeditions|2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition]] at an elevation of {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=107, 113, & 180}} As stated in note 25, Mallory, Somervell, and Norton, on the first summit attempt of the 1922 expedition, recorded their high point with an aneroid barometer as {{convert|8169|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, a height later rectified and confirmed as {{convert|8225|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} by a theodolite.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=13 & 185}} Jochen Hemmleb conducted photogrammetric surveys using the photo taken by Somervell on 21 May 1922 at the highest point they attained, and he concluded that he took it at an elevation of {{circa}} {{convert|8108|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} to {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=13 & 185}} Regarding Norton's above statement, they passed their high point of 1922, "Sometime after midday," which provides an unspecified amount of time between then and "About 1:30{{nbsp}}p.m.," when they halted and established Camp VI at {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=108–109}} In conclusion, it is clear that Mallory, Somervell, and Norton's high point in 1922 was slightly lower than {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=13 & 185}}|group=n|name=less-than-26,700-ft}}]]<br />
The next day, at 8{{nbsp}}am, the four mountaineers were roped up and commenced their attempt to reach the summit from Camp V.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=201 & 206}} After a few steps, Morshead, suffering from frostbite, declared he was unable to continue and stayed behind at Camp V.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=205}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=199 & 203–204}} Adverse weather conditions prevented the climbers from beginning their ascent at 6{{nbsp}}am as planned, leaving them behind schedule.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=200 & 206}} Other than possible mountaineering difficulties, their bid depended predominantly on time and speed.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=206}} Mallory's [[arithmetic]]al computation estimated their vertical ascent rate at an unsatisfactory {{convert|122|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} per hour, not including stops, from which it was apparent they would be climbing after nightfall, a risk they were unwilling to take, and decided that 2:30{{nbsp}}pm was their retreat time.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=206–208}} At 2:15{{nbsp}}pm, Mallory, Somervell, and Norton halted and lay against rocks on the North Ridge, where they remained for fifteen minutes and ate.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=208}} Their [[Barometer#Aneroid barometers|aneroid barometer]] read {{convert|8169|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, a height later rectified and confirmed by a [[theodolite]] as {{convert|8225|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, a new world [[World altitude record (mountaineering)#British Everest expeditions|altitude record]].{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=209–210}}<ref name=MtWorld/> They began their descent, and at 4:00{{nbsp}}pm reached Camp V, where Morshead was waiting to join them for the return to Camp IV.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=206}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=211}} The four climbers roped up and recommenced their descent to {{convert|7010|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=211}} As they descended, Morshead, who was third on the rope, slipped, and his impetus dragged Somervell and Norton down a slope leading directly to the East Rongbuk Glacier, several thousand feet below.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=206}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=214}} Mallory, who was leading, immediately reacted by forcing the [[Pickaxe|pick]] of his [[ice axe]] into the snow and hitching the rope around the axe's [[adze]].{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=214}} He stood in a secure position and held the rope in his right hand above the hitch, pressed downward with his left on the axe's shaft, and, using his entire weight, leaned towards the incline, securing the pick of his axe in the snow.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=214}} Commonly, in such circumstances, the [[belay]] will not hold when applying this technique, or the rope will snap.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=214–215}} Fortunately, the axe and rope held because their bodies' combined weight and momentum did not come upon the rope at once, which saved the lives of Somervell, Norton, and Morshead.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=214–215}}{{sfn|Murray|1953|p=63}} They regained their positions and reached their tents after nightfall, exhausted, hungry, frostbitten, and [[dehydrated]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=206–207}}{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=215–221}}<br />
<br />
====Second summit attempt, Finch and Bruce====<br />
[[File:George Ingle Finch.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|George Finch]]<br />
On 27 May, [[George Finch (chemist)|George Finch]], [[Geoffrey Bruce]], and [[Tejbir Bura]] departed from Camp VI at {{convert|7772|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} on the North Ridge, using supplemental oxygen for another attempt.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=237–238 & 243–244}} They took Bura, shouldering two spare oxygen cylinders, as far as the Northeast Shoulder at {{convert|8352|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, where he descended, as part of the plan.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=141 & 244}} Finch and Bruce loaded up the extra cylinders, and dispensed their climbing rope to advance faster.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=245}} When they reached {{convert|8230|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, they changed course and climbed towards a point on the Northeast Ridge, halfway between the Northeast Shoulder and the summit.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=246}} Not long after, Bruce, about {{convert|6|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} below Finch when his oxygen apparatus failed, struggled upwards as his partner came to his aid, and they repaired the equipment.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=246}} It was approximately midday, and their aneroid barometer registered an elevation of {{convert|8321|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, surpassing the previous attempt by {{convert|96|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}}, a new world record.<ref name=MtWorld/>{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=207–208}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=246–248}} Weakened by hunger and exhaustion, they were unable to continue, and descended to Camp VI.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=248}}<br />
<br />
====Third summit attempt, Mallory, Somervell, Crawford and the North Col avalanche====<br />
At the beginning of June, the expedition arranged a third attempt.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=273–278}} The plan was to ascend to their old Camp V at {{convert|7620|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} without using supplemental oxygen and then, using a cylinder each, continue to an elevation of {{convert|7925|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} where they would establish the new Camp V. From there the team would use the supplemental oxygen to attempt to reach the summit.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=278–279}} On 7 June at 8{{nbsp}}am, Mallory, Somervell, [[Colin Crawford (mountaineer)|Colin Crawford]], and 14 porters left Camp III at {{convert|6401|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} and traversed the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier. The team reached the base of the {{convert|305|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} wall of snow and ice rising to the North Col at 10{{nbsp}}am{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=279–280}} and 15 minutes later Somervell, Mallory, Crawford, and one of the porters began the climb.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=280}} At 1:30{{nbsp}}pm the group halted about {{convert|183|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} below Camp IV to allow the other porters to join them.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=211}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=281}}{{sfn|Somervell|1947|p=71}} At about 1:50{{nbsp}}pm, soon after the team continued the ascent, an [[avalanche]] began on an ice cliff above them and swept over the entire group.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=201}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=211}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=281–283}} Somervell, Mallory, Crawford and the porter managed to dig out from beneath the snow{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=282–283}} and saw a group of four porters approximately {{convert|46|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} below them{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=211}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|p=283}} gesturing down the slope. The avalanche had swept the other 9 porters into a [[crevasse]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=211}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=283–284}} The remaining team members, later joined by expedition members [[John Baptist Lucius Noel|John Noel]] and Arthur Wakefield, immediately began a search and rescue effort,{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=284–285}}{{sfn|Somervell|1947|p=72}} finding eight of the nine porters. Only two had survived.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=284–285}} A memorial [[cairn]] was constructed at Camp III{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=212}} in honour of the seven who perished: Lhakpa, Narbu, Pasang, Pema, Sange, Temba, and Antarge.{{sfn|Summers|2001|p=248}}<ref name="forgotten-scots"/> This marked the end of the 1922 expedition.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=285}} On 5 August, Mallory departed from India by ship, and arrived in England in mid-August.{{sfn|Green|2005|pp=137 & 141}}<br />
<br />
===Announcement of a third expedition, lectures and writing===<br />
[[File:Central Hall, Westminster - geograph.org.uk - 2507595.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Methodist Central Hall, Westminster]]]]<br />
The announcement that the [[Ganden Phodrang|Tibetan government]]<!--Please don't alter. Ganden Phodrang was the Tibetan system of government from 1642–1959--> had formally authorised the [[1924 British Mount Everest expedition|third expedition]] to Everest came on 16 October 1922 at a combined meeting of the Royal Geographical Society and Alpine Club at [[Methodist Central Hall, Westminster]].{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=457}} The Everest Committee resolved that the third expedition would commence in spring 1924.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=461}} The committee was eager to generate money to cover some of the 1924 expedition's costs and discussed terms for a lecture programme.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=141}} A large-scale lecture tour was organised, with Mallory and George Finch selected as the two speakers.{{sfn|Green|2005|pp=141–142}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=458}} On 20 October 1922, Mallory and Finch at the Central Hall, City of Westminster, delivered their first public lectures concerning the 1922 expedition, including photo illustrations.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=458}}<ref name="mallory-finch-lectures">{{cite news |title=Can Everest Be Climbed? Story Of Gallant Failure |url=https://www.thetimes.com/ |work=[[The Times|The Times Archive]] |issue=43164 |location=London, UK |publisher=Times Media Limited |publication-date=17 October 1922 |page=7 |access-date=20 November 2022 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 December 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981207073937/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> During the winter, Mallory presented a round of talks throughout Britain and [[Ireland]],<!--Please do not alter. Ireland's official name was the Irish Republic from 1919 to 6 December 1922, when it became the Irish Free State. It's unknown when Mallory visited Dublin or if he lectured in what is known today as Northern Ireland. So here it's best to refer to it as Ireland!--> filling engagements in places such as [[Aberdeen]], [[Brighton]] and [[Dublin]],{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=207}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=216}} receiving 30% of the proceeds.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=459}} In addition to authoring Everest and [[Himalaya]]-related articles for [[Periodical literature|periodicals]] and [[encyclopaedia]]s to supplement his income, the committee requested he contribute to the official book of the 1922 expedition, ''The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922''.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=217}}<br />
<br />
===North America lecture tour and writing===<br />
[[File:Broadhurst Theatre AB 1918 p 32.jpg|thumb|Broadhurst Theatre, New York]]<br />
The Everest Committee arranged for Mallory to travel to North America on a three-month lecture tour.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=142}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=464}} Mallory and Ruth concurred he should strive for steady employment when he returned.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=217}} Mallory docked in New York on 17 January 1923.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=142}} After meeting lecture agent Keedick, Mallory was dismayed he had arranged only a meagre number of lectures, and had to wait 9 days to deliver his first speech.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=219}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=464}} He amended his lecture materials and wrote his finalised contribution to the 1922 expedition book, ''The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922''.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=219}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=143}} His first contribution was titled ''The First Attempt'', consisting of chapters: ''The Problem'', ''The Highest Camp'', and ''The Highest Point'', and his second had chapters: ''The Third Attempt'' and ''Conclusions''.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|loc=Contents|p=VII}} On 26 January, in Washington, D.C., Mallory delivered two lectures, which grossed [[United States dollar|$]]1000.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=208}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=464}} His next engagement was in [[Philadelphia]], where he delivered two lectures for a combined audience of approximately 3000, grossing $1500.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=219–220}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=464–465}} After an evaluation by medical professionals at the [[NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital]], they determined his [[Lung volumes|lung capacity]] was twice that of the average person.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=209}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=144}} On 4 February, Mallory gave a lecture at the [[Broadhurst Theatre]], New York, in front of an audience of 550, filling only half the seating capacity.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=210}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=465}} The next day, ''[[The New York Times]]'' ran a story under the headline, ''SAYS BRANDY AIDED MT EVEREST PARTY; A Swig 27,000 Feet Up 'Cheered Us All Up Wonderfully,' Mallory Tells Audience'', which diverted its coverage of the tour into anti-[[prohibition]] [[propaganda]].{{sfn|Green|2005|pp=144–145}}<ref name="swig-of-brandy">{{cite news |date=5 February 1923 |title=SAYS BRANDY AIDED MT. EVEREST PARTY; A Swig 27,000 Feet Up 'Cheered Us All Up Wonderfully,' Mallory Tells Audience |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1923/02/05/archives/says-brandy-aided-mt-everest-party-a-swig-27000-feet-up-cheered-us.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=[[The New York Times]] |location=New York City, U.S. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124170502/https://www.nytimes.com/1923/02/05/archives/says-brandy-aided-mt-everest-party-a-swig-27000-feet-up-cheered-us.html |archive-date=24 November 2022 |access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref> A Toronto appointment resulted in a cancellation, and a Montreal appearance grossed a meagre $48.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=465}} In [[Boston]], he delivered a lecture to the [[Appalachian Mountain Club]], gave a speech in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], made a second visit to Philadelphia, where at the [[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology|University Museum]], he spoke to an audience of 1200, and delivered lectures in [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]], [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]], and [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]], before a second engagement in Boston.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=211}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=221}} Under the headline, ''CLIMBING MOUNT EVEREST IS WORK FOR SUPERMEN'', ''The New York Times'' of 18 March quoted Mallory as having replied to the question, "Why did you want to climb Mount Everest?" with the retort, "Because it's there."<ref name="supermen">{{cite news |date=18 March 1923 |title=Climbing Mount Everest is work for Supermen |work=The New York Times |url=https://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/arts/mallory1923.pdf |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812172611/https://www.nytimes.com/1923/03/18/archives/climbing-mount-everest-is-work-for-supermen-a-member-of-former.html |archive-date=12 August 2022 |access-date=27 April 2003}}</ref><ref name="hazards-alps">{{cite news |date=29 August 1923 |title=HAZARDS OF THE ALPS |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1923/08/29/archives/hazards-of-the-alps.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=[[The New York Times]] |location=New York City, U.S. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812174833/https://www.nytimes.com/1923/08/29/archives/hazards-of-the-alps.html |archive-date=12 August 2022 |access-date=12 August 2022}}</ref> The expression describes an existential desire to accomplish a physical and spiritual goal that mountaineers share.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=221}} Questions have arisen over the quote's authenticity and whether Mallory said it.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=222}}{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=186–190}} Some suggest it was an innovative [[paraphrase]] created by the [[Journalist|reporter]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=222}}{{sfn|Rees|2006|p=309}} The tour was a financial failure; Mallory regretted that he, Ruth, and the children would have to live on less than he had anticipated, because he had no immediate prospects for permanent [[employment]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=211}} Mallory docked in [[Millbay|Plymouth]] in early April.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=146}}<br />
<br />
===Cambridge lecturer and Olympic medal===<br />
[[File:George mallory.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|Mallory in the early 1920s]]<br />
[[David Cranage]], Secretary of the [[University of Cambridge Institute of Continuing Education|Board of Extra-Mural Studies]] at Cambridge University, and Arthur Robert Hinks of the Everest Committee travelled together on a train from London to Cambridge while Mallory was still in America, and discussed a vacancy that solved Mallory's situation.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=212}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=147}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=466}} Cranage advertised a vacancy for a history [[lecturer]] to educate in towns and villages outside of Cambridge and assist organising other courses.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=223}} They would conduct lectures in cooperation with the [[Workers' Educational Association]],&nbsp;established to support working people who had missed the opportunity for&nbsp;education in favour of the [[Social privilege|privileged]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=223}} Cranage apprised Hinks about the job and questioned whether he knew possible candidates, Hinks suggested Mallory.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=212}} Hinks informed Mallory soon after he arrived back in England.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=223}} Mallory applied and following a successful interview was [[University of Cambridge Institute of Continuing Education#Notable people|appointed]] on 18 May.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=467}} The occupation provided an annual income of £350, supplemented by lecture fees of £150 yearly.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=223}} He found a suitable residence for the family at Herschel House on Herschel Road, Cambridge.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=224}} Mallory immersed himself in his new employment with zeal, assisted organising the [[Golden Jubilee]] of Cambridge Local Lectures in July, and helped arrange summer schools during the [[University of Cambridge#Teaching|Long Vacation]].{{sfn|Green|2005|p=149}} In the [[Autumn|fall]] of 1923, he commenced lectures in [[Hunstanton]] on the [[History of democracy#Rise of democracy in modern national governments|emergence of democracy]] in the [[17th century]]; in [[Raunds]], tutorial classes in modern history;{{refn |A three-year University Tutorial Class was the arrangement for Mallory&nbsp;in [[Raunds]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=213}}|group=n|name=tutorialraunds}} and conducted classes in [[Halstead]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=213}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=149}} On 18 October, Hinks wrote to Cranage, requesting Mallory obtain leave to participate in the 1924 expedition.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=150}} The Lecture Committee recommended six months' leave at half pay.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=215}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=227–228}}{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=228}}<br />
