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Clam

2025-10-08T00:01:13Z

2601:6C1:903:1AA0:3D0C:399E:BCAE:EA56: /* Species */

{{Short description|Common name for several kinds of bivalve mollusc}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Refimprove|date=November 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
[[File:Clams on Sandy Hook beaches - panoramio.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A clam shell (species ''[[Spisula solidissima]]'') at [[Sandy Hook, New Jersey]]]]

'''Clam''' is a [[common name]] for several species of [[Bivalvia|bivalve]] [[Mollusca|mollusc]]. The word is often applied only to those that are deemed [[edible]] and live as [[infauna]], spending most of their [[Life|lives]] halfway buried in the [[sand]] of the [[sea floor]] or [[riverbeds]]. Clams have two shells of equal size connected by two adductor muscles and have a powerful burrowing foot.<ref name=":0">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/clam|title=Clam|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=2016}}</ref> They live in both freshwater and marine environments; in [[salt water]] they prefer to burrow down into the mud and the [[turbidity]] of the water required varies with [[species]] and location; the greatest diversity of these is in [[North America]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wildbunnysland.com/can-you-eat-freshwater-clams/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153233/https://www.wildbunnysland.com/can-you-eat-freshwater-clams/|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 July 2020|title=Can You Eat Freshwater Clams in the Nature?|date=29 April 2019}} - {{Cite web|url = http://www.eattheweeds.com/musseling-in/|title = Musseling in|date = August 2012}} - {{Cite web|url=https://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/clams/mussels.html|title=USFWS: America's Mussels}}</ref>

Clams in the culinary sense do not live attached to a substrate (whereas [[oyster]]s and [[mussel]]s do) and do not live near the bottom (whereas [[scallop]]s do). In culinary usage, clams are commonly eaten marine bivalves, as in [[clam digging]] and the resulting soup, [[clam chowder]]. Many edible clams such as [[Grooved carpet shell|palourde clam]]s are ovoid or triangular;<ref>{{cite web|title=Clams recipes|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/clams|website=BBC Food|access-date=23 February 2017}}</ref> however, [[razor clam]]s have an elongated parallel-sided shell, suggesting an old-fashioned straight razor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/clam|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225053230/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/clam|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 February 2017|title=Clam|website=Lexico|publisher=Oxford}}</ref>

Some clams have life cycles of only one year, whilst at least [[Ming (clam)|one]] reached an age of more than 500 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ming-the-clam-worlds-oldest-animal-was-actually-507-years-old/|title=Ming the Clam, World's Oldest Animal, Was Actually 507 Years Old|work=CBS News|author=Danielle Elliot|date=14 November 2013|access-date=15 November 2013|archive-date=20 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131120153638/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57612409/ming-the-clam-worlds-oldest-animal-was-actually-507-years-old/|url-status=live}}</ref> All clams have two calcareous shells or [[valve (mollusc)|valves]] joined near a hinge with a flexible ligament and all are [[filter feeder]]s.

== Anatomy ==
{{expand section|small=no|date=December 2022}}
[[File:Clam with its siphon out in Boothbay Maine.jpg|thumb|Clam with its siphon out]]
[[File:LittleNeck clams USDA96c1862.jpg|thumb|Littleneck clams, small [[hard clam]]s, species ''[[Mercenaria mercenaria]]'']]

A clam's shell consists of two (usually equal) valves, which are connected by a hinge joint and a ligament that can be internal or external.<ref>{{Cite web |title=An Introduction to Shell Structures |url=https://naturalhistory.museumwales.ac.uk/britishbivalves/morphology.php |access-date=April 29, 2023 |website=Marine Bivalve Shells of the British Isles}}</ref> The ligament provides tension to bring the valves apart, whilst one or two adductor muscles can contract to close the valves. Clams also have kidneys, a heart, a mouth, a stomach, and a nervous system. Many have a [[Siphon (mollusc)|siphon]].<ref name=":0" />

