Vero - Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Stoke Bruerne

2025-10-13T02:52:50Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* History */

{{Short description|Village and civil parish in England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2014}}
{{Infobox UK place
|country = England
|official_name = Stoke Bruerne
|coordinates = {{coord|52.1424|-0.91569|display=inline,title}}
|civil_parish = Stoke Bruerne
|population = 395
|population_ref = ([[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001 Census]])<ref name = "SNCYearBook">{{Cite book | author=SNC| title=South Northamptonshire Council Year Book 2010-2011| year=2010 |publisher= South Northamptonshire District Council | location=Towcester | pages=39}}</ref> 373 (2011 census)
|london_distance = {{convert|64|mi|km|0}}
|unitary_england= [[West Northamptonshire]]
|lieutenancy_england= [[Northamptonshire]]
|region = East Midlands
|constituency_westminster = Current: [[Northampton South (UK Parliament constituency)|Northampton South]]; from next General election: [[South Northamptonshire (UK Parliament constituency)|South Northamptonshire]]
|post_town = Towcester
|postcode_district = NN12
|postcode_area = NN
|dial_code = 01604
|os_grid_reference = SP7450049500
|static_image_name = Stoke Bruerne top lock.jpg
|static_image_caption= [[Narrowboats]] in the top lock of the Stoke Bruerne flight
}}

'''Stoke Bruerne''' is a village and [[civil parishes in England|civil parish]] in [[West Northamptonshire]], England, about {{convert|10|mi|km|0}} north of [[Milton Keynes]] and {{convert|7|mi|km|0}} south of [[Northampton]].
[[File:Blisworth Tunnel South Portal England.JPG|thumb|right|256px|[[Narrowboat]] emerging from the south portal of the [[Blisworth Tunnel]] just north of Stoke Bruerne]]
[[File:Stoke Bruerne boat weighing machine.jpg|thumb|right|256px|Boat-weighing machine at Stoke Bruerne, originally from the [[Glamorganshire Canal]]]] The civil parish population at the 2011 Census was 373.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadKeyFigures.do?a=7&b=11129117&c=Stoke+Bruerne&d=16&e=62&g=6452434&i=1001x1003x1032x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1468146697133&enc=1|title=Civil Parish population 2011|access-date=10 July 2016|publisher=Office for National Statistics|work=Neighbourhood Statistics}}</ref>

==History==
Stoke Bruerne is mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 as "Stoche" meaning "an outlying farmstead or hamlet". The form "Stokbruer" is used in 1254 being a suffix by the "Briwere" family of the Manor House. The village contains many traditional stone and [[thatched]] cottages. It is situated on the [[Grand Union Canal]].

The parish is currently governed as part of [[West Northamptonshire]]. Before [[2019–2023 structural changes to local government in England#Northamptonshire|local government changes in 2021]] it was part of Tove Ward, named after the [[River Tove]], of the district council of [[South Northamptonshire]].

The nearby country estate of Stoke Park along [[Shutlanger]] Road is occasionally open to the public in August, but all that remains of the main house are the two east and west wings known as [[Stoke Park Pavilions]].

In December 2008, the conservation project won the East Midlands' [[Royal Town Planning Institute]] (RTPI) Award, alongside [[Foxton Locks]], another major canal restoration project in [[Leicestershire]], near [[Market Harborough]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Conservation Award|url = http://www.southnorthants.gov.uk/news_media/993.htm|access-date = 12 June 2008}}{{Dead link|date=June 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref>

==Culture and tourism==

===Walks===
Many public footpaths cross the area around Stoke Bruerne. One such walk, taking in [[Grafton Regis]], was the subject of a ''Daily Telegraph'' article.<ref>{{cite web|title = Stoke Bruerne and Grafton Regis footpaths|url = http://www.tenfootclub.org.uk/daily_telegraph.htm|access-date = 2008-06-08}}</ref> Other walks in and around Northampton are mentioned in the County Council Right of way site.<ref>{{cite web|title = Northamptonshire Rights of Way|url = http://www.rightsofwaynorthamptonshire.org.uk/|access-date = 2008-06-08|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080328235955/http://www.rightsofwaynorthamptonshire.org.uk/|archive-date = 28 March 2008|df = dmy-all}}</ref>

===Canal Museum===
{{main|Stoke Bruerne Canal Museum}}
The village is home to one of the three museums owned and run by Canal & River Trust. The others are at Ellesmere Port and Gloucester Docks.

===Blisworth tunnel===

About half a mile north of the village is the south portal of [[Blisworth tunnel]] - accessible by a walk along the old towpath (on the eastern side of the canal - north of the village, the western side is either private property or inaccessible.) The tunnel is {{convert|3075|yd}} long and is the longest wide, freely navigable tunnel in Europe. The tunnel was awarded a [[Transport Trust]] 'Red Wheel' in recognition of its industrial heritage and importance on 22-August-2014 (30th anniversary of the reopening of the tunnel in 1984). The Red Wheel is on the blacksmith's forge in Stoke Bruerne.

===Facilities===
There are two canalside [[public house]]s, The Boat Inn, and The Navigation, both serving a variety of meals and drinks. There is a restaurant/takeaway, The Spice of Bruerne, various bed and breakfast facilities and tearooms. The village attracts many visitors all year round and especially during the summer months. There are parking restrictions at all times, except for residents, on village roads which are all marked with [[double yellow lines]]. There is, however, a [[pay and display]] car park close to the Museum (charge £3 or 50p after 6pm). The parking restrictions are strictly enforced. A variety of boat trips may be booked from the canalside. Most of the time there is plenty of activity on the canal with boats going through the locks regularly and plenty going in and out of the tunnel.

=== Cricket Club ===
The village has a cricket club with three sides competing in the [[Northamptonshire Cricket League]], a Sunday side and a multiple junior sides. In 2014, Stoke Bruerne CC merged with a Northampton-based Spencer CC to form Spencer Bruerne Cricket Club.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

==Conservation area consultation ==
In November 2007 the area of the village and surroundings, including Stoke Park, were the subject of an extensive conservation consultation by South Northants Council.<ref name="SNCConsult">{{cite web|title = Stoke Bruerne Conservation Area Consultation November 2007 - Main Document.|url = http://www.southnorthants.gov.uk/documents/486.htm|access-date = 2008-12-06|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090108154512/http://www.southnorthants.gov.uk/documents/486.htm|archive-date = 8 January 2009|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Extensive additional documentation, including maps, pictures and historical documentation, is available from the South Northants Council's Planning website.<ref name = "SNCConsult"/>

==Railway==
Stoke Bruerne had its own [[Stoke Bruern railway station|railway station]], part of the [[Stratford-upon-Avon and Midland Junction Railway]] (SMJR)<ref>{{cite web| title = Stratford upon Avon and Midland Junction Railway| url = http://www.smjr.info| access-date = 2008-06-19| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081211181131/http://www.smjr.info/| archive-date = 11 December 2008| url-status = dead| df = dmy-all}}</ref> and misnamed [[Stoke Bruern railway station|Stoke Bruern]]. This ran close to the village over Blisworth tunnel near the south portal. The station building has been converted to a private house and is along the road to [[Blisworth]] just outside the village. The line of the railway, and station platform, are still visible and the Blisworth road has a railway bridge still in position near the former station. The railway ran east to join the [[West Coast Main Line]] and then into [[Bedfordshire]].

==Film==
The village appears, with Blisworth, in the Ealing Studios film ''Painted Boats'' (1945), filmed at the end of World War II and directed by [[Charles Crichton]].<ref>{{IMDb title|qid=Q7124996|id=tt0037967|title=Painted Boats}}</ref>
[[File:Bruerne-29S12-wyrdlight.jpg|thumb|right|256px|Fifth year of Bruerne's successful Village at War weekend]]
[[File:Bruerne-Drum-30S12-wyrdlight.jpg|thumb|left|256px|A Drumhead Service of Remembrance is held annually at Stoke Bruerne]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090621081955/http://www.stokebruerne.org.uk/ Village website]}}
* [http://www.spencerbruernecc.com Spencer Bruerne Cricket Club]

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Canals in England]]
[[Category:Transport museums in England]]
[[Category:Villages in Northamptonshire]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Northamptonshire]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in Northamptonshire]]
[[Category:West Northamptonshire District]]

Stellar designations and names

2025-10-13T02:17:32Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* By constellation */Added detail

{{Short description|Process by which stars are named}}
[[File:New Stellar Streams Confirm ‘Melting Pot’ History of the Galaxy (noao1801c).tiff|right|thumb|upright=1.7|The trend toward ever more catalogued objects in the Universe]]
In astronomy, stars have a variety of different '''stellar designations and names''', including [[Star catalogue|catalogue designations]], current and historical [[proper name]]s, and foreign language names.

Only a tiny minority of known stars have [[named stars|proper names]]; all others have only designations from various catalogues or lists, or no identifier at all. [[Hipparchus]] in the 2nd century BC enumerated about 850 naked-eye stars. [[Johann Bayer]] in 1603 listed about twice this number. Only in the 19th century did star catalogues list the naked-eye stars exhaustively. The [[Bright Star Catalogue]], which is a [[star catalogue]] listing all stars of [[apparent magnitude]] 6.5 or brighter, or roughly every star visible to the [[naked eye]] from [[Earth]], contains 9,096 stars.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/Cat?V/50| title = The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed. (Preliminary Version)}}</ref> The most voluminous modern catalogues list on the order of a billion stars, out of an estimated total of 200 to 400 billion in the [[Milky Way]].

Proper names may be historical, often transliterated from Arabic or Chinese names. Such transliterations can vary so there may be multiple spellings. A smaller number of names have been introduced since the Middle Ages, and a few in modern times as nicknames have come into popular use, for example ''Sualocin'' for [[α Delphini]] and ''Navi'' for [[γ Cassiopeiae]].