<br />
[[File:SS California (1923).jpg|thumb|SS ''California'' in 1925, entering [[New York Harbor]]]]<br />
On 6 November, after a&nbsp;medical examination by a [[physician]] recommended by the Everest Committee, Mallory was declared&nbsp;"fit in every respect," eliminating the last potential obstacle between him and participation in the expedition.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=228}} On 5 February 1924, at the closing ceremony of the inaugural [[1924 Winter Olympics|Winter Olympics]] in [[Chamonix]], France, [[Pierre de Coubertin]] presented 13 gold medals, including for Mallory, for [[mountaineering|alpinism]] in recognition of the achievements of the [[1922 British Mount Everest expedition#Expedition participants|1922 Everest expedition]] members to [[Edward Lisle Strutt|Lt Col Edward Strutt]], deputy expedition leader.<ref name="olympicmedals1922expedition">{{cite news |last=Verma |first=Somesh |date=17 August 2012 |title=The faceless hero Nepal's only Olympic Gold medalist in focus <br />
|url=https://kathmandupost.com/news/2012-08-17/the-faceless-hero-nepals-only-olympic-gold-medalist-in-focus.html |url-status=dead |work=[[The Kathmandu Post]] |publisher=[[Kantipur Publications|Kantipur Publications Limited]]<br />
|location=Kathmandu, Nepal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216221606/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/printedition/news/2012-08-17/the-faceless-hero-nepals-only-olympic-gold-medalist-in-focus.html |archive-date=16 December 2018 |access-date=1 December 2022}}</ref>{{refn |An additional eight gold medals, after a request to the [[International Olympic Committee]] by expedition leader General [[Charles Granville Bruce]], were awarded to other members of the 1922 expedition.<ref name="olympicmedals1922expedition"/> One of the medalists was [[Nepalis|Nepalese]] [[Tejbir Bura]], a mountaineer and [[Non-commissioned officer|NCO]] in the 2nd Battalion of the 6th Gurkha Rifles.<ref name="olympicmedals1922expedition"/> On 27 May 1922, Bura, unable to ascend further, reached an altitude of {{convert|7925|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} on Everest, climbing with [[George Finch (chemist)|George Finch]] and Geoffrey Bruce.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=62, 244 & 254–257}} Later that day, Finch and Bruce attained a world [[World altitude record (mountaineering)#British Everest expeditions|altitude record]] of {{convert|8321|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}<ref name=MtWorld/> using [[Bottled oxygen (climbing)|supplemental oxygen]].{{sfn|Firstbrook|2000|pp=123–124}}{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=246 & 254–257}} The seven [[Porter (carrier)|porters]] who died in an [[avalanche]] on the [[North Col]] on 7 June 1922 were [[Posthumous award|posthumously]] awarded the other seven medals.{{sfn|Bruce|1923|pp=279–286}}<ref name="medal-pledge">{{cite news |last=Georgiou |first=Mark |date=26 March 2012 |title=Everest Olympic medal pledge set to be honoured |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-17493939 |url-status=live |work=[[BBC News Online]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203173752/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-17493939 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |access-date=3 December 2022}}</ref> Their names were Lhakpa, Narbu, Pasang, Pema, Sange, Temba, and Antarge.{{sfn|Summers|2001|p=248}}<ref name="forgotten-scots">{{cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Ian |date=19 May 2021 |title=The forgotten Scots of the first Everest expedition of 1921 – one died, the other went mad (See memorial photo for names of porters) |url=https://www.scotsman.com/heritage-and-retro/heritage/the-forgotten-scots-of-the-first-everest-expedition-of-1921-one-died-the-other-went-mad-3240765 |url-status=live |work=[[The Scotsman]] |publisher=National World Publishing Ltd |location=Leeds, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203160836/https://www.scotsman.com/heritage-and-retro/heritage/the-forgotten-scots-of-the-first-everest-expedition-of-1921-one-died-the-other-went-mad-3240765 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |access-date=3 December 2022}}</ref>|group=n|name=pluseightmedals}}<br />
<br />
===1924 British Mount Everest expedition===<br />
{{Main|1924 British Mount Everest expedition}}<br />
[[File:AndrewIrvine.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)|Andrew Irvine]], Mallory's climbing partner]]<br />
The expedition members included leader General Charles Bruce,{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=103}} [[Edward F. Norton|Edward Norton]] as second-in-command and mountaineering leader; mountaineers [[Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)|Andrew Irvine]], [[Howard Somervell]], [[Geoffrey Bruce]], [[Bentley Beetham]], and [[John de Vars Hazard]]; mountaineer and oxygen officer [[Noel Odell]]; photographer and [[cinematographer]] [[John Baptist Lucius Noel|John Noel]]; [[Natural history|naturalist]] and medical officer [[Richard Hingston]]; and transportation officer [[Edward Oswald Shebbeare|Edward Shebbeare]].{{sfn|Green|2005|pp=152–155}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=13–20}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=103}} On 29 February, Mallory and three other expedition members, Irvine, Beetham, and Hazard, departed from [[Port of Liverpool|Liverpool]] on board [[SS California (1923)|SS ''California'']].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=223–224}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=485}} During the voyage to India, Mallory read [[André Maurois|Maurois's]] ''Ariel'', studied [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], and worked through the [[logistics]] of supplies and aspects of the organisation for the expedition.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=485}} Determined to remain physically healthy, he exercised regularly in the [[Gym|gymnasium]], threw a [[medicine ball]] with Irvine and Beetham, and periodically ran ten laps around the [[Deck (ship)|deck]].{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=225}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=156}} In mid-March, ''California'' arrived at her destination, berthing in Bombay.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=227}} Mallory, Irvine, Beetham, and Hazard travelled to [[Darjeeling]], where they rendezvoused with the other participants.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=227}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=485}} On 25 March, the entire expedition departed Darjeeling for the march to Everest [[Everest base camps|Base Camp]].{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=19}} The trek of {{convert|350|mi|km}} took them from Darjeeling to [[Kalimpong]], Guatong, [[Jelep La]], Yatung, [[Phari]], Tang La, Donka La, [[Kampa Dzong]], Tinki Dzong, Tinki La, Chiblung, [[Shelkar|Shekar Dzong]], Chödzong, and [[Rongbuk Monastery|Rongbuk]], and they arrived at Base Camp on 29 April, at an [[altitude]] of {{convert|5120|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=50–53}}{{sfn|Summers|2001|pp=167–168}} On 9 April, General Bruce had collapsed due to recurrent [[malaria]] and had ongoing [[Cardiovascular disease|cardiovascular]] issues during the trek to Base Camp.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=238}}{{sfn|Green|2005|p=158}} Norton took charge, appointed Mallory as deputy and mountaineering leader, and Charles Bruce returned to India.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=230}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=104}}<br />
<br />
====Mallory and Bruce's attempt====<br />
On 1 June, at 6{{nbsp}}am, Mallory and Geoffrey Bruce, without supplemental oxygen, and eight porters commenced their ascent from Camp IV on the North Col at {{convert|7010|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=249}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=80, 94, & 96}} They planned to climb the North Ridge and establish Camp V at approximately {{convert|7772|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, where they would sleep overnight; the following day, they would ascend to about {{convert|8291|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, where they would pitch Camp VI, sleep overnight, and on 3 June, attempt to reach the summit without oxygen.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|pp=246–247}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=94}} The precise elevation for establishing Camps V and VI depended on the porters' abilities to carry heavy loads in the rarefied air and weather conditions.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=94}} As the two climbers and eight porters ascended the North Ridge with an average gradient of 45&nbsp;[[Grade (slope)|degrees]], they were exposed to a penetrating northwest wind.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=96}} At approximately {{convert|7620|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, four of the porters could not ascend any further after reaching the limits of their endurance.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=96}} Mallory, Bruce, and the four remaining porters progressed to an elevation of {{convert|7681|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, where they established Camp V.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=249}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=96–97 & 105}} Five porters descended to Camp IV, leaving three to shoulder loads the following day up to the location where the expedition intended to pitch Camp VI.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=97}} Mallory, Bruce, and the three porters slept at Camp V that night, and on the next day, only one porter was able to proceed, and two declared themselves sick and physically unable to carry loads.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=97}} Without enough porters to assist, the attempt was abandoned immediately, and the party returned to the North Col.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=249–250}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=97}}<br />
<br />
On 2 June Somervell and Norton began a second attempt.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=102}} On 4 June Somervell and Norton left Camp VI and commenced their ascent to reach the summit. At midday, as they neared {{convert|8534|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, Somervell, who was suffering from an extremely sore throat and a severe cough, felt it impracticable to continue.{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=108 & 111–112}}{{sfn|Somervell|1947|pp=123 & 128–131}} Somervell sat on a ledge while Norton proceeded solo.{{sfn|Somervell|1947|p=129}} At 1{{nbsp}}pm, suffering from temporary visual impairment due to [[Hypoxia (medical)|oxygen deficiency]],{{refn |At approximately {{convert|8382|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, Norton started to experience difficulty with his vision.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=111}} He was seeing double and thought it was a symptom of the onset of [[Photokeratitis|snow blindness]], but Somervell assured him this was not the case.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=111}} Later, Norton learned that oxygen deficiency was the cause.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=111}} After 11{{nbsp}}pm that same day, he was awakened by discomfort in both eyes caused by snow blindness, and the following morning, he was completely blind and remained in that condition for a further 60 hours.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=117}}|group=n|name=snowblind}} exhausted from his efforts, and knowing that from his location and the current time, he stood no chance of reaching the summit and returning safely, Norton retreated from where he had attained a new world [[World altitude record (mountaineering)#British Everest expeditions|altitude record]] of {{convert|8572.8|m|abbr=on|sigfig=6|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=111–113}}<ref name=MtWorld/> At 9:30{{nbsp}}pm, Somervell and Norton reached Camp IV.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=115}}<br />
<br />
====Mallory and Irvine's last climb====<br />
{{quote box |align = right |width = 30% |quote = Dear Odell,<br />
<br />
"We're awfully sorry to have left things in such a mess—our Unna Cooker rolled down the slope at the last moment. Be sure of getting back to IV to-morrow in time to evacuate by dark, as I hope to. In the tent I must have left a [[compass]]—for the Lord's sake rescue it: we are here without. To here on 90 atmospheres for the 2 days—we'll probably go on 2 cylinders—but it's a bloody load for climbing. Perfect weather for the job!" |source = Yours ever, G. Mallory.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=126}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=114}}}}<br />
<br />
On 4 June, at 2:10{{nbsp}}pm, Mallory and Irvine, using supplemental oxygen for the final half of their ascent, left Camp III at {{convert|6401|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} and reached Camp IV on the North Col at {{convert|7010|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} in 3 hours, at 5:10{{nbsp}}pm, including about 30 minutes at a dump choosing and testing oxygen cylinders.{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=537–538}}{{sfn|Summers|2001|p=4}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=64, 80, & 122}} That night, Mallory shared a tent with Norton, who had just returned from his summit attempt with Somervell, and informed Norton that if his summit bid with Somervell had failed, he had planned to make one further attempt with supplemental oxygen.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=116}} Mallory elucidated that he went down to Camp III and recruited enough porters with Bruce's assistance for another endeavour.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=116}} He chose Irvine as his climbing partner because of the initiative and mechanical expertise he exhibited with the oxygen apparatus.{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=116–117}} On 6 June, at 8:40{{nbsp}}am, Mallory and Irvine, set off in excellent weather from Camp IV, for Camp V on the North Ridge at {{convert|7681|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, accompanied by eight porters.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=254}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=125}}{{sfn|Odell|1924|p=456}} Both mountaineers shouldered modified oxygen apparatus, each carrying two cylinders apiece, and their eight porters, not using oxygen, took provisions, bedding, and extra cylinders.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=125}}{{sfn|Breashears|Salkeld|1999|p=172}} They progressed steadily and attained Camp V in good time, and shortly after 5{{nbsp}}pm, four of their porters arrived back at Camp IV, with a note from the climbing party stating, "There is no wind here, and things look hopeful."{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=254}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=125}} The two climbers and their four remaining porters spent the night at Camp V.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=125}} On 7 June, Mallory, Irvine, both using oxygen for part of their climb, and the four porters ascended to Camp VI at {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} on the North Ridge.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=254}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=125}} That same day, expedition member [[Noel Odell]] and his porter Nema, in support of Mallory and Irvine, climbed to Camp V.{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=125–126}}{{sfn|Odell|1924|p=456}} Soon after they attained Camp V, Mallory and Irvine's four remaining porters reached it from Camp VI, and gave Odell a note from Mallory.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=126}}<br />
<br />
Odell's porter, Nema, was suffering from [[altitude sickness]], so that evening Odell sent him down, along with the other four porters, to Camp IV.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=127}}{{sfn|Odell|1924|p=456}} When they reached Camp IV, a porter known as Lakpa gave [[John Baptist Lucius Noel|John Noel]] a second note from Mallory.{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=261}} Noel's filming location was above Camp III, on the ledge of a buttress at {{convert|6706|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} on the Eastern Ridge of [[Changtse]], which he called "Eagle's Nest Point."{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=251}} From this vantage point, Noel had a clear view across the head of the [[Rongbuk Glacier|East Rongbuk Glacier]], the ice slope leading to the North Col, the Northeast Ridge, and the North Face.{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=251}} Lakpa informed him that Mallory and Irvine were in good health, had reached Camp VI, and the weather was fine.{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=261}} Mallory's message reminded Noel of the locations and approximate time of where and when to look for them during their summit attempt, which they had previously discussed and organised.{{sfn|Noel|1927|pp=213 & 261}} Mallory erroneously wrote 8:0{{nbsp}}P.M.; he meant A.M.{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=262}}<br />
{{quote box |align = left |width = 30% |quote = Dear Noel,<br />
<br />
"We'll probably start early tomorrow (8th) in order to have clear weather. It won't be too early to start looking for us either crossing the rock band under the pyramid or going up skyline at 8.0 P.M." |source = Yours ever, G. Mallory.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=255}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=114}}}}<br />
The following morning, 8 June, at 8 am, after spending the night alone at Camp V, Odell, again supporting Mallory and Irvine, commenced his ascent up to Camp VI and, on his way, intended to conduct a geological study.{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=127–129}} That same morning, Noel perched himself at "Eagle's Nest Point," where he directed the long lens of his [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]] towards the summit to film Mallory and Irvine.{{sfn|Noel|1927|pp=261–262}} He had two assistant porters, peering through a telescope in turns, who saw nothing; 8 am arrived and went without sighting the mountaineers, and by 10 am, cloud and mist had enshrouded their view of the entire summit ridge.{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=262}} As Odell ascended to Camp VI, in a [[limestone]] band at approximately {{convert|7772|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, he discovered the first definite [[fossil]]s on Everest.{{sfn|Odell|1924|p=456}} When he reached an elevation of about {{convert|7925|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, Odell climbed a small crag close to {{convert|30.48|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} in height, and above him, as he reached its top at 12:50{{nbsp}}pm, he witnessed a rapid clearing of the atmosphere and consequently saw the entire summit ridge and final peak of Everest revealed, and he sighted Mallory and Irvine on a prominent [[Three Steps|rock step]] on the ridge.{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=130–131}}<br />
<br />