== Food source and ecology ==

Clams are shellfish that make up an important part of the web of life that keeps the seas functioning, both as filter feeders and as a food source for many different animals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/education/documents/Marine%20Foodweb%20Handout.pdf|title = Outreach & Education|publisher=NOAA Fisheries|date = 11 June 2020}}</ref> Extant mammals that eat clams include both the Pacific and Atlantic species of [[walrus]], all known subspecies of [[Harbor seal|harbour seals]] in both the Atlantic and Pacific, most species of [[sea lion]]s, including the [[California sea lion]], [[bearded seal]]s and even species of river otters that will consume the freshwater species found in Asia and North America.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=West Sound Wildlife|title=River Otters|url=https://www.westsoundwildlife.org/wildlife/FunFacts/FF_RiverOtters.html|access-date=23 January 2020|archive-date=11 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211124005/http://www.westsoundwildlife.org/wildlife/FunFacts/FF_RiverOtters.html|url-status=dead}} - {{Cite web|url=https://www.marwell.org.uk/zoo/explore/animals/61/asian-small-clawed-otter|title=Asian small-clawed otter|publisher=Marwell Zoo|accessdate=8 November 2021}}</ref> Birds of all kinds will also eat clams if they can catch them in the [[littoral zone]]: [[roseate spoonbills]] of North and South America,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ambergriscaye.com/birds/roseate.html|website = Birds of Ambergris Caye|title=Roseate Spoonbill}}</ref> the [[Eurasian oystercatcher]], [[whooping crane]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/w/whooping-crane/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525162440/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/w/whooping-crane/|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 May 2017|title=Whooping Crane |work=National Geographic|date=11 November 2010}}</ref> and [[common crane]], the [[American flamingo]] of Florida and the Caribbean Sea,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.geographia.com/bonaire/bonbrd01.htm|title =The Birds of Bonaire|website=Bonaire}}</ref> and the [[common sandpiper]] are just a handful of the numerous birds that feast on clams all over the world. Most species of [[octopus]] have clams as a staple of their diet, up to and including the giants like the [[Giant Pacific octopus]].
[[File:Sandiego 11 bg 010706.jpg|thumb|right|A clam dish]]
[[File:Clams simmering in white wine sauce.jpg|thumb|Clams simmering in a white [[wine sauce]]]]

== Culinary ==
{{Cookbook|Clam}}
Cultures around the world eat clams along with many other types of shellfish.

=== North America ===
In culinary use, within the eastern coast of the United States and large swathes of [[the Maritimes]] of Canada, the term "clam" most often refers to the [[hard clam]], ''[[Mercenaria mercenaria]]''. It may also refer to a few other common edible species, such as the [[soft-shell clam]], ''Mya arenaria'', and the ocean quahog, ''[[Arctica islandica]]''. Another species commercially exploited on the [[Atlantic]] Coast of the United States is the surf clam, ''[[Spisula solidissima]]''. [[Scallop]]s are also used for food nationwide, but not [[Cockle (bivalve)|cockles]]: they are more difficult to get than in Europe because of their habit of being further out in the tide than European species on the West Coast, and on the East Coast they are often found in salt marshes and mudflats where mosquitoes are abundant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wdfw.wa.gov/fishing/shellfish/clams/cockles.html|title=Clams|publisher=Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife|website=Fishing & Shellfishing|access-date=8 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316220015/https://wdfw.wa.gov/fishing/shellfish/clams/cockles.html|archive-date=2018-03-16|url-status=dead}} - {{cite web|title=Cockle|date=23 January 2014|website=SeafoodSource|publisher=Diversified Communications|url=https://www.seafoodsource.com/seafood-handbook/shellfish/cockle}}</ref> There are several edible species in the Eastern United States: ''[[Americardia media]],'' also known as the strawberry cockle, is found from Cape Hatteras down into the Caribbean Sea and all of Florida; ''[[Trachycardium muricatum]]'' has a similar range to the strawberry cockle; and ''[[Dinocardium robustum]]'', which grows to be many times the size of the European cockle.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Atlantic Giant Cockle (Dinocardium robustum)|url=http://oceanica.cofc.edu/shellguide/shells/giantcockle.htm|access-date=8 November 2021|publisher= College of Charleston}}</ref> Historically, they were caught on a small scale on the [[Outer Banks]], barrier islands off North Carolina, and put in soups, steamed or pickled.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Prudence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYBxSUcWBJQC&q=cockle+recipe+america&pg=PA109|title=Modern American Cookery ... With a list of family medical recipes, and a valuable miscellany|page=109|publisher= J. and J. Harper|date=1831|via=Google Books}}</ref>

Up and down the coast of the Eastern U.S., the [[Atlantic jackknife clam|bamboo clam]], ''Ensis directus'', is prized by Americans for making [[clam strips]], although because of its nature of burrowing into the sand very close to the beach, it cannot be harvested by mechanical means without damaging the beaches.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/197697.pdf|title=dredging of clams|access-date=16 March 2018|archive-date=16 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316215110/http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/197697.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The bamboo clam is also notorious for having a very sharp edge of its shell, and when harvested by hand must be handled with great care.