The [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) has begun a process to select and formalise unique proper names for the brighter naked-eye stars and for other stars of popular interest. To the IAU, ''name'' refers to the (usually colloquial) term used for a star in everyday speech, while "''designation'' is solely alphanumerical" and used almost exclusively in official catalogues and for professional astronomy. Many of the names and some of the designations in use today were inherited from the time before the IAU existed. Other designations are being added all the time. As of the start of 2019, the IAU had decided on a little over 300 proper names, mostly for the brighter naked-eye stars.<ref name="IAU-LSN">{{cite web | url=https://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming_stars/ | title=Naming Stars |publisher=IAU.org |access-date=2019-01-17}}</ref>

== Proper names ==
{{main article|List of proper names of stars}}
{{main article|IAU Working Group on Star Names}}

Several hundred of the [[brightest stars]] had traditional names, most of which derived from [[Arabic language|Arabic]], but a few from [[Latin]].<ref>[[NASA]] in 1971 compiled a "technical memorandum" collecting a total of 537 named stars.
[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19720005197 Rhoads, J. W.,''Technical Memorandum 33-507 – A Reduced Star Catalog Containing 537 Named Stars'', NASA-CR-124573 (1971).]
</ref> There were a number of problems with these names, however:
* Spellings were often not standardized ([[Gamma Andromedae|Almach]] or Almaach or Almak or Alamak)
* Many stars had more than one name of roughly equal popularity ([[Alpha Persei|Mirfak]] or Algenib or Alcheb; [[Gamma Velorum|Regor]] or Suhail al Muhlif; [[Eta Ursae Majoris|Alkaid]] or Benetnasch; [[Alpha Coronae Borealis|Gemma]] or Alphecca; [[Alpha Andromedae|Alpheratz]] and Sirrah)
* Because of imprecision in old [[star catalog]]s, it was not always clear exactly which star within a constellation a particular name corresponded to (e.g., Alniyat could refer to [[Sigma Scorpii]] or [[Tau Scorpii]]).
* Some stars in entirely different constellations had the same name: [[Alpha Persei|Algenib in Perseus]] and [[Gamma Pegasi|Algenib in Pegasus]]; [[Gienah in Cygnus]] and [[Gienah in Corvus]], [[Alpha Gruis|Alnair in Grus]] and [[Zeta Centauri|Alnair in Centaurus]].

In 2016, the [[IAU]] organized a [[IAU Working Group on Star Names|Working Group on Star Names]] (WGSN)<ref name="WGSN">{{cite web | url=https://www.iau.org/science/scientific_bodies/working_groups/280/ | title=IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)|access-date=22 May 2016}}</ref> to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin dated July 2016<ref name="WGSN1">{{cite web | url=http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~emamajek/WGSN/WGSN_bulletin1.pdf | title=Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. 1 |access-date=11 August 2016}}</ref> included a table of 125 stars comprising the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN (on 30 June and 20 July 2016) together with names of stars (including four traditional star names: [[Epsilon Tauri|Ain]], [[Iota Draconis|Edasich]], [[Gamma Cephei|Errai]] and [[Fomalhaut]]) reviewed and adopted by the IAU Executive Committee Working Group on Public Naming of Planets and Planetary Satellites during the 2015 NameExoWorlds campaign<ref name="IAUresults">[http://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau1514/ Final Results of NameExoWorlds Public Vote Released], International Astronomical Union, 15 December 2015.</ref> and recognized by the WGSN. Further batches of names were approved on 21 August, 12 September, 5 October and 6 November 2016. These were listed in a table of 102 stars included in the WGSN's second bulletin dated November 2016.<ref name="WGSN2">{{cite web | url=http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~emamajek/WGSN/WGSN_bulletin2.pdf | title=Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. 2 |access-date=12 October 2016}}</ref> The next additions were done on 1 February 2017 (13 new star names), 30 June 2017 (29), 5 September 2017 (41), 17 November 2017 (3) and 1 June 2018 (17). All 330 names are included in the current List of IAU-approved Star Names, last updated on 1 June 2018 (with a minor correction posted on 11 June 2018).<ref name="IAU-LSN"/>

In practice, names are only universally used for the very [[list of brightest stars|brightest stars]] ([[Sirius]], [[Arcturus]], [[Vega]], etc.) and for a small number of slightly less bright but "interesting" stars ([[Algol]], [[Polaris]], [[Mira]], etc.). For other naked eye stars, the [[Bayer designation|Bayer]] or [[Flamsteed designation]] is often preferred.

In addition to the traditional names, a small number of stars that are "interesting" can have modern [[English language|English]] names. For instance, two second-magnitude stars, [[Alpha Pavonis]] and [[Epsilon Carinae]], were assigned the proper names Peacock and Avior respectively in 1937 by [[Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office]] during the creation of ''The Air Almanac'', a navigational almanac for the [[Royal Air Force]]. Of the fifty-seven stars included in the new almanac, these two had no traditional names. The RAF insisted that all of the stars must have names, so new names were invented for them.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.hmnao.com/nao/history/dhs_gaw/nao_perhist_0802_cyh_part_2.pdf
| title=A Personal History of H.M. Nautical Almanac Office
| first=Donald H.
| last=Sadler
| date=2008
| work=[[United Kingdom Hydrographic Office]]
| access-date=2010-09-26
| archive-date=2010-12-25
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225000825/http://www.hmnao.com/nao/history/dhs_gaw/nao_perhist_0802_cyh_part_2.pdf
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> These names have been approved by the IAU WGSN.<ref name="IAU-LSN"/>

The book ''[[Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning]]'' by R. H. Allen (1899)<ref>{{cite book
| title=Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
| author=Richard Hinckley Allen
| date=1963-06-01
| publisher=[[Dover Publications]]
| url=https://archive.org/details/starnamestheirlo00alle
| isbn=((978-0486210797))
| url-access=registration
}}</ref> has had effects on star names:
*It lists many [[Akkadian language|Assyrian/Babylonian]] and [[Sumer]]ian star names recovered by [[archaeology]], and some of these (e.g. [[Theta Scorpii|Sargas]] and [[Sigma Sagittarii|Nunki]]) have since been approved by the IAU WGSN.<ref name="IAU-LSN"/>
*It lists many [[Chinese star names]] (e.g. [[Tsih|Cih]] alias [[Tsih]]), though these have not come into general usage.
*Allen represented the "kh" sound by 'h' with a [[Dot (diacritic)|dot]] above (ḣ) and at least one astronomy book (by [[Patrick Moore]]), using Allen as a source, has misread this unfamiliar letter as 'li'.

=== Stars named for individuals ===
{{main article|Stars named after people}}

A few stars are named for individuals. These are mostly names in common use that were taken up by the scientific community at some juncture. The first such case (discounting characters from mythology) was [[Cor Caroli]] (α CVn), named in the 17th century for [[Charles I of England]]. The remaining examples are mostly named after astronomers, the best known are probably [[Barnard's Star]] (which has the highest known [[proper motion]] of any star and is thus notable even though it is far too faint to be seen with the naked eye), [[Kapteyn's Star]] and recently [[Tabby's Star]].

The [[International Astronomical Union]] has held two [[NameExoWorlds]] contests to give proper names to exoplanets and their host stars, in 2014/5 and 2019.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau1404/ |title=NameExoWorlds: An IAU Worldwide Contest to Name Exoplanets and their Host Stars |publisher=IAU.org |date=9 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nameexoworlds.iau.org/final-results|title=Approved names|website=NameExoworlds|language=en|access-date=2021-03-15}}</ref> As a result, several stars were named after people, including Cervantes for [[Mu Arae]], Copernicus for [[55 Cancri|55 Cancri A]],<ref name="IAUresults"/><ref name="IAUnames">{{cite web|url=http://nameexoworlds.iau.org/names|title=NameExoWorlds|website=nameexoworlds.iau.org|access-date=2018-02-12|archive-date=2018-02-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201043609/http://nameexoworlds.iau.org/names|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Rosalíadecastro]] (HD 149143) after the writer [[Rosalía de Castro]].

== Catalogue designations ==

In the absence of any better means of designating a star, catalogue designations are generally used. Many star catalogues are used for this purpose; see [[star catalogue]]s.

===By constellation===
The first modern schemes for designating stars systematically labelled them within their constellation.

*The [[Bayer designation]] is such a system, published by the German astronomer [[Johann Bayer]] in 1603.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/bayer.htm|title=Bayer's Uranometria and Bayer letters|publisher=Ian Ridpath|access-date=2016-11-12}}</ref> It introduced a system of designating the brightest stars in each constellation by means of Greek (or less often Latin) letters, and is still widely used. Bayer generally assigned letters by magnitude class: 1st magnitude stars received the earliest letters in the alphabet, followed by 2nd magnitude stars, and so forth (though there are many exceptions). The original list of Bayer designations contained 1,564 naked-eye stars, and several stars not catalogued by Bayer have been added by subsequent astronomers.
*The [[Flamsteed designation]] also lists stars by constellation, but by number rather than letter, ordering them by increasing right ascension rather than by decreasing brightness. These numbers were assigned not by Flamsteed himself but by the French astronomer J. J. Lalande in a French edition of Flamsteed's catalogue published in 1783.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/flamsteed.htm|title=Flamsteed numbers – where they really came from|publisher=Ian Ridpath|access-date=2016-11-12}}</ref>
*The [[Gould designation]] for stars visible from the southern hemisphere, introduced by [[Benjamin Gould]] (1879), also lists stars by constellation, numbered by increasing right ascension.
*[[Hevelius]] and [[Johann Elert Bode|Bode]] both numbered stars within constellations similarly. Their number systems have fallen out of use, but their designations even now are occasionally mistakenly treated as Flamsteed designations. [[47 Tucanae]], a number assigned by Bode, is a famous example.