{{quote box |align = centre |width = 30% |quote = "At 12:50, just after I had emerged in a state of jubilation at finding the first definite fossils on Everest, there was a sudden clearing of the atmosphere, and the entire summit ridge and final peak of Everest were unveiled. My eyes became fixed on one tiny black spot, silhouetted on a small snow crest beneath a rock step in the ridge, and the black spot moved. Another black spot became apparent and moved up the snow to join the other on the crest. The first then approached the crest rock step and shortly emerged at the top. The second did likewise. Then the whole fascinating vision vanished, enveloped in cloud once more. There was but one explanation. It was Mallory and his companion, moving, as I could see even at that great distance, with considerable alacrity&nbsp;... The place on the ridge mentioned is a prominent rock step at a very short distance from the base of the final pyramid." |source = {{in5}}—{{hair space}}[[Noel Odell]], support climber and last man to see Mallory and Irvine alive, 8 June 1924. This version of Odell's sighting appeared in the [[The Press and Journal|''Aberdeen Press and Journal'']] on 5 July 1924.<ref name="odell-last-seen">{{cite news |last1=Norton |first1=Edward Felix |author-link1=Edward F. Norton |last2=Odell |first2=Noel |author-link2=Noel Odell |date=5 July 1924 |title=More Light On Everest Disaster: Mr Odell's Last View Of Lost Climbers |url=https://uploads.guim.co.uk/2024/06/06/The_Guardian_5_July_1924_.jpg |work=[[The Press and Journal|Aberdeen Press and Journal]] |location=Dundee, Scotland |publisher=[[DC Thomson|D.C. Thomson & Co. Ltd]] |page=7 }} [https://uploads.guim.co.uk/2024/06/06/The_Guardian_5_July_1924_.jpg Alt URL for Guardian version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240809150509/https://uploads.guim.co.uk/2024/06/06/The_Guardian_5_July_1924_.jpg |date=9 August 2024 }}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The location of Odell's initial reported final sighting of Mallory and Irvine—before they disappeared into the clouds and was to become the last time the pair were seen alive—was at the top of the Second Step and determined by expedition member [[John de Vars Hazard]] using a [[theodolite]] to be at an elevation of {{convert|8603.5|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=140}}{{sfn|Norton|1924|pp=160–161}}{{refn |Odell was emphatically sure he saw moving figures, not geological objects, and after returning to England, individuals persuaded him that it must have been the First Step where he had last seen them.<ref name="mystery-mallory-irvine">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/26mieverest.html |title=Everest: Mystery of Mallory and Irvine |website=pbs.org |date=6 October 1999 |publisher=[[PBS]] |location=Arlington, Virginia, U.S. |access-date=17 August 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817164417/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/26mieverest.html |archive-date=17 August 2022}}</ref> He later expressed uncertainty about whether it was the First or Second Step stating, "Owing to the small portion of the summit ridge uncovered, I could not be precisely certain at which of these two "Steps" they were, as in profile and from below they are very similar, but at the time I took it for the upper "Second Step." However, I am a little doubtful now whether the latter would not be hidden by the projecting nearer ground from my position below on the face."{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=130}} Odell also stated, "The "Second Rock Step" is seen prominently in photographs of the North Face from the Base Camp, where it appears a ''short distance'' from the base of the final pyramid down the snowy first part of the crest of the Northeast Arête."{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=130}}|group=n|name=lastsighting}} At approximately 2{{nbsp}}pm, as Odell reached Camp VI at {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, snow began to fall, and the wind strengthened.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=131}} Inside Mallory and Irvine's tent, he discovered spare clothes, food scraps, sleeping bags, oxygen cylinders, and parts of the oxygen apparatus; outside, he found parts of the oxygen apparatus and the [[duralumin]] carriers.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=131}} They left no note specifying when they had commenced their attempt or what might have transpired to create a delay.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=132}} Odell departed from Camp VI, ascended about {{convert|200|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} in the direction of the summit in [[Rain and snow mixed|sleet]] and poor visibility of no more than a few yards, and [[Whistling|whistled]] and [[Yodeling|yodelled]] in an attempt to direct Mallory and Irvine towards Camp VI in case they happened to be within hearing distance, but to no avail.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=132}} Within one hour, he retreated, and at approximately 4{{nbsp}}pm, as he re-attained Camp VI, the weather cleared; the entire North Face became bathed in [[Sunlight|sunshine]], and the upper [[Glossary of climbing terms#crag|crag]]s became observable, but there was no sign of Mallory or Irvine.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=132}} Odell left Mallory's compass, which he had retrieved from Camp V, inside the tent at Camp VI and, at about 4:30{{nbsp}}pm, descended to Camp IV.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=133}}<br />
<br />
On the morning of 9 June, Odell and Hazard thoroughly inspected Camps V and VI using [[binoculars]], with no sign of either mountaineer.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=547}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=135}} Odell and two porters, left Camp IV and, at 3:30{{nbsp}}pm, reached Camp V, where they spent the night.{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=547–548}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=135–136}} The following morning, he sent his porters back to Camp IV, as they were unable to ascend to Camp VI.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=136}} In a strong, bitter westerly wind, Odell climbed alone to Camp VI, which he reached about 11{{nbsp}}am. It was immediately apparent Mallory and Irvine had not returned, as everything was as he had left it two days previously.{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=548}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=137}} Odell discarded his oxygen apparatus and set off along the presumed route, which both climbers might have taken, to search within the limited time available.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=137}} After trudging for two hours with no sign of Mallory or Irvine, he ascertained that the likelihood of finding them was remote in the expanse of crags and slabs, and an extensive search towards the final pyramid necessitated a larger party.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=137}} Odell returned to Camp VI and hauled two sleeping bags up to a precipitous snow-patch, where he positioned them in the shape of a T, communicating that there was no trace of Mallory or Irvine.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=138}} At 2:10{{nbsp}}pm, Hazard, {{convert|1128|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} below at Camp IV, saw the T-shaped signal and knew what it meant, as he and Odell had previously drawn up a code of signals before Odell had left the North Col on 9 June.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=259}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=549}}{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=135 & 138}} At approximately 2:15{{nbsp}}pm, Hazard placed six blankets in the shape of a cross on the snow surface, which relayed a signal of death, to the watchers at Camp III.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=259}}{{sfn|Davis|2011|p=549}}{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=265}} After being informed about the situation, expedition leader Norton ordered a response for Hazard on the North Col.{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=266}} Richard Hingston positioned three lines of blankets arranged apart on the glacier a short distance beyond Camp III, conveying the message, "Abandon hope and come down."{{sfn|Noel|1927|p=266}} After retrieving Mallory's compass and an oxygen apparatus, Odell descended to Camp IV.{{sfn|Davis|2011|pp=549–550}}<br />
<br />
On 8 June, the same day that Mallory and Irvine were last seen alive, Mallory's wife Ruth and their children were on holiday in [[Bacton, Norfolk]].{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=259}} On 13 and 14 June, Howard Somervell and Bentley Beetham oversaw the carving and building of a memorial cairn at Base Camp in memory of those who perished in the 1921, 1922, and 1924 expeditions, with the inscription: In Memory Of Three Everest Expeditions; 1921, [[Alexander Kellas|Kellas]]; 1922, Lhakpa, Narbu, Pasang, Pema, Sange, Temba, Antarge; 1924, Mallory, Irvine, Shamsher, Manbahadur.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=193 & 261}}{{sfn|Summers|2001|p=248}}{{sfn|Somervell|1947|p=135}} On 19 June, [[Arthur Robert Hinks]], who was then in London, received a coded telegram that read, "Mallory Irvine Nove Remainder Alcedo," sent from expedition leader Edward Norton. "Nove" expressed the message that Mallory and Irvine had died, and "Alcedo" meant everyone else was unharmed.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=259}} That same day, Hinks sent a [[Telegraphy#Telegram services|telegram]] to [[Cambridge]], where shortly after 7:30{{nbsp}}pm, a delivery boy arrived with it at the Mallory residence, Herschel House, Cambridge, to communicate the tragic news and the condolences of the Mount Everest Committee to Ruth.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=259–260}}<br />
<br />
====Message from the King and memorial service at St Paul's Cathedral====<br />
[[File:London St Paul's 7307.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|St Paul's Cathedral, London]]<br />
On 24 June, a message sent from [[George V|King George V]] to Younghusband of the Everest Committee appeared in ''[[The Times]]'', in which the King conveyed "an expression of his sincere sympathy" to the families and committee concerning the deaths of the "two gallant explorers".<ref name="messagefromking">{{cite news |title=The Mount Everest Tragedy: Message From The King |url=https://www.thetimes.com/ |work=[[The Times|The Times Archive]] |issue=43686 |location=London, UK |publisher=Times Media Limited |publication-date=24 June 1924 |page=14 |access-date=8 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 December 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981207073937/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 October, a solemn memorial service at [[St Paul's Cathedral]], was held in honour of the two climbers, at which the [[The Right Reverend|Right Reverend]] [[Luke Paget|Henry Paget]], [[Bishop of Chester]], from whose [[diocese]] both men had come, delivered the sermon.{{sfn|Green|2005|p=171}}<ref name="memorialstpauls">{{cite news |title=Leigh-Mallory And Irvine: Memorial Service At St Paul's |url=https://www.thetimes.com/ |work=[[The Times|The Times Archive]] |issue=43786 |location=London, UK |publisher=Times Media Limited |publication-date=18 October 1924 |page=14 |access-date=8 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 December 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981207073937/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The parents of both mountaineers, Ruth, relatives and close friends, members of the expeditions and Mount Everest Committee, the Alpine Club, Royal Geographical Society, and other [[Exploration|explorers]] and scientists attended.<ref name="memorialstpauls" /> Additionally present were representatives of the royal family; [[Sidney Greville|Sir Sidney Greville]] represented the King; [[Lieutenant colonel (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-Colonel]] [[Piers Legh (British Army officer)|Sir Piers Legh]], the [[Edward VIII|Prince of Wales]]; [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|Lieutenant]] Colin Buist, the [[George VI|Duke of York]].<!--It's misinformation that King George V and members of the royal family, Prime Minister MacDonald, and his Cabinet were present. Others represented the royal family. The prime minister and Cabinet were also not in attendance. The Times Archive of 18 October 1924 confirms this, giving a comprehensive list of those present.-->{{sfn|Hinks|1924|pp=462–465}}<ref name="memorialstpauls"/> Mallory's will was proven on 17 December; he bequeathed his estate of [[Pound sign|£]]1706 17s. 6d. (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|1706|1924|r=-4}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y}}) to his wife.<ref name="probate-gm">{{cite web |url=https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/ |title=Search probate records or find a will |website=[[gov.uk]] |publisher=[[Government Digital Service|UK Government Digital Service]] |location=London, UK |access-date=3 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914065141/https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/ |archive-date=14 September 2022}} [https://archive.org/details/george-herbert-leigh-mallory Alt URL]</ref><br />
<br />
==Lost on Everest for 75 years==<br />
===Discovery of the ice axe, 1933===<br />
On 30 May 1933, during the [[1933 British Mount Everest expedition]], [[Percy Wyn-Harris]] and [[Lawrence Wager]] commenced their summit attempt from Camp VI, at {{convert|8380.4|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, on the Yellow Band, below the Northeast Ridge.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=132 & 180}}{{sfn|Ruttledge|1934|pp=135–137}} After approximately one hour of climbing, Wyn-Harris, who was leading, found an [[ice axe]] located about {{convert|18|m|abbr=on|sigfig=1|order=flip}} below the crest of the Northeast Ridge and {{convert|229|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} east of and below the First Step, at an elevation of {{convert|8450|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=14, 132, & 190}}{{sfn|Ruttledge|1934|p=137}} Wyn-Harris and Wager left the axe where they had discovered it, and after retreating from a failed summit attempt, Wyn-Harris retrieved the axe and presumably left his own in its place.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=132–134 & 189}}{{sfn|Ruttledge|1934|pp=138–141}}{{refn |In the spring of 1999, Wyn-Harris's grandson, Steve, informed Jochen Hemmleb in an email exchange that his grandfather had written in his unpublished memoirs that he had returned to Camp VI with both axes.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|loc=Appendix II, notes and references of chapter 8, no. 8|p=199}}|group=n|name=wyn-harris-ice-axe}} <br />
<br />
The axe was ascertained to be either Mallory or Irvine's, to the exclusion of all others.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=8}} During his descent with Edward Norton on 4 June 1924, [[Howard Somervell]] had dropped his ice axe in the Yellow Band near the [[Norton Couloir]],{{refn|On 4 June 1924, Somervell accidentally dropped his ice axe at an elevation {{circa}} {{convert|8534|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, which tumbled down the [[North Face (Everest)|North Face]] from a location close to where he took the photo of Norton nearing his high point.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=114}}|group=n|name=somervell's-axe}} further west from where Wyn-Harris had found the ice axe, and no mountaineers from the expeditions before 1933, other than Mallory and Irvine, had moved through the location where Wyn-Harris had discovered the axe.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=114}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=110}} The axe found by Wyn-Harris was therefore definitively Mallory's or Irvine's, but the men present could not identify it further at the time.{{sfn|Odell|1934|p=447}}<br />
When Wyn-Harris showed the axe to [[Noel Odell]] in 1934, Odell noticed three parallel horizontal nick marks on its shaft, something which neither Harris nor Wager had noted before.{{sfn|Odell|1934|p=447}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=110}}<br />
Odell thought this to be a mark which Irvine might have used on some of his equipment. Some members of Irvine's family also seemed to remember seeing a similar marking, although this could not be verified by visual inspection of items which had been returned to Irvine's family.{{sfn|Odell|1934|p=447}}<br />
Mallory's widow Ruth informed Odell that, "as far as she was aware"—which may indicate she was unsure—Mallory never marked his equipment with triple marks or other type of mark, and assumed the axe belonged to Irvine.{{sfn|Odell|1934|p=447}} To Odell, Wyn Harris suggested a porter may have cut the triple mark to identify individuals' property during the 1924 expedition, though such was not the practice of many, if any, of the 1924 porters.{{sfn|Odell|1934|p=447}} Wyn Harris assured Odell that his porter Pugla cut the X mark, seen lower down on the shaft of the axe found in 1933, during the return journey from the 1933 expedition.{{sfn|Odell|1934|p=447}} Several 1933 expedition members considered it likely the axe belonged to Mallory because it had a Swiss manufacturer, Willisch of [[Täsch]], stamped on it, and Mallory had journeyed to the Alps shortly before the 1924 expedition, when he may have acquired it.{{sfn|Odell|1934|p=447}} They were unaware this manufacturer had supplied all members of the 1924 expedition with light axes, and Mallory or Irvine might have used them during their fatal summit attempt.{{sfn|Odell|1934|p=447}}<br />
In 1962, a brother of Irvine found a military [[swagger stick]], presumed to have belonged to Irvine, and on it are three horizontal identification nick marks resembling those on the axe discovered by Wyn-Harris in 1933; therefore, the axe is most likely Irvine's.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=110}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=134}}<br />
<br />
In 1977, Walt Unsworth, author of ''Everest: The Ultimate Book of the Ultimate Mountain'', examined the axe discovered in 1933 and observed four sets of marks on its shaft.{{sfn|Unsworth|1991|loc=Appendix VI, notes and references of chapter 5, no. 36|p=655}} In addition to the three nicks seen by Odell and the cross mark cut by Pugla, he saw a single horizontal nick mark above the three observed by Odell and another three nick marks, though fainter in appearance, on the other side of the shaft opposite the cross mark.{{sfn|Unsworth|1991|loc=Appendix VI, notes and references of chapter 5, no. 36|p=655}}<br />
<br />
===Smythe's sighting, 1936===<br />
{{quote box |align = centre |width = 40% |quote ="Since my search for the two Oxford fellows, I feel convinced that it marks the scene of an accident to Mallory and Irvine. There is something else&nbsp;... it's not to be written about, as the press would make an unpleasant sensation. I was scanning the face from the Base camp through a high-power telescope last year [1936] when I saw something queer in a gully below the scree shelf&nbsp;... it was a long way away and very small&nbsp;... but I've a [[Visual acuity|six/six]] eyesight, and I do not believe it was a rock&nbsp;... when searching for the Oxford men on [[Mont Blanc]], we looked down onto a boulder-strewn [[glacier]] and saw something which wasn't a rock either—it proved to be two bodies. The object was at precisely the point where Mallory and Irvine would have fallen had they rolled on over the scree slopes below the yellow band. I think it is highly probable that we shall find further evidence next year." |source = {{in5}}—{{hair space}}Frank Smythe, in a letter to Edward Norton, 4 September 1937.{{sfn|Smythe|2013|pp=215–216 & 305}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2014|pp=128–130 & 290 notes of chapter 10, no. 10}}}}<br />
<br />
In 1937, [[Frank Smythe]] wrote to Edward Norton in reply to Norton's approbation of Smythe's book [[Frank Smythe#Bibliography|''Camp Six'']], an account of the 1933 expedition.{{sfn|Hoyland|2014|pp=128–130 & 290 notes of chapter 10, no. 10}} Noted in his letter was the discovery of the ice axe in 1933 found below the crest of the Northeast Ridge, where Smythe felt certain it marked the scene of an accident to Mallory and Irvine.{{sfn|Smythe|2013|pp=215–216}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2014|pp=128–130}} Smythe disclosed that during the [[1936 British Mount Everest expedition]], scanning Everest's [[North Face (Everest)|North Face]] with a high-powered [[telescope]] from Base Camp, he had spotted an object, which he presumed was the body of either Mallory or Irvine. At the time he decided not to publicize the fact to avoid press [[sensationalism]].{{sfn|Smythe|2013|pp=11 & 215–216}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2014|pp=128–130}} Smythe's sighting remained unknown to the public until his son Tony revealed the information in his 2013 book, ''My Father, Frank: Unresting Spirit of Everest''; the author discovered a copy of the letter in the back of a diary.<ref name="tony-smith-book">{{cite news |last=Douglas |first=Ed |date=23 Nov 2013 |title=Lifelong secret of Everest pioneer: I discovered Mallory's body in 1936|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/23/mallory-body-everest-secret-frank-smythe |url-status=live |work=[[The Observer]] |publisher=Guardian News & Media |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401141035/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/23/mallory-body-everest-secret-frank-smythe |archive-date=1 April 2023 |access-date=1 April 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Holzel, Everest historian===<br />
Everest historian, Tom Holzel, the [[Joint authorship|co-author]] with [[Audrey Salkeld]] of ''The Mystery of Mallory and Irvine'', first became interested in the Mallory and Irvine enigma after reading about it in a 1970 edition of ''[[The New Yorker]]''.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=4}} Holzel devised a theory regarding the mystery, published in a 1971 edition of ''Mountain'' magazine.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=10, 322, & 360 notes on sources of chapter 1, no. 11}} His theory was that the two mountaineers split up soon after Odell had sighted them ascending the Second Step at 12:50{{nbsp}}pm, and when successfully climbed, each had only {{frac|1|1|2}}&nbsp;hours of [[Bottled oxygen (climbing)|supplemental oxygen]] remaining, insufficient for both to reach the summit in two or three hours.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=322}} Holzel argued that given this dilemma, Mallory took Irvine's oxygen equipment, [[Belaying|belayed]] him down the Second Step, from where he descended towards Camp VI at {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, and with the additional oxygen, Mallory attempted to reach the summit alone.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=323}} He further surmised that as the exhausted Irvine descended, the "rather severe blizzard" described by Odell,{{sfn|Odell|1924|p=458}} which lasted from approximately 2 to 4&nbsp;pm,{{sfn|Norton|1925|pp=131–132}} covered the mountain with snow, turned his descent into a deadly endeavour, and caused him to slip and fall to his death.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=323}}<ref name="fantastic-riddle">{{cite news |editor-last=Hoelzgen |editor-first=Joachim |date=29 June 1986 |title=Das phantastischste Rätsel des Jahrhunderts |trans-title=The most fantastic riddle of the century |url=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/das-phantastischste-raetsel-des-jahrhunderts-a-ba2a9318-0002-0001-0000-000013520180 |url-status=live |work=[[Der Spiegel (website)|Der Spiegel]] |language=German |location=Hamburg, Germany |publisher=SPIEGEL-Verlag Rudolf Augstein GmbH & Co. KG |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406153533/https://www.spiegel.de/politik/das-phantastischste-raetsel-des-jahrhunderts-a-ba2a9318-0002-0001-0000-000013520180 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |access-date=6 April 2023}}</ref> Holzel added that Mallory presumably reached the summit in the late afternoon.<ref name="fantastic-riddle"/> He theorised that where the ice axe was found—presumably the scene of an accident—in 1933, a body tumbling down the North Face from the area of its discovery would come to a halt on a snow terrace below at approximately {{convert|8200|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=323}}<br />
<br />
