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Betulaceae

2025-08-09T21:51:03Z

2A00:23C5:FE1C:3701:7489:D339:A3D0:2F3A: /* Fossil genera */ apparent indentation error

{{Short description|Family of flowering plants comprising hazel and birch trees}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=March 2013}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|fossil_range = {{fossilrange|70|0}}
|image = Alnus glutinosa.jpg
|image_caption = Black alder (''[[Alnus glutinosa]]'')
|taxon = Betulaceae
|authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]]<ref name="apgiii">{{Citation |author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x |doi-access=free |hdl=10654/18083 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
|type_genus = ''[[Betula]]''
|type_genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies and genera
|subdivision = See text
|range_map = Betulaceae Distribution.svg
|range_map_caption = The range of the Betulaceae
}}
[[File:Catkins Corylus avellana-Mont Bart-5124~2015 12 26.JPG|thumb|Catkins of the hazel (''[[Corylus avellana]]'')]]

'''Betulaceae''', the '''birch family''', includes six genera of [[deciduous]] [[nut (fruit)|nut]]-bearing [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s, including the [[birch]]es, [[alder]]s, [[hazel]]s, [[hornbeam]]s, [[Ostryopsis|hazel-hornbeam]], and [[Ostrya|hop-hornbeam]]s, numbering a total of 167 species.<ref name="Christenhusz-Byng2016">{{cite journal |author1=Christenhusz, M. J. M. |author2=Byng, J. W. |name-list-style=amp | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | pages = 201–217 | url = http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | issue = 3 | publisher = Magnolia Press | doi-access = free |bibcode=2016Phytx.261..201C }}</ref> They are mostly natives of the temperate [[Northern Hemisphere]], with a few species reaching the [[Southern Hemisphere]] in the [[Andes]] in [[South America]]. Their typical flowers are [[catkins]] and often appear before leaves.

In the past, the family was often divided into two families, Betulaceae (''Alnus'', ''Betula'') and Corylaceae (the rest). Recent treatments, including the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]], have described these two groups as subfamilies within an expanded Betulaceae: [[Betuloideae]] and [[Coryloideae]].

Betulaceae flowers are monoecious, meaning that they have both male and female flowers on the same tree. Their flowers present as catkins and are small and inconspicuous, often with reduced perianth parts. These flowers have large feathery stamen and produce a high volume of pollen, as they rely on wind pollination. Their leaves are simple, with alternate arrangement and doubly serrate margins.

==Evolutionary history==
The Betulaceae are believed to have originated at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period (about 70 million years ago) in [[Sichuan Province|central China]]. This region at the time would have had a [[Mediterranean climate]] due to the proximity of the [[Tethys Sea]], which covered parts of present-day [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]] into the early [[Tertiary period]]. This point of origin is supported by the fact that all six genera and 52 species are native to this region, many of those being [[endemism|endemic]]. All six modern genera are believed to have diverged fully by the [[Oligocene]], with all genera in the family (with the exception of ''[[Ostryopsis]]'') having a [[fossil record]] stretching back at least 20 million years from the present.

According to [[molecular phylogeny]], the closest relatives of the Betulaceae are the [[Casuarinaceae]], or the she-oaks.<ref name="soltis2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Soltis DE, Smith SA, Cellinese N, Wurdack KJ, Tank DC, Brockington SF, Refulio-Rodriguez NF, Walker JB, Moore MJ, Carlsward BS, Bell CD, Latvis M, Crawley S, Black C, Diouf D, Xi Z, Rushworth CA, Gitzendanner MA, Sytsma KJ, Qiu YL, Hilu KW, Davis CC, Sanderson MJ, Beaman RS, Olmstead RG, Judd WS, Donoghue MJ, Soltis PS | year = 2011 | title = Angiosperm phylogeny: 17 genes, 640 taxa | journal = [[American Journal of Botany|Am J Bot]] | volume = 98 | issue = 4 | pages = 704–730 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.1000404| pmid = 21613169 | bibcode = 2011AmJB...98..704S | s2cid = 8204080 | hdl = 2027.42/142064 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

==Uses==
[[Image:Corylus avellana.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Corylus avellana]]'' foliage and nuts]]
The common hazel (''[[Corylus avellana]]'') and the filbert (''[[Corylus maxima]]'') are important [[orchard]] plants, grown for their edible [[nut (fruit)|nuts]].

The other genera include a number of popular [[ornamental plant|ornamental trees]], widely planted in parks and large gardens; several of the birches are particularly valued for their smooth, brightly coloured [[Bark (botany)|bark]].