===Full-sky catalogues===
Full-sky [[star catalogues]] detach the star designation from the star's constellation and aim at enumerating all stars with apparent magnitude greater than a given cut-off value.

*The ''[[Histoire céleste française]]'' (1801) enumerated 47,390 stars to magnitude 9.
*The ''[[Bonner Durchmusterung]]'' (1859) was the most complete star catalogue compiled without the aid of photography. It listed a total of 320,000 northern stars, expanded by the ''Cordoba Durchmusterung'' (1892) and the ''Cape Photographic Durchmusterung'' (1896).
*The ''[[Henry Draper Catalogue]]'' (1924) listed 225,300 stars to magnitude 10, extended to a total of 359,083 in 1949. The HD numbers remain in widespread use for stars that do not have a Flamsteed or Bayer designation.
*The ''[[Bright Star Catalogue]]'' of 1930 listed all stars brighter than magnitude 6. It was supplemented to include stars down to magnitude 7.1 in 1983.
*The ''Catalogue astrographique'' was compiled between 1891 and 1950 with the aim of listing all stars to magnitude 11, resulting in a list of 4.6 million stars. It is under continued development, now under custody of the [[U.S. Naval Observatory]].
*The USNO-B1.0 catalogue contains over a billion objects, and is also under continued development at the U.S. Naval Observatory.
*The online ''[[Guide Star Catalog|Guide Star Catalog II]]'' (2008) contains 945 million stars to magnitude 21.

=== Variable designations ===
{{main article|Variable star designation}}
Variable stars that do not have Bayer designations are assigned designations in a variable star scheme that superficially extends the Bayer scheme with uppercase Latin letters followed by constellation names, starting with single letters R to Z, and proceeding to pairs of letters. Such designations mark them as variable stars. Examples include [[R Cygni]], [[RR Lyrae]], and [[28 Andromedae|GN Andromedae]]. (Many variable stars also have designations in other catalogues.)

=== Exoplanet searches ===

When a planet is detected around a star, the star is often given a name and number based on the name of the telescope or survey mission that discovered it and based on how many planets have already been discovered by that mission e.g. [[HAT-P-9]], [[WASP-1]], [[COROT-1]], [[Kepler-4]], [[TRAPPIST-1]].

== Sale of star names by non-scientific entities==

Star naming rights are not available for sale via the IAU or any other scientific body. Rather, star names are selected on a non-commercial basis by a small number of international organizations of astronomers, scientists, and registration bodies, who assign names consisting usually of a Greek letter followed by the star's constellation name, or less frequently based on their ancient traditional name.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/#stars| title = Naming of Astronomical Objects}}</ref>

However, there are a number of non-scientific "star-naming" companies that offer to assign personalized nicknames to stars within their own private catalogs.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.starregistry.com/faq#collapsetwen7 | title = ISR FAQ}}</ref> These names are used only by that company and are only available for viewing on their web site or on purchased items. Names by commercial entities are not recognized by the astronomical community, or by competing star-naming companies.<ref name="IAU_buy_a_star_name">{{cite web
| url=http://www.iau.org/public/themes/buying_star_names/
| title=Buying Stars and Star Names
| first=Johannes
| last=Andersen
| publisher=[[International Astronomical Union]]
| access-date=2013-06-04}}</ref> The New York City Department of Consumer Affairs has issued violation notices against companies which claimed to sell stars or the naming rights to them.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.almanac.com/can-you-really-name-star | title = The Business of Buying a Star}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2014/12/02/buying-a-star-for-a-holiday-gift-is-like-throwing-money-into-a-black-hole/ | title = Buying a star for a holiday gift is like 'throwing money into a black hole'| newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> A survey conducted by amateur astronomers discovered that just over half of consumers would still want to "name a star" with a non-scientific star-naming company even though they have been warned or informed such naming is not recognized by the astronomical community.<ref name="Buying stars">{{cite web
| url=http://www.delscope.co.uk/astronomy/namingstars.htm#surveyres
| title=Naming and Buying Stars: What you should know
| first=Derek
| last=Haselden
| publisher=Solent Amateur Astronomers
| access-date=2020-08-24}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Star}}
* [[List of Arabic star names]]
* [[NameExoWorlds]]
* [[List of proper names of stars]]
* [[Star Names|''Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning'']]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ianridpath.com/starnames.html List of popular star names]
* [https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/naming-stars The Naming of Stars] from the National Maritime Museum
* [https://www.straightdope.com/21342002/can-you-pay-35-to-get-a-star-named-after-you The Straight Dope: Can you pay $35 to get a star named after you?]
* [http://www.worldhistoryblog.com/2007/07/naming-stars.html Naming Stars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221091506/http://www.worldhistoryblog.com/2007/07/naming-stars.html |date=2019-12-21 }}

{{Star}}


[[Category:Stars|Designation]]
[[Category:Stellar astronomy|Designation]]
[[Category:Astronomical nomenclature]]

Cavendish experiment

2025-10-13T02:03:01Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: Added detail

{{Short description|Experiment measuring the force of gravity (1797–1798)}}
[[File:Cavendish_experiment_schematic.png|upright=1.5|thumb|Cavendish's diagram of his torsion pendulum, seen from above. The pendulum consists of two small spherical lead weights (''h, h'') hanging from a 6-foot horizontal wooden beam supported in the center by a fine torsion wire. The beam is protected from air currents inside a wooden box (''A, A, A, A''). The two large weights (''W, W'') attached to a separate suspension attract the small weights, causing the beam to rotate slightly. The rotation is read off of [[vernier scale]]s (''S'') at either end of the rod. The large weights can be rotated to the other side of the torsion beam (''w, w''), causing the beam to rotate in the opposite direction.]]

The '''Cavendish experiment''', performed in 1797–1798 by English scientist [[Henry Cavendish]], was the first experiment to measure the force of gravity between [[mass]]es in the laboratory<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrloHemOmUEC&pg=PA355 Boys 1894] p. 355</ref> and the first to yield accurate values for the [[gravitational constant]].{{sfn|Poynting|1911|p=385}}<ref>"The aim [of experiments like Cavendish's] may be regarded either as the determination of the mass of the Earth, ... conveniently expressed ... as its 'mean density', or as the determination of the 'gravitation constant', ''G''. Cavendish's experiment is generally described today as a measurement of ''G''." (Clotfelter 1987 p. 210).</ref><ref>Many sources incorrectly state that this was the first measurement of '''''G''''' (or Earth's density); for instance: {{Cite book |last = Feynman |first = Richard P. |publisher = California Institute of Technology |isbn = 9780465025626 |location = Pasadena, California |url = https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_07.html#Ch1-S1 |series = The Feynman lectures on physics |volume = I |title = Mainly Mechanics, Radiation and Heat |edition=ebook |year = 2013 |orig-year = 1st pub. 1963 |chapter-url = https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_07.html |chapter = 7. The Theory of Gravitation |at = 7–6 Cavendish’s experiment |accessdate = December 9, 2013}}
There were previous measurements, chiefly by Bouguer (1740) and Maskelyne (1774), but they were very inaccurate: [http://ebooks.library.ualberta.ca/local/meandensityofear00poynuoft Poynting 1894]; {{harv|Poynting1911|p=386}}.
</ref> Because of the unit conventions then in use, the gravitational constant does not appear explicitly in Cavendish's work. Instead, the result was originally expressed as the [[relative density]] of [[Earth]],<ref>Clotfelter 1987, p. 210</ref> or equivalently the [[Earth mass|mass of Earth]]. His experiment gave the first accurate values for these [[geophysics|geophysical]] constants.

The experiment was devised sometime before 1783 by the English geologist [[John Michell]],<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=EUoLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA336 Jungnickel & McCormmach 1996], p. 336: A 1783 letter from Cavendish to Michell contains "the earliest mention of weighing the world". It is not clear whether "earliest mention" refers to Cavendish or Michell.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O58mAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59 Cavendish 1798], p. 59: Cavendish gives full credit to Michell for devising the experiment.</ref> who constructed a [[torsion balance]] apparatus for it. However, Michell died in 1793 without completing the work. After his death the apparatus passed to [[Francis Wollaston (philosopher)|Francis John Hyde Wollaston]] and then to Cavendish, who rebuilt it, but kept close to Michell's original plan. Cavendish then carried out a series of measurements with the equipment and reported his results in the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'' in 1798.<ref name="Cavendish">{{cite journal
| last = Cavendish
| first = Henry
| title = XXI Experiments to determine the Density of the Earth
| journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
| volume = 88
| issue =
| pages = 469–526
| publisher = The Royal Society of London
| location = London
| date = 21 June 1798
| language =
| url = https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstl.1798.0022
| jstor =
| issn = 0261-0523
| doi = 10.1098/rstl.1798.0022
| id =
| mr =
| zbl =
| jfm =
| access-date = 14 January 2025}}</ref>

==The experiment==
The apparatus consisted of a [[torsion balance]] made of a {{convert|6|ft|spell=in|adj=on}} wooden rod horizontally suspended from a wire, with two {{convert|2|in|0|adj=mid|-diameter}}, {{convert|1.61|lb|adj=on}} [[lead]] spheres, one attached to each end. Two massive {{convert|12|in|adj=on}}, {{convert|348|lb|adj=on}} lead balls, suspended separately, could be positioned away from or to either side of the smaller balls, {{convert|8.85|in}} away.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O58mAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59 Cavendish 1798], p. 59</ref> The experiment measured the faint gravitational attraction between the small and large balls, which deflected the torsion balance rod by about 0.16" (or only 0.03" with a stiffer suspending wire).
[[File:Cavendish Experiment.png|thumb|left|250px|Vertical section drawing of Cavendish's torsion balance instrument including the building in which it was housed. The large balls were hung from a frame so they could be rotated by a pulley from outside. Figure 1 of Cavendish's paper]]
[[File:CavendishSchematic111.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Detail showing torsion balance arm (''m''), large ball (''W''), small ball (''x''), and isolating box (''ABCDE'').]]