On the U.S. West Coast, there are several species that have been consumed for thousands of years, evidenced by [[midden]]s full of clamshells near the shore and their consumption by nations including the [[Chumash people|Chumash]] of California, the [[Nisqually people|Nisqually]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington state]] and the [[Tsawwassen First Nation|Tsawwassen]] of [[British Columbia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yelmhistoryproject.com/?p=674|title=Nisqually People and the River|publisher=Yelm History Project|access-date=2018-03-10|archive-date=13 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913173753/http://www.yelmhistoryproject.com/?p=674|url-status=dead}} - {{Cite news|url=https://classroom.synonym.com/what-did-the-chumash-eat-12083749.html|title=What Did the Chumash Eat?|website=Classroom|author=Sophia Cross|date=29 September 2017|access-date=8 November 2021}} - {{Cite web|url=http://tsawwassenfirstnation.com/general-info/tfn-history-and-timeline/|title=Tsawwassen First Nation History and Timeline|date=November 10, 2011|publisher=Tsawwassen First Nation|access-date=10 November 2018|archive-date=11 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111000132/http://tsawwassenfirstnation.com/general-info/tfn-history-and-timeline/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The butter clam, ''[[Saxidomus gigantea]]'',<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.seattletimes.com/sports/other-sports/plenty-of-clams-oysters-in-puget-sound-and-hood-canal/|title=Plenty of clams, oysters in Puget Sound and Hood Canal|author= Mark Yuasa|date=2015-06-27|work=The Seattle Times|access-date=8 November 2021}}</ref> the Pacific razor clam, ''[[Siliqua patula]],''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.northcoastjournal.com/humboldt/dig-those-razor-clams/Content?oid=7775381|title=Dig Those Razor Clams|last=Kelly|first=Mike|website=North Coast Journal|date=1 February 2018|access-date=8 November 2021}}</ref> gaper clams ''[[Tresus capax]]'',<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://theworldlink.com/lifestyles/food-and-cooking/oregon-clam-chowder/article_c4c50bdb-5a0e-565b-a820-1d40a7547ba5.html|title=Oregon clam chowder|last=Lackner|first=Bill|work=Coos Bay World|access-date=2018-03-10}}</ref> the geoduck clam, ''[[Panopea generosa]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seriouseats.com/2015/05/what-is-a-geoduck-clam-seattle-pacific-northwest-how-geoduck-are-farmed.html|title=All About Geoduck: The Life of a (Delicious) Oversized Mollusk|website=serious eats|author= Naomi Tomky|date=10 August 2018|access-date=8 November 2021}}</ref> and the Pismo clam, ''[[Tivela stultorum]]''<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sandiegoreader.com/news/2013/apr/12/digging-pismo-clams-san-diego-beaches/|title=Digging for Pismo clams at San Diego Beaches|author=Christopher Young|date=12 April 2013|work=San Diego Reader|access-date=8 November 2021}}</ref> are all eaten as delicacies.

Clams can be eaten raw, steamed, boiled, baked or [[Fried clams|fried]]. They can also be made into [[clam chowder]], [[clams casino]], [[clam cakes]], or [[Stuffed clam|stuffies]], or they can be cooked using hot rocks and seaweed in a [[New England clam bake]]. On the West Coast, they are an ingredient in making [[cioppino]] and local variants of [[ceviche]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://langdoncook.com/category/razor-clams/|title=razor clams |author=Langdon Cook |date=4 April 2014 |access-date=2018-03-16}}</ref>

===Asia===
==== India ====
Clams are eaten more in the coastal regions of India, especially in the Konkan, [[Kerala]], [[Bengal]] and coastal regions of [[Karnataka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] regions.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

In [[Kerala]], clams are used to make curries and fried with coconut. In the [[Malabar region]] it is known as "elambakka" and in middle kerala it is known as "kakka". Clam curry made with coconut is a dish from Malabar especially in the [[Thalassery]] region. On the southwestern coast of [[India]], also known as the [[Konkan]] region of [[Maharashtra]], clams are used in curries and side dishes, like Tisaryachi Ekshipi, which is clams with one shell on. [[Beary]] Muslim households in the [[Mangalore]] region prepare a main dish with clams called Kowldo Pinde. In [[Udupi]] and [[Mangalore]] regions, it is called {{lang|tcy|marvai}} in the local [[Tulu language]]. It is used to prepare many dishes like {{lang|tcy|[[marvai sukka]]}}, {{lang|tcy|marvai gassi}}, and {{lang|tcy|marvai pundi}}.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