The [[wood]] is generally hard, tough and heavy, [[hornbeam]]s particularly so; several species were of significant importance in the past where very hard wood capable of withstanding heavy wear was required, such as for [[cart]]wheels, [[water wheel]]s, [[gear|cog wheels]], [[tool]] handles, chopping boards, and wooden pegs. In most of these uses, wood has now been replaced by [[metal]] or other man-made materials.

==Subfamilies and genera==
===Extant genera===
*Betuloideae
**''[[Alnus]]'' Mill. 1754 – alder
**''[[Betula]]'' L. 1753 – birch
*[[Coryloideae]]
**''[[Carpinus]]'' L. 1753 – hornbeam
**''[[Corylus]]'' L. 1753 – hazel
**''[[Ostrya]]'' Scop. 1760 – hop-hornbeam
**''[[Ostryopsis]]'' Decne. 1873 – hazel-hornbeam

===Fossil genera===
*Betuloidea
**{{extinct}}''[[Alnipollenites]]'' {{small|R. Potonié, 1931}} (pollen)
**†''[[Alnoxylon]]'' {{small|Felix, 1884}} (wood)
**†''[[Alnuspollenites]]'' {{small|Raatz, 1938}} (pollen)
**†''[[Betulapollenites]]'' {{small|R. Potonié, 1937}} (pollen)
**†''[[Betulaepollenites]]'' {{small|R. Potonié, 1934}} (pollen)
**†''[[Paralnoxylon]]'' {{small|Doweld, 2021}} (wood)
*Coryloidea
**†''[[Asterocarpinus]]'' {{small|Manchester & Crane, 1987}} (fruits)
**†''[[Coryloides]]'' {{small|Manchester, 1994}} (fruits)
**†''[[Cranea]]'' {{small|Manchester & Chen, 1998}} (fruits, flowers, pollen & Leaves)
**†''[[Corylocarpinus]]'' {{small|Straus, 1969}} (fruits)
**†''[[Craspedodromophyllum]]'' {{small|P.R. Crane, 1981}} (leaves)
**†''[[Kardiasperma]]'' {{small|Manchester, 1994}} (fruits)
**†''[[Palaeocarpinus]]'' {{small|P.R. Crane, 1981}} (fruits)
**†''[[Paracarpinus]]'' {{small|Manchester & P.R. Crane, 1987}} (leaves)
*''Incertae sedis''
**†''[[Alniphyllum (Nathorst)|Alniphyllum]]'' {{small|Nathorst, 1886}} (leaves)
**†''[[Alnites]]'' {{small|Göppert, 1837}} (leaves, flowers, fruits)
**†''[[Alnophyllum]]'' {{small|Staub, 1884}} (leaves)
**†''[[Betulites]]'' {{small|Göppert, 1837}} (flowers)
**†''[[Betulacites]]'' {{small|Agranovskaja, Botscharnikova, & Martynova, 1960}} (pollen)
**†''[[Betulinium]]'' {{small|Unger, 1842}} (wood)
**†''[[Trivestibulopollenites]]'' {{small|Pflug & P.W. Thomson, 1953}} (pollen)
**†''[[Betuliphyllum]]'' {{small|Dusén in Nordenskjöld, 1899}} (leaves)
**†''[[Betuloidites]]'' {{small|R. Potonié, Thomson, & Thiergart, 1950}} (pollen)
**†''[[Betuloxylon]]'' {{small|Kaiser, 1880}} (wood)
**†''[[Carpinicarpus]]'' {{small|Nikitin, 1966}} (fruits)
**†''[[Carpiniphyllum]]'' {{small|Nathorst ex Krassilov, 1979}} (leaves)
**†''[[Carpinites]]'' {{small|Göppert & Berendt, 1845}} (flowers)
**†''[[Carpinoxylon]]'' {{small|Vater, 1884}} (wood)
**†''[[Carpinuspollenites]]'' {{small|R. Potonié, Thomson, & Thiergart, 1949}} (pollen)
**†''[[Castanopsispollenites]]'' {{small|Thiergart, 1937}} (pollen)
**†''[[Clethrites]]'' {{small|Beuth, 1776}} (wood)
**†''[[Corylipollenites]]'' {{small|R. Potonié, 1934}} (pollen)
**†''[[Corylites]]'' {{small|Gardner, 1887}} (leaves)
**†''[[Coryloidites]]'' {{small|R. Potonié, Thomson, & Thiergart, 1949}} (pollen)
**†''[[Corylophyllum]]'' {{small|J. Dawson, 1888}} (leaves)
**†''[[Coryloxylon]]'' {{small|U. Prakash, Březinová, & Bůžek, 1971}} (wood)
**†''[[Coryluspollenites]]'' {{small|Raatz, 1938}} (pollen)
**†''[[Eucarpinoxylon]]'' {{small|MuellerStoll & Maedel, 1959}} (wood)
**†''[[Ostryoipollenites]]'' {{small|R. Potonié, 1960}} (pollen)
**†''[[Phegites]]'' {{small|C.N. Lange ex J.F. Krüger, 1825}} (wood)
**†''[[Rhizoalnoxylon]]'' {{small|Conwentz, 1880}} (root)
**†''[[Triporopollenites]]'' {{small|Pflug & P.W. Thomson, 1953}} (pollen)