The two large balls could be positioned either away from or to either side of the torsion balance rod. Their mutual attraction to the small balls caused the arm to rotate, twisting the suspension wire. The arm rotated until it reached an angle where the twisting force of the wire balanced the combined gravitational force of attraction between the large and small lead spheres. By measuring the angle of the rod and knowing the twisting force ([[torque]]) of the wire for a given angle, Cavendish was able to determine the force between the pairs of masses. Since the gravitational force of the Earth on the small ball could be measured directly by weighing it, the ratio of the two forces allowed the [[relative density]] of the Earth to be calculated, using [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|Newton's law of gravitation]].

Cavendish found that the Earth's density was {{val|5.448|0.033}} times that of water (although due to a simple [[arithmetic]] error, found in 1821 by [[Francis Baily]], the erroneous value {{val|5.480|0.038}} appears in his paper).<ref name="Poynting 1894">[https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA45 Poynting 1894], p. 45</ref><ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Cavendish, Henry |volume=5 |pages=580–581}}</ref> The current accepted value is 5.514 g/cm3.

To find the wire's [[Torsion spring#Torsion coefficient|torsion coefficient]], the torque exerted by the wire for a given angle of twist, Cavendish timed the natural [[Torsion spring#Torsional harmonic oscillators|oscillation period]] of the balance rod as it rotated slowly clockwise and counterclockwise against the twisting of the wire. For the first 3 experiments the period was about 15 minutes and for the next 14 experiments the period was half of that, about 7.5 minutes. The period changed because after the third experiment Cavendish put in a stiffer wire. The torsion coefficient could be calculated from this and the mass and dimensions of the balance. Actually, the rod was never at rest; Cavendish had to measure the deflection angle of the rod while it was oscillating.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O58mAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA64 Cavendish 1798], p. 64</ref>

Cavendish's equipment was remarkably sensitive for its time.<ref name="Poynting 1894"/> The force involved in twisting the torsion balance was very small, {{val|1.74e-7|u=N}},<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrloHemOmUEC&pg=PA357 Boys 1894] p. 357</ref> (the weight of only 0.0177 milligrams) or about {{frac|50,000,000}} of the weight of the small balls.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O58mAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA60 Cavendish 1798] p. 60</ref> To prevent air currents and temperature changes from interfering with the measurements, Cavendish placed the entire apparatus in a mahogany box about 1.98 meters wide, 1.27 meters tall, and 14 cm thick,[http://cavendish-deneyi.com/pdf/Cavendish-c%CC%A7izim-03.pdf] all in a closed shed on his estate. Through two holes in the walls of the shed, Cavendish used telescopes to observe the movement of the torsion balance's horizontal rod. The key observable was of course the deflection of the torsion balance rod, which Cavendish measured to be about 0.16" (or only 0.03" for the stiffer wire used mostly).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O58mAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA99 Cavendish 1798], p. 99, Result table, (scale graduations = {{frac|20}} in ≈ 1.3 mm) The total deflection shown in most trials was twice this since he compared the deflection with large balls on opposite sides of the balance beam.</ref> Cavendish was able to measure this small deflection to an accuracy of better than {{convert|0.01|in}} using [[vernier scale]]s on the ends of the rod.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O58mAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA63 Cavendish 1798], p. 63</ref>
The accuracy of Cavendish's result was not exceeded until [[C. V. Boys]]' experiment in 1895. In time, Michell's torsion balance became the dominant technique for measuring the [[gravitational constant]] (''G'') and most contemporary measurements still use variations of it.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=EUoLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA341 Jungnickel & McCormmach 1996], p. 341</ref>

Cavendish's result provided additional evidence for a [[outer core|planetary core]] made of metal, an idea first proposed by [[Charles Hutton]] based on his analysis of the 1774 [[Schiehallion experiment]].<ref name="Danson_p153-154">{{Cite book|last=Danson|first=Edwin |title=Weighing the World |publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2006|pages=153–154|isbn=978-0-19-518169-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNH_Y7ERFeoC&pg=PA153}}</ref> Cavendish's result of 5.4 g·cm−3, 23% bigger than Hutton's, is close to 80% of the density of liquid [[iron]], and 80% higher than the density of the Earth's outer [[Crust (geology)|crust]], suggesting the existence of a dense iron core.<ref>see e.g. Hrvoje Tkalčić, ''The Earth's Inner Core'', Cambridge University Press (2017), [https://books.google.com/books?id=wa7DDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 p. 2].</ref>

==Reformulation of Cavendish's result to ''G'' ==
The formulation of [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|Newtonian gravity]] in terms of a gravitational constant did not become standard until long after Cavendish's time. Indeed, one of the first references to ''G'' is in 1873, 75 years after Cavendish's work.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cornu |first1=A. |last2=Baille |first2=J. B. |date=1873 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3033b/f954.image |title=Détermination nouvelle de la constante de l'attraction et de la densité moyenne de la Terre |language=fr |trans-title=New Determination of the Constant of Attraction and the Average Density of Earth |journal=C. R. Acad. Sci. |location=Paris |volume=76 |pages=954–958 }}</ref>

Cavendish expressed his result in terms of the density of the Earth. He referred to his experiment in correspondence as "weighing the world". Later authors reformulated his results in modern terms.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrloHemOmUEC&pg=PA353 Boys 1894], p. 330 In this lecture before the Royal Society, Boys introduces ''G'' and argues for its acceptance</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 Poynting 1894], p. 4</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O58mAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1 MacKenzie 1900], p. vi</ref>
:<math>G = g\frac{R_\text{earth}^2}{M_\text{earth}} = \frac{3g}{4\pi R_\text{earth}\rho_\text{earth}}\,</math>
After converting to [[SI]] units, Cavendish's value for the Earth's density, 5.448 g cm−3, gives
:''G'' = {{val|6.74e-11|u=m3 kg–1 s−2}},<ref>{{cite journal|first=Adam |last=Mann |title=The curious case of the gravitational constant |date=September 6, 2016 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=113 |issue=36 |pages=9949–9952 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1612597113 |doi-access=free |pmid=27601579 |pmc=5018785 }}</ref>
which differs by only 1% from the 2014 [[CODATA]] value of {{val|fmt=none|6.67408e-11|u=m3 kg−1 s−2}}.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Jennifer Lauren |last=Lee |title=Big G Redux: Solving the Mystery of a Perplexing Result |date=November 16, 2016 |journal=NIST |url=https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2016/11/big-g-redux-solving-mystery-perplexing-result}}</ref>
Today, physicists often use units where the gravitational constant takes a different form. The [[Gaussian gravitational constant]] used in space dynamics is a defined constant and the Cavendish experiment can be considered as a measurement of this constant.
In Cavendish's time, physicists used the same units for mass and weight, in effect taking ''g'' as a standard acceleration. Then, since ''R''{{Sub|earth}} was known, ''ρ''{{sub|earth}} played the role of an inverse gravitational constant. The density of the Earth was hence a much sought-after quantity at the time, and there had been earlier attempts to measure it, such as the [[Schiehallion experiment]] in 1774.

==Derivation of ''G'' and the Earth's mass==
{{hatnote|For the definitions of terms, see the drawing below and the table at the end of this section.}}

The following is not the method Cavendish used, but describes how modern physicists would calculate the results from his experiment.<ref name=HarvLect>{{cite web|title=Cavendish Experiment, Harvard Lecture Demonstrations, Harvard Univ|url=http://sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k16940&pageid=icb.page80669&pageContentId=icb.pagecontent277503&state=maximize&view=view.do&viewParam_name=indepth.html#a_icb_pagecontent277503|accessdate=2013-12-30}}. '[the torsion balance was]...modified by Cavendish to measure ''G''.'</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA41 Poynting 1894], p. 41</ref><ref>Clotfelter 1987 p. 212 explains Cavendish's original method of calculation.</ref> From [[Hooke's law]], the [[torque]] on the torsion wire is proportional to the deflection angle <math>\theta</math> of the balance. The torque is <math>\kappa\theta</math> where <math>\kappa</math> is the [[torsion coefficient]] of the wire. However, a torque in the opposite direction is also generated by the gravitational pull of the masses. It can be written as a product of the attractive force of a large ball on a small ball and the distance L/2 to the suspension wire. Since there are two balls, each experiencing force ''F'' at a distance {{sfrac|''L''|2}} from the axis of the balance, the torque due to gravitational force is ''LF''. At equilibrium (when the balance has been stabilized at an angle <math>\theta</math>), the total amount of torque must be zero as these two sources of torque balance out. Thus, we can equate their magnitudes given by the formulas above, which gives the following:

:<math>\kappa\theta\ = LF \,</math>

For ''F'', [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s [[law of universal gravitation]] is used to express the attractive force between a large and small ball:

[[File:Cavendish Torsion Balance Diagram.svg|thumb|220px|Simplified diagram of torsion balance]]

:<math>F = \frac{G m M}{r^2}\,</math>

Substituting ''F'' into the first equation above gives

:<math>\kappa\theta\ = L\frac{GmM}{r^2} \qquad\qquad\qquad(1)\,</math>

To find the torsion coefficient (<math>\kappa</math>) of the wire, Cavendish measured the natural [[Resonance|resonant]] [[Torsion spring#Torsional harmonic oscillators|oscillation period]] ''T'' of the torsion balance:

:<math>T = 2\pi\sqrt{\frac{I}{\kappa}}</math>

Assuming the mass of the torsion beam itself is negligible, the [[moment of inertia]] of the balance is just due to the small balls. Treating them as point masses, each at L/2 from the axis, gives:

:<math>I = m\left (\frac{L}{2}\right )^2 + m\left (\frac{L}{2}\right )^2 = 2m\left (\frac{L}{2}\right )^2 = \frac{mL^2}{2}\,</math>,

and so:

:<math>T = 2\pi\sqrt{\frac{mL^2}{2\kappa}}\,</math>

Solving this for <math>\kappa</math>, substituting into (1), and rearranging for ''G'', the result is:

:<math>G = \frac{2 \pi^2 L r^2 \theta}{M T^2} \,</math>.

