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Batholith

2025-09-01T23:00:34Z

2800:E2:C180:CD5:9E44:273:54CE:F479: Reformatting

{{Short description|Large igneous rock intrusion}}
[[File:Yosemite 20 bg 090404.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Half Dome]], a [[quartz monzonite]] [[monolith]] in [[Yosemite National Park]] and part of the [[Sierra Nevada Batholith]]]]

A '''batholith''' (from [[Ancient Greek]] [[wikt:βαθύς|βαθύς]] (''bathús''), meaning "deep", and [[wikt:λίθος|λίθος]] (''líthos''), meaning "stone") is a large mass of [[intrusive rock|intrusive]] [[igneous rock]] (also called plutonic rock), larger than {{cvt|100|km2|sqmi|sigfig=1}} in area,<ref name="PetersenEtAl2017">{{cite book |title=Physical Geography |publisher=[[Cengage]] Learning Inc. |first1=James F. |last1=Petersen |first2=Dorothy |last2=Sack |first3=Robert E. |last3=Gabler |year=2017 |location=Boston |page=614 |isbn=978-1-305-65264-4 |edition=11th}}</ref> that forms from cooled [[magma]] deep in the [[Earth's crust]]. Batholiths are almost always made mostly of [[felsic]] or [[intermediate composition|intermediate]] rock types, such as [[granite]], [[quartz monzonite]], or [[diorite]] (see also ''[[granite dome]]'').

[[File:Intrusion types.svg|thumb|upright=1.3| Basic types of [[igneous intrusion]]s: 
1. [[Laccolith]] 
2. Small [[dike (geology)|dike]] 
3. '''Batholith''' 
4. [[Dike (geology)|Dike]] 
5. [[sill (geology)|Sill]] 
6. [[volcanic plug|Volcanic neck]] and [[volcanic pipe|pipe]] 
7. [[Lopolith]] 
Note: As a general rule, in contrast to the active volcanic vent in the figure, these names refer to the fully cooled and usually millions-of-years-old rock formations, which are the result of the underground magmatic activity shown.]]

==Formation==
Although they may appear uniform, batholiths are in fact structures with complex histories and compositions. They are composed of multiple masses, or ''[[pluton]]s'', bodies of igneous rock of irregular dimensions (typically at least several kilometers) that can be distinguished from adjacent igneous rock by some combination of criteria including age, composition, texture, or mappable structures. Individual plutons are solidified from magma that traveled toward the surface from a zone of [[partial melting]] near the base of the Earth's crust.

[[File:Vitosha platoto.jpg|thumb|The eroded laccolith above the batholith system of [[Vitosha]], the [[Plana (mountain)|Plana]] domed mountains, next to [[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]]]]

Traditionally, these plutons have been considered to form by ascent of relatively buoyant magma in large masses called ''plutonic [[diapir]]s''. Because the diapirs are liquified and very hot, they tend to rise through the surrounding native [[Country rock (geology)|country rock]], pushing it aside and partially melting it. Most diapirs do not reach the surface to form [[volcano]]es, but instead they slow down, cool, and usually solidify 5 to 30 kilometers underground as plutons (hence the use of the word ''pluton''; in reference to the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] god of the underworld [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]]). An alternate view is that plutons are formed by aggregation of smaller volumes of magma that ascend as [[Dike (geology)|dikes]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=Clarence A. Jr.|title=Introduction to the geology of southern California and its native plants|date=2007|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520249325|page=22}}</ref>

A batholith is formed when many plutons converge to form a huge expanse of granitic rock. Some batholiths are mammoth, paralleling past and present [[subduction]] zones and other heat sources for hundreds of kilometers in [[continental crust]]. One such batholith is the [[Sierra Nevada Batholith]], which is a continuous granitic formation that makes up much of the [[Sierra Nevada]] in California. An even larger batholith, the [[Coast Plutonic Complex]], is found predominantly in the [[Coast Mountains]] of western Canada; it extends for 1,800 kilometers and reaches into southeastern Alaska.