In 1980, Holzel received a letter from Hiroyuki Suzuki, foreign secretary of the [[Japanese Alpine Club]].{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=1 & 359 notes on sources of chapter 1, no. 1}} Suzuki's letter was in reply to Holzel, who had written to the Japanese inquiring about their 1979 [[China|Sino]]-Japanese Everest reconnaissance expedition and requesting they look out for Irvine's body—which Holzel had prognosticated might be discovered on a snow terrace at about {{convert|8200|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}—and the camera he may have carried.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=1–2}} Suzuki's letter contained grievous news.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=2–3}} He wrote that on 12 October 1979, as their reconnoitring party attempted to reach the [[North Col]], an [[avalanche]] occurred that swept three Chinese including Wang Hongbao, into a [[crevasse]], resulting in their deaths.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Unsworth|1991|p=570}}{{sfn|Carter|1980|pp=657–658}} Suzuki told Holzel that on 11 October—the day before the avalanche caused his death—Hongbao informed their expedition climbing leader, Ryoten Hasegawa, that during the [[Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions#1975|1975 Chinese Mount Everest expedition]], he had seen "two deads."{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Carter|1980|p=658}} One he had seen close to a side [[moraine]] in the [[Rongbuk Glacier|East Rongbuk Glacier]] below the 1975 expedition Camp III, and the other was on the Northeast Ridge route at an altitude of {{convert|8100|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Carter|1980|p=658}}<ref name="riddle-of-everest">{{cite news |title=Riddle of Everest near solution: Japanese climbers to seek Briton's body |url=https://www.thetimes.com/ |work=[[The Times|The Times Archive]] |issue=60556 |location=London, UK |publisher=Times Media Limited |publication-date=21 February 1980 |page=9 |access-date=2 April 2023 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 December 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981207073937/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Suzuki expressed that Hongbao was a non-English speaker but repeated the word "English, English" to Hasegawa.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Carter|1980|p=658}} Suzuki added that the first was possibly [[Maurice Wilson]], questioned who the second he saw at {{convert|8100|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} was, and informed Holzel that Hongbao touched the latter's torn clothes, some of which the wind had blown away, and buried the [[corpse]] by placing snow on it.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Carter|1980|p=658}}{{refn |In 1986, before the 1986 Mount Everest North Face Research Expedition began, its leader Andrew Harvard arranged a meeting for a Japanese climber to interview Ryoten Hasegawa.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=129}} During the interview, Hasegawa wrote down for the first time what Wang Hongbao had told him in 1979 about his sighting of a dead body on 5 May 1975 at an altitude of {{convert|8100|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=129}} Later, the expedition received an English translation of the letter Hasegawa had written during the interview, in which he expressed an apology for his [[memory]] of some unclear points.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=129}} He communicated that the only language he understood was Japanese, and Hongbao only spoke Chinese, and neither understood English.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=129}} Hasegawa explained that their communication consisted of "very simple words, by characters written on the snow and for the most part gesture," and "English" was the only word they both comprehended from that language.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=129}} Hasegawa further expressed that Hongbao pointed towards the Northeast Ridge with his finger stating, "8,100-metre Engleese," and made a gesture of sleeping by placing the palms of his hands together against his cheek, slanting his head to one side.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|pp=129–130}} He added, "Hongbao opened his mouth, pointed his finger to his cheek, pecked it slightly, and whirled it as if to catch a dragonfly. He also gestured at his clothing, picking at it, moving his finger to his mouth and blowing off it."{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=130}} Hasegawa interpreted that perhaps Hongbao meant that the dead mountaineer's mouth was agape, birds pecked at the cheek, and it was an old body with tattered clothing brought about by the elements.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=130}} Hasegawa was confident he and Hongbao had discussed the body's posture and precise location, but could no longer remember these specifics.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=130}} However, he clearly remembered when he wrote in the snow with his axe, in Chinese characters, "A body of an Englishman at 8,100 metres?" Hongbao nodded yes.{{sfn|Salkeld|1991|p=130}}|group=n|name=wang-ryoten}}<br />
<br />
===1986 Mount Everest North Face Research Expedition===<br />
On 25 August 1986, the Everest North Face Research Expedition, which Holzel instigated, congregated at [[Everest base camps#North Base Camp in Tibet|North Base Camp]].{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=318–319}} The expedition aimed to resolve the enigma surrounding Mallory and Irvine's disappearance.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=318–319}} Their primary&nbsp;objective was to ascend to the {{convert|8230|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} snow terrace, where they intended&nbsp;to locate&nbsp;the remains of&nbsp;the "English dead"&nbsp;Hongbao had sighted during the 1975 Chinese expedition.<ref name="menfree-1986">{{cite web |url=https://numa.net/expeditions/mallory-and-irvine/ |title=Mallory & Irvine–The Search Continues |last=Holzel |first=Tom |date=11 February 1988 |website=numa.net |publisher=National Underwater and Marine Agency |location=Los Alamos, U.S. |access-date=6 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406171920/https://numa.net/expeditions/mallory-and-irvine/ |archive-date=6 April 2023}}</ref> They assumed that if found, the cameras&nbsp;both mountaineers&nbsp;may have carried would resolve the mystery of whether or not they had reached the summit.<ref name="menfree-1986"/> Their secondary objective was to search the area immediately above the Second Step, where they hoped to discover Mallory and Irvine's empty oxygen cylinders, proving they had reached that elevation and thus possibly the summit.<ref name="menfree-1986"/> They successfully established Camp V on the North Ridge at an elevation of {{convert|7772|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} but were hampered by [[Winter storm|snowstorms]] and avalanches, which prevented them from reaching {{convert|8382|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, where they had planned to establish Camp VI, from which they intended to search for Mallory and Irvine.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=321 & 325}}<ref name="artifacts-of-1922">{{cite news |last=Bell |first=George |date=12 October 1986 |title=Everest Team Finds Artifacts of '22 Expedition |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-10-12-vw-2829-story.html |url-status=live |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |location=El Segundo, California, U.S. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407173559/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-10-12-vw-2829-story.html |archive-date=7 April 2023 |access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="ups-and-downs">{{cite news |last=Harvard |first=Andrew |date=30 November 1986 |title=Look Back at Life on the Mountain: Chronicling Ups and Downs of 10 Weeks on Mt. Everest |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-11-30-vw-32-story.html |url-status=live |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |location=El Segundo, California, U.S. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407151859/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-11-30-vw-32-story.html |archive-date=7 April 2023 |access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref> Despite this, they discovered two oxygen cylinders from the 1922 expedition.<ref name="artifacts-of-1922"/><br />
<br />
During the expedition, their liaison officer, Zhiyi Song, also a member of the 1975 Chinese Everest expedition, on which Hongbao had seen "two deads", informed Holzel that he had heard about Hongbao's story and declared, "None of it is true. Wang never reported finding an English mountaineer".{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=324}} Holzel asked Song if it was conceivable Hongbao had discovered an English body and did not officially report it and only informed his friends.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=324}} Song knowledgeably replied, "If that is so", he knew who Hongbao's mountaineering partners were and Holzel could meet them on the return to [[Peking]].{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=324}} In [[Lhasa]], Tibet, Song introduced Holzel to Chen Tianliang, Hongboa's 1975 climbing leader.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=326}} Tianliang denied Hongbao had discovered an English body at {{convert|8100|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}} and asserted he would know because he had been with Hongbao the entire time they were at high altitudes.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=326}} Tianliang was positive that if Hongbao had come across mortal remains, it must have only been those of a [[Missing person|missing]] Chinese mountaineer whom Tianliang was assigned to search for and who was located a few days later.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=326}} As the interview continued, Tianliang agreed with Holzel that Hongbao could not have found the remains of the missing Chinese climber, because he would have identified and reported his find immediately.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=326}} Holzel asked Tianliang if there were anything he would like to add, and Tianliang declared that during a rest period at Camp VI,{{refn |On 24 April 2001, during the [[Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition#Subsequent expeditions|2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition]], expedition member Tap Richards discovered the 1975 Chinese Mount Everest expeditions' Camp VI on the [[North Face (Everest)|North Face]] at an elevation of {{convert|8170|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=89–90, 97, & 180}}|group=n|name=1975-chinese-camp-vi}} he received a radio call instructing him to ascend to Camp VII to search for the missing climber.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=326}} Tianliang ascended, leaving two climbers at Camp VI, Hongbao and Zhang Junyan.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=326}} Holzel asked Tianliang if he thought it possible Hongbao might have found an English body after he departed, and Tianliang conceded it was conceivable and added that Zhang Junyan now resided in Peking.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=326}} Song arranged a meeting with Junyan.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|pp=326–327}} Through his [[Language interpretation|interpreter]], Holzel questioned Junyan about what had occurred at Camp VI after Tianliang left.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=327}} Junyan stated he remained in his sleeping bag, and Hongbao exited the tent to go for a walk; he was gone for approximately 20 minutes, and later, Hongbao informed him that he had discovered the remains of a foreign mountaineer and Hongbao had mentioned this to other climbers.{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=327}}{{refn |On 5 May 1975, during the 1975 Chinese expedition, Chinese mountaineers Wang Hongbao and Zhang Junyan were resting in their tent at Camp VI on the North Face of Everest at an elevation of {{convert|8170|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=88 & 180}} That morning, Chen Tianliang and a Tibetan porter left Camp VI and ascended to Camp VII at {{convert|8570|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, between which they searched for a [[Missing person|missing]] Chinese climber Wu Zongyue who had disappeared on 4 May 1975.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=88 & 180}} At some point, after they departed from Camp VI to search for the lost climber on 5 May 1975, Hongbao exited his tent to go for a walk and found the body of a foreign mountaineer.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=88}}|group=n|name=Hongbao-twenty-minutes-walk}}<br />
<br />
===1999 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition ===<br />
{{main|Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition}}<br />
[[File:Kodak Vest Pocket BW 2015-02-21 14-45-57.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Vest Pocket Kodak]]<br />
The goal of the 1999 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition was to discover whether Mallory and Irvine had been the first to summit Everest. Objectives included finding Irvine’s body and retrieving a camera that might hold proof of any summit success.{{sfn|Beckwith|2000|p=375}}<ref name="mystery-of-mallory">{{cite news |author=|date=2 September 2021 |orig-date=18 January 2000 |title=The Mystery of George Mallory |url=https://www.courant.com/2000/01/18/the-mystery-of-george-mallory/ |url-status=live |work=[[Hartford Courant]] |location=Chicago, Illinois, U.S. |publisher=[[Tribune Publishing]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414181510/https://www.courant.com/2000/01/18/the-mystery-of-george-mallory/ |archive-date=14 April 2023 |access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Douglas |first=Ed |date=28 September 2007 |title=Did Mallory make it? Researcher believes he has the answer |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/sep/29/uknews4.mainsection |access-date=23 June 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news |last=Koul |first=Maharaj |date=8 August 1999 |title=Mallory may yet rewrite history |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)]] |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99aug08/sunday/head4.htm |access-date=23 June 2023 |archive-date=23 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623164715/https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99aug08/sunday/head4.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It was organised by expedition leader [[Eric Simonson (mountaineer)|Eric Simonson]] and advised by researcher Jochen Hemmleb, with mountaineers [[Conrad Anker]], [[Cinematographer|cameraman]] [[Dave Hahn]] and others.<ref name="1999-expedition">{{cite web |url=https://www.mountainzone.com/everest/99/north/disp5-8simo.html |title=Daily Dispatches Giving Thanks and Looking Ahead |last=Simonson |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Simonson (mountaineer)<br />
|date=8 May 1999 |website=MountainZone |publisher=Locality LLC |location=U.S. |access-date=13 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413161124/https://www.mountainzone.com/everest/99/north/disp5-8simo.html |archive-date=13 April 2023}}</ref><br />
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After he had re-examined the historical record of Everest North Face expeditions, Jochen Hemmleb recognised the only seemingly factual information about Mallory and Irvine—other than&nbsp;[[Artifact (archaeology)|artefacts]] such as the ice axe, found in 1933—was that&nbsp;during the 1975 Chinese Everest expedition, Wang Hongbao had discovered a body he had insisted was "English, English!" during a twenty-minute walk from Camp VI.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=111}} The initial challenge was to identify the location of Chinese Camp VI and use it as the centre point of a [[Circle|circular]] search zone with a twenty-minute walk [[radius]].{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=112}}{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=31}} From a photo of Camp VI, Hemmleb determined it was on an ill-defined rib of rock that bisects the snow terrace on the North Face.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=112}}<br />
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On 1 May 1999, at approximately 10am, Anker, Hahn, Norton, Politz, and Richards reached {{convert|8199|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}}, where they were to establish Camp VI.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=113–116 & 196–197}} From there, they set out for the "ill-defined rib" and traversed west over the North Face's precipitously angled terrain.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=116}}{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=31}} Anker searched on intuition and descended to the lower margin of the snow terrace, where it drops away approximately {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on|sigfig=1|order=flip}} to the head of the central [[Rongbuk Glacier]] and soon after zig-zagging back up in the direction of Camp VI, he looked west and saw a "patch of white," which he proceeded towards, and ascertained it was an old body; it was 11:45{{nbsp}}am, and {{convert|8156|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}} was the elevation where the corpse lay.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=119–197}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=180}}<ref name="patch-of-white">{{cite web |url=https://www.mountainzone.com/everest/99/north/disp5-3conrad.html |title=Daily Dispatches A Patch of White |last=Anker |first=Conrad |author-link=Conrad Anker |date=3 May 1999 |website=MountainZone |publisher=Locality LLC |location=U.S. |access-date=16 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416163449/https://www.mountainzone.com/everest/99/north/disp5-3conrad.html |archive-date=16 April 2023}}</ref> The body was partially frozen into the [[scree]] and well preserved due to the cold, dry air and constant freezing temperatures.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=120–122}}{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=34}}<ref name="mystery-unresolved">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=3 May 1999 |title=Mallory's Son Says Everest Mystery Still Unsolved |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1999-05-03-9905040145-story.html |url-status=live |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |location=Chicago, Illinois, U.S. |publisher=[[Tribune Publishing]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419034425/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1999-05-03-9905040145-story.html |archive-date=19 April 2021 |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref> Tied to the corpse's waist were the remnants of a braided cotton climbing rope, tangled around the body, from which its broken, frayed end trailed.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=125}}{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=21}}<br />
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The prevalent assumption was Irvine had fallen in 1924 from where, in 1933, [[Percy Wyn-Harris]] had discovered the ice axe, presumably Irvine's; therefore, Anker, Hahn, Norton, and Richards expected the body to be his, but Politz said, "This is not him."{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=118 & 121–123}}{{refn |The reason for Politz's [[scepticism]] regarding the body being Irvine's was its position; within his subconscious, his intuition had remembered that Wang Hongbao had discovered a [[Cadaver|corpse]] in a position with its mouth agape and one cheek pecked at by goraks, this body was lying [[Prone position|prone]].{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=121–123}}|group=n|name=mouth-agape}} Norton found a label reading, "G. Mallory."{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=108 & 122}} They discovered another label with "G. Leigh. Ma," and a third label.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=108 & 122}} The expedition members realised, to their astonishment, that they had not found Irvine as expected, but Mallory.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=122–123}}{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=34}} Because the corpse had frozen into the surrounding scree, the mountaineers used their ice axes and [[Pocketknife|pocketknives]] to excavate the site to find crucial artefacts and, most importantly, Somervell's [[Vest Pocket Kodak|Vest Pocket]] [[Kodak]] camera he "allegedly" lent Mallory for his attempt.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=123–125}}{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=34–35}} If they discovered the camera, it might have solved the mystery of whether or not the summit was reached for the first time in 1924, 30 years before the first confirmed summit in 1953.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=124}} Experts from Kodak said it might be possible to develop images from the film and have drawn up specific guidelines for an expedition that might discover the camera.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|p=124}}{{sfn|Holzel|Salkeld|1999|p=320}}<ref name="holzel-kodak">{{cite web |url=http://www.velocitypress.com/Mallory__Irvine.html |title=A127 Film: Care & Developing Suggestions (Letter from Kodak Laboratories to Tom Holzel, 9 May 1984) |last=Holzel |first=Tom |date=28 August 2010 |website=velocitypress.com |access-date=30 April 2023 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717192400/http://www.velocitypress.com/mallory_irvine.shtml#A127_Film |archive-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> Personal possessions were discovered on Mallory's body including letters{{refn |In an interview with the ''[[Sunday Mirror]]'' in 1999, Mallory's daughter, Frances Clare, expressed that her father climbed Mount Everest with a photograph of her mother, Ruth, and one of her letters in his jacket pocket and that Mallory told his wife, "before he set out," that if he ever attained the summit, he intended to leave a photograph of her there.<ref name="clare">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Tom Newton |author-link=Tom Newton Dunn |date=8 August 1999 |title=Is this picture the proof that George Mallory conquered Everest first |url=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Is+this+picture+the+proof+that+George+Mallory+conquered+Everest...-a060220322 |url-status=live |work=[[Sunday Mirror]] |location=London, U.K |publisher=MGN Ltd |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503181732/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Is+this+picture+the+proof+that+George+Mallory+conquered+Everest...-a060220322 |archive-date=3 May 2023 |access-date=3 May 2023}}</ref> Ruth had told Clare as a teenager about the story of the letter and photograph.<ref name="clare"/> Because of erroneous information that she received, she incorrectly stated in the interview that, discovered on 1 May 1999, was a letter from her mother on Mallory's body.<ref name="clare"/> There was no discovery of either a letter from Ruth or a picture of her found on Mallory's remains.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=270–272}}{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=125–129 & 161–163}}|group=n|name=letter-photograph}} addressed to him. To the expedition members' dismay the most sought-after object, the camera, was not found after a thorough search.{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=36}} The mountaineers buried Mallory, covering his remains with rocks, and Politz read a [[Church of England]] committal ceremony provided by the [[Bishop of Bristol]].{{sfn|Hemmleb|Johnson|Simonson|Nothdurft|1999|pp=123 & 128}}{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|p=37}}<br />