Once ''G'' has been found, the attraction of an object at the Earth's surface to the Earth itself can be used to calculate the [[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] and density:

:<math>mg = \frac{GmM_{\rm earth}}{R_{\rm earth}^2}\,</math>

:<math>M_{\rm earth} = \frac{gR_{\rm earth}^2}{G}\,</math>

:<math>\rho_{\rm earth} = \frac{M_{\rm earth}}{\tfrac{4}{3} \pi R_{\rm earth}^3} = \frac{3g}{4 \pi R_{\rm earth} G}\,</math>

===Definitions of terms===

{| class="wikitable"
!Symbol ||Unit ||Definition
|-
|<math>\theta</math>||[[radian]]s||Deflection of torsion balance beam from its rest position
|-
|''F''||[[newton (unit)|N]]||Gravitational force between masses ''M'' and ''m''
|-
|''G''||m{{sup|3}} kg{{sup|−1}} s{{sup|−2}}||Gravitational constant
|-
|''m''||kg||Mass of small lead ball
|-
|''M''||kg||Mass of large lead ball
|-
|''r''||m||Distance between centers of large and small balls when balance is deflected
|-
|''L''||m||Length of torsion balance beam between centers of small balls
|-
|<math>\kappa</math>||N m rad{{sup|−1}}||Torsion coefficient of suspending wire
|-
|{{math|''I''}}||kg m{{sup|2}}||Moment of inertia of torsion balance beam
|-
|''T''||s||Period of oscillation of torsion balance
|-
|''g''||m s{{sup|−2}}||Acceleration of gravity at the surface of the Earth
|-
|''M''{{sub|earth}}||kg||Mass of the Earth
|-
|''R''{{sub|earth}}||m||Radius of the Earth
|-
|<math>\rho</math>{{sub|earth}}||kg m{{sup|−3}}||Density of the Earth
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | author=Boys, C. Vernon | title=On the Newtonian constant of gravitation | journal=Nature | year=1894 | volume=50 | issue=1292 | pages=330–334 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrloHemOmUEC&pg=PA353 | doi=10.1038/050330a0 | bibcode=1894Natur..50..330. | accessdate=2013-12-30 | doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Cavendish | first=Henry | title=Experiments to Determine the Density of the Earth | year=1798 | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society| volume=88 |pages=469–526 | doi=10.1098/rstl.1798.0022| doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | author = Clotfelter, B. E. | title = The Cavendish experiment as Cavendish knew it | journal = American Journal of Physics | year = 1987 | volume = 55 | issue = 3 | pages = 210–213 | doi = 10.1119/1.15214|bibcode = 1987AmJPh..55..210C }} Establishes that Cavendish didn't determine G.
* {{cite journal | author = Falconer, Isobel | title = Henry Cavendish: the man and the measurement | journal = Measurement Science and Technology | year = 1999 | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 470–477 | doi = 10.1088/0957-0233/10/6/310 |bibcode = 1999MeScT..10..470F | s2cid = 250862938 }}
* {{cite web | last=Hodges | first=Laurent | year=1999 | title=The Michell-Cavendish Experiment, faculty website, Iowa State Univ. | url=http://www.public.iastate.edu/~lhodges/Michell.htm | accessdate=2013-12-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906134148/http://www.public.iastate.edu/~lhodges/Michell.htm | archive-date=2017-09-06 | url-status=dead }} Discusses Michell's contributions, and whether Cavendish determined G.
* {{cite book
| last2 = McCormmach
| first2 = Russell|author2-link= Russell McCormmach
| last1 = Jungnickel
| first1 = Christa|author1-link= Christa Jungnickel
| title = Cavendish
| location = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| publisher = [[American Philosophical Society]]
| year = 1996
| url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EUoLAAAAIAAJ
| isbn = 978-0-87169-220-7
| accessdate = 2013-12-30
}}
* {{cite journal | author = Lally, Sean P. | title = Henry Cavendish and the Density of the Earth | journal = The Physics Teacher | year = 1999 | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–37 | bibcode=1999PhTea..37...34L | doi = 10.1119/1.880145}}
* {{cite book | last=Poynting | first=John H. | title=The Mean Density of the Earth: An essay to which the Adams prize was adjudged in 1893 | year=1894 | publisher=C. Griffin & Co. | location=London | url=https://archive.org/details/meandensityeart00poyngoog | accessdate=2013-12-30 }} Review of gravity measurements since 1740.
*{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Gravitation |volume=12 |pages=384–389|first=John Henry|last=Poynting|author-link=John Henry Poynting}}{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Portal|Physics}}
* [https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_07.html#Ch7-S6 Cavendish’s experiment in the Feynman Lectures on Physics]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080508011932/http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues_2005/2005-07-01/feature1/index.html Sideways Gravity in the Basement, ''The Citizen Scientist'', July 1, 2005]. Homebrew Cavendish experiment, showing calculation of results and precautions necessary to eliminate wind and electrostatic errors.
* [http://www.physicscentral.com/explore/action/bigg.cfm "Big 'G'", Physics Central], retrieved Dec. 8, 2013. Experiment at Univ. of Washington to measure the gravitational constant using variation of Cavendish method. 
* {{cite web |url=http://www.npl.washington.edu/eotwash/bigG |title=The Controversy over Newton's Gravitational Constant |author=Eöt-Wash Group, Univ. of Washington |accessdate=December 8, 2013 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031910/http://www.npl.washington.edu/eotwash/bigG}}. Discusses current state of measurements of '''''G'''''.
* [http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10314095 Model of Cavendish's torsion balance], retrieved Aug. 28, 2007, at Science Museum, London.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cavendish Experiment}}
[[Category:Physics experiments]]
[[Category:1790s in science]]
[[Category:1797 in science]]
[[Category:1798 in science]]
[[Category:Geodesy]]
[[Category:Gravity]]
[[Category:Royal Society]]

Metre Convention

2025-10-13T01:32:07Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* European geodesy */Added location

{{Short description|1875 international standardization treaty}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}

[[File:Metre Convention Signatories.svg|thumb|350px|
{|
|-
| colspan="2" | Metre Convention signatories
|-
| {{legend|#008000|Member states}}|| {{legend|#00d000|Associate states}}
|-
| {{legend|#ff0000|Former member states}}|| {{legend|#ff9e9e|Former associate states}}
|-
|}]]
The '''Metre Convention''' ({{langx|fr|link=no|Convention du Mètre}}), also known as the '''Treaty of the Metre''',<ref>
{{cite encyclopedia
|url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/378767/Treaty-of-the-Metre
|title = Treaty of the Metre
|encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
|access-date = 28 March 2013
|year = 2013
|archive-date = 11 May 2013
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130511003219/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/378767/Treaty-of-the-Metre
|url-status = live
}}</ref> is an [[international treaty]] that was signed in Paris on 20 May 1875 by representatives of 17 nations: [[Argentina]], [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Denmark]], [[France]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], [[Peru]], [[Portugal]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]], [[Kingdom of Spain (1810-1873)|Spain]], [[Union between Sweden and Norway|Sweden and Norway]], [[Switzerland]], [[Ottoman Empire]], [[United States|United States of America]], and [[Venezuela]].

The treaty created the [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (BIPM), an [[intergovernmental organization]], under the authority of the [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM) and the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM). These organizations coordinate international [[metrology]] and the development of internationally recognized [[System of measurement|systems of measurement]].

The Metre Convention established a permanent organizational structure for member governments to act in common accord on all matters relating to units of measurement. The governing organs of the BIPM are:
* The General Conference on Weights and Measures ({{lang|FR|Conférence générale des poids et mesures}} or CGPM)—the plenary organ of the BIPM which consists of the delegates of all the contracting governments, and
* The International Committee for Weights and Measures ({{lang|FR|Comité international des poids et mesures}} or CIPM)—the direction and supervision organ composed of 18 prominent metrologists from 18 different member states
The headquarters or secretariat of the BIPM is at [[Saint-Cloud]], France. It employs around 70 people and hosts BIPM's formal meetings.

Initially the scope of the Metre Convention covered only units of mass and length. In 1921, at the sixth meeting of the CGPM, convention was amended to its scope to other fields in physics. In 1960, at the eleventh meeting of the CGPM, its system of units was named the [[International System of Units]] ({{lang|fr|Système international d'unités}}, abbreviated SI).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/|title=BIPM – history|website=bipm.org|access-date=27 April 2018|archive-date=7 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007190842/https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Metre Convention provides that only nations can be members of the BIPM. In 1999, the CGPM created in the status of associate, to allow non-member states and economic entities to participate in some activities of the BIPM through their national metrology institutes (NMIs).

{{As of|2024|10|16}}, the CGPM had 64 members and 37 associates.

Membership in the CGPM requires payment of substantial fees. Being in arrears with these payments over a span of years has led to expulsion of some former members.

