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Ranworth Antiphoner

2025-09-20T01:27:41Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:508D:AA3A:9A80:3EBE: Added county

{{Short description|15th-century illuminated music manuscript}}
{{Refimprove|date=May 2013}}
[[File:RanworthAntiphonerFol22r.jpg|thumb|300px|Folio 22r of the Ranworth Antiphoner contains a portion of Mattins of the [[Nativity of Jesus|Nativity]]. The decorated initial contains a Nativity scene.]]

The '''Ranworth Antiphoner''' is a 15th-century [[Illuminated manuscript|illuminated]] [[antiphonary|antiphoner]] of the [[Sarum Rite]]. It was commissioned for the [[Church of St Helen, Ranworth|Church of St Helen]] in [[Ranworth]] in [[Norfolk]], where it is on permanent display. The volume comprises 285 [[vellum]] pages of writing and illustrations, with daily services in [[medieval Latin]] and 19 miniatures.

The manuscript was probably the Antiphoner bequeathed to the church in 1478 by William Cobbe.<ref>Revd. H. J. Enraght, Proceedings of the Society during the year 1912, Norfolk Archaeology 18 (1912), xxxiv-xxxvii</ref> Previously thought to have been produced by the monks of [[Langley Abbey]] in [[Norfolk]], examinations of the illuminations suggest that the Antiphoner was manufactured by a Norwich workshop – a basic antiphoner could be produced on spec, and personalised to order.<ref>P. Lasko and N. J. Morgan, Medieval Art in East Anglia 1300-1520 (Norwich: Jarrold and Sons, 1973), p.46</ref> Two things may back this up: 1) the insertion at the end, out of order, of the [[Liturgy of the hours|office]] of St Helen; 2) Revd. Enraght's suggestion of a ''[[terminus ante quem]]'' of 1443, owing to the lack of a feast of St Raphael, which was instituted in that year. Recent research has shown that it was not uncommon for churches to invest in liturgical music books by the later fifteenth century.<ref>C. Burgess and A. Wathey, 'Mapping the Soundscape: Church Music in English Towns, 1450-1550,' pp.37-8</ref>

The Antiphoner miraculously survived the [[Reformation]], probably thanks to the local Holdych family. It fell into private hands, including, in the 1850s, those of [[Henry Huth (bibliophile)|Henry Huth]], and eventually re-surfaced at auction in 1912, where it was bought and returned to St Helen's Church.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Kathleen Scott, Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles, vol. 6: Later Gothic Manuscripts 1390–1490.
*Kathleen Scott, Dated and datable English manuscript borders c. 1395–1499.
*A.I. Doyle, 'The English Provincial Book Trade before Printing' in P. Isaac, ed., Six Centuries of the Provincial Book Trade in Britain.
*P. Lasko and N. J. Morgan, Medieval Art in East Anglia 1300-1520 (Norwich: Jarrold and Sons, 1973)
*M. Williamson, 'Liturgical Music in the Late-Medieval Parish: Organs and Voices, Ways and Means,' in The Parish in Late-Medieval England, ed. Clive Burgess & Eamon Duffy, Harlaxton Medieval Studies, XIV (Donington: Shaun Tyas, 2006), pp. 177-242
*C. Burgess and A. Wathey, 'Mapping the Soundscape: Church Music in English Towns, 1450-1550' (Early Music History, Vol. 19 (2000), pp. 1-46)

==External links==
*http://www.broadsideparishes.org.uk/bspicons/manuscript.htm
*http://www.norfolkchurches.co.uk/ranworth/ranworth.htm
*http://ranworthantiphoner.blogspot.co.uk/p/ranworth-antiphoner.html

[[Category:Music illuminated manuscripts]]
[[Category:15th-century illuminated manuscripts]]
[[Category:Catholic liturgical books]]

Merovingian script

2025-09-20T01:14:26Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:508D:AA3A:9A80:3EBE: /* Script types */

{{short description|Medieval Latin script}}

[[File:Merov2.jpg|350px|thumb|Merovingian script sample from an evangelary internally dated to AD 754, from F. Steffens's ''Lateinische Paläographie'' (1929): ''ego hacse jnperitus gundohinus poscen- / te fulculfo monacho et si non ut dibui / psaltjm ut ualui a capite usque ad sui con[summacionis finem...]'']]
'''Merovingian script''' or '''Gallo-Roman script''' ({{langx|la|Scriptura Merovingica/Francogallica}}) was a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] variant of the [[Latin script]] so called because it was developed in [[Gaul]] during the [[Merovingian dynasty]]. It was used in the 7th and 8th centuries before the [[Carolingian]] dynasty and the development of [[Carolingian minuscule]].

==Script types==
There were four major centres of Merovingian script: the monasteries of [[Abbey of Luxeuil|Luxeuil]], [[Laon]], [[Corbie]], and [[Chelles, Seine-et-Marne|Chelles]]. Each script developed from the [[Merovingian]] charter scripts, in turn derived from the late [[Roman cursive]].<ref>Bischoff (1989: 103)</ref>

===Luxeuil===
[[Image:Lect Luxeuil 144.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Folio 144 of the ''Lectionary of Luxeuil'', manuscript Lat. 9427, at the [[Bibliothèque Nationale de France]] in Paris, written in the Luxeuil type. The folio's content consists of [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 5:17-25. {{Lang|la|Tempore illo exsur- / gens autem princeps sacerdotum: et omnes / qui cum illo erant· quae est heresis sadducaeorum}}·...]]

The Luxeuil type uses distinctive long, slim capital letters as a display script. These capitals have wedge-shaped finials, and the crossbar of ⟨a⟩ resembles a small letter ⟨v⟩ while that of ⟨h⟩ is a wavy line. The letter ⟨o⟩ is often written as a diamond shape, with a smaller ⟨o⟩ written inside. The letter ⟨a⟩ resembles two ⟨c⟩s ("cc"), and because of this distinctive feature the Luxeuil type is sometimes called "a type".{{sfn|Stiennon| 1991|p=90}} The letter ⟨b⟩ often has an open bowl and an arm connecting it to the following letter, the letter ⟨d⟩ can have either a vertical [[Ascender (typography)|ascender]] or an ascender slanted to the left; ⟨i⟩ is often very tall, resembling l; ⟨n⟩ can be written with an uncial form (similar to a capital ⟨N⟩); ⟨o⟩ is often drop-shaped and has a line connecting it to the next letter; and ⟨t⟩ has a loop extending to the left of its top stroke. The letter ⟨t⟩ is also used in numerous [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]] where it has many other forms. The letters ⟨e⟩ and ⟨r⟩ are also quite often found in ligature.