==Surface expression and erosion==
A batholith is an exposed area of (mostly) continuous plutonic rock that covers an area larger than 100 square kilometers (40 square miles). Areas smaller than 100 square kilometers are called ''[[Stock (geology)|stocks]]''.<ref>GLENCOE SCIENCE | Earth Science Twelfth Grade High School Textbook (Georgia); pg. 115 paragraph 1, pg. 521 question 9</ref> However, the majority of batholiths visible at the surface (via outcroppings) have areas far greater than 100 square kilometers. These areas are exposed to the surface through the process of [[erosion]] accelerated by [[Orogeny|continental uplift]] acting over many tens of millions to hundreds of millions of years. This process has removed several tens of square kilometers of overlying rock in many areas, exposing the once deeply buried batholiths.

Batholiths exposed at the surface are subjected to huge pressure differences between their former location deep in the earth and their new location at or near the surface. As a result, their [[crystal structure]] expands slightly over time. This manifests itself by a form of [[mass wasting]] called [[Exfoliation joint|exfoliation]]. This form of weathering causes convex and relatively thin sheets of rock to slough off the exposed surfaces of batholiths (a process accelerated by [[Weathering#Frost weathering|frost wedging]]). The result is fairly clean and rounded rock faces. A well-known result of this process is [[Half Dome]] in [[Yosemite Valley]].

==Examples==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
===Africa===
*Aswan Granite Batholith
*Cape Coast Batholith, Ghana
*Heerenveen Batholith, South Africa<ref name="Clemens_EtAl_2010">{{cite journal | title=The Heerenveen Batholith, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa: Mesoarchaean, Potassic, Felsic Magmas Formed by Melting of an Ancient Subduction Complex | author=Clemens, J.D.; Belcher, R.W; Kisters, A.F.M. | journal=Journal of Petrology | year=2010 | volume=51 | issue=5 | pages=1099–1120 | doi=10.1093/petrology/egq014| doi-access=free }}</ref>
*Paarl Rock, South Africa
*Darling Batholith, South Africa
*[[Hook granite massif]], Zambia
*Mubende Batholith, Uganda

===Antarctica===
*Antarctic Peninsula Batholith
*Queen Maud Batholith

===Asia===
*[[Angara-Vitim batholith]], Siberia
*[[Bhongir, Telangana|Bhongir]] Fort Batholith, [[Telangana]], India<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/010616/telangana-bhongir-fort-s-batholith-marvel.html|title=Bhongir fort's batholith marvel|date=June 2016}}</ref>
*[[Chibagalakh batholith]], Siberia
*Mount Abu, India <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://suvratk.blogspot.com/2018/07/mount-abu-geology.html?m=1|title = Rapid Uplift: Mount Abu Geology|date = 22 July 2018}}</ref>
*[[Gangdese batholith]], Himalaya
*Trans-Himalayan Batholith, Himalaya
*[[Kalba-Narym batholith]], Kazakhstan
*Karakorum Batholith, Himalaya
*Tak batholith, Thailand
*Tien Shan batholith, Central Asia
*Ranchi batholith, India

===Europe===
*[[La Pedriza]], Spain.
*Bindal Batholith, Norway
*[[Cornubian batholith]], England
*Corsica-Sardinia Batholith
*[[Donegal batholith]], Ireland
*Leinster Batholith, Ireland
*Mancellian batholith, France
*[[North Pennine Batholith]], England
*[[Ljusdal Batholith]], Sweden
*[[Geology of Andorra|Mt-Louis-Andorra Batholith]]
*Riga Batholith, Latvia
*Salmi Batholith, Republic of Karelia, Russia
*Sunnhordaland Batholith, Norway
*[[Transscandinavian Igneous Belt]], Sweden and Norway
:*Revsund Massif
:*Rätan Batholith
:*Småland–Värmland Belt
*[[Vitosha]] (mountain massif) and [[Plana (mountain)]], [[Sofia]], Bulgaria
{{col-break}}