==Phylogenetic systematics==
Modern [[molecular phylogenetics]] suggest the following relationships:<ref name="soltis2011"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Xiang XG, Wang W, Li RQ, Lin L, Liu Y, Zhou ZK, Li ZY, Chen ZD | year = 2014 | title = Large-scale phylogenetic analyses reveal fagalean diversification promoted by the interplay of diaspores and environments in the Paleogene | journal = Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 101–110 | doi = 10.1016/j.ppees.2014.03.001| bibcode = 2014PPEES..16..101X }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen ZD, Manchester SR, Sun HY | year = 1999 | title = Phylogeny and evolution of the Betulaceae as inferred from DNA sequences, morphology, and palaeobotany | journal = [[American Journal of Botany|Am J Bot]] | volume = 86 | issue = 8 | pages = 1168–1181 | doi=10.2307/2656981| jstor = 2656981 | pmid = 10449397 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

{{Clade| style=line-height:75%;
|1={{clade
|1= [[Myricaceae]] ([[Outgroup (cladistics)|outgroup]])
|label2=Betulaceae
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Coryloideae]]
|1={{clade
|1= ''[[Corylus]]''
|2={{clade
|1= ''[[Ostryopsis]]''
|2={{clade
|1= ''[[Ostrya]]''
|2= ''[[Carpinus]]''
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Betuloideae
|2={{clade
|1= ''[[Alnus]]''
|2= ''[[Betula]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Commons category|Betulaceae}}

{{Angiosperm families}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q156064}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Betulaceae| ]]
[[Category:Rosid families]]
[[Category:Extant Maastrichtian first appearances]]
[[Category:Taxa named by John Edward Gray]]

Linus's law

2025-08-09T20:10:24Z

2A00:23C5:FE1C:3701:7489:D339:A3D0:2F3A:

{{short description|1999 claim by Eric S. Raymond about software development, named after Linus Torvalds}}

In [[software development]], '''Linus's law''' is the assertion that "given enough eyeballs, all [[software bug|bug]]s are shallow".
The law was formulated by [[Eric S. Raymond]] in his essay and book ''[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]'' (1999), and was named in honor of [[Linus Torvalds]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Cathedral and the Bazaar |first=Eric S. |last=Raymond |author-link=Eric S. Raymond | work=catb.org |url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/cathedral-bazaar/ar01s04.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Cathedral and the Bazaar |first=Eric S. |last=Raymond |year=1999 |page=30 | publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]] |isbn=1-56592-724-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F6qgFtLwpJgC&pg=PA30}}</ref>

A more formal statement is: "Given a large enough [[beta test|beta-tester]] and co-[[programmer|developer]] base, almost every problem will be characterized quickly and the fix obvious to someone." Presenting the code to multiple developers with the purpose of reaching consensus about its acceptance is a simple form of [[software review]]ing. Researchers and practitioners have repeatedly shown the effectiveness of reviewing processes in finding bugs and security issues.<ref>{{cite book| first1=Charles P. |last1=Pfleeger|first2= Shari Lawrence |last2=Pfleeger|title=Security in Computing, 4th Ed. |isbn=0-13-239077-9 |pages=154–157 |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] PTR |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3VB-zspJo4C&pg=PA154 }}</ref>

== Validity ==
In ''Facts and Fallacies about Software Engineering,'' [[Robert L. Glass|Robert Glass]] refers to the law as a "mantra" of the [[Open-source model|open source]] movement, but calls it a fallacy due to the lack of supporting evidence and because research has indicated that the rate at which additional bugs are uncovered does not scale linearly with the number of reviewers; rather, there is a small maximum number of useful reviewers, between two and four, and additional reviewers above this number uncover bugs at a much lower rate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glass |first=Robert L. |title=Facts and Fallacies of Software Engineering |isbn=0-321-11742-5 |year=2003 |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]] |page=174 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Ntz-UJzZN0C&pg=PA174}} {{ISBN|978-0321117427}}.</ref> While closed-source practitioners also promote stringent, independent [[code analysis]] during a software project's development, they focus on in-depth review by a few and not primarily the number of "eyeballs".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Howard |first1=Michael |last2=LeBlanc |first2=David |title=Writing Secure Code, 2nd. Ed. |pages=44–45, 615, 726 |isbn=0-7356-1722-8 |publisher=[[Microsoft Press]] |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uafp7m2wPcMC&q=Writing+Secure+Code }}</ref>