===Laon===
The Laon type has thicker display capitals than the Luxeuil type. Capital initial letters are often decorated with animals, and there are many ligatures with the letter ⟨i⟩. Like [[Visigothic script]], there are two different ⟨ti⟩ ligatures, representing two different sounds ("hard" and "soft"). The letters ⟨d⟩ and ⟨q⟩ often have open bowls. The letter a is unique, resembling two sharp points ("<<"), and the letter ⟨z⟩, uncommon in Latin, is nevertheless very distinctive in the Laon type, with a flourish projecting upwards to the left, above the line. Because of these features, Laon type is sometimes called "a-z type".

===Corbie===
The Corbie type as used in the 8th century, was based on uncial and the Luxeuil type, but was also similar to half-uncial and [[insular script]], with elements of Roman cursive. It is sometimes called "eN-type", as the letter ⟨e⟩ has a high, open upper loop, and the uncial form of the letter ⟨n⟩ (resembling majuscule ⟨N⟩) is very frequently used. After the mid-8th century, the letter (a) also has an open loop and resembles the letter ⟨u⟩; this type is referred to as "eNa-type". A more distinctive type was developed at Corbie in the 9th century, the "a-b type". The letter ⟨b⟩ is similar to Luxeuil type, but the letter ⟨a⟩ has a straight first stroke, resembling a combination of ⟨i⟩ and ⟨c⟩. This type was used from the end of the 8th century until the mid-9th century. The [[Liber glossarum]], a major medieval reference work, was written in the "a-b type" script of Corbie.

===Chelles===
The Chelles type was similar to the Luxeuil a-b type. Other features include the uncial ⟨N⟩, with strokes leaning to the left; the letter d with an ascender leaning to the left; the letter ⟨g⟩ with a [[descender]] resembling the letter ⟨s⟩; the letter ⟨s⟩ with a very small top loop; and the letter ⟨x⟩ with the two strokes crossing near the top of the line rather than the middle.

==Development==
There was also a Merovingian [[cursive]] script, used in charters and non-religious writings. All of these types were later influenced by Carolingian script, which eventually replaced it entirely. Along with resemblances to Carolingian and Visigothic, Merovingian shares some features with [[Beneventan script]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book|last=Bischoff|first=Bernard|title=Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages|year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Marcos|first=Juan-Jose|title=Manual of Latin Palaeography|year=2024|url=https://www.typofonts.com/LATIN_PALEOGRAPHY.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Lowe|first=E. A.|title=Codices Latini Antiquiores: A Palaeographical Guide to Latin Manuscripts Prior to the Ninth Century|year=1972|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford}}
* {{cite book|last=Stiennon|first=Jacques|title=Paléographie du moyen âge|year=1991|publisher=Armand Colin|location=Paris|isbn=2-200-31278-4|edition=2nd|ol=19938510M}}
{{refend}}

{{European calligraphy}}
{{list of writing systems}}

[[Category:Latin-script calligraphy]]
[[Category:Merovingian period|Script]]
[[Category:Medieval scripts]]
[[Category:Western calligraphy]]

Pope Adrian I

2025-09-20T01:10:59Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:508D:AA3A:9A80:3EBE: /* Franks */Enlarged image

{{Short description|Head of the Catholic Church from 772 to 795}}
{{redirect|Hadrian I|the Roman emperor|Hadrian}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = Pope
| honorific-prefix = [[List of popes|Pope]]
| name = Adrian I
| title = [[Bishop of Rome]]
| church = [[Catholic Church]]
| birth_name =
| term_start = 1 February 772
| term_end = 25 December 795
| predecessor = [[Pope Stephen III|Stephen III]]
| successor = [[Pope Leo III|Leo III]]
| consecration = 9 February 772
| cardinal =
| birth_date = 700
| birth_place = [[Rome]], [[Exarchate of Italy|Italy]], [[Eastern Roman Empire]]
| death_date = 25 December 795 (aged 94-95)
| death_place = [[Rome]], [[Papal States]]
| other = Adrian
| caption = [[Denarius]] of Adrian I
| image = Zecca di roma, denaro di adriano I, 772-795, in argento (bibl. apostolica vaticana).jpg
}}

'''Pope Adrian I''' ({{langx|la|Hadrianus I}}; 700 – 25 December 795) was the [[bishop of Rome]] and ruler of the [[Papal States]] from 1 February 772 until his death on 25 December 795.<ref name="ce">{{CathEncy|wstitle=Pope Adrian I}}</ref> Descended from a family of the military aristocracy of Rome known as ''domini de via Lata'',<ref>Giorgio Schneider Graziosi, ''La «domus Theodorae» sull'Aventino'', in «Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma» — 42.1915; pp. 339-340.</ref> he was the son of Theodore, who died when Hadrian was still very young; he was welcomed by his paternal uncle Theodotus (or Theodatus) ''consul, dux et primicerius Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae''.<br/>

Adrian and his predecessors had to contend with periodic attempts by the Lombards to expand their holdings in Italy at the expense of the papacy. Not receiving any support from Constantinople, the popes looked for help to the Franks. Adrian's tenure saw the culmination of on-going territorial disputes between [[Charlemagne]] and his brother [[Carloman I]]. The Lombard king [[Desiderius]] supported the claims of Carloman's sons to their late father's land, and requested Pope Adrian crown Carloman's sons "Kings of the Franks". When the Pope failed to do so, Desiderius invaded Papal territory and seized the [[Duchy of the Pentapolis]]. Charlemagne besieged [[Pavia]] and took the Lombard crown for himself. He then restored the Pentapolis to the Papacy as well as some of the captured Lombard territory.

==Start of papacy==
Shortly after Adrian's accession in 772, the territory ruled by the papacy was invaded by [[Desiderius]], king of the [[Lombards]], and Adrian was compelled to seek the assistance of the [[Franks|Frankish]] king [[Charlemagne]], who entered Italy with a large army. Charlemagne besieged Desiderius in his capital of [[Pavia]]. After taking the town, he banished the Lombard king to the [[Abbey of Corbie]] in [[France]], and adopted the title "King of the Lombards" himself. The pope, whose expectations had been aroused, had to content himself with some additions to the [[Duchy of Rome]], the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]], and the [[Duchy of the Pentapolis|Pentapolis]] in the [[Marches]],<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Adrian (popes)|display=Adrian|volume=1|page=215}}</ref> which consisted of the "five cities" on the [[Adriatic]] coast from [[Rimini]] to [[Ancona]] with the coastal plain as far as the mountains. He celebrated the occasion by striking the earliest papal coin,<ref>{{cite book |first=Stanley |last=Lane-Poole |title=Coins and medals: their place in history and art |publisher=British Museum |year=1885 |page=80 }}</ref> and in a mark of the direction the mediaeval papacy was to take, no longer dated his documents by the Emperor in the east, but by the reign of Charles, king of the Franks.<ref>{{cite book |first=Walter |last=Ullmann| author-link = Walter Ullmann|title=A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Age |year=2003 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=79 |isbn=978-0415302272 }}</ref> He recognized the authority of Pope Adrian I, and in return the pope gave Charlemagne the title of "Patrician of Rome".