===North America===
*[[Bald Rock Dome|Bald Rock Batholith]]
*[[Enchanted Rock]], Texas
*[[Boulder Batholith]]
*[[The Baths|British Virgin Islands]], Virgin Gorda
*[[Chambers-Strathy Batholith]]
*[[Chilliwack batholith]]
*Golden Horn Batholith
*[[Idaho Batholith]]
*Ilimaussaq Batholith, [[Greenland]]
*[[Kenosha Pass|Kenosha Batholith]]
*[[Stuart Range | Mount Stuart Batholith]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]]<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/ger_ofr76-6_mount_stuart_batholith_190k.pdf | quote = "The Mount Stuart batholith is a Late Cretaceous calc-alkaline pluton composed of intrusive phases ranging in composition from two-pyroxene gabbro to granite." | title = Petrogenesis of the Mount Stuart Batholith Plutonic Equivalent of the High-Aluina Basalt Association|author = Erik H. Erikson Jr.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0012821X81901382 | quote = The Mt. Stuart Batholith is a composite pluton of Late Cretaceous age that intrudes the crystalline North Cascades terrane of northwestern Washington. | author1 = Myrl E. BeckJr. | author2 = Russell F. Burmester | author3 = Ruth Schoonover | title = Paleomagnetism and tectonics of the Cretaceous Mt. Stuart Batholith of Washington: translation or tilt?}}</ref>
*[[Wallowa Mountains|Wallowa Batholith]], [[Oregon]]
*[[Peninsular Ranges]], [[Baja California (region)|Baja]] and [[Southern California]]<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BFWXBAAAQBAJ&q=%22Peninsular+Batholith%22| title = Douglas M. Morton, Fred K. Miller, Peninsular Ranges Batholith, Baja and Southern California, Geological Society of America, 2014| isbn = 9780813712116| last1 = Morton| first1 = Douglas M.| last2 = Miller| first2 = Fred K.| year = 2014}}</ref>
*[[Pikes Peak granite|Pike's Peak Granite Batholith]]
*[[Ruby Mountains]]
*Rio Verde Batholith, Mexico
*[[San Lorenzo Batholith]], [[Puerto Rico]]
*[[Sierra Nevada Batholith]]
*[[South Mountain (Nova Scotia)|South Mountain Batholith, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Enchanted Rock|Town Mountain Granite]] batholith, Texas
*[[Wyoming batholith]]<ref name="AMMIN2016">{{cite journal|author1=Davin A. Bagdonas |author2=Carol D. Frost |author3=C. Mark Fanning |title=The origin of extensive Neoarchean high-silica batholiths and the nature of intrusive complements to silicic ignimbrites: Insights from the Wyoming batholith, U.S.A.|journal=American Mineralogist|date=2016|volume=101|issue=6 |pages=1332–1347|doi=10.2138/am-2016-5512 |bibcode=2016AmMin.101.1332B |s2cid=131845599 |url=http://www.minsocam.org/msa/ammin/toc/2016/Abstracts/AM101P1332.pdf|access-date=June 8, 2016|quote=...Neoarchean granite batholith, herein named the Wyoming batholith, extends more than 200 km across central Wyoming in the Granite and the Laramie Mountains.}}</ref>

===Oceania===
*Cullen Batholith, Australia
*[[Mount Kosciuszko|Kosciuszko]] Batholith, Australia
*[[Moruya, New South Wales|Moruya]] Batholith, Australia
*[[Scottsdale, Tasmania|Scottsdale]] Batholith, Australia <ref>[http://www.mrt.tas.gov.au/mrtdoc/dominfo/download/ER25_4/ER25_4.pdf Stratigraphic revision and remapping of the Mathinna Supergroup between the River Tamar and the Scottsdale Batholith, northeast Tasmania], Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources. Mineral Resources Tasmania. June 2011</ref>
*Median Batholith, New Zealand
*New England Batholith, Australia