== Background ==
[[File:Systeme-Metrique.jpg|thumb|250px|Woodcut dated 1800 illustrating the new decimal units which became the legal norm across all France on 4 November 1800]]
Before the [[French Revolution]], which started in 1789, [[Units of measurement in France|French units of measurement]] were based on the [[Carolingian Renaissance|Carolingian]] system, introduced by the first [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charlemagne]] (800–814 AD) which in turn were based on ancient Roman measures. Charlemagne brought a consistent system of measures across the entire empire. However, after his death, the empire fragmented and many rulers introduced their own variants of the units of measure.

Some of Charlemagne's units of measure, such as the {{lang|fr|pied du Roi}} (the king's [[Foot (unit)|foot]]) remained virtually unchanged for about a thousand years, while others, such as the {{lang|fr|aune}} ([[ell]] – used to measure cloth) and the {{lang|fr|livre}} ([[Pound (mass)|pound]]) varied dramatically from locality to locality. By the time of the revolution, the number of units of measure had grown to the extent that it was almost impossible to keep track of them.

In England in 1215, clause 25 of [[Magna Carta]] required that the same standards of measurement be applied throughout the realm. The wording of the clause emphasized that "There is to be a single measure ... throughout our realm".<ref>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/magna-carta/translation.html
|title = Magna Carta
|date = 6 October 2015
|translator-first = Nicholas
|translator-last = Vincent
|access-date = 30 September 2012
|archive-date = 15 November 2015
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151115024814/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/magna-carta/translation.html
|url-status = live
}}</ref> Five centuries later, when in 1707 [[Acts of Union 1707|England and Scotland were united]] into a single kingdom, the Scots agreed to use the same units of measure that were already established in England.<ref>[[s:Act of Union 1707|Act of Union 1707]], Article 3</ref> During the eighteenth century, in order to facilitate trade, [[Peter the Great]], Czar of Russia adopted the English system of measure.<ref>
{{cite book
|first1 = Thomas
|last1 = McGreevy
|title = The Basis of Measurement: Volume 1 – Historical Aspects
|page = 166
|isbn = 0-948251-82-4
|year = 1995
|publisher = Pitcon Publishing (Chippenham) Ltd
}}</ref>

From 1668 to 1776 the French standard of length was the [[Toise]] of Châtelet which was fixed outside the [[Grand Châtelet]] in Paris. In 1735 two geodetic standards were calibrated against the Toise of Châtelet. One of them, the Toise of Peru was used for the [[French Geodesic Mission to the Equator]]. In 1766 the Toise of Peru became the official standard of length in France and was renamed Toise of the [[French Academy of Sciences|Academy]] ({{langx|fr|links=no|Toise de l'Académie}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the unit called a toise? |url=https://www.sizes.com/units/toise.htm |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=www.sizes.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pied de roi - 1774 - La Toise de l'Académie des Sciences et le Mètre - Musée des arts et métiers - Paris - France |url=https://www.aly-abbara.com/utilitaires/convertisseur/Images/pied-roi-1774-France.html |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=www.aly-abbara.com}}</ref>

Profusion of units of measures was a practical problem of importance before the French Revolution and its reform was one of the items on the agenda of [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.entreprises.gouv.fr/metrologie/histoire-metre|title=Histoire du mètre|work=Direction Générale des Entreprises (DGE)|access-date=27 December 2017|archive-date=3 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003055350/http://www.entreprises.gouv.fr/metrologie/histoire-metre|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1799, after the remeasurement of the [[Paris meridian]] arc ({{langx|fr|links=no|Méridienne de France}}) between [[Dunkirk]] and [[Barcelona]] by [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre|Delambre]] and [[Pierre Méchain|Mechain]], the metre was defined as a quarter of a 10-millionth of the Earth circumference or 3 {{lang|fr|[[pied]]s}} (French feet) and 11.296 {{lang|fr|[[ligne]]s}} (lines) of the Toise of the academy.<ref name=":1" /> [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord|Talleyrand]], an influential leader of the Assembly invited British and American participation in the establishment of a new system, but in the event, the Assembly went it alone and introduced the metre and the [[kilogram]] which were to form the basis of the metric system, manufacturing prototypes which, in 1799, were lodged with Archives.<ref name="McGreevy1">
{{cite book |last1=McGreevy |first1=Thomas |title=The Basis of Measurement: Volume 1 – Historical Aspects |publisher=Pitcon Publishing (Chippenham) Ltd |year=1995 |isbn=0-948251-82-4 |pages=145, 151}}</ref>

Between 1840 and 1870, a number of countries definitively adopted the metric system as their system of measure including France, Spain, many South American republics and many of the Italian and German states (the Netherlands had adopted the system in 1817).<ref name=":1" />

In 1863, the [[International Postal Union]] used grams to express permitted weights of letters. In the 1860s, inspections of the prototype metre revealed wear and tear at the measuring faces of the bar and also that the bar was wont to flex slightly when in use.<ref name="McGreevy1" />

== Cartography and the metre ==
The [[American Revolution]], in which the [[United States]] was supported by [[France]] and [[Spain]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ferreiro |first=Larrie D. |date=December 2024 |title=The Rise and Fall and Rise of Spain in the Historiography of the American Revolution |url=https://institutofranklin.net/sites/default/files/revistas/%5B2024-12/The%20Rise%20and%20Fall%20and%20Rise%20of%20Spain%20in%20the%20Historiography%20of%20the%20American%20Revolution_Larrie%20D.%20Ferreiro.pdf |website=Instituto Franklin-UAH}}</ref> led to the founding of the [[United States Coast and Geodetic Survey|Survey of the Coast]] in 1807 and the creation of the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|Office of Standard Weights and Measures]] in 1830.<ref name="Cajori-1921" /> During the mid-19th century, the metre was adopted in [[Khedivate of Egypt]] an autonomous tributary state of the [[Ottoman Empire]] for [[cadastral surveying]].<ref name="Jamʻīyah al-Jughrāfīyah al-Miṣrīyah-1876">{{Cite book |last=Jamʻīyah al-Jughrāfīyah al-Miṣrīyah |url=http://archive.org/details/bulletindelasoc00almgoog |title=Bulletin de la Société de géographie d'Égypte |date=1876 |publisher=[Le Caire] |others=University of Michigan |pages=5–16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k840511v |title=Notes biographiques de S.E. Mahmoud Pacha el Falaki (l'astronome), par Ismail-Bey Moustapha et le colonel Moktar-Bey |date=1886 |pages=10–11 |language=EN}}</ref><ref name="Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá-1864">{{Cite book |author=Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k62478474 |title=Recherche des coefficients de dilatation et étalonnage de l'appareil à mesurer les bases géodésiques appartenant au gouvernement égyptien / par Ismaïl-Effendi-Moustapha, ... |date=1864 |language=EN}}</ref> In [[continental Europe]], adoption of the [[metric system]] and a better [[standardisation]] of units of measurement marked the [[Second Industrial Revolution|Technological Revolution]], a period in which [[German Empire]] would challenge [[United Kingdom]] as the foremost industrial nation in Europe. This was accompanied by development in [[cartography]] which was a prerequisite for both military operations and the creation of the infrastructures needed for industrial development such as [[Rail transport|railways]]. During the process of [[unification of Germany]], [[Geodesy|geodesists]] called for the establishment of an [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] in [[Europe]].<ref name="Alder-2015">{{Cite book |last1=Alder |first1=Ken |title=Mesurer le monde: l'incroyable histoire de l'invention du mètre |last2=Devillers-Argouarc'h |first2=Martine |date=2015 |publisher=Flammarion |isbn=978-2-08-130761-2 |series=Libres Champs |location=Paris |pages=499–520, 517–518}}</ref><ref name="BEG-1868">{{Cite book |url=http://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/pubman/item/escidoc:108187:4/component/escidoc:272449/Generalbericht.mitteleurop%C3%A4ische.Gradmessung%201867.pdf |title=Bericht über die Verhandlungen der vom 30. September bis 7. October 1867 zu BERLIN abgehaltenen allgemeinen Conferenz der Europäischen Gradmessung |publisher=Central-Bureau der Europäischen Gradmessung |year=1868 |location=Berlin |pages=123–134 |language=german}}</ref>

=== Swiss, American, Spanish and Egyptian cartography ===
[[File:HasslerCollection 001.jpg|thumb|Triangulation near [[New York City]], 1817|left]]

The [[Helvetic Republic]] adopted the [[metric system]] by law in 1801.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Système métrique |url=https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/013754/2014-05-22/ |access-date=2025-04-08 |website=hls-dhs-dss.ch |language=fr}}</ref> In 1805, a Swiss immigrant [[Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler]] brought copies of the French metre and kilogram to the United States. In 1830 the [[United States Congress|Congress]] decided to create uniform standards for length and weight in the United States.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=e-expo: Ferdinand Rudolf Hassler |url=https://www.f-r-hassler.ch/en/weights/index.html |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=www.f-r-hassler.ch}}</ref> Hassler was mandated to work out the new standards and proposed to adopt the metric system. The United States Congress opted for the [[Yard#Physical standards|British Parliamentary Standard Yard of 1758]] and the British [[Imperial units#Mass and weight|Troy Pound of 1824]] as length and weight standards.<ref name=":3" /> Nevertheless, Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler's use of the metre and the creation of the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|Office of Standard Weights and Measures]] as an office within the [[United States Coast and Geodetic Survey|Coast Survey]] contributed to the introduction of the [[Metric Act of 1866]] allowing the use of the metre in the United States.<ref name="Metric Act of 1866">{{Cite web |title=Metric Act of 1866 – US Metric Association |url=https://usma.org/laws-and-bills/metric-act-of-1866#locale-notification |access-date=2021-03-15 |website=usma.org}}</ref>