A mark of such newly settled conditions in the Duchy of Rome is the ''[[Domusculta Capracorum]]'', the central [[Roman villa]] that Adrian assembled from a nucleus of his inherited estates and acquisitions from neighbors in the countryside north of [[Veii]]. The villa is documented in ''[[Liber Pontificalis]]'', but its site was not rediscovered until the 1960s, when excavations revealed the structures on a gently rounded hill that was only marginally capable of self-defense, but fully self-sufficient for a mixed economy of grains and [[vineyard]]s, [[olive]]s, vegetable gardens and piggery with its own grain mill, smithies and [[tile-kiln]]s. During the 10th century, villages were carved out of Adrian's Capracorum estate: [[Campagnano di Roma|Campagnano]], mentioned first in 1076; [[Formello]], mentioned in 1027; [[Mazzano Romano|Mazzano]], mentioned in 945; and Stabia (modern [[Faleria]]), mentioned in 998.<ref>{{cite journal |first=J. B. |last=Ward-Perkins |title=Etruscan Towns, Roman Roads and Medieval Villages: The Historical Geography of Southern Etruria |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |volume=128 |issue=4 |year=1962 |pages=389–404 [p. 402] |jstor=1792035 |doi= 10.2307/1792035|bibcode=1962GeogJ.128..389W }}</ref>

==Foreign relations==
===Lombards===
While the Lombards had always been openly respectful of the papacy, the popes distrusted them. The popes had sought aid from the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] to keep them in check. Adrian continued this policy. Because the East could offer no direct aid, Adrian then looked to the Franks to offset the power of the Lombards.

====Background====
Upon the death of [[Pepin the Short]] in 768, his kingdom was left to his sons [[Charlemagne]] and [[Carloman I]]. Relations between the brothers were said to be strained. In 770 Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria married a Lombard princess, [[Liutperga]], daughter of King Desiderius, to confirm the traditional alliance between Lombardy and Bavaria. That same year, Charlemagne concluded a treaty with Duke Tassilo, and married Liutperga's sister, [[Desiderata of the Lombards|Desiderata]], to surround Carloman with his own allies. Less than a year later, Charlemagne repudiated Desiderata and married [[Hildegard (queen)|Hildegard]], the daughter of Count [[Gerold of Kraichgau]] and his wife Emma, daughter, in turn, of [[Duke of Alemannia|Duke]] [[Hnabi|Nebe (Hnabi)]] of Alemannia.<ref>Reinhard Barth: ''Karl der Große'', Munich 2000, pp. 97–98.</ref> Hildegard's father had extensive possessions in the territory under Carloman's dominion. This marriage was advantageous to Charlemagne because it allowed him to strengthen his position east of the Rhine and also bind the Alemannian nobility to his side.<ref>Matthias Becher: ''Karl der Große'', München 1999, p. 108.</ref> With Desiderata's return to her father's court at Pavia, Desiderius was grievously insulted, and appears to have made an alliance with Carloman against Charlemagne and the Papacy, which looked to the Franks for protection against Lombard incursions into Papal territory.<ref name=McKitterick>McKitterick, Rosamond, ''The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians''</ref>

====Italy====
[[File:Iron Crown.JPG|thumb|The [[Iron Crown of Lombardy]], for centuries a symbol of the [[King of Italy|Kings of Italy]]. It resides in the [[Duomo of Monza]].]]
Carloman died in December 771, and when Charlemagne seized his brother's territory, Carloman's widow, [[Gerberga, wife of Carloman I|Gerberga]], and their two sons fled for refuge to the Lombard court at Pavia. Desiderius made overtures to Pope Adrian, requesting that he acknowledge Carloman's sons' right to succeed their father, and crown them as Kings of the Franks.<ref name=McKitterick/> With Charlemagne occupied with a campaign against the Saxons, Desiderius saw an opportunity to take all of Italy. He invaded the [[Duchy of the Pentapolis]] which had been given to the papacy in 756 by Charlemagne's father. Desiderius's support of the claims of Carloman's sons posed a potential challenge to the legitimacy of Charlemagne's possession of his brother's lands. In 773, he cut short a military campaign near Paderborn, crossed the Alps, and laid siege to Pavia. In exchange for their lives, the Lombards surrendered and Desiderius was sent to the abbey of Corbie. Charlemagne assumed the title "King of the Lombards".

===Franks===
[[File:Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|15th-century miniature depicting Adrian I greeting the [[Franks|Frankish]] king [[Charlemagne]]]]
From 781 Adrian began dating papal documents by the years of Charlemagne's reign, instead of the reign of the [[Byzantine Emperor]].<ref>Asimov, I. (1968) ''The Dark Ages'', Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 157.</ref>

Friendly relations between pope and king were not disturbed by the theological dispute about the veneration of icons.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} In 787, [[Seventh Ecumenical Council|Second Council of Nicaea]], approved by Pope Adrian, had confirmed the practice and excommunicated the [[iconoclasm (Byzantine)|iconoclasts]]. Charlemagne, however, who had received the council's decisions only in a bad Latin translation, consulted with his theologians and sent the Pope the ''Capitulare contra synodum'' (792), a response critical of several passages found in the council's acts. He also had his theologians, including [[Theodulf of Orleans]], compose the more comprehensive ''[[Libri Carolini]]''. Pope Adrian reacted to the Capitulare with a defense of the council. In 794, a synod held at [[Frankfurt]] discussed the issue but refused to receive the Libri and contented itself with condemning extreme forms of veneration of icons.

===English===

In 787 Adrian elevated the English [[bishop of Lichfield|diocese of Lichfield]] to an archdiocese at the request of the English bishops and King [[Offa of Mercia]] to balance the ecclesiastic power in that land between [[Kent]] and [[Mercia]]. He gave the [[Lichfield]] bishop [[Hygeberht]] the [[pallium]] in 788.