==== Japan ====
In Japan, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes. They can also be made into [[hot pot]], [[miso soup]] or [[tsukudani]]. The more commonly used varieties of clams in Japanese cooking are the '''Shijimi''' (''[[Corbicula japonica]]''), the '''Asari''' (''[[Venerupis philippinarum]]'') and the '''Hamaguri''' (''[[Meretrix lusoria]]'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kasai|first1=Akihide|last2=Toyohara|first2=Haruhiko|last3=Nakata|first3=Akiko|last4=Miura|first4=Tsunehiro|last5=Azuma|first5=Nobuyuki|date=2006-01-01|title=Food sources for the bivalve Corbicula japonica in the foremost fishing lakes estimated from stable isotope analysis|journal=Fisheries Science|language=en|volume=72|issue=1|pages=105–114|doi=10.1111/j.1444-2906.2006.01123.x|bibcode=2006FisSc..72..105K |s2cid=26905032|issn=1444-2906|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Europe===
==== Great Britain ====
The rocky terrain and pebbly shores of the seacoast that surrounds [[Great Britain]] provide ample habitat for shellfish including clams. Historically, British cuisine has been more heavily based on beef and dairy products than seafood, although there is evidence going back to before most recorded history of coastal shell middens near Weymouth and present day York.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.5334/ai.0207|title=Mesolithic middens and molluscan ecology: A view from southern Britain|year=1998|last1=Thomas|first1=Ken|last2=Mannino|first2=Marcello|journal=Archaeology International|volume=2|pages=17|doi-access=free}}</ref> 70% of the seafood cultivated for aquaculture or commercial harvesting is exported to the continent,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undercurrentnews.com/2019/04/10/trade-insights-more-than-70-of-uk-seafood-exports-go-to-eu/|title = Trade insights: More than 70% of UK seafood exports go to EU|work=undercurrent news|author=Louise Harkell|date=10 April 2021|accessdate=8 November 2021}}</ref> though present-day younger populations are eating more of the catch than a generation ago.{{fact|date=March 2025}}

Staple favourites of the British public and local scavengers include the razorfish, ''[[Ensis siliqua]]'', a slightly smaller cousin of the [[Atlantic jackknife clam|bamboo clam]] of eastern North America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://britishseafishing.co.uk/razorfish/|title=Razorfish|website=British Sea Fishing|date=12 October 2012}}</ref> These can be found for sale in open-air markets like Billingsgate Market in London; they have a similar taste to their North American cousin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-razor-clams-on-display-in-billingsgate-fish-market-london-74063195.html|title=Razor Clams on display in Billingsgate Fish Market, London|publisher=Alamy}}</ref> Cockles, specifically the [[common cockle]], are a staple find on beaches in western Wales and further north in the [[Dee Estuary]]. The accidentally introduced hard-shell quahog is also found in British waters, mainly those near England, and does see some use in British cuisine. The [[Grooved carpet shell|Palourde clam]] by far is the most common native clam and it is both commercially harvested as well as locally collected, and ''[[Spisula solida]]'', a relative of the Atlantic surf clam on the other side of the Atlantic, is seeing increased interest as a food source and aquaculture candidate; it is mainly found in the British Isles in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1111/are.12593|title=New species in aquaculture: Are the striped venus clam ''Chamelea'' gallina(Linnaeus, 1758) and the surf clam ''Spisula'' solida(Linnaeus 1758) potential candidates for diversification in shellfish aquaculture?|year=2016|last1=Joaquim|first1=Sandra|last2=Matias| first2=Domitília|last3=Matias|first3=Ana Margarete|last4=Gonçalves| first4=Rui|last5=Chícharo|first5=Luís|last6=Gaspar|first6=Miguel B.|journal=Aquaculture Research|volume=47|issue=4|pages=1327–1340|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Italy ====
In Italy, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes or are eaten together with pasta. The more commonly used variety of clams in Italian cooking is the ''[[Veneridae|vongola]]'' ''([[Venerupis decussata]])'', although regional cuisines include the ''[[tellina]]'' or {{lang|tcy|arsella}} ''([[Donax trunculus]])'', the {{lang|tcy|fasolaro}} o {{lang|tcy|fasolara}} ''([[Callista chione]])'', the {{lang|tcy|cannolicchio}} (''[[Solen marginatus]]'', a kind of ''[[Razor clam]]''), and the {{lang|tcy|Tartufo di mare}} ''([[Venus verrucosa]])''.

==Religion==
In Islam, clams are considered [[halal]] in three Sunni [[madhhab|sect]]s, but not in Hanafi, as only [[fish as food|fish]] are considered halal in [[Hanafi jurisprudence]], not other aquatic animals. In Judaism, clams are not [[kosher]].

== As currency ==
Some species of clam, particularly ''[[Mercenaria mercenaria]]'', were in the past used by the [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquians]] of Eastern North America to manufacture [[wampum]], a type of sacred [[jewellery]]; and to make [[shell money]].<ref name="Kurlansky2006pp16_30-31">{{Citation|last=Kurlansky|first=Mark|author-link=Mark Kurlansky|year=2006|title=The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell|publisher=[[Penguin Group]]|isbn=978-0-345-47638-8|oclc=60550567|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bigoysternewyork00kurl/page/16 16, 30–31]|postscript=. |title-link=The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell}}</ref>

== Species ==
[[File:Sphenoceramus steenstrupi.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the world's largest clam fossils (187 cm), a ''Sphenoceramus steenstrupi'' specimen from [[Greenland]] in the [[Geological Museum in Copenhagen]].]]
[[File:2 Tridacna gigas.jpg|thumb|right|[[Maxima clam]], ''[[Tridacna maxima]]'']]