===South America===
*[[Achala Batholith]], Argentina
*[[Antioquia Batholith]], Colombia
*Guanambi Batholith, [[Bahia]], Brazil
*[[Guiana Shield|Parguaza rapakivi granite Batholith]], Venezuela and Colombia
*[[Cerro Aspero Batholith]], Argentina
*[[Coastal Batholith of Peru]]
*[[Colangüil Batholith]], Argentina
*[[Cordillera Blanca Batholith]], Peru
*[[Vicuña Mackenna Batholith]], Chile
*[[Elqui-Limarí Batholith]], Chile and Argentina
*[[Futrono-Riñihue Batholith]], Chile
*[[Illescas Batholith]], Uruguay
*[[Coastal Batholith of central Chile]]
*[[Panguipulli Batholith]], Chile
*Patagonian Batholith, Chile and Argentina
**[[North Patagonian Batholith]]
**[[South Patagonian Batholith]]
{{col-end}}

==See also==
* [[Laccolith]]
* [[Sill (geology)|Sill]]
* [[Volcanic plug]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Plummer, McGeary, Carlson, ''Physical Geology'', Eighth Edition (McGraw-Hill: Boston, 1999) pages 61–63 {{ISBN|0-697-37404-1}}
* Glazner, Bartley, Coleman, Gray, Taylor, [https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/14/4/pdf/i1052-5173-14-4-4.pdf Are plutons assembled over millions of years by amalgamation from small magma chambers?], GSA Today: Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 4–11

==External links==
*[http://imnh.isu.edu/digitalatlas/geo/bathlith/bathtxt/bathmn.htm Idaho Batholith]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080418013330/http://www.graniteinstallation.com/cornbath.htm The Cornubian Batholith]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Batholiths| ]]

Colugo

2025-09-01T18:52:07Z

2800:E2:C180:CD5:9E44:273:54CE:F479: /* Taxonomy */Re-formatting

{{Short description|Family of mammals}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Cynocephalidae|Cybocephalidae}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Dermoptera|Dermaptera}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Colugos<ref name="msw3">{{MSW3 Stafford|pages=110|id=12000002}}</ref>
| fossil_range = [[Eocene]]-[[Holocene|Present]], {{Fossil range|37|0}}
| image = Colugo (Galeopterus variegatus, adult female), Central Catchment Area, Singapore - 20060618.jpg
| image_caption = [[Sunda flying lemur]]
| display_parents = 4
| parent_authority = [[Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger|Illiger]], 1811
| taxon = Cynocephalidae
| authority = [[George Gaylord Simpson|Simpson]], 1945
| type_genus = ''[[Philippine flying lemur|Cynocephalus]]''
| type_genus_authority = [[Boddaert]], 1768
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = : {{leftlegend|#00FF00|''[[Philippine flying lemur|Cynocephalus]]''|outline=gray}}
: {{leftlegend|#ff3131|''[[Galeopterus]]''|outline=gray}}
: {{spaces}}† {{spaces}}{{font|size=90%|''[[Dermotherium]]''}}
| range_map = DistributionDermopteraCorrecting.png
| synonyms = * Colugidae
* Galeopithecidae
* Galeopteridae
* Galeopithidae
}}

'''Colugos''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|l|uː|ɡ|oʊ}}{{refn|{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Colugo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214184126/https://www.lexico.com/definition/colugo |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 14, 2021 |title=Colugo |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} }}{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary |access-date=2016-01-21 |Colugo}}}}), '''flying lemurs''', or '''cobegos''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|b|iː|ɡ|oʊ}}{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary |access-date=2024-11-06 |Cobego}}}}), are [[arboreal]] gliding [[Euarchontoglires|euarchontogliran]] [[mammal]]s that are native to [[Southeast Asia]]. Their closest evolutionary relatives are [[primate]]s. There are just two living species of colugos: the [[Sunda flying lemur]] (''Galeopterus variegatus'') and the [[Philippine flying lemur]] (''Cynocephalus volans''). These two species make up the entire [[family (biology)|family]] '''Cynocephalidae''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|aɪ|n|oʊ-|ˌ|s|ɛ|f|ə|ˈ|l|aɪ|d|i|,_|-|ˌ|k|ɛ|-}}){{refn|Cf. words with analogous pronunciations{{or|date=November 2024}} such as [[Meningoencephalitis]], see {{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Meningoencephalitis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322185903/https://www.lexico.com/definition/meningoencephalitis |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 22, 2020 |title=Meningoencephalitis |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}}} and [[order (biology)|order]] '''Dermoptera''',<ref name="msw3"/><ref name="TNHC"/> from [[Ancient Greek]] δέρμα (''dérma''), meaning "skin", and πτερόν (''pterón''), meaning "wing".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Klein|first1=Jan| last2=Takahata|first2=Naoyuki|title=Where Do We Come From?: The Molecular Evidence for Human Descent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FvxCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA182|access-date=16 December 2024|year=2013|page=182|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn= 978-3-66204-847-4}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
Colugos are nocturnal, tree-dwelling mammals.