In 1816, Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler was appointed first Superintendent of the [[United States Coast and Geodetic Survey|Survey of the Coast]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/historymakers/hassler/welcome.html |title=NOAA 200th Top Tens: History Makers: Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |location=US |date=2024-03-19 |access-date=2024-10-17}}</ref><ref name="Cajori-1921">{{Cite journal |last=Cajori |first=Florian |date=1921 |title=Swiss Geodesy and the United States Coast Survey |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/6721 |journal=The Scientific Monthly |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=117–129 |bibcode=1921SciMo..13..117C |issn=0096-3771}}</ref> Trained in geodesy in Switzerland, France and [[Germany]], Hassler had brought a standard metre made in Paris to the United States in October 1805. He designed a baseline apparatus which instead of bringing different bars in actual contact during measurements,<ref name="Cajori-1921" /> used only one bar calibrated on the Committee meter, an authenthic copy of the {{Lang|fr|Mètre des Archives}},<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=NiEEAQAAIAAJ |title=National Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication |date=1966 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |pages=529 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=Alexander Ross |last2=James |first2=Henry |date=1873 |title=XIII. Results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, Austria, Spain, United States, Cape of Good Hope, and of a second Russian standard, made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. With a preface and notes on the Greek and Egyptian measures of length by Sir Henry James |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1873.0014 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |volume=163 |pages=445–469 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1873.0014|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and optical contact.<ref name="Cajori-1921" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=American Philosophical Society. |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/26092 |title=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |last2=Society |first2=American Philosophical |last3=Poupard |first3=James |date=1825 |volume=new ser.:v.2 (1825) |location=Philadelphia [etc.] |pages=234–278}}</ref> In 1830, Hassler became head of the Office of Weights and Measures, which became a part of the Survey of the Coast. He compared various units of length used in the [[United States]] at that time and measured [[Thermal expansion|coefficients of expansion]] to assess temperature effects on the measurements.<ref name="Parr-2006">{{Cite journal |last=Parr |first=Albert C. |date=2006-04-01 |title=A Tale About the First Weights and Measures Intercomparison in the United States in 1832 |url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/tale-about-first-weights-and-measures-intercomparison-united-states-1832 |journal=Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology |language=en |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=31–32, 36 |doi=10.6028/jres.111.003 |pmc=4654608 |pmid=27274915 |via=NIST}}</ref> In 1834, Hassler, measured at [[Fire Island]] the first [[Baseline (surveying)|baseline]] of the Survey of the Coast,<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last1=Hassler |first1=Harriet |url=http://archive.org/details/ferdinandrudolph1068hass |title=Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1770–1843) |last2=Burroughs |first2=Charles A. |date=2007 |others=NIST Research Library |pages=51–52}}</ref> shortly before [[Louis Puissant]] declared to the French Academy of Sciences in 1836 that Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain had made errors in the [[Arc measurement|meridian arc measurement]], which had been used to determine the length of the metre.<ref name="Lebon-1899">{{Cite book |last=Lebon |first=Ernest |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k949666 |title=Histoire abrégée de l'astronomie / par Ernest Lebon,... |date=1899 |pages=168–171 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Puissant |first=Louis |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5323385b |title=Nouvelle détermination de la distance méridienne de Montjouy à Formentera, dévoilant l'inexactitude de celle dont il est fait mention dans la base du système métrique décimal, par M. Puissant,... lu à l'Académie des sciences, le 2 mai 1836 |language=EN}}</ref>[[File:Appareil_Ibáñez.jpg|thumb|313x313px|Ibáñez apparatus calibrated on the metric Spanish standard and used at [[Aarberg]], in [[canton of Bern]], [[Switzerland]] in 1880.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hirsch |first1=A. |title=Le Réseau de Triangulation suisse |last2=Dumur |first2=J. |publisher=Commission géodésique suisse |year=1888 |volume=Troisième volume. La Mensuration des Bases |pages=3–4 |language=fr}}</ref>]]
In 1855, the Dufour map (French: ''Carte Dufour''), the first [[Topographic Map of Switzerland|topographic map of Switzerland]] for which the metre was adopted as the unit of length, won the gold medal at the Exposition Universelle.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Abplanalp |first=Andrej |date=2019-07-14 |title=Henri Dufour et la carte de la Suisse |url=https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/fr/2019/07/dufour-le-cartographe/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241225163218/https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/fr/2019/07/dufour-le-cartographe/ |archive-date=25 December 2024 |access-date=2025-01-25 |work=Musée national - Blog sur l'histoire suisse |language=de-DE |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dufour |first=G.-H. |date=1861 |title=Notice sur la carte de la Suisse dressée par l'État Major Fédéral |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/globe_0398-3412_1861_num_2_1_7582 |journal=Le Globe. Revue genevoise de géographie |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=5–22 |doi=10.3406/globe.1861.7582}}</ref> However, the baselines for this map were measured in 1834 with three toises long measuring rods calibrated on a toise made in 1821 by [[Jean Nicolas Fortin]] for [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seligmann |first=A. E. M. |date=1923 |title=La Toise de Belgique |journal=Ciel et Terre, Bulletin of the Société Belge d'Astronomie |volume=39 |page=25}}</ref><ref name="Clarke-1867">{{Cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Alexander Ross |last2=James |first2=Henry |date=1867-01-01 |title=X. Abstract of the results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia, made at the ordnance Survey Office, Southampton |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1867.0010 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |volume=157 |page=174 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1867.0010 |s2cid=109333769|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Spanish standard, a geodetic measuring device calibrated on the metre devised by [[Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero]] and [[Frutos Saavedra Meneses]], was also displayed by [[Jean Brunner]] at the Exhibition.<ref>{{Cite periodical |last=Brenni |first=Paolo |date=1996 |title=19th Century French Scientific Instrument Makers XI: The Brunners and Paul Gauher |url=https://www.unav.es/gep/TheBrunnersCartaParis.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203014633/https://www.unav.es/gep/TheBrunnersCartaParis.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2024 |access-date=2025-01-25 |periodical=Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society |number=49 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brenni |first=Paolo |date=1996 |title=19th Century French Scientific Intrument Makers |url=https://www.unav.es/gep/TheBrunnersCartaParis.pdf |journal=Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society |issue=49 |page=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203014633/https://www.unav.es/gep/TheBrunnersCartaParis.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2024}}</ref> Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero recognized that the end standards with which the most perfect devices of the eighteenth century and those of the first half of the nineteenth century were still equipped, that [[Jean-Charles de Borda]] or [[Friedrich Bessel|Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] simply joined measuring the intervals by means of [[Calipers|vernier callipers]] or glass wedges, would be replaced advantageously for accuracy by microscopic measurements, a system designed in [[Switzerland]] by Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler and [[Johann Georg Tralles]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wolf |first=Rudolf |date=1891-01-01 |title=Histoire de l'appareil Ibañez-Brunner in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3068q |access-date=2023-08-31 |website=Gallica |pages=370–371 |language=FR}}</ref> and which Ibáñez ameliorated using a single standard with lines marked on the bar. Regarding the two methods by which the effect of temperature was taken into account, Ibáñez used both the bimetallic rulers, in platinum and brass, which he first employed for the central base of Spain,<ref name="Brunner-18572">{{Cite web |last=Brunner |first=Jean |date=1857-01-01 |title=Appareil construit pour les opérations au moyen desquelles on prolongera dans toute l'étendue de l'Espagne le réseau trigonométrique qui couvre la France in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3001w |access-date=2023-08-31 |website=Gallica |pages=150–153 |language=FR}}</ref> and the simple iron ruler with inlaid mercury thermometers which was used in Switzerland.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle= Geodesy |volume = 11 |last1= Clarke |first1= Alexander Ross |author-link1= Alexander Ross Clarke |last2= Helmert |first2= Friedrich Robert |author-link2= Friedrich Robert Helmert |pages= 607-615 |short=1}}</ref> On the sidelines of the [[Exposition Universelle (1855)]] and the second [[International Statistical Institute|Congress of Statistics]] held in Paris, an association with a view to obtaining a uniform decimal system of measures, weights and currencies was created in 1855.<ref name=":4" /> Under the impetus of this association, a Committee for Weights and Measures and Monies (French: ''Comité des poids, mesures et monnaies'') would be created during the [[Exposition Universelle (1867)]] in Paris and would call for the international adoption of the metric system.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=History – The BIPM 150 |url=https://thebipm150.org/history/ |access-date=2025-04-08 |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":4" />

[[Egyptian astronomy]] has ancient roots which were revived in the 19th century by the modernist impetus of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] who founded in Sabtieh, [[Boulaq]] district, in [[Cairo]] an Observatory which he was keen to keep in harmony with the progress of this science still in progress.<ref name="Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá-1864" /><ref name="Jamʻīyah al-Jughrāfīyah al-Miṣrīyah-1876" /> In 1858, a Technical Commission was set up to continue [[cadastral surveying]] inaugurated under Muhammad Ali. This Commission suggested to Viceroy [[Sa'id of Egypt|Mohammed Sa'id Pasha]] to buy geodetic devices which were ordered in France. While [[Mahmud Ahmad Hamdi al-Falaki]] was in charge, in Egypt, of the direction of the work of the general map, the viceroy entrusted to [[Ismail Mustafa al-Falaki]] the study, in Europe, of the precision apparatus calibrated against the metre intended to measure the geodesic bases and already built by [[Jean Brunner]] in Paris. Ismail Mustafa had the task to carry out the experiments necessary for determining the expansion coefficients of the two platinum and brass bars, and to compare the Egyptian standard with a known standard. The Spanish standard designed by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Frutos Saavedra Meneses was chosen for this purpose, as it had served as a model for the construction of the Egyptian standard.<ref name="Jamʻīyah al-Jughrāfīyah al-Miṣrīyah-1876" /><ref name="Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá-1864" /> In addition, the Spanish standard had been compared with [[Jean-Charles de Borda|Borda]]'s double-toise N° 1, which served as a comparison module for the measurement of all geodesic bases in France,<ref name="Soler-1997">{{Cite journal |last=Soler |first=T. |date=1997-02-01 |title=A profile of General Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero: first president of the International Geodetic Association |journal=Journal of Geodesy |language=en |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=176–188 |bibcode=1997JGeod..71..176S |citeseerx=10.1.1.492.3967 |doi=10.1007/s001900050086 |issn=1432-1394 |s2cid=119447198}}</ref><ref name="Brunner">{{Cite web |last=Brunner |first=Jean |date=1857 |title=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3001w |access-date=2019-05-15 |website=Gallica |pages=150–153 |language=FR}}</ref> and was also to be compared to the Ibáñez apparatus.<ref name=":10" /><ref name="Soler-1997" /> In 1954, the connection of the southerly extension of the [[Struve Geodetic Arc]] with an arc running northwards from [[South Africa]] through [[Egypt]] would bring the course of a major [[meridian arc]] back to land where [[Eratosthenes]] had founded [[geodesy]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Nomination of the STRUVE GEODETIC ARC for inscription on the WORLD HERITAGE LIST |url=https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1187.pdf |pages=40, 143–144}}</ref>