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[[File:Mount Everest, Altitudes Of Various Discoveries, The Three Steps, And Its Summit.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|North Face of Everest, altitudes of discoveries, the Three Steps, and its summit]]<br />
The discovery of the body revealed circumstantial evidence that suggests Mallory might have reached the summit: firstly, Mallory's daughter always said Mallory carried a photo of his wife with the intention of leaving it on the summit,<ref name = "Hellen">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/body-may-prove-who-was-first-up-everest-mfj8bdzlk8l|title=Body may prove who was first up Everest|first=Nicholas|last=Hellen|date=9 August 2024|website=www.thetimes.com}}</ref> and no such photo was found on the body. Given the excellent preservation of the body and personal possessions, the absence of the photo suggests he may have reached the summit and deposited it there. Secondly, Mallory's snow goggles were in his pocket, indicating he may have died at night; that he and Irvine had made a push for the summit and were descending very late in the day. Given their known departure time and movements, had they not made the summit, it is unlikely they would have still been out by nightfall.<br />
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[[Sir Edmund Hillary]] enthusiastically welcomed the discovery of Mallory's body and described it as "very appropriate" that Mallory might have summited decades earlier. "He was really the initial pioneer of the whole idea of climbing Mount Everest," Hillary said. Mallory's son John said, "To me the only way you achieve a summit is to come back alive; the job's half done if you don't get down again."<ref name="hobnail-boots">{{cite news |last=Gentleman |first=Amelia |author-link=Amelia Gentleman |date=4 May 1999 |title=Irvine and Mallory: In hobnail boots they took on Everest |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/may/04/ameliagentleman |url-status=live |work=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=Guardian News & Media |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812193434/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/may/04/ameliagentleman |archive-date=12 August 2022 |access-date=12 August 2022}}</ref><br />
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===Further expeditions===<br />
The 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition retraced Mallory and Irvine’s route and attempted to find artefacts from the early attempts.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|loc=Appendix II, 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition Statistics|p=195}}<ref name="2001-expedition">{{cite web |url=https://www.k2news.com/news01.htm |title=The 2001 Mallory & Irvine Research Expedition |website=K2News.com |location=Ohio, U.S. |access-date=28 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230428185500/https://www.k2news.com/news01.htm |archive-date=28 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="2001-m&i-re-homepage">{{cite web |url=https://www.mountainguides.com/everest2001/index_NoFlash.html |title=2001 Mallory & Irvine Research Expedition |website=mountainguides.com |publisher=International Mountain Guides, LLC |location=Ashford, Washington, U.S. |access-date=11 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420132623/https://www.mountainguides.com/everest2001/index_NoFlash.html |archive-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> Jake Norton and Brent Okita discovered the remnants of the 1924 Camp VI at an altitude of {{convert|8138|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, from which Mallory and Irvine had departed on 8 June.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=108–109, 111, 113, & 180}}<ref name="1924-camp-vi">{{cite web |last=Hemmleb |first=Jochen |url=https://www.mountainguides.com/everest2001/LiveFiles/dispatch60.html |title=2001 Mallory & Irvine Research Expedition: 1924 Camp 6 found! |website=mountainguides.com |date=29 April 2001 |publisher=International Mountain Guides, LLC |location=Ashford, Washington, U.S. |access-date=30 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910184858/https://www.mountainguides.com/everest2001/LiveFiles/dispatch60.html |archive-date=10 September 2022}}</ref> Norton discovered a woollen [[mitten]] of unknown origin on the Northeast Ridge at an altitude of {{convert|8440|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}; it may have belonged to Mallory or Irvine.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|pp=135–136 & 180}} There were research initiatives in 2004, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2018, 2019 and the [[2007 Altitude Everest expedition]] retraced Mallory and Irvine's footsteps.<ref name="the-final-chapter">{{cite web |url=https://www.everestnews2004.com/malloryandirvine2004/dispatches.htm |title=Mallory and Irvine The Final Chapter: Dispatches |website=EverestNews.com |location=Ohio, U.S. |access-date=10 September 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907172018/https://www.everestnews2004.com/malloryandirvine2004/dispatches.htm |archive-date=7 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="mallory-irvine-searches">{{cite web |last=Norton |first=Jake |url=https://jakenorton.com/mallory-irvine-everest-searches-1999-2019/ |title=Mallory & Irvine Everest Searches, 1999–2019 |website=jakenorton.com |date=April 2023 |access-date=30 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430184948/https://jakenorton.com/mallory-irvine-everest-searches-1999-2019/ |archive-date=30 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="anker-mallory-irvine">{{cite magazine |last=Roberts |first=David |author-link=David Roberts (climber) |date=8 December 2010 |title=Conrad Anker on Everest: In the Footsteps of Mallory & Irvine |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/everest-mallory-anker|url-status=dead |magazine=[[National Geographic]] |location=Washington, D.C., U.S. |publisher=NG Media |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818164330/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/everest-mallory-anker |archive-date=18 August 2022 |access-date=18 August 2022}}</ref><br />
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==Timeline==<br />
* 1893: Aged 7, climbed the roof of a church.<br />
* 1904: Aged 18, made his first significant climb by summiting Mont Blanc, the highest peak in Western Europe.<br />
* 1909: First ascent of the Southeast Ridge of Nesthorn (3,822 m).<br />
* 1911: First ascent of the Western Ridge of Herbétet (3,778 m) and third ascent of the Southeast Ridge (Frontier Ridge) of Mont Maudit (4,465 m).<br />
* 1912: Established a new route on the West Face of Dent Blanche, marking a first ascent of this face.<br />
* 1915{{ndash}}18: Officer in the First World War.<br />
* 1919: First ascent of a new route on the Aiguille des Grands Charmoz (3,445 m) and Aiguille du Midi (3,842 m), later named the "Rectified Mallory-Porter Route."<br />
* 1920: Summiting the Matterhorn (4,478 m) and Zinalrothorn (4,221 m).<br />
* 1921: First British reconnaissance expedition to Everest, helping to map out potential routes to the summit.<br />
* 1922: Second British expedition to Everest, where his team set a world altitude record of 27,300 feet (8,231 m)<ref name=MtWorld/> using supplemental oxygen.<br />
* 1924: Disappeared near the summit along with Andrew "Sandy" Irvine, leading to one of the greatest mysteries in mountaineering.<br />
* 1924{{ndash}}1950s: Speculation about whether Mallory and Irvine reached the summit, adding to the mystery surrounding their disappearance.<br />
* 1953: [[Edmund Hillary]] and [[Tenzing Norgay]] became the first climbers confirmed to have reached the summit of Everest, renewing interest in Mallory and Irvine.<br />
* 1975: A Chinese climber reported finding the body of an "old English dead" climber on the north face of Everest, likely either Mallory or Irvine.<br />
* 1986: Climbers Conrad Anker and David Roberts examined the route Mallory might have taken and considered the possibility of successful ascent.<br />
* 1999: Publication of ''Ghosts of Everest: The Search for Mallory & Irvine'' brought renewed attention to the mystery of Mallory and Irvine.<br />
* 1999: Mallory's mortal remains and personal effects were discovered, but whether he had reached the summit remains unknown.<br />
* 2007: Conrad Anker, who had helped discover Mallory's body, completed a replica climb of Everest using period gear similar to what Mallory would have used.<br />
* 2010: The film ''The Wildest Dream'' highlighted both his life and modern efforts to uncover the truth.<br />
* 2024: A ''National Geographic'' team found Irvine's partial remains on the Central Rongbuk Glacier at an altitude at least 7,000 feet lower than where Mallory's body was discovered.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sigsworth |first=Timothy |date=11 October 2024 |title=Discovery of climber’s boot could solve mystery of who conquered Everest first |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/discovery-of-climber-s-boot-could-solve-mystery-of-who-conquered-everest-first/ar-AA1s5piS?ocid=msedgdhp&pc=U531&cvid=c5ce7cde7a514b93a3e73f5a57d87183&ei=25 |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref name="National Geographic">{{cite web |date=11 October 2024 |title=Exclusive: Remains of Andrew 'Sandy' Irvine believed to have been found on Everest |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/sandy-irvine-body-found-everest |access-date=12 October 2024 |publisher=[[National Geographic]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wong |first=Tessa |date=11 October 2024 |title=Family tells of 'relief' after 1924 climber's foot found on Everest |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cy0g2p47xd5o |access-date=11 October 2024 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=11 October 2024 |title=Remains of Everest explorer Andrew 'Sandy' Irvine found 100 years after disappearance |url=https://www.itv.com/news/2024-10-11/remains-of-british-explorer-found-on-mount-everest-100-years-after-disappearance |access-date=11 October 2024 |work=[[ITV News]]}}</ref><br />
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==Theories==<br />
[[File:George Mallory (midden, met cirkel rond het hoofd) en andere leden van de Engelse expeditie die in, SFA022800267.jpg|thumb|Some members of the 1924 expedition: Mallory is highlighted beside [[Edward F. Norton]] to his left and [[Geoffrey Bruce]] far right, in the town of [[Shelkar]]. The local [[Dzongpen]] (governor) is second from right.]]<br />
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==="Second Step"===<br />
As Mallory and Irvine used the Northeast Ridge route, they would have had to [[Free climbing|free-climb]] the formidable [[Three Steps|Second Step]].{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=123}} Of the Three Steps on the upper Northeast Ridge, the Second and most prominent, rising approximately {{convert|100|ft|m|abbr=on}} and consisting of precipitous, brittle rock at an extreme [[Effects of high altitude on humans|altitude]] of {{convert|8610|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}, is the most demanding.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=123}} The final upper section of this step is its [[Crux (climbing)|crux]], a {{convert|4.87|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} nearly vertical headwall slab to which the 1975 Chinese expedition affixed a {{convert|4.6|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} aluminium ladder.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=123}}{{sfn|Breashears|Salkeld|1999|p=207}}<ref name="chinese-ladder-1975">{{cite web |url=http://english.cri.cn/2886/2008/05/28/1042@362958.htm |title=Chinese Ladder Retires |website=crienglish.com |publisher=[[China Radio International]] |date=28 May 2008 |location=Beijing, China |access-date=5 May 2023 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191123042026/http://english.cri.cn/2886/2008/05/28/1042@362958.htm |archive-date=23 November 2019}}</ref> Although disputed, the first successful ascent of the Second Step occurred during the [[1960 Chinese Mount Everest expedition]], as all four mountaineers were breathing supplemental oxygen.{{sfn|Keenlyside|1961|p=33}} They used a technique called "short ladder" in which Chu Yin-hau stood on [[Liu Lianman]]'s shoulders to climb to the top of the crux.{{sfn|Keenlyside|1961|p=33}} Chu Yin-hau then [[Belaying|belayed]] himself to a rock at the top of the Step and brought others up on the rope.{{sfn|Salkeld|2003|p=59}}{{sfn|Keenlyside|1961|p=33}} It took 3 hours for 4 mountaineers to ascend the crux, and they used [[piton]]s, which neither Mallory nor Irvine had.{{sfn|Hemmleb|Simonson|2002|p=123}}{{sfn|Keenlyside|1961|p=33}}<br />
<br />
In 1985, during full-monsoon conditions and without supplementary oxygen, [[Òscar Cadiach]], climbing on lead, achieved the first successful free-climb of the Second Step, ascending the crux on belay with a sling tied to one of the rungs of the Chinese ladder. He graded the vertical crack, that forms the crux, at about 5.8.<ref name="mallory-irvine-?">{{cite web |last=Hemmleb |first=Jochen |url=https://www.jochenhemmleb.com/english/mundi/index.php |title=What happened to Mallory & Irvine? A Synopsis |website=jochenhemmleb.com |access-date=25 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326180829/https://www.jochenhemmleb.com/english/mundi/index.php |archive-date=26 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="oscar-cadiach-1985">{{cite web |url=http://www.mounteverest.net/news.php?id=16065 |title=Free-climbing Everest's Second Step update: Before Fritsche was Òscar Cadiach – the other "Mallory |date=7 June 2007 |website=MountEverest.net |publisher=ExplorersWeb |location=Manhattan, New York City, U.S. |access-date=5 May 2023 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825025841/http://www.mounteverest.net:80/news.php?id=16065 |archive-date=25 August 2009}}</ref><ref name="oscar-cadiach-sge">{{cite web |url=https://sge.org/exploraciones-y-expediciones/galeria-de-exploradores/exploradores-del-s-xx/luces-y-sombras-del-everest/ |title=Luces y sombras del Everest |last=Cadiach |first=Òscar |author-link=Òscar Cadiach |website=sge.org |date=6 April 2016 |publisher=Sociedad Geográfica Española |location=Madrid, Spain |language=Spanish |trans-title=Everest lights and shadows |access-date=5 May 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505175740/https://sge.org/exploraciones-y-expediciones/galeria-de-exploradores/exploradores-del-s-xx/luces-y-sombras-del-everest/ |archive-date=5 May 2023}}</ref> In 2001, Theo Fritsche [[Free soloing|free-solo]]ed the crux without supplementary oxygen, and assessed it as about 5.7.{{sfn|Hemmleb|2006|pp=468–469}}<ref name="theo-fritsche-2001">{{cite web |url=http://www.mounteverest.net/news.php?id=16061 |title=ExWeb Special: Anker's Everest team free-climbing the Second Step in the footprints of Mallory&nbsp;... Oscar Cadiach and Theo Fritsche |date=7 June 2007 |website=MountEverest.net |publisher=ExplorersWeb |location=Manhattan, New York City, U.S. |access-date=7 May 2023 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019002200/http://www.mounteverest.net/news.php?id=16061 |archive-date=19 October 2007}}</ref> In 2003, Nickolay Totmjanin free-climbed it without supplementary oxygen.<ref name="mallory-irvine-?"/><ref name="nickolay-totmjanin-2003">{{cite web |url=http://www.mounteverest.net/news.php?id=16131 |title=K2 West face climber Nickolay Totmjanin: "I free climbed the Everest second step to avoid the crowd |date=22 June 2007 |website=MountEverest.net |publisher=ExplorersWeb |location=Manhattan, New York City, U.S. |access-date=5 May 2023 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825025038/http://www.mounteverest.net:80/news.php?id=16131 |archive-date=25 August 2009}}</ref> On the 2007 Altitude expedition, Anker and [[Leo Houlding]] successfully free-climbed the crux headwall, having first removed the ladder, both rating it about 5.9.<ref name="mallory-irvine-?"/> Everyone known to have free-climbed this step believes it was within Mallory and Irvine's capability,<ref name="anker-mallory-irvine"/><ref name="cold-feet">{{cite news |last=Sharma |first=Gopal |date=14 June 2007 |title=Climbers staging Mallory Everest bid get cold feet |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSDEL28082020070614 |url-status=live |work=[[Reuters]] |publisher=[[Thomson Reuters]] |location=Toronto, Ontario, Canada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814163255/https://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSDEL28082020070614 |archive-date=14 August 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> but other question marks remain, e.g. concerning oxygen.<ref name="mallory-irvine-?"/><br />
<br />
===Western disturbance===<br />
Research published in 2010 indicates an extreme storm may have contributed to the [[List of people who died climbing Mount Everest#Deaths|deaths]] of Mallory and Irvine.<ref name="storm-mallory-irvine">{{cite news |last=Mustain |first=Andrea |date=10 August 2010 |title=Mysterious 1924 Everest deaths linked to storm |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna38639968 |url-status=dead |work=[[NBCNews.com|NBC News]] |publisher=[[NBCUniversal|NBCUniversal Media, LLC]] |location=New York City, U.S. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910151453/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna38639968 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |access-date=10 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="pioneers-storm">{{cite news |last=Rincon |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Rincon |date=3 August 2010 |title=Everest pioneers 'hit by storm' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-10854272 |url-status=live |work=[[BBC News Online]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912170822/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-10854272 |archive-date=12 September 2022 |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="deaths-explained">{{cite news |last=Squires |first=Nick |date=4 August 2010 |title=Mallory and Irvine's Everest death explained |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/nepal/7925594/Mallory-and-Irvines-Everest-death-explained.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group|Telegraph Media Group Limited]] |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220917140012/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/nepal/7925594/Mallory-and-Irvines-Everest-death-explained.html |archive-date=17 September 2022 |access-date=17 September 2022}}</ref> Physicist George Moore discovered [[meteorological]] data from the 1924 expedition at the Royal Geographical Society's library in London.<ref name="storm-mallory-irvine"/><ref name="pioneers-storm"/><ref name="deaths-explained"/> The data consisted of daily [[barometric pressure]] and temperature measurements recorded at Base Camp at {{convert|5029|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=215}} Temperature measurements were also recorded at higher camps.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=216}} The data collected, together with an analysed [[Sea level|sea-level]] [[Weather map|pressure map]] hand-drawn by the [[India Meteorological Department]], were used to show that Mallory and Irvine's summit attempt occurred when there was a drop in barometric pressure and temperature, which was likely the result of the passage of an upper-level [[Trough (meteorology)|trough]].{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=215}}{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=217}} This is known locally as a [[western disturbance]].{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=215}} The authors hypothesised that the passage of the disturbance possibly triggered an outbreak of [[Atmospheric convection|convective]] activity that resulted in the blizzard, witnessed by observation, engulfing Everest during the attempt.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=215}} Odell described the morning of 8 June as "clear and not unduly cold",{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=128}} with snowfall and increasing winds beginning at approximately 2&nbsp;pm,{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=131}} which he described as a "rather severe blizzard,"{{sfn|Odell|1924|p=458}} lasting about two hours and possibly severe enough to force Mallory and Irvine to abandon their bid.{{sfn|Norton|1925|p=132}}{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=217}} Records show a drop in barometric pressure at Base Camp of 18 [[Bar (unit)|millibars]] during the attempt.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=217}} A drop of a similar magnitude possibly occurred at higher altitudes on the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] peak.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=217}} This decrease in barometric pressure likely induced aggravation of their [[Generalized hypoxia|hypoxic]] state.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=218}} Also, if they had run out of supplemental oxygen during the early afternoon, this would have exacerbated their hypoxic condition.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=218}} The cumulative effects of hypoxia, fatigue and bitter cold during a severe blizzard would have left Mallory and Irvine at their limits of endurance.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=218}} The authors believe there is persuasive evidence the severe weather they experienced may have been more extreme than previously thought.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=218}} This harsh weather and decreased barometric pressure may have contributed to their demise.{{sfn|Moore|Semple|Sikka|2010|p=218}}<br />