=== Appearance and anatomy ===
They reach lengths of {{cvt|35|to|40|cm}} and weigh {{cvt|1|to|2|kg}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lim |first1=Norman |title=Colugo: The flying lemur of South-East Asia |date=2007 |publisher=Draco Publishing and Distribution Pte Ltd |location=Singapore}}</ref> They have long, slender front and rear limbs, a medium-length tail, and a relatively light build. The head is small, with large, front-focused eyes for excellent binocular vision, and small rounded ears.

The [[incisor]] teeth of colugos are highly distinctive; they are [[toothcomb|comb-like in shape]] with up to 20 tines on each tooth. The incisors are analogous in appearance and function to the incisor suite in [[strepsirrhines]], which is used for grooming. The second upper incisors have two roots, another unique feature among mammals.<ref name=EoM/> The [[dentition|dental formula]] of colugos is: {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=3.1.2.3}}
[[File:EB1911 - Galeopithecus.jpg|thumbnail|right|Feet of Philippine colugo]]

=== Movement ===
Colugos are proficient gliders, and thought better adapted for flight than any other gliding mammal.
They can travel as far as {{cvt|70|m}} from one tree to another without losing much altitude,<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale |publisher=Phoenix |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7538-1996-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ancestorstalepil0000dawk }}</ref> with a Malayan colugo (''Galeopterus variegatus'') individual having been observed traveling about {{cvt|150|m}} in one glide.<ref name="pmid18252673">{{cite journal|last1=Byrnes |first1=G. |last2=Lim |first2=N.T. |last3=Spence |first3=A.J. |title=Take-off and landing kinetics of a free-ranging gliding mammal, the Malayan colugo (Galeopterus variegatus). |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society|Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]] |year=2008 |volume=275 |issue=1638 |pages=1007–13 |pmid=18252673 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1684 |pmc=2600906}}</ref>

Their ability to glide is possible because of a large membrane of skin that extends between their paired limbs. This gliding membrane, or [[Patagium#Gliding mammals|patagium]], runs from the shoulder blades to the fore paws, from the tip of the rear-most fingers to the tip of the toes, and from the hind legs to the tip of the tail.<ref name=EoM>{{cite book |editor-last=Macdonald |editor-first=D. |last=MacKinnon |first=Kathy |year=1984 |title=The Encyclopedia of Mammals |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing|Facts on File]] |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/446 446–447] |isbn=978-0-87196-871-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/446}}</ref> Colugos' gliding ability is aided by specialized muscles that control the tension and movement of the gliding membrane. The platysma myoides and platysma cervicale help adjust the patagium’s shape for better control during flight. The sternomastoideus and cleidomastoideus stabilize the head and neck, improving balance and maneuverability mid-air.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Diogo |first=Rui |date=2009 |title=The head and neck muscles of the Philippine colugo (Dermoptera: Cynocephalus volans), with a comparison to tree-shrews, primates, and other mammals |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmor.10666 |journal=Journal of Morphology |language=en |volume=270 |issue=1 |pages=14–51 |doi=10.1002/jmor.10666 |issn=1097-4687|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The spaces between the colugo's fingers and toes are webbed. As a result, colugos were once considered to be close relatives of [[bat]]s. Today, on account of genetic data, they are considered to be more closely related to [[primate]]s.<ref name="Janeckaetal2007">{{cite journal |year=2007 |title=Molecular and genomic data identify that their closest living relative non-colugo relatives are primates |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=318 |issue=5851 |pages=792–794 |bibcode=2007Sci...318..792J |doi=10.1126/science.1147555 |pmid=17975064 |author1-first=Jan E. |author1-last=Janecka |author2-first=Webb |author2-last=Miller |author3-first=Thomas H. |author3-last=Pringle |author4-first=Frank |author4-last=Wiens |author5-first=Annette |author5-last=Zitzmann |author6-first=Kristofer M. |author6-last=Helgen |author7-first=Mark S. |author7-last=Springer |author8-first=William J. |author8-last=Murphy |s2cid=12251814}}</ref>