===Muslim Spain===

Regarding the Muslims, he maintained the prohibition of [[Pope Zachary]] of selling slaves to Muslims, whom Adrian described as "the unspeakable race of [[Saracens]],"<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robin Blackburn|title=The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492–1800|date=1998|publisher=Verso|isbn=9781859841952|page=43|edition=illustrated, reprint}}</ref> in order to guarantee a labor pool and to keep the power of Muslim rivals in check.<ref>{{cite book|author1=John Victor Tolan|author2=Gilles Veinstein|author3=Henry Laurens|title=Europe and the Islamic World: A History|date=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691147055|page=83|edition=illustrated}}</ref> He also encouraged Charlemagne to lead his troops into Spain against the Muslims there,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alex Roberto Hybel|title=Ideology in World Politics|date=13 May 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134012503|page=30}}</ref> and was generally interested in expanding Christian influence and eliminating Muslim control.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Karolyn Kinane|author2=Michael A. Ryan|title=End of Days: Essays on the Apocalypse from Antiquity to Modernity|date=9 Apr 2009|publisher=McFarland|isbn=9780786453597|page=51}}</ref>

The rise in the number of Christian girls being married to Muslims in [[al-Andalus]] prompted a letter of concern from Adrian.{{sfn|Barton|2015|p=21}} Adrian's response was due to dispatches from bishop Egila, who had been tasked with preaching the gospel in the peninsula.{{sfn|Barton|2015|p=21}} Egila eventually fell in with the [[Migetians]], a rigorist sect, provoking Adrian's condemnation.{{sfn|Cavadini|1988|p=32}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Paus Adrianus I Hadrianus primus (titel op object) Liber Chronicarum (serietitel), RP-P-2016-49-58-8.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8 |Adrian I as depicted in the 15th-century ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'']]

Adrian restored some of the ancient [[aqueduct (Roman)|aqueducts]] of Rome and rebuilt the churches of [[Santa Maria in Cosmedin]], decorated by Greek monks fleeing from the iconoclast persecutions, and of [[Basilica di San Marco (Rome)|San Marco]] in Rome. At the time of his death at the age of 95, his was the longest pontificate since [[Saint Peter]] (the first pope) until it was surpassed by the 24-year papacy of [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] in the late 18th century. Only three other popes – [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]], [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]], and [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] – have reigned for longer periods since.

===Epitaph===

Adrian's epitaph was originally located in his burial chapel in [[St. Peter's Basilica]], which was demolished in the mid-15th century as reconstruction works were initiated by [[Pope Nicholas V]]; since 1619 it has been preserved in the [[Narthex|portico]] as rebuilt by [[Carlo Maderno]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Charlemagne's black marble: the origin of the epitaph of Pope Hadrian I |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date={{date|2013/08/09}} |author1=Joanna Story |author2=Judith Bunbury |author3=Anna Candida Felici |author4=Gabriele Fronterotta |author5=Mario Piacentini |author6=Chiara Nicolais |author7=Daria Scacciatelli |author8=Sebastiano Sciuti |author9=Margherita Vendittelli |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/papers-of-the-british-school-at-rome/article/abs/charlemagnes-black-marble-the-origin-of-the-epitaph-of-pope-hadrian-i/135C42520D99CB281326B1A59C955FD8 |journal=Papers of the British School at Rome|volume=73 |pages=157–190 |doi=10.1017/S0068246200003019 |s2cid=191454077 |hdl=2381/2532 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is placed high on the wall between the [[Door of the Dead in St. Peter's Basilica|Door of the Dead]] and the Door of Good and Evil.<ref>{{cite web|website=St Peter's Basilica.info |url=http://stpetersbasilica.info/Interior/Portico/Portico.htm |title=The Portico}}</ref> [[Charlemagne]] commissioned it in 796 and organized a literary competition for the text, won by [[Alcuin]]; a competing entry by [[Theodulf of Orléans]] also survives.<ref name=Nelson>{{cite book|author=Janet L. Nelson |title=King and Emperor: A New Life of Charlemagne|date=2019 |location=Oakland CA |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>{{rp|347–351}} Alcuin's text,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Vatican-St-Peter-epitaph-of-pope-Hadrian-I-taken-from-Silvagni-1943-pl-II-fig-6_fig1_319009882|title=Vatican, St. Peter, epitaph of pope Hadrian I (taken from Silvagni 1943, pl. II, fig. 6). |website=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIW9EAAAQBAJ |title=Charlemagne and Rome: Alcuin and the Epitaph of Pope Hadrian I |pages=xxii-xxiii |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2023 |author=Joanna Story |isbn=978-0-19-920634-6 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199206346.001.0001}}</ref> in which Charlemagne speaks affectionately of Adrian as his lost (spiritual) father, was carved in [[Roman square capitals]] on [[Noir Belge|black limestone]] from [[Sclayn]] in the [[Meuse]] valley, now in [[Belgium]].{{R|Nelson|page=350}} Its lettering has been described as "perfect and sharp" and is a notable exemplar of Carolingian monumental script.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Alcuin's Epitaph of Hadrian I: A Study In Carolingian Epigraphy |author=Luitpold Wallach |journal=The American Journal of Philology |date=1951 |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=128–144 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |doi=10.2307/292542 |jstor=292542}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Carolingian Graphic Reform in Italy: Effects on Epigraphy |author=Flavia Frauzel |date=2014 |url=https://www.academia.edu/11944940 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref> The contemporaneous [[Annales laureshamenses|Annals of Lorsch]] refer to Adrian's epitaph being made in [[Francia]] and transported to Rome on Charlemagne's orders, and describe it as "written in gold letters on marble."{{R|Nelson|page=349}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|Christianity|History}}
*[[List of Catholic saints]]
*[[List of popes]]
*[[List of popes by length of reign]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |title= Conquerors, Brides, and Concubines: Interfaith Relations and Social Power in Medieval Iberia |first=Simon |last=Barton |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2015}}
*{{cite thesis |first=John C. |last=Cavadini |title=The Last Christology of the West: Adoptionism in Spain and in Gaul, AD 785–817 |institution=Yale University |year=1988 |type=Doctoral thesis}}

==External links==
*{{commons category-inline|Hadrianus I|Pope Adrian I}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050408061217/http://www.ccel.org/fathers/NPNF2-14/7nice2/session2.htm Partial letter from Pope Adrian to the 2nd session of the Seventh Ecumenical Council]

{{s-start}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Pope Stephen III|Stephen III]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Pope]]|years=772–795}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Pope Leo III|Leo III]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Popes}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adrian 01}}
[[Category:795 deaths]]
[[Category:Popes]]
[[Category:Italian popes]]
[[Category:8th-century archbishops]]
[[Category:700 births]]
[[Category:8th-century popes]]
[[Category:Burials at St. Peter's Basilica]]

Portchester Castle

2025-09-19T17:58:57Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:508D:AA3A:9A80:3EBE: /* Medieval castle and palace */Enlarged image