<br />
==Legacy==<br />
[[File:Magdalene Cambridge Mallory Court.jpg|thumb|Mallory Court at [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]], his college]]<br />
[[File:Memorial to George Leigh Mallory and Andrew Comyn Irvine in Chester Cathedral.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|Memorial to George Mallory and [[Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)|Andrew Irvine]] in [[Chester Cathedral]]]]<br />
<br />
At [[Winchester College]] there is a memorial to him in the [[cloister]] adjacent to the college chapel.<ref name="winchester-memorial">{{cite news |last=Foster |first=Richard |date=2 March 2021 |title=The Great British Art Tour: mystery of an old boy with a head for heights |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/mar/02/the-great-british-art-tour-winchester-memorial-to-george-herbert-leigh-mallory-reginald-gleadowe#comments |url-status=live |work=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=Guardian News & Media |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215161451/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/mar/02/the-great-british-art-tour-winchester-memorial-to-george-herbert-leigh-mallory-reginald-gleadowe |archive-date=15 December 2022 |access-date=15 December 2022}}</ref> Mallory was honoured by having a court named after him at Magdalene College,{{sfn|Rushton|2017–2018|pp=60–61}} with an inscribed stone commemorating his death set above the doorway to one of the buildings.{{sfn|Robertson|1999|p=252}}<ref name="mallory-court">{{cite web |url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/cambs/vol3/pp450-456 |title=The colleges and halls: Magdalene," in A History of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely: Volume 3, the City and University of Cambridge |editor-last=Roach |editor-first=John Peter Charles |editor-link=J.P.C. Roach |year=1959 |website=[[British History Online]] |publisher=[[Victoria County History]] |location=London, UK |pages=450–456 |access-date=10 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210195216/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/cambs/vol3/pp450-456 |archive-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> To commemorate Mallory's position as Magdalene Boat Club Captain, the Friends of Magdalene Boat Club changed their name to the Mallory Club.{{sfn|Rushton|2017–2018|p=34}} A plaque commemorates him in the South African Cloisters at [[Charterhouse School|Charterhouse]].{{sfn|Rushton|2017–2018|p=61}}<ref name="charterhouse-memorial">{{cite web |last=Bogdan |first=Robert<br />
|url=https://resources.finalsite.net/images/v1585835933/charterhouseorguk/mvjsrtwdlhpwvowpjwoo/Heritage_Tour.pdf |title=Charterhouse The Heritage Tour |website=resources.finalsite.net |date=2011 |access-date=15 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215153314/https://resources.finalsite.net/images/v1585835933/charterhouseorguk/mvjsrtwdlhpwvowpjwoo/Heritage_Tour.pdf |archive-date=15 December 2022}}</ref> A [[Stained glass|stained-glass]] [[triptych]] window at [[St Wilfrid's Church, Mobberley|St Wilfrid's Church]], Mobberley, Cheshire, portraying three figures from [[English mythology]], [[Saint George]], [[King Arthur]] and [[Galahad|Sir Galahad]], also has two panels with inscriptions commemorating Mallory.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|p=21}}<ref name="craig-thornber">{{cite web |last=Thornber |first=Craig |url=https://www.thornber.net/cheshire/htmlfiles/mobberley.html |title=Mobberley |website=thornber.net<br />
|location=Cheshire, UK |access-date=14 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214155437/https://www.thornber.net/cheshire/htmlfiles/mobberley.html |archive-date=14 December 2022}}</ref> In addition to his father, Herbert Leigh Mallory, the [[Rector (ecclesiastical)|rector]] of Mobberley, Mallory's grandfather, George Leigh Mallory, was the parish's rector.{{sfn|Gillman|Gillman|2000|pp=22–25}} In the cloisters of [[Chester Cathedral]], there is a memorial window commemorating Mallory and Irvine.{{sfn|Summers|2001|pp=260–261}} Two high peaks in California's [[Sierra Nevada]], [[Mount Mallory]] and [[Mount Irvine (California)|Mount Irvine]], are named after them.<ref name="gnis-mallory">{{cite gnis |id=263134 |name=Mount Mallory |date=19 January 1981 |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="gnis-irvine">{{cite gnis |id=261821 |name=Mount Irvine |date=19 January 1981 |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Air Chf Mshl Leigh-Mallory.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory]]<br />
Tragedy in the mountains has proved a recurring theme in the Mallory line; his brother, [[Air Chief Marshal]] Sir [[Trafford Leigh-Mallory]], met his death on a mountain range when the [[Avro York]] carrying him crashed in the [[French Alps]] in 1944, killing all on board.<ref name="raf-bio">{{cite web |url=https://www.rafweb.org/Biographies/Leigh-Mallory.htm |title=Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory |website=rafweb.org |access-date=13 August 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813171104/https://www.rafweb.org/Biographies/Leigh-Mallory.htm |archive-date=13 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="avro-york">{{cite web |url=https://www.baaa-acro.com/crash/crash-avro-685-york-le-rivier-dallemont-10-killed |title=CRASH OF AN AVRO 685 YORK IN LE RIVIER D'ALLEMONT: 10 KILLED |website=baaa-acro.com |publisher=[[Aviation accidents and incidents#Bureau of Aircraft Accidents Archives (B3A)|The Bureau of Aircraft Accidents Archives (B3A)]] |location=Geneva, Switzerland |access-date=13 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913152943/https://www.baaa-acro.com/crash/crash-avro-685-york-le-rivier-dallemont-10-killed |archive-date=13 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="wartime-hero">{{cite news |last=Randall |first=Colin |date=18 October 2004 |title=Forgotten wartime hero is quietly honoured |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1474458/Forgotten-wartime-hero-is-quietly-honoured.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group|Telegraph Media Group Limited]] |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913193530/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1474458/Forgotten-wartime-hero-is-quietly-honoured.html |archive-date=13 September 2022 |access-date=13 September 2022}}</ref> Mallory's daughter, Frances Clare, married physiologist [[Glenn Allan Millikan]], who was killed in a climbing accident in 1947 at Buzzard's Roost in [[Fall Creek Falls State Park]], Tennessee.{{sfn|Beckey|1948|p=100}}<ref name="milestones">{{cite magazine |date=9 June 1947 |title=Milestones, Jun. 9, 1947 |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,779096,00.html |url-status=live |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]] |location=New York City, U.S. |publisher=TIME USA, LLC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902173430/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0%2C33009%2C779096%2C00.html |archive-date=2 September 2022 |access-date=2 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="clare"/><br />
<br />
Frances Mallory's sons, Richard and George Millikan, became respected climbers in the 1960s and 70s.{{sfn|Anker|Roberts|1999|pp=12–15}} In July 1963, Richard Millikan and other members of the Harvard Mountaineering Club, made the first ascent of the central rib of the Wickersham Wall on the north face of [[Denali]], reaching North Peak at {{convert|5934|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Abrons|1964|pp=47–51}} In 1995, together with six other climbers, George Mallory, grandson of Mallory, reached the summit of Everest via the [[North Col]]-North Ridge-Northeast Ridge route as part of an American Everest expedition and evoked a sense of "unfinished business"&nbsp;by leaving a photo of his grandparents on&nbsp;the summit.{{sfn|Vajpai|Kumar|2010|p=110}}<ref name="clare"/><ref name="mallory-summit-1995">{{cite web |url=https://www.everesthistory.com/everestsummits/summits95.htm |title=Everest Summits 1995 |website=EverestHistory.com |location=Ohio, U.S. |access-date=7 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615054028/https://www.everesthistory.com/everestsummits/summits95.htm |archive-date=15 June 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
Mallory was filmed by expedition cameraman [[John Baptist Lucius Noel|John Noel]], who released his film of the 1924 expedition, ''[[The Epic of Everest]]''.<ref name="epic-of-everest">{{cite news |last=Hutchinson |first=Pamela |date=17 October 2013 |title=The Epic of Everest – London film festival review |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2013/oct/17/epic-of-everest-london-film-festival-review |url-status=live |work=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=Guardian News & Media |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816165527/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2013/oct/17/epic-of-everest-london-film-festival-review |archive-date=16 August 2022 |access-date=16 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="silent-film">{{cite web |last=Goldberg |first=Max |url=https://silentfilm.org/the-epic-of-everest/ |title=The Epic of Everest |website=silentfilm.org |date=2014 |publisher=[[San Francisco Silent Film Festival]] |location=San Francisco, California, U.S. |access-date=14 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816171018/https://silentfilm.org/the-epic-of-everest/ |archive-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> Film director [[George Lowe (mountaineer)|George Lowe]] used footage from ''The Epic of Everest'' in the 1953 documentary, ''[[The Conquest of Everest]]''.<ref name="conquest-of-everest">{{cite AV media |people=[[George Lowe (mountaineer)|Lowe, George]] (director) |date=1953 |title=The Conquest of Everest |type=Motion picture |language=English |via=[[Internet Archive]] |url=https://archive.org/details/theconquestofeverest/theconquestofeverestreel1.mov |access-date=13 September 2022 |publisher=Countryman Films & [[Group 3 Films]]}}</ref> A documentary on the 2001 [[Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition]], ''Found On Everest: Detectives on the Roof of the World'', was produced by Riley Morton.<ref name="q&a-riley-morton">{{cite web |url=https://www.k2news.com/qarm.htm |title=Q&A with Riley Morton Producer of Found On Everest: Detectives on the Roof of the World |website=k2news.com |publisher=EverestNews.com |location=Ohio, U.S. |access-date=13 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220913163436/https://www.k2news.com/qarm.htm |archive-date=13 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rileymorton.com/Site/documentary.html |title=A clip from ''Found on Everest'' on Riley Morton's web site which includes a shot of George Mallory |publisher=Rileymorton.com |access-date=3 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914004236/http://www.rileymorton.com/Site/documentary.html |archive-date=14 September 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Brian Blessed]] played Mallory in ''Galahad of Everest'', a 1991 re-creation of his last climb.<ref name="galahad-of-everest">{{cite news |last=Blessed |first=Brian |date=3 May 1997 |title=The biggest avalanche in Everest history just missed my feet |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/the-biggest-avalanche-in-everest-history-just-missed-my-feet-1259551.html |url-status=live |work=[[The Independent]] |publisher=Independent Digital News & Media Limited |location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909235615/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/the-biggest-avalanche-in-everest-history-just-missed-my-feet-1259551.html |archive-date=9 September 2022 |access-date=10 September 2022}}</ref> In Anthony Geffen's 2010 documentary about Mallory's life and final expedition, ''[[The Wildest Dream]]'', [[Conrad Anker]] and [[Leo Houlding]] attempt to reconstruct the climb, dressed and equipped like Mallory and Irvine.<ref name="anker-mallory-irvine"/><ref name="wildest-dream-review">{{cite magazine |last=Honeycutt |first=Kirk |date=14 October 2010 |title=The Wildest Dream — Film Review |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/wildest-dream-film-review-29095/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |location=California, U.S. |publisher=[[Penske Media Corporation#2017 to present; Robb Report, Rolling Stone, and MRC venture|PMRC Holdings, LLC]] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220911170238/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/wildest-dream-film-review-29095/ |archive-date=11 September 2022 |access-date=11 September 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
Mallory and Irvine inspired [[Baku Yumemakura]] to author the 1998 novel ''The Summit of the Gods,'' which in turn inspired a [[manga]] series published from 2000–03, which was adapted into an [[anime-influenced animation]] film, ''[[The Summit of the Gods (film)|Le Sommet des Dieux]]'', in 2021. ''Everest'', a proposed Hollywood version of the 1924 attempt, adapted from [[Jeffrey Archer]]'s novel [[Paths of Glory (Archer novel)|''Paths of Glory'']], to be directed by [[Doug Liman]], had [[Ewan McGregor]] slated to play Mallory.<ref name="doug-liman">{{cite magazine |last=Fear |first=David |date=6 June 2014 |title=No 'Tomorrow': Doug Liman on the Blockbuster That Almost Broke Him |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv-movies/tv-movie-news/no-tomorrow-doug-liman-on-the-blockbuster-that-almost-broke-him-62193/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Rolling Stone]] |location=Los Angeles, California |publisher=[[Penske Media Corporation]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814185655/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv-movies/tv-movie-news/no-tomorrow-doug-liman-on-the-blockbuster-that-almost-broke-him-62193/ |archive-date=14 August 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="everest-ewan-mcgregor">{{cite magazine |last=Showbiz |first=Bang |date=17 June 2021 |title=Ewan McGregor, Sam Heughan and Mark Strong to star in Everest |url=https://www.contactmusic.com/ewan-mcgregor/news/ewan-mcgregor-sam-heughan-and-mark-strong-to-star-in-everest_6333091 |url-status=live |magazine=[[Contactmusic.com|Contactmusic]] |location=Leeds, UK |publisher=Contactmusic.com Ltd |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905234242/https://www.contactmusic.com/ewan-mcgregor/news/ewan-mcgregor-sam-heughan-and-mark-strong-to-star-in-everest_6333091 |archive-date=5 September 2022 |access-date=6 September 2022}}</ref> {{As of|2022}} it was not in production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/entertainment/celebrity/outlanders-sam-heughan-claims-everest-26301087|title=Outlander's Sam Heughan claims Everest film with Ewan McGregor 'not happening'|first=Bev|last=Lyons|date=22 February 2022|website=Daily Record}}</ref><br />
<br />
In September 2009, a temporary exhibition detailing Mallory and Irvine's lives opened at the Salt Museum (now [[Weaver Hall Museum and Workhouse]]), [[Northwich]].<ref name="m&i-exhibition">{{cite news |last=Wilson |first=James |date=28 September 2009 |title=Exhibition tells the story of two Everest explorers |url=https://www.northwichguardian.co.uk/news/4644173.exhibition-tells-the-story-of-two-everest-explorers/ |url-status=live |work=Northwich & Winsford Guardian |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Newsquest|Newsquest Media Group]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511155510/https://www.northwichguardian.co.uk/news/4644173.exhibition-tells-the-story-of-two-everest-explorers/ |archive-date=11 May 2023 |access-date=11 May 2023}}</ref> The exhibition, "Above the Clouds – Mallory and Irvine and the Quest for Everest," featured items discovered on Mallory's body, as well as artefacts and photos from the 1924 expedition.<ref name="m&i-exhibition"/>{{sfn|Summers|2001|p=15}}<br />
<br />
Mallory was referenced by President [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1962, in his "[[We choose to go to the Moon]]" speech, regarded as one of the great speeches of the 20th century: 'the great British explorer George Mallory, who was to die on Mount Everest, was asked why did he want to climb it. He said, "Because it is there." Well, space is there, and we're going to climb it...'<ref name="jfk-speech-1962">{{cite web |url=https://www.markpack.org.uk/57978/to-the-moon-powered-by-oratory/ |title=One of the greatest political speeches, mixing the visionary and the pragmatic |last=Pack |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Pack |date=24 April 2020 |publisher=Mark Pack |location=London, UK |access-date=10 May 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510191736/https://www.markpack.org.uk/57978/to-the-moon-powered-by-oratory/ |archive-date=10 May 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of people who died climbing Mount Everest]]<br />
* [[List of solved missing person cases: pre-1950]]<br />
* [[List of unsolved deaths]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{Reflist|30em|group=n}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|21em}}<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
====Books====<br />
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Anker |first1=Conrad |last2=Roberts |first2=David |author-link1=Conrad Anker |author-link2=David Roberts (climber) |title=The Lost Explorer: Finding Mallory on Mount Everest<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/lostexplorer00conr |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |location=New York City, U.S. |isbn=978-0-684-87151-6}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Birkett |first=Thomas William |author-link=Bill Birkett |title=Classic Rock Climbs in the Lake District |url=https://archive.org/details/classicrockclimb0000birk |url-access=registration |year=1989 |publisher=[[Oxford Illustrated Press]] |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-946609-56-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Birkett |first1=Thomas William |author-link1=Bill Birkett |last2=Cram |first2=Geoff |last3=Eilbeck |first3=Chris |last4=Roper |first4=Ian |year=1987 |title=Rock Climbing in the Lake District: An Illustrated Guide to Selected Climbs in the Lake District |url=https://archive.org/details/rockclimbinginla0000unse |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |location=London, UK |publisher=Constable |isbn=978-0-09-467640-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Breashears |first1=David |author-link1=David Breashears |last2=Salkeld |first2=Audrey |editor-last=Mulroy |editor-first= Kevin |others=Foreword by John Mallory (George Mallory's son) |year=1999 |title=Last Climb: The Legendary Everest Expeditions of George Mallory |url=https://archive.org/details/lastclimb00davi |url-access=registration |location=Washington D.C., U.S. |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |isbn=978-0-7922-7538-1}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Bruce |first=Charles Granville |author-link=Charles Granville Bruce |others=Introduction by [[Francis Younghusband|Sir Francis Younghusband]]; Contributions from G.H. Leigh-Mallory, [[George Finch (chemist)|G.I. Finch]], [[Howard Somervell|T.H. Somervell]], and [[Tom Longstaff|T. G. Longstaff]] |title=The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922 |url=https://archive.org/details/assaultonmountev00bruc |year=1923 |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |location=New York City, U.S.}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Theodore Andrea |author-link=Theodore Andrea Cook |title=Henley Races: With Details of Regattas from 1903 to 1914 Inclusive and a Complete Index of Competitors and Crews Since 1839<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/cookth0001henrac |year=1919 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]; [[Humphrey Milford]] |location=Oxford, UK}}<br />