[[File:Dermoptera - toothcomb 01.jpg|150px|thumbnail|right|Lower jaw (''[[Galeopterus]]'')]]
Colugos are unskilled climbers; they lack opposable thumbs.<ref name="Piotrowski 2015">{{cite web |last=Piotrowski |first=Jan |title=Zoologger: The clumsy tree-dweller transforms into a gliding ace |website=[[New Scientist]] |date=2015-05-15 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn27539-zoologger-the-clumsy-tree-dweller-transforms-into-a-gliding-ace/ |access-date=2021-11-23 |archive-date=2021-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123163640/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn27539-zoologger-the-clumsy-tree-dweller-transforms-into-a-gliding-ace/ |url-status=live }}</ref> They progress up trees in a series of slow hops, gripping onto the bark with their small, sharp claws. They spend most of the day resting. At night, colugos spend most of their time up in the trees foraging, with gliding being used to either find another foraging tree or to find possible mates and protect territory.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spence |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Yeong |first2=Charlene |last3=Lim |first3=Norman T.-L. |last4=Byrnes |first4=Greg |date=2011-04-15 |title=Sex differences in the locomotor ecology of a gliding mammal, the Malayan colugo (Galeopterus variegatus) |url=https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/92/2/444/869618 |journal=[[Journal of Mammalogy]] |language=en |volume=92 |issue=2 |pages=444–451 |doi=10.1644/10-MAMM-A-048.1 |s2cid=84539846 |issn=0022-2372 |access-date=2018-12-05 |archive-date=2018-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205130744/https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/92/2/444/869618 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Behavior and diet ===
Colugos are shy, [[nocturnal]], solitary animals found in the [[tropical forest]]s of Southeast Asia. Consequently, very little is known about their behavior. They are [[herbivores|herbivorous]] and eat leaves, shoots, flowers, sap, and fruit. They have well-developed stomachs and long [[intestine]]s capable of extracting nutrients from leaves and other fibrous material.

As part of colugos' [[evolution]] into a nocturnal species, they developed [[night vision]].<ref>Moritz, G. L., Lim, N. T., Neitz, M., Peichl, L., & Dominy, N. J. (2013). Expression and Evolution of Short Wavelength Sensitive Opsins in Colugos: A Nocturnal Lineage That Informs Debate on Primate Origins. Evolutionary biology, 40(4), 542–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11692-013-9230-y {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116074310/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11692-013-9230-y |date=2023-11-16 }}</ref> Colugos spend their days resting in tree holes and are active at night time; traveling around 1.7 km at night. Colugos may also be a territorial species.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flying Lemur |url=https://a-z-animals.com/animals/flying-lemur/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224100805/https://a-z-animals.com/animals/flying-lemur/ |archive-date=24 December 2023 |website=A-Z Animals|date=25 May 2021 }}</ref>