Edible:
*[[Ark clam]]s, family [[Arcidae]] (most popular in [[Indonesia]] and [[Singapore]])
*[[Atlantic jackknife clam]]: ''[[Ensis directus]]''
*[[Atlantic surf clam]]: ''[[Spisula solidissima]]''
*Common cockle: ''[[Common cockle|Cerastoderma edule]]'' (Native to most of Europe, with very large populations in Ireland and Great Britain)
*Atlantic Giant Cockle: ''[[Dinocardium robustum]]''
*[[Geoduck]]: ''[[Panopea abrupta]]'' or ''[[Panope generosa]]'' (largest burrowing clam in the world)
*Gould's razor shell, ''[[Solen strictus]]'' (popular in Korea, Japan, and Taiwan)
*[[Grooved carpet shell]]: ''[[Ruditapes decussatus]]''
*[[Hard clam]] or Northern Quahog: ''[[Mercenaria mercenaria]]'' (Native to Eastern USA and Maritime Canada'')''
*Lyrate Asiatic hard clam: ''[[Meretrix lyrata]]''
*Manila clam: ''[[Venerupis philippinarum]]''
*[[Ocean quahog]]: ''[[Arctica islandica]]''
*[[Pacific razor clam]]: ''[[Siliqua patula]]''
*Pipis, ''[[Plebidonax deltoides]]'' and ''[[Paphies australis]]''
*Pismo clam: ''[[Tivela stultorum]]''
*Pod razor clam: [[Pod razor|''Ensis siliqua'']]
*Spoot: ''[[Ensis magnus]]''
*Soft clam: ''[[Mya arenaria]]''

Not usually considered edible:
*[[Nut clam]]s or pointed nut clams, family [[Nuculidae]]
*[[Duck clam]]s or [[trough shell]]s, family [[Mactridae]]
*Marsh clams, family [[Corbiculidae]]
*File clams, family [[Limidae]]
*[[Giant clam]]: ''[[Tridacna gigas]]'' This clam is native to East Asia and is edible, but should be avoided because of slow reproduction.
*[[Asian clam|Asian or Asiatic clam]]: genus ''[[Corbicula]]''
*[[Peppery furrow shell]]: ''[[Scrobicularia plana]]''

== See also ==
* {{annotated link|Clam juice}}
* [[Clamshell (container)]]
* [[Clamshell design]]
* {{annotated link|List of clam dishes}} – dishes and foods prepared using clams
* {{annotated link|Mussel}}
* {{annotated link|Shipworm}}
* {{annotated link|Water purification}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|clam}}
{{cookbook}}
{{Commons category|Clams}}
* [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070221101429.htm "Deep In The Ocean A Clam That Acts Like A Plant"] [[Science Daily]] March 2, 2007
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081229182819/http://wdfw.wa.gov/fish/shelfish/beachreg/1clam.htm Hardshell Clams]

{{commercial molluscs}}
{{Edible molluscs}}
{{Meat}}
{{Seafood}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Clams| ]]

[[Category:Mollusc common names]]
[[Category:Mollusc products]]
[[Category:Cuisine of New England]]
[[category:Cuisine of the Southwestern United States]]

White Nile

2025-10-07T23:33:44Z

2601:6C1:903:1AA0:3D0C:399E:BCAE:EA56:

{{Short description|River originating in Burundi or Rwanda}}
{{about|one of the two main tributaries of the Nile river|the state of Sudan|White Nile, Sudan|the main river|Nile|the Born of Osiris song|Angel or Alien}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox river
| name = White Nile
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| name_other = Victoria Nile, Albert Nile, Mountain Nile
| name_etymology =
| image = Sudan Juba bridge.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = A steel [[Bailey bridge]] spans the White Nile at [[Juba, South Sudan]]
| map =
| map_size =
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| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Burundi]]
| subdivision_type2 =
| subdivision_name2 =
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name4 =
| subdivision_type5 = Cities
| subdivision_name5 = [[Jinja, Uganda]], [[Juba, South Sudan]], [[Khartoum, Sudan]]
| length = {{cvt|3,700|km|mi}}<ref name="abc-clio"/>
| width_min =
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| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg = {{cvt|878|m3/s|cuft/s}}
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| source1 = White Nile
| source1_location = [[Burundi]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.egyptattraction.com/nile-river-egypt.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070110025022/http://www.egyptattraction.com/nile-river-egypt.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 January 2007 |title=Nile Africa | Africa Nile | Nile Valley | Mystery Nile | Nile White | Egypt Nile | Ancient Capital Nile |date=10 January 2007}}</ref> or [[Rwanda]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/hampshire/4864782.stm |title=Team reaches Nile's 'true source' |date=31 March 2006 |via=news.bbc.co.uk |access-date=22 April 2020 |archive-date=10 November 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131110122006/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/hampshire/4864782.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| source1_coordinates = {{Coord|2|16|56|S|29|19|52|E|display=inline}}
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| basin_size = {{cvt|1,800,000|km2}}
| tributaries_left = Albert Nile, [[Bahr el Ghazal River|Bahr el Ghazal]]
| tributaries_right = [[Aswa River|Aswa]], [[Sobat River|Sobat]]
| mapframe-length_km = 1000
}}