The persistence of the [[Heartbleed]] security bug in a critical piece of code for two years has been considered a refutation of Raymond's dictum.<ref>{{cite web |first=Bruce |last=Byfield |title=Does Heartbleed Disprove 'Open Source is Safer'? |work=[[Datamation]] |date=April 14, 2014 |url=https://www.datamation.com/open-source/does-heartbleed-disprove-open-source-is-safer-1.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0714-14 |first1=Edward W. |last1=Felten |first2=Joshua A. |last2=Kroll |title=Help Wanted on Internet Security |journal=Scientific American |year=2014 |volume=311 |issue=1 |page=14 |pmid=24974688 |bibcode=2014SciAm.311a..14F }}</ref><ref name="Bugs Aren't Shallow" /><ref name="Heartbleed matter" /> Larry Seltzer suspects that the availability of source code may cause some developers and researchers to perform less extensive tests than they would with [[closed source]] software, making it easier for bugs to remain.<ref name="Heartbleed matter">{{Cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/did-open-source-matter-for-heartbleed/ |date=April 14, 2014 |title=Did open source matter for Heartbleed?|first=Larry|last=Seltzer|website=ZDNet}}</ref>
In 2015, the [[Linux Foundation]]'s executive director Jim Zemlin argued that the complexity of modern software has increased to such levels that specific resource allocation is desirable to improve its security. Regarding some of 2014's largest global open source [[software vulnerabilities]], he says, "In these cases, the eyeballs weren't really looking".<ref name="Bugs Aren't Shallow">{{cite web | title=Why All Linux (Security) Bugs Aren't Shallow | date=February 20, 2015 | first=Sean Michael | last=Kerner | publisher=eSecurity Planet | url=http://www.esecurityplanet.com/open-source-security/why-all-linux-security-bugs-arent-shallow.html | access-date=February 21, 2015}}</ref> Large scale experiments or peer-reviewed surveys to test how well the mantra holds in practice have not been performed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arceneaux |first=Kevin |last2=Gerber |first2=Alan S. |last3=Green |first3=Donald P. |date=January 2006 |title=Comparing Experimental and Matching Methods Using a Large-Scale Voter Mobilization Experiment |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/political-analysis/article/abs/comparing-experimental-and-matching-methods-using-a-largescale-voter-mobilization-experiment/E7B43806BEE0FB3000EE6627A9C03720 |journal=Political Analysis |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=37–62 |doi=10.1093/pan/mpj001 |issn=1047-1987|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Empirical support of the validity of Linus's law<ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Amit |first1=Idan |last2=Feitelson |first2=Dror G.|date=2020 |title=The Corrective Commit Probability Code Quality Metric |class=cs.SE |eprint=2007.10912}}</ref> was obtained by comparing popular and unpopular projects of the same organization. Popular projects are projects with the top 5% of [[GitHub]] stars (7,481 stars or more). Bug identification was measured using the corrective commit probability, the ratio of commits determined to be related to fixing bugs. The analysis showed that popular projects had a higher ratio of bug fixes (e.g., Google's popular projects had a 27% higher bug fix rate than Google's less popular projects). Since it is unlikely that Google lowered its code quality standards in more popular projects, this is an indication of increased bug detection efficiency in popular projects.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Free and open-source software}}
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Code audit]]
* [[Crowdsourcing]]
* [[List of eponymous laws]]
* [[Software peer review]]
* [[Wisdom of the crowd]]
* [[XZ Utils backdoor]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite conference|conference=Int. Conf. on Collaboration Technologies and Systems (CTS), Philadelphia, PA |conference-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=5875054 |author1=Jing Wang |author2=J.M. Carroll |title=Behind Linus's law: A preliminary analysis of open source software peer review practices in Mozi |doi=10.1109/CTS.2011.5928673 |pages=117–124 |publisher=IEEE Xplore Digital Library |date=2011-05-27 }}

{{Linux}}
{{Computer laws}}

[[Category:Computer architecture statements]]
[[Category:Computer-related introductions in 1999]]
[[Category:Computing culture]]
[[Category:Free software culture and documents]]
[[Category:Linus Torvalds]]
[[Category:Linux]]