* {{cite book |editor-last=Cram |editor-first=Alan Geoffrey |year=1986 |title=100 Years of Rock Climbing in the Lake District |url=https://archive.org/details/100yearsofrockcl0000unse |url-access=registration |volume=24 (2) No. 70 |location=UK |publisher=[[Fell & Rock Climbing Club|The Fell And Rock Climbing Club of the English Lake District]] |isbn=978-0-85028-023-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Crocket |first=Ken |year=1986 |title=Ben Nevis: Britain's Highest Mountain |url=https://archive.org/details/bennevisbritains0000croc |url-access=registration |location=Edinburgh, UK |publisher=Scottish Mountaineering Trust |isbn=978-0-907521-16-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Davis |first=Wade |author-link=Wade Davis (anthropologist) |title=Into the Silence: The Great War, Mallory, and the Conquest of Everest |url=https://archive.org/details/intosilencegreat0000davi |url-access=registration |year=2011 |publisher=[[The Bodley Head]] |location=London, UK |isbn=978-1-847-92184-0}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Murray |first=William Hutchison |author-link=W. H. Murray |others=Illustrated by Robert Anderson |year=1953 |title=The Story of Everest |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofeverest0000unse |url-access=registration |location=New York City, U.S. |publisher=[[E. P. Dutton|E.P Dutton & Co. Inc.]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Edmonds |first1=J.E. (Compiled by) |last2=Maxwell-Hyslop |first2=R. (Compiled by) |last3=Davies |first3=H.R. (Compiled by) |author-link1=James Edward Edmonds |author-link3=Henry Rodolph Davies |title=Military Operations France and Belgium, 1918. Volume V: 26th September – 11th November The Advance to Victory |series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |url=https://archive.org/details/mil-op-fb-1918-v5 |url-access=registration |year=1947 |publisher=[[Office of Public Sector Information|His Majesty's Stationery Office]] |location=UK}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Firstbrook |first=Peter |title=Lost on Everest: The Search for Mallory & Irvine |url=https://archive.org/details/lostoneverestsea0000firs |url-access=registration |year=2000 |publisher=ISIS Publishing Limited |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-7531-5480-9}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Foch |first=Ferdinand |author-link=Ferdinand Foch |translator-last=Mott |translator-first=Colonel Thomas Bentley |title=The Memoirs of Marshal Foch |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66355 |url-access=registration |year=1931 |publisher=[[Heinemann (publisher)|William Heinemann Ltd]] |location=London, UK}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Gillman |first1=Peter |last2=Gillman |first2=Leni |author-link1=Peter Gillman |title=The Wildest Dream: The Biography of George Mallory |edition=1st North American<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/wildestdream00pete |url-access=registration |year=2000 |publisher=[[The Mountaineers (club)#Mountaineers Books|The Mountaineers Books]] |location=Seattle, Washington, U.S. |isbn=978-0-89886-741-1}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Graves |others=Introduction by [[Paul Fussell]] |title=Good-Bye to All That: An Autobiography |edition=New Revised<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/goodbyetoallthat0000grav |url-access=registration |year=1998 |publisher=Anchor Books |location=New York City, U.S |isbn=978-0-385-09330-9}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Dudley |others=Foreword by John Mallory (George Mallory's son) |title=Because It's There: The Life of George Mallory |url=https://archive.org/details/becauseitstherel0000gree |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=Tempus Publishing Limited |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK |isbn=978-0-7524-3399-8}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hankinson |first=Alan |year=1977 |title=The Mountain Men: An Early History of Rock Climbing in North Wales |url=https://archive.org/details/mountainmenearly0000hank |url-access=registration |location=London, UK |publisher=Heinemann Educational Books Limited |isbn=978-0-435-86002-8}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Hemmleb |first1=Jochen |last2=Johnson |first2=Larry |last3=Simonson |first3=Eric |author-link3=Eric Simonson (mountaineer) |last4=Nothdurft |first4=William E. |editor-last=Fulsaas |editor-first=Kris |others=Foreword by Clare Millikan (George Mallory's daughter) |year=1999 |title=Ghosts of Everest: The Search for Mallory & Irvine |url=https://archive.org/details/ghostsofeverests0000hemm |url-access=registration |edition=1st |location=Seattle, Washington, U.S. |publisher=[[The Mountaineers (club)#Mountaineers Books|The Mountaineers Books]] |isbn=978-0-89886-699-5}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Hemmleb |first1=Jochen |last2=Simonson |first2=Eric |author-link2=Eric Simonson (mountaineer)|editor-last=Graydon |editor-first=Don |others=Contributions from [[Dave Hahn]], Larry Johnson, Riley Morton, Jake Norton, Brent Okita, Andy Politz, John Race, Tap Richards, and Jason Tanguay |title=Detectives on Everest: The 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/detectivesonever0000hemm |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=[[The Mountaineers (club)#Mountaineers Books|The Mountaineers Books]] |location=Seattle, Washington, U.S. |isbn=978-0-89886-913-2}} <br />
* {{cite book |last=Holroyd |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Holroyd |title=Lytton Strachey: The New Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/lyttonstracheyne00holr |url-access=registration |year=1995 |publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |location=New York City, U.S |isbn=978-0-374-52465-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Holzel |first1=Tom |last2=Salkeld |first2=Audrey |others=Foreword by [[Eric Simonson (mountaineer)|Eric Simonson]] |title=The Mystery of Mallory and Irvine |edition=2nd Revised |url=https://archive.org/details/mysteryofmallory0000holz |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=Pimlico |location=London, UK |isbn= 978-0-7126-6488-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Howard-Bury |first=Charles Kenneth |author-link=Charles Howard-Bury |others=Introduction by [[Francis Younghusband|Sir Francis Younghusband]]; Contributions from G.H. Leigh-Mallory, [[Sandy Wollaston|A.F.R.Wollaston]], [[J. Norman Collie|J.N. Collie]], [[Henry Morshead|H.T. Morshead]], [[Oliver Wheeler|E.O. Wheeler]], [[Alexander Heron|A.M. Heron]], and [[Arthur Robert Hinks|A.R. Hinks]] |title=Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance, 1921 |url=https://archive.org/details/mounteverestrec00howa |year=1922 |publisher=[[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold & Co.]] |location=London, UK}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Howett |first=Kevin |year=2001 |title=Rock climbing in Scotland |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/rockclimbinginsc0000howe_l1d6 |url-access=registration |location=London, UK |publisher=Constable Publishers, an imprint of [[Constable & Robinson|Constable & Robinson Limited]] |isbn=978-0-09-479610-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=David |year=1993 |title=Rock Climbing in Britain |url=https://archive.org/details/rockclimbinginbr0000jone |url-access=registration |location=London, UK |publisher=Diamond Books |isbn=978-0-261-66030-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hoyland |first=Graham |year=2014 |title=Last Hours on Everest: The Gripping Story of Mallory & Irvine's Fatal Ascent |url=https://archive.org/details/lasthoursonevere0000hoyl_z4b4 |url-access=registration |location=Glasgow, UK |publisher=[[William Collins, Sons|William Collins]], an imprint of [[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0-00-745574-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Iwan Arfon |editor-last=Moulton |editor-first=Bob |year=2003 |title=Llanberis |url=https://archive.org/details/llanberis0000jone_u3e9 |url-access=registration |edition=5th |location=UK |publisher=[[Climbers' Club|The Climbers' Club]] |isbn=978-0-901601-76-6}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Mackenzie |first1=John Ruaridh Grant |last2=Williams |first2=Noel |author-link1=John Mackenzie, 5th Earl of Cromartie |editor-last=Everett |editor-first=Roger |title=Skye: Rock and Ice Climbs<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/skyerockiceclimb0000mack |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=Scottish Mountaineering Trust |location=Location: Edinburgh, UK |isbn=978-0-907521-87-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Messner |first=Reinhold |author-link=Reinhold Messner |translator-last=Carruthers |translator-first=Tim |title=The Second Death of George Mallory: The Enigma and Spirit of Mount Everest |edition=1st U.S.<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312268060 |url-access=registration |year=2001 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York City, U.S. |isbn=978-0-312-26806-0}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Neal |first=Kelvin |year=1998 |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Ian |title=Lliwedd |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/lliwedd0000neal |url-access=registration |location=UK |publisher=[[Climbers' Club|The Climbers' Club]] |isbn=978-0-901601-61-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Neale |first=Jonathan |title=Tigers of the Snow: How One Fateful Climb Made The Sherpas Mountaineering Legends |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/tigersofsnowhowo0000neal |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=[[Thomas Dunne Books]], an imprint of [[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York City, U.S |isbn=978-0-312-26623-3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Neff |first=Kelly Joyce |year=2015 |title=Everest Dream: A Novel of Friendship - George Mallory and Mary Anne O'Malley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRcFswEACAAJ |url-status=live |location=North Charleston, SC, U.S. |publisher=[[CreateSpace|Createspace Independent Publishing Platform]] |isbn=978-1-5152-2103-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905160614/https://books.google.com/books?id=iRcFswEACAAJ |access-date=5 September 2022 |archive-date=5 September 2022}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Noel |first=John Baptist Lucius |author-link=John Baptist Lucius Noel |year=1927 |title=Through Tibet to Everest |url= https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.2337 |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold & Co.]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Norton |first=Edward Felix |author-link=Edward F. Norton |others=Introduction by [[Francis Younghusband|Sir Francis Younghusband]]; Contributions from [[Charles Granville Bruce|C.G. Bruce]], [[Geoffrey Bruce (Indian Army officer)|J.G. Bruce]], [[Noel Odell|N.E. Odell]], [[Bentley Beetham]], [[Richard Hingston|R.W.G. Hingston]], [[Howard Somervell|T.H. Somervell]], and [[Edward Oswald Shebbeare|E.O. Shebbeare]] |title=The Fight for Everest: 1924 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.2288 |year=1925 |publisher=[[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold & Co.]] |location=London, UK}}<br />
* {{cite book |editor-last=Powell |editor-first=Anne |year=2009 |title=Women in the War Zone: Hospital Service in the First World War |url=https://archive.org/details/womeninwarzoneho0000powe |url-access=registration |location=Cheltenham, UK |publisher=[[The History Press]] |isbn=978-0-7509-5059-6}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Rees |first=Nigel |author-link=Nigel Rees |title=Brewer's Famous Quotations: 5000 Quotations and the Stories Behind Them |url=https://archive.org/details/brewersfamousquo0000rees |url-access=registration |year=2006 |publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]] |location=London, UK |isbn=978-0-304-367993}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Robertson |first=David Allan |others=Foreword by [[Joe Simpson (mountaineer)|Joe Simpson]] |title=George Mallory |edition=1st Paperback |url=https://archive.org/details/georgemallory0000robe |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=[[Faber and Faber|Faber and Faber Limited]] |location=London, UK |isbn=978-0-571-20314-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Romanych |first1=Marc |last2=Heuer |first2=Greg |others=Illustrated by [[Steve Noon]] |year=2017 |title=Railway Guns of World War I |edition=1st Paperback |series=New Vanguard<br />
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ubZivgAACAAJ |url-status=live |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]], an imprint of [[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury Publishing Plc]] <br />
|isbn=978-1-4728-1639-9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024171755/https://books.google.com/books?id=ubZivgAACAAJ |access-date=24 October 2022 |archive-date=24 October 2022}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Ruttledge |first=Hugh |author-link=Hugh Ruttledge |others=Foreword by [[Francis Younghusband|Sir Francis Younghusband]]; Contributions from [[Raymond Greene|Dr C.R. Greene]], [[Edward Oswald Shebbeare|E.O. Shebbeare]], [[Jack Longland|J.L. Longland]], [[Lawrence Wager|L.R. Wager]], Dr S.N. Sen, and N.P. Chatterjee |year=1934 |title=Everest 1933 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.2564 |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Salkeld |first=Audrey |year=1991 |title= People in High Places: Approaches to Tibet |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleinhighplac0000salk |url-access=registration |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Jonathan Cape]] |isbn=978-0-224-02883-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Salkeld |first=Audrey |year=2003 |title=Climbing Everest: Tales of Triumph and Tragedy on the World's Highest Mountain |url=https://archive.org/details/climbingeverestt0000salk |url-access=registration |location= Washington D.C., U.S. |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |isbn=978-0-7922-5105-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Smythe |first=Tony |others=Foreword by [[Doug Scott]] |year=2013 |title=My Father, Frank: Unresting Spirit of Everest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfranQEACAAJ |url-status=live |edition=1st |location=Sheffield, UK |publisher=Bâton Wicks Publications |isbn=978-1-898573-87-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331164940/https://books.google.com/books?id=sfranQEACAAJ |archive-date=31 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2023}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Somervell |first=Theodore Howard |author-link=Howard Somervell |others=Foreword by [[Francis Younghusband|Sir Francis Younghusband]]<br />
|title=After Everest: The Experiences of a Mountaineer and Medical Missionary |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.208466 |year=1947 |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |location=London, UK}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Summers |first=Julie |author-link=Julie Summers |title=Fearless on Everest: The Quest for Sandy Irvine |url=https://archive.org/details/fearlessoneveres0000summ_o6x8 |url-access=registration |year=2001 |publisher=[[The Mountaineers (club)#Mountaineers Books|The Mountaineers Books]] |location=Seattle, Washington, U.S. |isbn=978-0-89886-796-1}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Simon |year=2012 |title=Unjustifiable Risk?: The Story of British Climbing |edition=1st Paperback |url=https://archive.org/details/unjustifiableris0000thom |url-access=registration<br />
|location=Cumbria, UK |publisher=[[Cicerone Press|Cicerone Press Limited]] |isbn=978-1-85284-679-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Thomson |first1=James Merriman Archer |author-link1=J. M. Archer Thomson |last2=Andrews |first2=Arthur Westlake |author-link2=A. W. Andrews |year=1909 |title=The Climbs on Lliwedd<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/climbsonlliwedd00thom |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Unsworth |first=Walt |year=1991 |title=Everest: The Ultimate Book of the Ultimate Mountain |url=https://archive.org/details/everest0000unsw |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |location=London, UK |publisher=GraftonBooks |isbn=978-0-586-20626-3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Vajpai |first1=Arjun |last2=Kumar |first2=Anu |author-link1=Arjun Vajpai |year=2010 |title=On Top of the World: My Everest Adventure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvjySQwYFFAC |url-status=live |location=New Delhi, India |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin Books, India]] |isbn=978-0-143-33172-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213174808/https://books.google.com/books%3Fid%3DcvjySQwYFFAC |access-date=13 December 2022 |archive-date=13 December 2022}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Walsh |first=Maurice |title=Bitter Freedom: Ireland in a Revolutionary World 1918–1923 |url=https://archive.org/details/bitterfreedomire0000wals_v0f2 |url-access=registration |year=2016 |publisher=[[Faber and Faber|Faber and Faber Limited]] |location=London, UK |isbn=978-0-571-24301-3}}<br />
* {{cite book |editor-last=Weber |editor-first=Alan |translator-last=Weber |translator-first=Alan |title=Because It's There: A Celebration of Mountaineering from 200 B.C. to Today<br />
|url=https://archive.org/details/becauseitstherec0000unse |url-access=registration |year=2003 |publisher=Taylor Trade Publishing |location=Lanham, Maryland, U.S. |isbn=978-0-87833-303-5}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Paul |year=1990 |title=Rock Climbing in Snowdonia |url=https://archive.org/details/rockclimbinginsn0000will |url-access=registration |location=London, UK |publisher=Constable and Company Limited |isbn=978-0-09-468410-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Young |first=Geoffrey Winthrop |author-link=Geoffrey Winthrop Young |title=On High Hills: Memories of the Alps |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/onhighhillsmemor0000youn |url-access=registration |year=1927 |publisher=[[Methuen Publishing|Methuen & Co. Limited]] |location=London, UK}}<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
====Journals====<br />
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Abrons |first=Henry L. |year=1964 |editor-last=Carter |editor-first=H. Adams |editor-link=H. Adams Carter |title=A New Route on The Wickersham Wall (Mount McKinley, North Face Direct) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-alpine-journal_1964_14_38 |journal=[[American Alpine Journal|The American Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[American Alpine Club]] |publication-place=New York City, U.S. |volume=14 No. 1 |issue=38 |pages=47–51 |url-access=registration |access-date=17 December 2022 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Beckey |first=Fred |author-link=Fred Beckey |editor-last1=Bates |editor-first1=Robert H. |editor-last2=Robertson |editor-first2=David Allan |editor-link1=Robert Bates (mountaineer) |date=April 1948 |title=Appalachian Mountains |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-alpine-journal_1948-04_7_21 |journal=[[American Alpine Journal|The American Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[American Alpine Club]] |publication-place=New York City, U.S. |volume=7 No. 1 |issue=21 |page=100 |access-date=19 December 2022 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |editor-last=Beckwith |editor-first=Christian |year=2000 |title=Climbs And Expeditions: Tibet |url=https://archive.org/details/americanalpinejo0000unse_s4a3 |journal=[[American Alpine Journal|The American Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[American Alpine Club]] |publication-place=Golden, Colorado, U.S. |volume=42 |issue=74 |pages=375–379 |isbn=978-0-930410-87-2 |url-access=registration |access-date=11 April 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Bicknell |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Bicknell |editor-last=Pyatt |editor-first=Edward |title=In Memoriam (Leslie Garnet Shadbolt 1883–1973) |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1975_files/AJ%201975%20294-304%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |year=1975 |volume=80 |issue=1975 No. 324 |pages=294–304 |access-date=26 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630081419/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1975_files/AJ%201975%20294-304%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2023 }} [https://archive.org/details/aj-1975-294-304-in-memoriam Alt URL]<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Brockbank |first=Philip |year=2011 |others=Prepared for publication in 2011 by Mike Dent, Roger Booth, and John Payne |title=The Beginning: 1902–1918 |url=https://test.rucksackclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/RSC-Hist-Book-Searchable-Archive.pdf |journal=A Short History of the Rucksack Club 1902–1939 |location=Manchester, UK |publisher=[[The Rucksack Club]] |pages=3–22 |access-date=15 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630081517/https://test.rucksackclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/RSC-Hist-Book-Searchable-Archive.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2023 }} [https://archive.org/details/rsc-hist-book-searchable-archive Alt URL]<br />