{{Short description|Medieval castle on Roman site in Hampshire, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2015}}
{{Infobox military installation
| name=Portchester Castle
| partof=
| location=[[Portchester]], [[Hampshire]]
| image=Portchester castle 04.jpg
| image_size =
| caption=The inner bailey
| pushpin_map=Hampshire
| coordinates = {{coord|50.836546|-1.113034|type:landmark_region:GB|format=dms|display=inline,title}}<br />{{gbmapping|SU624045}}
{{Infobox designation list
| embed = yes
| designation1_offname = ''Portchester Castle''
| designation1 = Scheduled monument
| designation1_date = 13 January 1915
| designation1_number = {{Listed building England|1015698}}
| designation2_offname = ''Portchester Castle''
| designation2 = Grade I
| designation2_date = 18 October 1955
| designation2_number = {{Listed building England|1229190}}
}}
}}
'''Portchester Castle''' is a medieval fortress that was developed within the walls of the Roman [[Saxon Shore]] fort of [[Portus Adurni]] at [[Portchester]], to the east of [[Fareham]] in [[Hampshire]].

The [[keep]] was probably built in the late 11th century as a baronial castle, before Portchester came under royal control in 1154. The monarchy controlled the castle for several centuries; it was a favoured hunting lodge of King [[John, King of England|John]], and was besieged and captured by the French in 1216 before permanently returning to the English shortly thereafter.

With a commanding position at the head of [[Portsmouth Harbour]], Portchester was an important port in the medieval period. The castle saw the embarkation for several campaigns to France led by England's kings. In anticipation of a French invasion during the first quarter of the 14th century, [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] spent £1,100 repairing and reinforcing Portchester Castle. A plot to overthrow [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] was discovered and the culprits apprehended at Portchester; this event features in Shakespeare's play ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]''. Later in its history, the castle was used as a prison.

Today Portchester Castle is a [[Scheduled monument]],<ref name="Pastscape">{{PastScape |mname=Portchester Castle |mnumber=238704 |mode=cs2 |access-date=2008-01-27}}</ref> and a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref name="Images of England">{{NHLE |num=1229190 |desc=Portchester Castle |mode=cs2 |access-date=2008-01-27}}</ref> The castle has been in the ownership of the Southwick Estate since the 17th century<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/A2A/records.aspx?cat=041-daly_2&cid=-1&Gsm=2008-06-18#-1|title=Southwick and Norman Court Estates|work=Access to Archives|publisher=[[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|The National Archives]]|access-date=2009-11-04}}</ref> but is managed by [[English Heritage]] and open to visitors throughout the year.<ref name="eh">{{cite web |title=History of Portchester Castle |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/portchester-castle/history-and-stories/history/ |publisher=[[English Heritage]] |access-date=24 July 2019}}</ref> The [[Norman architecture|Norman]] church, St. Mary's, which stands in the south-east corner of the grounds, falls within the [[Anglican Diocese of Portsmouth]].

==Background==
{{Main|Portus Adurni}}
[[File:Portchester Castle D shaped towers.JPG|thumb|upright=1.45|left|The D-shaped towers are typical of 3rd-century Roman forts, containing horizontal layers of distinctive Roman red-brick tiles. These Roman defences were integrated into the medieval castle.]]
The strategic importance of Portchester has been recognised since at least the 3rd century when a [[castra|Roman fort]] was established on the site. Though it is uncertain exactly when the fort was constructed, it is thought that it was built by [[Marcus Aurelius Carausius]] on the instructions of emperor [[Diocletian]] between 285 and 290.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.culture24.org.uk/history+%2526+heritage/archaeology/art22753|title=Archaeologists Uncover Evidence Of Portchester Castle's Trading Past|last=Prudames|first=David|date=24 June 2004|publisher=Museums Libraries Archives Council|access-date=2009-11-04}}</ref> It was one of several [[Saxon Shore|forts built along the British coast]] in the period to combat raids by pirates. Portchester was probably a base from which the ''[[Classis Britannica]]'', the Roman fleet defending Britain, operated.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|pp=23–24}}</ref> It is the best preserved Roman fort north of the Alps.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|p=3}}</ref>

Although the Roman army retreated from Britain in the early 5th century, it is unlikely that the fort was ever completely abandoned, although its use continued on a much smaller scale. A 10th-century hall and tower were discovered within the fort, suggesting it was a high-status residence during the Saxon period. In 904, Portchester came into the possession of King [[Edward the Elder]] and the fort became a [[burh]] to help defend the country against Vikings, as listed in the [[Burghal Hidage]].<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|p=29}}</ref>

==Medieval castle and palace==
[[File:PORTCHESTER CASTLE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|The outer bailey with St Mary’s Church, as seen from the keep]]
It is uncertain when the castle was built, although it was probably in the late 11th century. In the aftermath of the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]], the [[manorialism|manor]] of Portchester was granted to William Maudit, an associate of [[William the Conqueror]] and a powerful magnate and it was probably he who built Portchester Castle.

The form of this early castle is uncertain, although Maudit was probably responsible for creating the inner ward in the north-west corner of the fort. At this point it would probably have been defended by a wooden palisade and a moat, with the original Roman stone walls of the fort acting as the defence of the outer [[Bailey (castle)|bailey]].<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|p=30}}</ref> Maudit died in about 1100, and his property passed onto his son, Robert Maudit. He died in 1120, and a few years later the family estates came into the hands of William Pont de l'Arche through marriage to Robert Maudit's daughter.

Although the castle was still unrecorded in this period, it was probably at this point that it was rebuilt in stone. The evidence for this is that the stonework of the castle is similar to that of St Mary's parish church, which was built in the 1130s in the outer bailey. The church was built for an [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[priory]] which Pont de l'Arche established within the castle in 1128. Other buildings would have been planned for the priory, although almost no trace of them survives. As the community moved to a new site at [[Southwick, Hampshire|Southwick]] between 1147 and 1150, the buildings may never have been completed.<ref name="Goodall 30-31">{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|pp=30–31}}</ref>

William Pont de l'Arche probably retained possession of Portchester Castle until his death in 1148, although who inherited it is uncertain. It may have passed to William Maudit, a descendant of the Maudit who most likely founded the castle, or Henry Maudit, William de l'Arche's son. The earliest extant reference to the castle is in a grant from 1153 in which [[Henry Plantagenet]], later King Henry II granted the castle to Henry Maudit. Regardless, when Henry ascended to the throne in 1154 he took over possession of Portchester Castle. It would remain in royal control for several centuries.<ref name="Goodall 30-31"/> More records survive from the castle's period as a royal fortress than the previous period; the [[Pipe Rolls|royal accounts]] provide details of the castle's condition and structure. For instance, as only small sums were spent on the keep during the royal tenure, it is assumed that it was largely complete, and in 1183 the Rolls record that there were royal apartments separate from the keep. Henry II regularly visited Portchester,<ref name="Goodall 32">{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|p=32}}</ref> and it featured in his dispute with [[Thomas Becket]].