=== Life cycle ===
Although they are [[placental]]s, colugos raise their young in a manner similar to [[marsupial]]s. Newborn colugos are underdeveloped and weigh only {{cvt|35|g}}.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Macdonald |editor-first=David W. |title=The Encyclopedia of Mammals |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-920608-7}}</ref> They spend the first six months of life clinging to their mother's belly. The mother colugo curls her tail and folds her patagium into a warm, secure, quasipouch to protect and transport her young. The young do not reach maturity until they are two to three years old.<ref name=EoM/> In captivity, they live up to 15 years, but their [[Maximum life span|lifespan]] in the wild is unknown.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/Colugo |title=Colugo |last=Amsel |first=Sheri |website=Exploring Nature Educational Resource |access-date=2018-12-23 |archive-date=2018-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223121153/https://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/Colugo |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Status ==
Both species are threatened by [[habitat destruction]], and the [[Philippine flying lemur]] was once classified by the [[IUCN]] as vulnerable. In 1996, the IUCN declared the species vulnerable owing to destruction of lowland forests and hunting. It was downlisted to [[least-concern]] status in 2008 but still faces the same threats. In addition to the ongoing clearing of its rainforest habitat, it is hunted for its meat and fur. It is also a favorite prey item for the [[critically endangered]] [[Philippine eagle]]; some studies suggest colugos account for 90% of the eagle's diet.<ref name=" Chandler ">{{Cite book| last1 =Chandler| first1 = David| last2 = Couzens| first2 = Dominic| title = 100 Birds to See Before You Die| place= London| publisher = Carleton Books| year = 2008|page = 171|isbn = 978-1-84442-019-3 }}</ref>

== Taxonomy ==
Their family name Cynocephalidae comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] κύων (''kúon''), meaning "dog", and κεφαλή (''kephalḗ''), meaning "head", because their heads are broad with short snouts like dogs.<ref name="TNHC">{{cite web |url=http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=493.494 |title=Colugos or 'Flying lemurs' |last=Baines |first=Elizabeth |date=2001 |website=The Natural History Collections |publisher=[[University of Edinburgh]] |access-date=30 August 2023 |archive-date=30 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830142003/http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=493.494 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Classification and evolution ==
It is estimated the ancestors of the colugos split from other mammals about 80 million years ago, leading to the present day forms that consist of 7 to 14 extant species.<ref>[https://phys.org/news/2016-08-dna-analysis-colugos-primate-sister.html DNA analysis suggests colugos are part of a primate sister group]</ref> The [[Mixodectidae]] and [[Plagiomenidae]] appear to be fossil Dermoptera. Although other [[Paleogene]] mammals have been interpreted as related to dermopterans, the evidence for this association is uncertain and many of the fossils are no longer interpreted as being gliding mammals.<ref>{{cite conference |title=The first dentally associated skeleton of Plagiomenidae (Mammalia, ?Dermoptera) from the late Paleocene of Wyoming |date=November 2011 |doi=10.13140/2.1.1302.4322 |conference=Society of Vertebrate Paleontology 71st Annual Meeting |location=Las Vegas, NV}}</ref> At present, the fossil record of definitive dermopterans is limited to two species of the [[Eocene]] and [[Oligocene]] cynocephalid genus ''[[Dermotherium]]''.<ref name=Marivauxetal06>{{cite journal |author1=Marivaux, L. |author2=L. Bocat |author3=Y. Chaimanee |author4=J.-J. Jaeger |author5=B. Marandat |author6=P. Srisuk |author7=P. Tafforeau |author8=C. Yamee |author9=J.-L. Welcomme |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=Cynocephalid dermopterans from the Palaeogene of South Asia (Thailand, Myanmar and Pakistan): Systematic, evolutionary and palaeobiogeographic implications |journal=[[Zoologica Scripta]] |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=395–420 |doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2006.00235.x |s2cid=86572864}}</ref>