* {{cite journal |editor-last=Carter |editor-first=H. Adams |editor-link=H. Adams Carter |year=1980 |title=Climbs And Expeditions |url=https://aac-publications.s3.amazonaws.com/documents/aaj/1980/PDF/AAJ_1980_22_2_657c.pdf |journal=[[American Alpine Journal|The American Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[American Alpine Club]] |publication-place=New York City, U.S. |volume=22 No. 2 |issue=53 |pages=657–658 |isbn=978-0-930410-76-6 |access-date=11 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411120305/https://aac-publications.s3.amazonaws.com/documents/aaj/1980/PDF/AAJ_1980_22_2_657c.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Croston |first=Roger |editor-last=Douglas |editor-first=Ed |title=The Letter: A newly-discovered letter written by George Leigh Mallory |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_2000_files/AJ%202000%20157-176%20Croston%20Letter.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=Ernest Press |publication-place=Glasgow, UK |publication-date=1 October 2000 |volume=105 No. 349 |issue=2000 |pages=157–176 |isbn=978-0-948153-62-4 |access-date=3 November 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103005457/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_2000_files/AJ%25202000%2520157-176%2520Croston%2520Letter.pdf |archive-date=3 November 2022 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=Claude |last2=Russell |first2=Robert Scott |editor-last=Pyatt |editor-first=Edward |year=1974 |title=In Memoriam (H.E.L. Porter 1886–1973) |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1974_files/AJ%201974%20279-286%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Alpine Club (UK)]] |publication-place=London, UK |volume=79 No. 323 |issue=1974 |pages=279–286 |isbn=978-0-900523-11-3 |access-date=8 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208175358/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1974_files/AJ%201974%20279-286%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |archive-date=8 February 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Finch |first=George Ingle |author-link=George Finch (chemist) |year=1965 |editor-last=Cox |editor-first=Anthony David Machell |title=In Memoriam (Thomas Guy Burton Forster Smith-Barry 1886–1962) |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1965_files/AJ%201965%20359-381%20In%20Memoriam.pdf#search=%22guy%20forster%22 |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Alpine Club (UK)]] |publication-place=London, UK |volume=70 No. 310 & 311 |issue=1965 |pages=359–381 |access-date=11 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717211146/http://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1965_files/AJ%201965%20359-381%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2020 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Duncan Cumming |date=November 1926 |title=Obituary. Mr. Ralph Todhunter |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41137170 |journal=Journal of the Institute of Actuaries |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |publication-place=Cambridge, UK |volume=57 No. 3 |issue=291 |pages=338–347 |jstor=41137170 |url-access=limited |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116212615/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41137170 |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Gillman |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Gillman |editor-last=Goodwin |editor-first=Stephen |title=Mallory on The Ben |url=https://archive.org/details/alpinejournalvol0000unse_y7b4 |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |date=September 2011 |publisher=[[Alpine Club (UK)]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=10 September 2011 |volume=115 No. 359 |issue=2010–2011 |pages=199–205 |isbn=978-0-9569309-0-3 |url-access=registration |access-date=20 December 2022 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Hemmleb |first=Jochen |editor-last=Cordes |editor-first=Kelly |year=2006 |title=Climbs And Expeditions: Tibet |url=https://archive.org/details/americanalpinejo0000unse_v3c5 |journal=[[American Alpine Journal|The American Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[The Mountaineers (club)#Mountaineers Books|The Mountaineers Books]] |publication-place=Seattle, Washington, U.S. |volume=48 |issue=80 |pages=468–469 |isbn=978-1-933056-01-2 |url-access=registration |access-date=7 May 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Heron |first=Alexander Macmillan |author-link=Alexander Heron |date=June 1922 |title=Geological Results of the Mount Everest Expedition, 1921 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1780634 |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |location=London, UK |publisher=[[The Royal Geographical Society]] |volume=59 No. 6 |issue=1922 |pages=418–431 |doi=10.2307/1780634 |jstor=1780634 |bibcode=1922GeogJ..59..418H |url-access=limited |access-date=18 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211113717/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1780634 |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite journal |editor-last=Hinks |editor-first=Arthur Robert |editor-link=Arthur Robert Hinks |title=Memorial Service at St. Paul's Cathedral |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1781920 |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |year=1924 |publisher=[[The Royal Geographical Society]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=December 1924 |volume=64 |issue=6 |pages=462–465 |doi=10.2307/1781920 |jstor=1781920 |bibcode=1924GeogJ..64..462. |url-access=limited |access-date=9 December 2022 |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209210812/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1781920 |url-status=live }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Irving |first=Robert Lock Graham |author-link=Robert Lock Graham Irving |editor-last=Yeld |editor-first=George |editor-link=George Yeld |year=1911 |title=The Alpine Journal: February 1910 to November 1911 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-alpine-journal-vol-25-1910-1911 |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Longman|Longmans, Green & Co.]] |publication-place=London, UK |volume=25 #187–194 |issue=1910–1911 |access-date=31 January 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Irving |first=Robert Lock Graham |author-link=Robert Lock Graham Irving |editor-last=Yeld |editor-first=George |editor-link=George Yeld |year=1912 |title=The Alpine Journal: February 1912 to November 1912 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-alpine-journal-vol-26-1912 |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Longman|Longmans, Green & Co.]] |publication-place=London, UK |volume=26 #195–198 |issue=1912 |access-date=31 January 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Irving |first=Robert Lock Graham |author-link=Robert Lock Graham Irving |title=In Memoriam Harry Edmund Guise Tyndale (1888–1948) |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1948_files/AJ56%201948%20386-402%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Alpine Club (UK)]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=November 1948 |volume=56 No. 277 |issue=1948 |pages=386–402 |access-date=25 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720132109/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1948_files/AJ56%201948%20386-402%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2020 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |editor-last=Keenlyside |editor-first=Francis Hugh |year=1961 |title=The Conquest of Everest by the Chinese Mountaineering Team |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1961_files/AJ%201961%2028-41%20Chan-Chun%20Chinese%20on%20Everest.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Alpine Club (UK)]] |publication-place=London, UK |volume=66 # 302 & 303 |issue=1961 |pages=28–41 |access-date=6 May 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506183740/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1961_files/AJ%201961%2028-41%20Chan-Chun%20Chinese%20on%20Everest.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Mallory |first=George Herbert Leigh |editor-last=Yeld |editor-first=George |editor-link=George Yeld |year=1912 |title=The Alpine Journal: February 1912 to November 1912 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-alpine-journal-vol-26-1912 |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Longman|Longmans, Green & Co.]] |publication-place=London, UK |volume=26 #195–198 |issue=1912 |access-date=6 February 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Mallory |first=George Herbert Leigh |editor-last=Yeld |editor-first=George |editor-link=George Yeld |title=Mont Blanc from the Col du Géant by the Eastern Buttress of Mont Maudit |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1918.html |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Longman|Longmans, Green & Co.]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=September 1918 |volume=32 No. 218 |issue=1918 |pages=148–162 |access-date=3 February 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Mallory |first1=George Herbert Leigh |last2=Porter |first2=Harold Edward Lionel |editor-last1=Yeld |editor-first1=George |editor-link1=George Yeld |editor2-last=Farrar |editor2-first=John Percy |editor2-link=John Percy Farrar |title=New Expeditions In 1919 |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1920_files/AJ%201920%20Vol%2033%20129-134%20New%20Expeditions%201919%20March.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Longman|Longmans, Green & Co.]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=March 1920 |volume=33 No. 220 |issue=1920 |pages=129–134 |access-date=8 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208150430/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1920_files/AJ%201920%20Vol%2033%20129-134%20New%20Expeditions%201919%20March.pdf |archive-date=8 February 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Mallory |first=George Herbert Leigh |date=Feb 1922 |title=Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1781387 |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |location=London, UK |publisher=[[The Royal Geographical Society]] |volume=59 No. 2 |issue=1922 |pages=100–109 |doi=10.2307/1781387 |jstor=1781387 |bibcode=1922GeogJ..59..100M |url-access=limited |access-date=11 June 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Mallory |first=George Herbert Leigh |date=Dec 1922 |title=The First High Climb |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1781077 |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |location=London, UK |publisher=[[The Royal Geographical Society]] |volume=60 No. 6 |issue=1922 |pages=400–412 |doi=10.2307/1781077 |jstor=1781077 |bibcode=1922GeogJ..60..400M |url-access=limited |access-date=11 June 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Mondini |first=Felice |year=1902 |title=Il versante Italiano del Monte Bianco: 1. Storia alpinistica. |trans-title=The Italian side of Mont Blanc: 1. Mountaineering history |url=https://tecadigitale.cai.it/periodici/PDF/Bollettino/Bollettino%20del%20Club%20Alpino%20Italiano_1902_68.pdf |journal=Bollettino del Club Alpino Italiano |language=Italian |publisher=[[Club Alpino Italiano]] |publication-place=Turin, Italy |volume=35 No. 68 |issue=1902 |pages=171–222 |access-date=2 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202192742/https://tecadigitale.cai.it/periodici/PDF/Bollettino/Bollettino%20del%20Club%20Alpino%20Italiano_1902_68.pdf |archive-date=2 February 2023 }} [https://archive.org/details/bollettino-del-club-alpino-italiano-1902-68/page/n1/mode/2up?view=theater Alt URL]<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Moore |first1=George William Kent |last2=Semple |first2=John |last3=Sikka |first3=Dev |editor1-last=Graham |editor1-first=Eddy |editor2-last=Lee |editor2-first=Simon |date=2 August 2010 |title=Mallory and Irvine on Mount Everest: Did extreme weather play a role in their disappearance? |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228044791 |journal=Weather Journal: (Royal Meteorological Society) |volume=65 |issue=8 |pages=215–218 |doi=10.1002/wea.590 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |location=Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S. |bibcode=2010Wthr...65..215M |s2cid=119532622 |access-date=9 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514122347/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228044791_Mallory_and_Irvine_on_Mount_Everest_Did_extreme_weather_play_a_role_in_their_disappearance |archive-date=14 May 2023 |doi-access=free }} [https://ia601403.us.archive.org/2/items/mallory-and-irvine-on-mount-everest-did-extreme-weather-play-a-role-in-their-disappearance_20220909/Mallory%20and%20Irvine%20on%20Mount%20Everest%20Did%20extreme%20weather%20play%20a%20role%20in%20their%20disappearance.pdf Alt URL]<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Morshead |first=Henry Treise |author-link=Henry Morshead |title=MOUNT EVEREST: By MAJOR H.T. MORSHEAD, D.S.O., R.E. |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.2214/mode/2up |journal=The Royal Engineers Journal |publisher=The Institution of Royal Engineers |publication-place=Chatham, UK |publication-date=September 1923 |volume=37 No. 3 |issue=1923 |pages=353–368 |access-date=18 February 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Norton |first=Edward Felix |author-link=Edward F. Norton |date=August 1924 |others=Contributions from George Herbert Leigh-Mallory, [[Howard Somervell]], and [[Noel Odell]] |title=The Mount Everest Dispatches |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1780694 |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |location=London, UK |publisher=[[The Royal Geographical Society]] |volume=64 No. 2 |issue=1924 |pages=145–165 |doi=10.2307/1780694 |jstor=1780694 |bibcode=1924GeogJ..64..145. |url-access=limited |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321185656/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1780694 |url-status=live }}<br />
*{{cite journal |last=Odell |first=Noel Ewart |author-link=Noel Odell |date=December 1924 |title=The Last Climb of Mallory and Irvine |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1781919 |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |volume=64 No. 6 |issue=1924 |pages=455–461 |jstor=1781919 |publisher=[[The Royal Geographical Society]] |location=London, UK |doi=10.2307/1781919 |bibcode=1924GeogJ..64..455O |url-access=limited |access-date=16 September 2022 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Odell |first=Noel Ewart |author-link=Noel Odell |editor-last=Strutt |editor-first=Edward Lisle |editor-link=Edward Lisle Strutt |title=Correspondence: The Ice Axe Found on Everest |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1934_files/AJ46%201934%20442-452%20Correspondence.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Alpine Club (UK)]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=November 1934 |volume=46 No. 249 |issue=1934 |pages=442–452 |access-date=30 March 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330141252/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1934_files/AJ46%201934%20442-452%20Correspondence.pdf |archive-date=30 March 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Puttrell |first=James William |editor-last=Gray |editor-first=Thomas |year=1900 |title=The Keswicks Brothers' Climb, Scafell |url=https://www.yrc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/YRCJ-1-2-1900.pdf |journal=The Yorkshire Ramblers' Club Journal |publisher=[[Yorkshire Ramblers' Club]] |publication-place=Leeds, UK |volume=1 No. 2 |issue=1900 |pages=102–106 |access-date=31 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231204657/https://www.yrc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/YRCJ-1-2-1900.pdf |archive-date=31 December 2022 }} [https://archive.org/details/yrcj-1-2-1900 Alt URL]<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Pye |first=David Randall |author-link1=David Pye (engineer) |editor-last=Goggs |editor-first=Frank Sidney |year=1919 |title=A Fortnite In Skye |url=https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/the-smc-journals.appspot.com/o/journals%2FNumber%2087%20to%2088%20-%20Vol%2015%20-%201919.pdf?alt=media |journal=The Scottish Mountaineering Club Journal |location=Scotland, UK |publisher=[[Scottish Mountaineering Club]] |volume=15 #87–88 |issue=1919 |pages=132–149 |access-date=27 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227160156/https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/the-smc-journals.appspot.com/o/journals/Number%2087%20to%2088%20-%20Vol%2015%20-%201919.pdf?alt=media |archive-date=27 December 2022 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Reid |first=Stephen |editor-last1=Elliott |editor-first1=Doug |editor-last2=Holden |editor-first2=John |year=2006 |title=Mallory's Route or North-West by West |url=https://www.frcc.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/V27-3.pdf |journal=The Fell and Rock Centenary Journal 2006 |location=UK |publisher=[[Fell & Rock Climbing Club|The Fell And Rock Climbing Club of the English Lake District]] |volume=27 (3) No. 80 |issue=2006 |pages=678–687 |isbn=978-0-85028-047-0 |access-date=4 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104180518/https://www.frcc.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/V27-3.pdf |archive-date=4 January 2023 }} [https://archive.org/details/the-fell-and-rock-journal Alt URL]<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Robertson |first=David Allan |editor-last=Farquhar |editor-first=Francis Peloubet |editor-link=Francis Peloubet Farquhar |year=1959 |title=In Memoriam: Geoffrey Winthrop Young 1876–1958 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-alpine-journal_1959_11_33 |journal=[[American Alpine Journal|The American Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[American Alpine Club]] |publication-place=New York City, U.S. |volume=11 No. 2 |issue=33 |pages=278–282 |access-date=21 January 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Chris A. |editor-last=Sondheimer |editor-first=Ernst |title=One Hundred Years Ago |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1988-89_files/AJ%201988%20207-212%20Russell%20100YrsAgo.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=Frederick Muller, an imprint of [[Hutchinson (publisher)|Century Hutchinson Limited]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=1 July 1989 |volume=93 No. 337 |issue=1988–1989 |pages=207–212 |isbn=978-0-09-173659-0 |access-date=31 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231192817/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1988-89_files/AJ%25201988%2520207-212%2520Russell%2520100YrsAgo.pdf |archive-date=31 December 2022 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Chris A. |editor-last=Sondheimer |editor-first=Ernst |title=One Hundred Years Ago |url=https://archive.org/details/alpinejournalvol0000unse |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |year=1991 |publisher=Frederick Muller, an imprint of Random Century Group Limited |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=19 September 1991 |volume=96 No. 340 |issue=1991–1992 |pages=215–222 |isbn=978-0-09-174841-8 |url-access=registration |access-date=30 December 2022 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Chris A. |editor-last=Douglas |editor-first=Ed |title=One Hundred Years Ago |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1999_files/AJ%201999%20202-209%20Russell%20100YrsAgo.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publication-place=Glasgow, UK |publication-date=1 September 1999 |volume=104 No. 348 |issue=1999 |pages=202–209 |isbn=978-0-948153-59-4 |access-date=7 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107173742/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1999_files/AJ%201999%20202-209%20Russell%20100YrsAgo.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Chris A. |editor-last=Douglas |editor-first=Ed |year=2019 |title=One Hundred Years Ago |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_2019_files/AJ%202019%20Vol%20123%20241-243%20Russell%20Hundred.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=Cordee Limited |publication-place=Hinckley, UK |volume=123 No. 367 |issue=2019 |pages=241–243 |isbn=978-0-9569309-8-9 |access-date=9 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209160822/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_2019_files/AJ%202019%20Vol%20123%20241-243%20Russell%20Hundred.pdf |archive-date=9 February 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=West |first=John Burnard |author-link=John B. West |editor-last=Bodine |editor-first=Sue |title=George I. Finch and his pioneering use of oxygen for climbing at extreme altitudes<br />
|journal=[[Journal of Applied Physiology]] |year=2003 |publisher=[[American Physiological Society]] |publication-place=Rockville, Maryland. U.S. |publication-date=1 May 2003 |volume=94 |issue=5 |pages=1702–1713 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00950.2002 |doi-access=free |pmid=12679344 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |editor-last=Yeld |editor-first=George |editor-link=George Yeld |year=1912 |title=The Alpine Journal: February 1912 to November 1912 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-alpine-journal-vol-26-1912 |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Longman|Longmans, Green & Co.]] |publication-place=London, UK |volume=26 #195–198 |issue=1912 |access-date=6 February 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Young |first=Geoffrey Winthrop |author-link=Geoffrey Winthrop Young |editor-last=Yeld |editor-first=George |editor-link=George Yeld |title=In Memoriam Charles Donald Robertson (1879–1910) |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1910_files/AJ%201910%20Vol%2025%20138-145%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Longman|Longmans, Green & Co.]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=May 1910 |volume=25 No. 188 |issue=1910 |pages=138–145 |access-date=26 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126195336/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1910_files/AJ%201910%20Vol%2025%20138-145%20In%20Memoriam.pdf |archive-date=26 January 2023 }}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Young |first=Geoffrey Winthrop |author-link=Geoffrey Winthrop Young |editor-last=Yeld |editor-first=George |editor-link=George Yeld |title=Alpine Accidents In 1912: The Accident on the Pic du Midi d'Ossau |url=https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1912_files/AJ%201912%20Vol%2026%20452-458%20Alpine%20Accidents%201912.pdf |journal=[[Alpine Journal|The Alpine Journal]] |publisher=[[Longman|Longmans, Green & Co.]] |publication-place=London, UK |publication-date=November 1912 |volume=26 No. 198 |issue=1912 |pages=452–458 |access-date=5 February 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205165326/https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1912_files/AJ%201912%20Vol%2026%20452-458%20Alpine%20Accidents%201912.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2023 }}<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
====Magazines====<br />
* {{cite magazine |editor-last=Rushton |editor-first=Neil |year=2017–2018 |others=Aude Valluy-Fitzsimons (Deputy Editor), Jo Hornsby, and Louise Foster |title=Magdalene College Magazine<br />
|url=https://issuu.com/magdalenecollege/docs/magdalene_college_magazine_2018 |url-status=live |magazine=Magdalene College Magazine |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Alumni Publications, Magdalene College |publication-date=1 October 2018 |issue=62 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211153104/https://issuu.com/magdalenecollege/docs/magdalene_college_magazine_2018 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |access-date=11 December 2022}} [https://archive.org/details/magdalene_college_magazine_2018 Alt URL]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category|George Mallory}}<br />
{{Wikiquote}}<br />
* [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/34847 Peter H. Hansen: Mallory, George Herbert Leigh (1886–1924)] – Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. <br />
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120319114414/http://innovation-for-extremes.net/gear-timezone/mallory-myths/ Mike Parsons and Mary B. Rose. Mallory Myths and Mysteries: The Mallory Replica Project]}} – Mallory Myths.<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160701155013/http://www.everest1953.co.uk/mallory-and-irvine-memorial Mallory and Irvine Memorials] – Mount Everest The British Story.<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20220906155650/https://wasatchfilmfestival.org/awards/george-mallory/ The George Mallory Award] – Wasatch Mountain Film Festival.<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20220906225438/https://everestdream.blogspot.com/ Everest Dream] – Kelly Joyce Neff.<br />
* {{Internet Archive |silent-the-epic-of-everest |The Epic of Everest}}<br />
* {{Internet Archive |boswellbiographe0000leig |Boswell, the Biographer}}<br />
* {{Olympedia |id=921672 |name=George Mallory}}<br />
* {{Librivox author |id=13005}}<br />
* {{Gutenberg author |id=40012}}<br />
* {{Lives of WWI |id=7669562 |name=George Herbert Leigh-Mallory}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mallory, George}}<br />
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[[Category:Olympic medalists in alpinism]]</div>2601:441:4283:73A0:3CF3:29AD:1849:99A4