It was here that Henry met with the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Évreux|Bishop of Évreux]] who spoke on Becket's behalf.<ref>{{harvnb|Rigold|1965|p=9}}</ref> The castle was also used as a prison for important people, such as the [[Earl of Leicester]]. When Henry II's sons rebelled against him with the support of some leading barons in the [[Revolt of 1173–1174]], Portchester was made ready for war. In preparation to defend the castle, [[catapult]]s were made and it was garrisoned with ten [[knight]]s, later increased to 20.<ref name="Goodall 32"/>

[[File:Portchester Castle - aerial image, Hampshire Data Portal.png|thumb|left|Aerial image of the Roman fort, with the medieval castle at top left, and the church at bottom right]]
King [[John I of England|John]] often stayed at Portchester Castle and was there when he heard of the [[French invasion of Normandy (1202–1204)|Loss of Normandy]] in 1204. The [[Forest of Bere]] was nearby, making Portchester a popular place for the king to stay recreationally. Portchester was also the departure point of missions to France in 1205 and 1213 as John tried to recover Normandy from [[Philip Augustus]], the King of France. John's trips to France ended in defeat.<ref name="Goodall 33">{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|p=33}}</ref>

After sealing [[Magna Carta]] in 1215, John appealed to the pope to annul it. As a result, his opponents were excommunicated in September. At this point, he laid siege to [[Rochester Castle]] and the rebels turned to France for help. The barons offered the throne to Prince [[Louis VIII of France|Louis]], the oldest son of the French king.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2004}}</ref> Louis' campaign was initially successful and he captured London and Winchester before Portchester Castle surrendered to his forces in June 1216.<ref name="Goodall 33"/> John died on 19 October 1216, and nine days later his eldest son was crowned King [[Henry III of England|Henry]].<ref name="Ridgeway">{{harvnb|Ridgeway|2004}}</ref> Louis' fortunes took a turn for the worse, and Portchester Castle was recaptured in the spring of 1217.<ref name="Goodall 33"/>

There was a stalemate between Henry III and Louis until the English victory at the [[Battle of Lincoln (1217)|Battle of Lincoln]] on 20 May. After his supply lines with France were cut in August, Louis was bribed to leave England.<ref name="Ridgeway"/> Henry tried to recapture [[Normandy]], which was lost by his predecessor, until conditions in England forced him to abandon them in 1259, and Portchester was a frequent departure point for troops on campaign.<ref name="Goodall 33"/><ref name="Ridgeway"/>

For most of the century little attention was paid to the castle's defences,<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|1975|p=3}}</ref> however towards the end of the century a wooden tower was built to reinforce the eastern Roman wall. During the reign of [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] (1307–1327), a French invasion was anticipated and Portchester garrisoned. The Crown spent more than £1,100 repairing and reinforcing Portchester Castle between 1320 and 1326. The buildings of the inner ward were remodelled and the outer gatehouses extended.

Despite the expensive work undertaken by Edward II, a survey of 1335 recorded that many of the castle's buildings were in a ruinous state, and the south wall of the Roman fort had been damaged by the sea. Although he infrequently stayed at Portchester,<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|pp=33–34}}</ref> in June 1346 [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] assembled his 15,000 strong army there before leaving for France on the campaign that ended in victory at the [[Battle of Crécy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cunliffe|Munby|1985|p=302}}</ref>

Further work was carried out in the 1350s and 1360s when the domestic buildings within the castle were reordered and the sea wall repaired. Between 1396 and 1399 the royal apartments that stand today, albeit in a ruined state, were built for [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] under master mason Walter Walton.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|p=34}}</ref>

[[File:Portchester Castle 1786 print.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|View of Portchester Castle from ''Picturesque Views of the Antiquities of England & Wales'' (1786)]]
In 1415, King [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] was making preparations at Portchester Castle for a [[Hundred Years' War (1415–1453)|campaign in France]], part of the Hundred Years' War between the two countries. While at Portchester in July a conspiracy, known as the [[Southampton Plot]], to overthrow Henry was uncovered.

It was at the castle that he arrested the conspirators: [[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge]], [[Henry Scrope, 3rd Baron Scrope of Masham]], and Sir [[Thomas Grey (1384–1415)|Thomas Grey]].<ref name=Goodall35>{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|p=35}}</ref> The three men were executed in early August.<ref>{{harvnb|Harriss|2004}}</ref>

In the 15th century the nearby town of [[Portsmouth]] some {{convert|6|mi|km|0|abbr=off|spell=on}} away grew to become a significant economic centre and an important port. It took over from Portchester as a place of military importance, and the castle entered a period of decline. A survey from 1441 noted the castle was "right ruinous and feeble". Despite its state, when [[Margaret of Anjou]], wife of [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], landed in England in 1445, Portchester Castle was selected as her port of arrival. The castle was allowed to continue to languish until the last decade of the century attempts were made to repair the castle's buildings. When [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] visited with Queen [[Anne Boleyn]] in 1535 October, it was the first time in over a century that the reigning monarch had been to the castle.<ref name=Goodall35/>

[[File:Portchester Castle from seawards.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Portchester Castle from seawards]]
Between October 1562 and June 1563, the English occupied the port of [[Le Havre]] on France's northern coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Frieda|2005|p=191}}</ref> During this period the castle acted as a military hospital for those involved in the conflict with France. With relations with Spain worsening, [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] made Portchester Castle ready for war, anticipating a Spanish invasion. At that time Henry Radcliffe future Earl of Sussex, was Constable.

On 30 August 1591 Elizabeth came to the castle, but the floors of the state chambers were rotten, and she had dinner in the bedchamber of the keeper. Instead of her usual sweet perfumes the chamber was freshened with [[Ruta graveolens|rue]] and [[Hyssopus officinalis|hyssop]].<ref>Paul E. J. Hammer, 'Letters from Cecil to Hatton', ''Religion, Politics and Society in Sixteenth-Century England'' (Cambridge, 2003), p. 240.</ref> By 1603 the castle was in a fit state for Elizabeth to hold court there. Sir [[Thomas Cornwallis]] was made constable and remodelled the buildings along the eastern side of the inner bailey. A royal survey from 1609 documents the castle's improved condition, noting that the buildings built by Cornwallis contained "four fair lodging chambers above and as many rooms for office below".<ref name=Goodall35/>

==Use as a prison==
[[File:Porchester castle keep 2011.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|The Norman keep with its external buttresses]]
The castle passed out of royal control in 1632 when [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] sold it to Sir [[William Uvedale]]. Since then, Portchester Castle has passed through his successors, the [[Thistlethwaite]] family. The castle did not witness fighting during the [[English Civil War]], though for a short time in 1644 it was garrisoned by [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] [[dragoon]]s.