The '''White Nile''' ({{langx|ar|النيل الأبيض}} ''{{Transliteration|ar|DIN|an-nīl al-'abyaḍ}}'') is a river in North and East Africa, the minor of the two main [[tributary|tributaries]] of the [[Nile]], the larger being the [[Blue Nile]].<ref name="handle2012">{{Citation
| title= Teleconnection, Modeling, Climate Anomalies Impact and Forecasting of Rainfall and Streamflow of the Upper Blue Nile River Basin
| year = 2012
| publisher = [[University of Alberta]]
|hdl = 10402/era.28151| location = [[Canada]]
| doi = 10.7939/R3377641M
| last1 = Elsanabary
| first1 = Mohamed Helmy Mahmoud Moustafa
}}</ref> The name "White" comes from the clay [[sediment]] carried in the water that changes the water to a pale color.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foVRAAAAYAAJ&q=clay&pg=PA362 |title=The New American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge, Volume 12 |date=1867 |page=362 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330124542/https://books.google.com/books?id=foVRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA362&q=clay |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the strict meaning, "White Nile" refers to the river formed at [[Lake No]], at the [[confluence]] of the Bahr al Jabal and [[Bahr el Ghazal River|Bahr el Ghazal]] Rivers. In the wider sense, "White Nile" refers to all the stretches of river draining from [[Lake Victoria]] through to the merger with the Blue Nile: the "Victoria Nile" from Lake Victoria via [[Lake Kyoga]] to [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]], then the "Albert Nile" to the [[South Sudan]] border, and then the "Mountain Nile" or "Bahr-al-Jabal" down to Lake No.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dumont |first1=Henri J. |title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |date=2009 |pages=344–345 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781402097263 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iF_U1NoknHoC&q=Kyoga&pg=PA345 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330114516/https://books.google.com/books?id=iF_U1NoknHoC&pg=PA345&q=Kyoga |url-status=live }}</ref> "White Nile" may sometimes include the headwaters of Lake Victoria, the most remote of which being {{cvt|2300|mi|km|order=flip}} from the Blue Nile.<ref name="abc-clio">{{cite book |last1=Penn |first1=James R. |title=Rivers of the World: A Social, Geographical, and Environmental Sourcebook |date=2001 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781576070420 |page=299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=koacGt0fhUoC&q=Luvironza&pg=PA299 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330114518/https://books.google.com/books?id=koacGt0fhUoC&pg=PA299&q=Luvironza |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:White and Blue Nile-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|A map showing the White Nile and the [[Blue Nile]] in East Africa.]]

== Course ==

=== Headwaters ===
[[File:RusumoFalls2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Rusumo Falls]]]]

The [[Kagera River]], which flows into Lake Victoria near the Tanzanian town of [[Bukoba]], is the longest feeder river for Lake Victoria, although sources do not agree on which is the longest tributary of the Kagera, and hence the most distant source of the [[Nile]].<ref>{{cite news |last=McLeay |first=cam |date=2 July 2006 |title=The truth about the source of R. Nile |work=[[New Vision]] |url=http://www.newvision.co.ug/PA/8/459/507212 |access-date=4 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110409215243/http://www.newvision.co.ug/PA/8/459/507212 |archive-date=9 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The source of the Nile can be considered to be either the [[Ruvyironza River|Ruvyironza]], which emerges in [[Bururi Province]], [[Burundi]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.egyptattraction.com/nile-river-egypt.html |title=Nile River |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070110025022/http://www.egyptattraction.com/nile-river-egypt.html |archive-date=10 January 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (near Bukirasaz), or the [[Nyabarongo]], which flows from [[Nyungwe Forest]] in Rwanda.<ref>{{cite news |work=BBC News |date=31 March 2006 |title=Team reaches Nile's 'true source' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/hampshire/4864782.stm |access-date=4 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601132100/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/4864782.stm |archive-date=1 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

These two feeder rivers meet near [[Rusumo Falls]] on the border between Rwanda and Tanzania. These [[waterfall]]s are known for an event on 28–29 April 1994, when 250,000 Rwandans crossed the bridge at Rusumo Falls into [[Ngara]], Tanzania, in 24 hours, in what the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] called "the largest and fastest refugee exodus in modern times". The Kagera forms part of the Rwanda–Tanzania and Tanzania–Uganda borders before flowing into Lake Victoria.