[[Molecular phylogeny|Molecular phylogenetic]] studies have demonstrated that colugos emerged as a [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] [[Primatomorpha]] [[clade]] – which, in turn, is a basal [[Euarchontoglires]] clade. [[Scandentia]] are widely considered to be the closest relatives of Primatomorpha, within [[Euarchonta]]. Some studies, however, place Scandentia as sister of [[Glires]] ([[Lagomorpha|lagomorphs]] and [[rodent]]s), in an unnamed sister clade of the Primatomorpha.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Meredith |first1=Robert W. |last2=Janečka |first2=Jan E. |last3=Gatesy |first3=John |last4=Ryder |first4=Oliver A. |last5=Fisher |first5=Colleen A. |last6=Teeling |first6=Emma C. |last7=Goodbla |first7=Alisha |last8=Eizirik |first8=Eduardo |last9=Simão |first9=Taiz L. L. |date=2011-10-28 |title=Impacts of the cretaceous terrestrial revolution and KPg extinction on mammal diversification |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=334 |issue=6055 |pages=521–524 |doi=10.1126/science.1211028 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=21940861 |bibcode=2011Sci...334..521M |s2cid=38120449}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Xuming |last2=Sun|first2=Fengming |last3=Xu |first3=Shixia |last4=Yang |first4=Guang |last5=Li |first5=Ming|date=2015-03-01 |title=The position of tree shrews in the mammalian tree: Comparing multi-gene analyses with phylogenomic results leaves monophyly of Euarchonta doubtful |journal=Integrative Zoology |language=en |volume=10|issue=2 |pages=186–198 |doi=10.1111/1749-4877.12116 |issn=1749-4877 |pmid=25311886}}</ref>

{{Clade
| label1=[[Euarchontoglires]]
| 1={{Clade
|1={{clade
| 1=[[Scandentia]] (treeshrews)
| label2=[[Glires]]
| 2={{Clade
| 1=[[Lagomorpha]] (rabbits, hares, pikas)
| 2=[[Rodent]]ia (rodents)
}}
}}

| label2=[[Primatomorpha]]
| 2={{Clade
| 1='''Dermoptera''' (colugos)
| 2={{Clade
| 1=†[[Plesiadapiformes]]
|state1=double
| 2=[[Primate]]s}} }} }}
}}

* '''Order Dermoptera'''
** †'''Family [[Plagiomenidae]]'''?
*** †''[[Planetetherium]]''
**** †''Planetetherium mirabile''
*** †''[[Plagiomene]]''
**** †''Plagiomene multicuspis''
** †'''Family [[Mixodectidae]]'''?
*** †''[[Dracontolestes]]''
**** †''Dracontolestes aphantus''
*** †''[[Eudaemonema]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=Craig S. |date=5 November 2010 |title=Eudaemonema webbi sp. nov. (Mammalia, Mixodectidae) from the late Paleocene of western Canada: the youngest known mixodectid |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/E10-074?journalCode=cjes |access-date= |journal=[[Canadian Science Publishing]]|volume=47 |issue=12 |pages=1451–1462 |doi=10.1139/E10-074 |bibcode=2010CaJES..47.1451S |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
**** †''[[Eudaemonema cuspidata]]''
*** †''[[Mixodectes]]''
**** †''[[Mixodectes pungens]]''
**** †''[[Mixodectes malaris]]''
** '''Family Cynocephalidae'''
*** ''[[Cynocephalus]]''
**** Philippine flying lemur, ''Cynocephalus volans''
*** ''[[Galeopterus]]''
**** Sunda flying lemur, ''Galeopterus variegatus''
*** †''[[Dermotherium]]''
**** †''Dermotherium major''
**** †''Dermotherium chimaera''

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Colugo's claw.jpg|Claw of [[Sunda flying lemur]]
File:Colugo (Cynocephalus variegatus) " red " morph (8064072543).jpg|A red morph of a [[Sunda flying lemur|colugo]]
File:Cynocephalus volans 58339590.jpg|Black morph of a Sunda flying colugo
File:Sunda Flying Lemur.jpg|Colugo in a tree
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{EB1911 poster|Galeopithecus}}
{{Commons}}

*[https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/688278 Flying lemurs are the closest relatives of primates]

{{Mammals}}
{{Colugo nav}}
{{Euarchontoglires|E.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q183383|from2=Q11762767}}
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[[Category:Colugos| ]]
[[Category:Priabonian first appearances]]
[[Category:Extant Eocene first appearances]]