One of the roles castles commonly filled was that of a prison. From the late 17th century onwards this became Portchester's most important function. In 1665, 500 prisoners from the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] (1665–1667) were held at the castle. Some were housed in the church in the outer bailey. They damaged the building by setting it on fire. The church was not repaired until some 40 years later. Between 1702 and 1712 the Crown leased Portchester Castle from the Uvedales to incarcerate prisoners from the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]. The first detailed accounts of the prisoners' conditions come from the middle of the century.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodall|2008|p=36}}</ref>

{{external media
| float = right
| audio1 = [https://omny.fm/shows/speaking-with-shadows/the-caribbean-prisoners-of-portchester-castle The Caribbean Prisoners of Portchester Castle], ''Speaking with Shadows'', published by English Heritage, retrieved 23 October 2019
}}
It was last used in the 19th century as a [[prison|gaol]] for over 7,000 French prisoners of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Hospital Lane (formerly Seagates Lane), which flanks the western side of the castle, was the location of the prison hospital which survives today as Portchester House, a private residence. Those that died in captivity were often buried in what are now tidal mudflats to the south of the castle, their remains occasionally disturbed by storms.

==Today==
Today Portchester Castle is open to visitors and is also used for recreation: the inner section of the castle accommodates displays and exhibits. The castle is a popular venue for school outings, while the sea wall is frequented at high tide by anglers in pursuit of [[flounder]] and [[European sea bass|bass]]. The castle buildings are in the care of [[English Heritage]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/portchester-castle/history-and-stories/history/|title=History of Portchester Castle|website=English Heritage|access-date=15 May 2020}}</ref>

==Local legends==
Local legend states that late in his life [[Pontius Pilate]] was brought here by galley as a final refuge.<ref>{{harvnb|Parr|1996|p=63}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Constable of Portchester Castle]]
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
* {{HMS|Portchester Castle||}}
* [[List of castles in England]]

==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist}}

;Bibliography
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry W. |author-link1=Barry Cunliffe |year=1975 |title=Excavations at Portchester Castle 1: Roman |location=London |publisher=Society of Antiquaries of London Research Report}}
*{{citation |last1=Cunliffe |first1=Barry W. |author-link1=Barry Cunliffe |last2=Munby |first2=J. T. |author-link2=J. T. Munby |year=1985 |title=Excavations at Portchester Castle 4: Medieval, the inner bailey |location=London |publisher=Society of Antiquaries of London Research Report}}
*{{Citation |last=Frieda |first=Leonie |author-link=Leonie Frieda |title=Catherine de Medici |location=London |publisher=Phoenix |year=2005 |isbn=0-7538-2039-0}}
*{{cite ODNB |mode=cs2 |last=Gillingham |first=John |title=John (1167–1216), king of England |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/14841}}
*{{Citation |last=Goodall |first=John |author-link=John Goodall (author) |title=Portchester Castle |publisher=[[English Heritage]] |year=2008 |orig-date=2003 |edition=2nd |location=London |isbn=978-1-84802-007-8}}
*{{cite ODNB |mode=cs2 |last=Harriss |first=G. L. |title=Richard [Richard of Conisbrough], earl of Cambridge |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/23502}}
*{{citation |last=Parr |first=Donald A.|title=Web of Fear|publisher=Breedon Books|year=1996}}
*{{cite ODNB |mode=cs2 |last=Ridgeway |first=H. W. |title=Henry III |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12950}}
*{{Citation |last=Rigold |first=S. E. |title=Portchester Castle, Hampshire |publisher=[[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] |year=1965 |location=London}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Portchester Castle}}
*[https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/portchester-castle/ Portchester Castle with English Heritage]
*[http://www.gatehouse-gazetteer.info/English%20sites/1289.html Bibliography of sources relating to Portchester Castle]
*[https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/EAIy0_hNEznxLA 'Portchester Castle: from Roman fort to prisoner-of-war depot'] on Google Arts & Culture
*The [http://archiveshub.ac.uk/data/gb71-thm/415 Collection of material relating to the French prisoners' theatricals at Portchester Castle, 1810s] is held by the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] Theatre and Performance Department.

{{Roman visitor sites in the UK}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Castles in Hampshire]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Borough of Fareham]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Scheduled monuments in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Ruins in Hampshire]]
[[Category:History museums in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Military and war museums in England]]
[[Category:Roman harbours in England]]
[[Category:Roman auxiliary forts in England]]
[[Category:Saxon Shore forts]]

Port-Royal-des-Champs

2025-09-19T17:35:28Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:508D:AA3A:9A80:3EBE: /* Museums */Added hyphens

{{Short description|Abbey located in Yvelines, in France}}
{{other uses|Port Royal (disambiguation)}}
{{Expand French|fa=yes|date=April 2015|topic=struct}}
{{coord|48|44|39|N|2|0|58|E|display=title}}

[[File:Plan Port-Royal-des-Champs (cropped).jpg|thumb|''Plan of Port-Royal-des-Champs'', after an engraving by [[Louise-Magdeleine Horthemels]], {{Circa|1710}}]]

'''Port-Royal-des-Champs''' ({{IPA|fr|pɔʁ ʁwajal de ʃɑ̃}}) was an [[abbey]] of [[Cistercian nuns]] in [[Magny-les-Hameaux]], in the [[Vallée de Chevreuse]] southwest of [[Paris]] that launched a number of culturally important institutions.

==History==
The abbey was established in 1204, but became famous when its discipline was reformed in 1609 by its [[abbess]], [[mother (religious title)|Mother]] [[Marie Angelique Arnauld]] (1591-1661). The [[Arnauld family]] became its patrons and the abbey's subsequent history was directed by a number of the members of that family. In 1625 most of the nuns moved to a new Port-Royal in Paris, which subsequently became ''[[Port-Royal Abbey, Paris|Port-Royal de Paris]]'' (or, more commonly, ''Port-Royal'') while the older one was known as ''Port-Royal des Champs'' ("Port-Royal of the fields").