=== In Uganda ===
[[File:Flipping raft in Bujagali falls, Uganda.jpg|thumb|left|Rafters flipping in [[Bujagali Falls]] near the mouth of the Victoria Nile]]

The White Nile in Uganda goes under the name of "Victoria Nile" from Lake Victoria via [[Lake Kyoga]] to Lake Albert, and then as the "Albert Nile" from there to the border with South Sudan.

==== Victoria Nile ====
[[File:Victoria Nile River, Uganda (15235696844).jpg|thumb|Victoria Nile, Uganda]]
The Victoria Nile starts at the outlet of Lake Victoria, at [[Jinja, Uganda]], on the northern shore of the lake.<ref name="Fishery">{{cite book |title=Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa, Issue 18, Volume 1 |year=1990 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]], United Nations |isbn=92-5-102983-0 |page=291 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA291 |last1=vanden Bossche |first1=J.-P. |last2=Bernacsek |first2=G. M. |access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> Downstream from the [[Nalubaale Hydroelectric Power Station|Nalubaale Power Station]] and the [[Kiira Hydroelectric Power Station|Kiira Power Station]] at the outlet of the lake, the river goes over [[Bujagali Falls]] (the location of the [[Bujagali Hydroelectric Power Station|Bujagali Power Station]]) about {{cvt|15|km|mi}} downstream from Jinja. The river then flows northwest through Uganda to Lake Kyoga in the centre of the country, thence west to Lake Albert.

At [[Karuma Falls]], the river flows under Karuma Bridge ({{coord|2|14|45.40|N|32|15|9.05|E|type:landmark}}) at the southeastern corner of [[Murchison Falls National Park]]. During much of the insurgency of the [[Lord's Resistance Army]], Karuma Bridge, built in 1963 to help the cotton industry, was the key stop on the way to [[Gulu]], where vehicles gathered in convoys before being provided with a military escort for the final run north. In 2009, the government of Uganda announced plans to construct a 750-megawatt hydropower project several kilometres north of the bridge, which was scheduled for completion in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |title=Uganda To Increase Capacity of Electricity Project |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uganda-energy-idAFL8103159920090508 |first=Hereward |last=Holland |date=8 May 2009 |access-date=18 April 2014 |work=[[Reuters]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012623/http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/08/uganda-energy-idAFL8103159920090508 |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[World Bank]] had approved funding a smaller 200-megawatt power plant, but Uganda opted for a larger project, which the Ugandans will fund internally if necessary.<ref>{{cite web |first=Joe |last=Wacha |publisher=Uganda Radio Network Online |url=http://www.ugandaradionetwork.com/a/story.php?s=37967 |date=29 October 2011 |access-date=18 April 2014 |title=Uganda Oil Money to Finance Karuma Power Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419041625/http://www.ugandaradionetwork.com/a/story.php?s=37967 |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Just before entering Lake Albert, the river is compressed into a passage just seven meters wide at [[Murchison Falls]], marking its entry into the [[Albertine Rift|western branch]] of the [[East African Rift]]. The river then flows into Lake Albert opposite the [[Blue Mountains (Congo)|Blue Mountains]] in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].

The stretch of river from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert is sometimes called the "Kyoga Nile".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Indian Journal of International Law: Official Organ of the Indian Society of International Law |date=1980 |publisher=M.K. Nawaz |page=398 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UoEvAQAAIAAJ |language=en |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005152340/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UoEvAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=5 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Albert Nile ====
[[File:A track and pedestrians cross the Albert Nile bridge in Northern Uganda.jpg|thumb|Bridge on Albert Nile]]
The river draining from Lake Albert to the north is called the "Albert Nile". It separates the [[West Nile sub-region]] of Uganda from the rest of the country. A bridge passes over the Albert Nile near its inlet in [[Nebbi District]], but no other bridge over this section has been built. A ferry connects the roads between [[Adjumani]] and [[Moyo Town|Moyo]], and navigation of the river is otherwise done by small boat or canoe.

=== In South Sudan and Sudan ===
[[Image:Zusammenfluss der Nile.JPG|thumb|left|Confluence of Blue and White Nile near Khartoum]]

From the point at which the river enters [[South Sudan]] from Uganda, the river goes under the name of "Mountain Nile". From Lake No in South Sudan the river becomes the "White Nile" in its strictest sense, and so continues northwards into [[Sudan]] where it ends at its confluence with the Blue Nile.