At the original site, several schools were founded, which became known as the ''[[Petites écoles de Port-Royal]]'' ("Little Schools of Port-Royal"). These schools became famous for the high quality of the education they gave. [[Playwright]] [[Jean Racine]] was educated at Port-Royal. In 1634 [[Jean du Vergier de Hauranne]], Abbé de [[Abbey of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne|Saint-Cyran]], became [[spiritual director]] of the abbey; he was a companion of [[Jansenius]] and the implementer of [[Jansenism]] in France. From that point forward, the abbeys and schools of Port-Royal became intimately associated with that school of theology.

''La logique, ou l'art de penser'', the ''[[Port-Royal Logic|Logique de Port-Royal]]'', was an important textbook on logic first published anonymously in 1662 by [[Antoine Arnauld]] and [[Pierre Nicole]], two prominent members of the [[Jansenist]] movement; [[Blaise Pascal]] likely contributed considerable portions of the text.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Miel|first=Jan|title=Pascal, Port-Royal, and Cartesian Linguistics|journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]]|year=1969| volume=30|issue= 2|pages=261–271|doi=10.2307/2708438|jstor=2708438|s2cid=170394447}}</ref> As it was written in the vernacular, it became quite popular and was in use, as an exemplar of traditional [[term logic]], into the twentieth century, introducing the reader to logic, and exhibiting strong Cartesian elements in its metaphysics and epistemology (Arnauld having been one of the main philosophers whose objections were published, with replies, in [[Descartes]]' ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'').

The atmosphere of serious study and Jansenist piety attracted a number of prominent cultural figures to the movement, including [[mathematician]] and [[physics|physicist]] [[Blaise Pascal]]. Pascal defended the schools publicly against the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] in the Jansenist controversies which agitated the French [[Roman Catholic Church]], in his ''[[Lettres provinciales]]'' in 1657. Perhaps even more striking, several important persons of the court were close to Jansenism, such as the [[Louis Charles d'Albert de Luynes|Duke of Luynes]] or the [[Roger du Plessis, duc de Liancourt|Duke of Liancourt]]. Members of the [[Arnauld family]] had managed to receive important jobs such as [[Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne|Simon Arnauld de Pomponne]], Minister of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]. The Jesuits, on the other hand, enjoyed predominance in political and theological power in France and Europe, providing a personal [[confessor]] to the King, etc.

[[File:Port-RoyalRemoval.jpg|thumb|Nuns being forcibly removed from the abbey in 1709.]]

As a result of the Jesuit attacks on Jansenism, the schools of Port-Royal were regarded as tainted with [[heresy]]. Louis XIV wanting peace in the church, the elementary schools were forcibly closed by [[papal bull]] in 1660, following the [[formulary controversy]]. In 1661, the monastery was forbidden to accept [[novice]]s, heralding its eventual dissolution. The abbey itself was abolished by a bull from [[Pope Clement XI]] in 1708, the remaining nuns forcibly removed in 1709, most of the buildings themselves razed in 1711. The chapel, containing Mère Angélique's tomb, as well as some buildings, still exist in the vast grounds of what eventually became Paris' leading maternity hospital, known as Port-Royal Hospital.

A celebrated history of Port-Royal and its influence was written by [[Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve]] in 1837-1859.

==Museums==
The remains of the monastery of Port-Royal-des-Champs may still be seen at [[Magny-les-Hameaux]], in the [[Vallée de Chevreuse|Chevreuse valley]]. Operated as Musée de Port-Royal, the 30-hectare estate includes the ruins of the abbey and its outbuildings. A 17th-century building houses the [[Musée national de Port-Royal des Champs]], which exhibits 17th and 18th-century paintings and engravings.

==Gallery==
<gallery caption="Abbey of Port-Royal des Champs, by [[Louise-Magdeleine Horthemels]], c. 1709" widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="3">
Image:Abbey of Port-Royal, Caring for the Sick by Magdeleine Hortemels c. 1710.jpg|{{center|Caring for the Sick}}
Image:Abbey of Port-Royal, Distributing Alms to the Poor by Louise-Magdeleine Hortemels c. 1710.jpg|{{center|Distributing Alms to the Poor}}
Image:The Sisters of the Abbey of Port-Royal by Magdeleine Hortemels c. 1710.jpg|{{center|The Sisters of the Abbey}}
Image:Abbey of Port-Royal, General View by Louise-Magdeleine Horthemels c. 1710.jpg|{{center|General View}}
Image:Abbey of Port-Royal, Nuns Meeting in Solitude by Magdeleine Hortemels c. 1710.jpg|{{center|Nuns Meeting in Solitude}}
Image:Abbey of Port-Royal, View of the Refectory by Louise-Magdeleine Hortemels c. 1710.jpg|{{center|View of the Refectory}}
</gallery>

==Persons connected to Port-Royal==
{{Commons category|Port-Royal-des-Champs}}
* [[Antoine Arnauld]]
* [[Antoine Le Maistre]]
* [[Marie Angelique Arnauld]]
* [[Blaise Pascal]]<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Casey |first=Michael |title=The Cistercian Order since 1600 |date=2012-11-22 |work=The Cambridge Companion to the Cistercian Order |pages=50–62 |editor-last=Birkedal Bruun |editor-first=Mette |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CCO9780511735899A013/type/book_part |access-date=2024-11-03 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cco9780511735899.006 |isbn=978-1-107-00131-2|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* [[Jacqueline Pascal]], sister of Blaise Pascal<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Wikipedia Library |url=https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/?next_url=/ezproxy/r/ezp.2aHR0cHM6Ly9kb2kub3JnLzEwLjExNjMvMjIxMS0yNjg1X2Vjb19QLjMy |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org |language=en |doi=10.1163/2211-2685_eco_p.32}}</ref>
* [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Favier |first=Thierry |date=2024-09-12 |title=The French Leçons de Ténèbres and the Foundation of the Jansenist Music Criticism |journal=Journal of Jesuit Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=430–446 |doi=10.1163/22141332-11030005 |issn=2214-1324|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Port-Royal Logic]]
* [[Formulary controversy]]
* [[Port-Royal Grammar]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{EB1911 poster|Port Royal (France)|Port-Royal-des-Champs Abbey}}
* [http://www.musee-portroyal.fr Musée de Port-Royal]
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/modlangfrench/21/ Port-Royalists] Published in ''Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition'' (1996)
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of Catholicism in France]]
[[Category:Jansenism]]
[[Category:1204 establishments in Europe]]
[[Category:1200s establishments in France]]
[[Category:1708 disestablishments in France]]
[[Category:Christian monasteries established in the 1200s]]
[[Category:Cistercian nunneries in France]]
[[Category:Museums in Yvelines]]
[[Category:Religious museums in France]]
[[Category:Monasteries used as prisons]]