==== Mountain Nile {{anchor|Bahr al-Jabal}} ====
[[File:White Nile River (30741802592).jpg|thumb|The white Nile Uganda]]
From [[Nimule]] in South Sudan, close to the border with Uganda, the river becomes known as the "Mountain Nile" or "Baḥr al-Jabal" (also "Baḥr el-Jebel", {{lang|ar|بحر الجبل}}), literally "Mountain River" or "River of the Mountain".{{refn|The [[Arabic]] word ''baḥr'' ({{lang|ar|بحر}}) can refer to either a sea or a large river}}<ref name=EB>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Nile |volume=19 |last1=Garstin |first1=William Edmund |author1-link=William Edmund Garstin |last2=Cana |first2=Frank Richardson |author2-link= |pages=692–699 |short=1}}</ref> The Southern Sudanese state of [[Central Equatoria]] through which the river flows was known as ''Bahr al-Jabal'' until 2006.<ref>{{cite web |title=Southern Sudan Bahr al-Jabal State changes name |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article15073 |website=[[Sudan Tribune]] |date=16 April 2006 |access-date=4 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004191445/http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article15073 |archive-date=4 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The southern stretch of the river encounters several rapids before reaching the Sudan plain and the vast swamp of the [[Sudd]]. It makes its way to Lake No, where it merges with the Bahr el Ghazal and there forms the White Nile.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book |last1=Parsons |first1=Ellen C. |title=Christus Liberator: An Outline Study of Africa |date=1905 |publisher=Macmillan Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.157281/page/n20 7] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.157281 |language=en |access-date=5 October 2017}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> An [[anabranch]] river called [[Bahr el Zeraf]] flows out of the Bahr al-Jabal at and flows through the Sudd, to eventually join the White Nile. The Mountain Nile cascades through narrow gorges and over a series of rapids that includes the [[Fula Rapids|Fula (Fola) Rapids]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=The Source of the Nile: Rwenzori Mountains National Park |date=16 June 2010 |url=http://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/document-1472 |language=en |access-date=2020-08-20 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803182239/http://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/document-1472 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nile River (Mountain) {{!}} Waterbodies.org |url=http://www.waterbodies.org/waterbody/nile-river-mountain |access-date=2020-08-20 |website=www.waterbodies.org |language=en |archive-date=21 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021185241/http://www.waterbodies.org/waterbody/nile-river-mountain |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Image:whiteandblueniles.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The White and Blue Niles merge at [[Khartoum]], the capital of [[Sudan]].]]

==== White Nile proper ====
To some people, the White Nile starts at the confluence of the Mountain Nile with the Bahr el Ghazal at Lake No.<ref name="Parsons"/>

The 120 kilometers of White Nile that flow east from Lake No to the mouth of the [[Sobat River|Sobat]] are very gently sloping and hold many swamps and lagoons.<ref name="Shahin">{{cite book |last1=Shahin |first1=Mamdouh |title=Hydrology of the Nile Basin |date=1985 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=9780444424334 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FhRHvYmTPqQC |language=en |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005152213/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FhRHvYmTPqQC |archive-date=5 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> When in flood, the Sobat River tributary carries a large amount of [[sediment]], adding greatly to the White Nile's pale color.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9068426 |title=Sobat River |access-date=21 January 2008 |edition=Online Library |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> From South Sudan's second city [[Malakal]], the river runs slowly but swamp-free into Sudan and north to Khartoum. Downstream from Malakal lies [[Kodok]], the site of the 1898 [[Fashoda Incident]] that marked an end to the [[Scramble for Africa]].

In Sudan the river lends its name to the Sudanese state of [[White Nile (state)|White Nile]], before merging with the larger Blue Nile at Khartoum and forming the River Nile.

== Inland waterways==
The White Nile is a navigable [[waterway]] from the Lake Albert to [[Khartoum]] through [[Jebel Aulia Dam]], only between [[Juba]] and Uganda requires the river upgrade or channel to make it navigable.

During part of the year the rivers are navigable up to [[Gambela (city)|Gambela, Ethiopia]], and [[Wau, South Sudan]].

== See also ==
* [[List of rivers of Sudan]]
* [[List of rivers of South Sudan]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://atlas.nilebasin.org/treatise/inland-waterway-transport/ Nile inland Waterways]
* [https://dlca.logcluster.org/display/public/DLCA/2.5+South+Sudan+Waterways+Assessment South Sudan Waterway Assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609034353/https://dlca.logcluster.org/display/public/DLCA/2.5+South+Sudan+Waterways+Assessment |date=9 June 2022 }}
* [https://content.unops.org/publications/South-Sudan-River-Barge-System-Feasibility-Report-2018.pdf?mtime=20180309110200 Feasibility study river barge system] (Cranes on trucks/loader cranes and [[pallet]]s can increase efficiency)

{{commons category|White Nile}}
{{Rivers of South Sudan}}
{{Hydrography of Uganda}}
{{Rivers of Uganda}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:White Nile| ]]
[[Category:Nile]]
[[Category:Nile basin]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Nile]]
[[Category:Rivers of Sudan]]
[[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uganda]]
[[Category:Lake Albert (Africa)]]
[[Category:Lake Victoria]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Lowest points of countries]]