=== European geodesy ===
In Europe, except Spain,<ref name="Brunner-18572" /> surveyors continued to use measuring instruments calibrated on the Toise of Peru.<ref name="Quinn-2012">{{Cite book |last=Quinn |first=T. J. |title=From artefacts to atoms: the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-990991-9 |location=Oxford |pages=9, 11, 20, 37–38, 91–92, 70–72, 114–117, 144–147, 8 |oclc=861693071}}</ref> Among these, the toise of Bessel and the apparatus of Borda were respectively the main references for geodesy in [[Prussia]] and in [[France]]. These measuring devices consisted of bimetallic rulers in platinum and brass or iron and zinc fixed together at one extremity to assess the variations in length produced by any change in temperature. The combination of two bars made of two different metals allowed to take [[thermal expansion]] into account without measuring the temperature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Borda et le système métrique |url=https://mesurelab.fr/wp/metrologie/histoire-de-la-metrologie/borda-et-le-systeme-metrique/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829055653/https://mesurelab.fr/wp/metrologie/histoire-de-la-metrologie/borda-et-le-systeme-metrique/ |archive-date=29 August 2023 |access-date=2023-08-29 |website=Association Mesure Lab |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name="Viik-2006">{{Cite news |last=Viik |first=T |date=2006 |title=F. W. Bessel and geodesy |work=Struve Geodetic Arc, 2006 International Conference, The Struve Arc and Extensions in Space and Time, Haparanda and Pajala, Sweden, 13–15 August 2006 |pages=10, 6 |citeseerx=10.1.1.517.9501}}</ref> A French scientific instrument maker, [[Jean Nicolas Fortin]], made three direct copies of the Toise of Peru, one for [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]], a second for [[Heinrich Christian Schumacher]] in 1821 and a third for Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in 1823. In 1831, [[Henri-Prudence Gambey]] also realised a copy of the Toise of Peru which was kept at [[Altona Observatory]] in [[Hamburg]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolf |first=M. C |title=Recherches historiques sur les étalons de poids et mesures de l'observatoire et les appareils qui ont servi a les construire. |date=1882 |publisher=Gauthier-Villars |location=Paris |pages=7–8, 20, 32 |language=French |oclc=16069502}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Baeyer |first=Johann Jacob |title=Grösse und Figur der Erde |publisher=Georg Reimer |year=1861 |location=Berlin |publication-date=1861 |pages=87–94 |language=de}}</ref>

In the second half of the 19th century, the creation of the [[International Association of Geodesy|Central European Arc Measurement]] ({{Langx|de|Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung}}) would mark, following [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tardi |first=Pierre (1897-1972) Auteur du texte |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3355272d/f74.item |title=Traité de géodésie / par le capitaine P. Tardi ; préface par le général G. Perrier |date=1934 |pages=34 |language=EN}}</ref><ref name="Quinn-20122" /> Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel and Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve examples,<ref name=":9">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Earth, Figure of the|volume=8|last1=Clarke|first1=Alexander Ross|author-link1=Alexander Ross Clarke|last2=Helmert|first2=Friedrich Robert|author-link2=Friedrich Robert Helmert|pages=801-813|short=1}}</ref> the systematic adoption of more rigorous methods among them the application of the [[least squares]] in geodesy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mesure du 1er mètre: une erreur qui changea le monde |url=https://www.techniques-ingenieur.fr/actualite/articles/mesure-du-1er-metre-une-erreur-qui-changea-le-monde-2715/ |access-date=December 30, 2020 |website=Techniques de l'Ingénieur |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name="Lebon-1899" /> It became possible to accurately measure parallel arcs, since the difference in longitude between their ends could be determined thanks to the invention of the [[electrical telegraph]].<ref name="Clarke-1867" /> Furthermore, advances in [[metrology]] combined with those of [[gravimetry]] have led to a new era of [[geodesy]]. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, the latter could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. It was then necessary to define a single unit to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs and all determinations of the [[gravitational acceleration]] by means of pendulum.<ref>Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, ''Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion pública de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira'', Madrid, Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D.E. Aguado, 1881, p. 78</ref>

In 1866, an important concern was that the Toise of Peru, the standard of the toise constructed in 1735 for the [[French Geodesic Mission to the Equator]], might be so much damaged that comparison with it would be worthless,<ref name="Clarke-1867" /> while Bessel had questioned the accuracy of copies of this standard belonging to [[Altona Observatory|Altona]] and [[Koenigsberg Observatory|Koenigsberg]] Observatories, which he had compared to each other about 1840.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bessel |first=Friedrich Wilhelm |date=1840-04-01 |title=Über das preufs. Längenmaaß und die zu seiner Verbreitung durch Copien ergriffenen Maaßregeln. |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1840AN.....17..193B |journal=Astronomische Nachrichten |volume=17 |issue=13 |page=193 |bibcode=1840AN.....17..193B |doi=10.1002/asna.18400171302 |issn=0004-6337}}</ref> In fact, the length of Bessel's Toise, which according to the then legal ratio between the metre and the Toise of Peru, should be equal to 1.9490348 m, would be found to be 26.2·10−6 m greater during measurements carried out by [[Justin-Mirande René Benoit|Jean-René Benoît]] at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. It was the consideration of the divergences between the different toises used by geodesists that led the [[International Association of Geodesy|European Arc Measurement]] ({{langx|de|links=no|Europäische Gradmessung}} ) to consider, at the meeting of its Permanent Commission in Neuchâtel in 1866, the founding of a World Institute for the Comparison of Geodetic Standards, the first step towards the creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.<ref>Guillaume, Charles-Édouard (1927). ''La Création du Bureau International des Poids et Mesures et son Œuvre'' [''The creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and its work'']. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. p. 129-130.</ref><ref name="Pérard-1957" /> [[Spain]] joined the [[International Association of Geodesy|European Arc Measurement]] at this meeting.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-22 |title=El General Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Marqués de Mulhacén {{!}} Revista e-medida |url=https://www.e-medida.es/numero-4/el-general-ibanez-e-ibanez-de-ibero-marques-de-mulhacen/ |access-date=2025-04-08 |language=es}}</ref> In 1867 at the second General Conference of the European Arc Measurement held in [[Berlin]], the question of international standard of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=A Note on the History of the IAG |url=http://www.iag-aig.org/index.php?tpl=text&id_c=80&id_t=143 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722002232/http://www.iag-aig.org/index.php?tpl=text&id_c=80&id_t=143 |archive-date=22 July 2017 |access-date=16 May 2017 |website=IAG Homepage}}</ref> The conference recommended the adoption of the metric system (replacing [[Friedrich Bessel|Bessel]]'s toise) and the creation of an International Metre Commission.<ref name=":0" />

=== Saint Petersburg Academy ===
[[Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler]]'s metrological and geodetic work also had a favourable response in Russia.<ref name="Parr-2006" /><ref name="Cajori-1921" /> In 1869, the [[Russian Academy of Sciences|Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences]] sent to the French Academy of Sciences a report drafted by [[Otto Wilhelm von Struve]], who secured, in 1860, the co-operation of Prussia, Belgium, France and England to the measurement of the European arc of parallel in 52° latitude,<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Clarke-1867" /> [[Heinrich von Wild]], the Swiss born director of the Central Geophysical Observatory in [[Saint Petersburg]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-12-08 |title=History of IMO |url=https://public-old.wmo.int/en/about-us/who-we-are/history-IMO |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218170901/https://public-old.wmo.int/en/about-us/who-we-are/history-IMO |archive-date=December 18, 2023 |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en}}</ref> and [[Moritz von Jacobi]], whose theorem has long supported the assumption of an ellipsoid with three unequal axes for the figure of the Earth,<ref name=":9" /> inviting his French counterpart to undertake joint action to ensure the universal use of the [[metric system]] in all scientific work.<ref name="Guillaume-1916" /> The [[French Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Bureau des Longitudes]] in Paris drew the attention of the French government to this issue. In November 1869, [[Napoleon III]] issued invitations to join the International Metre Commission in Paris.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=BIPM – International Metre Commission |url=https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/international-metre-commission.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109182826/https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/international-metre-commission.html |archive-date=9 January 2018 |access-date=9 January 2018 |website=bipm.org}}</ref>

=== The International Metre Commission (1870/1872) ===
Prior to the 1870 conference, French politicians had feared that the British might reject the existing metre and would prefer to have new value of its theoretical length. However, [[James Clerk Maxwell]] wrote in 1865 that no scientist could become famous proposing a metre deduced from new measurements of the size of the Earth,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maxwell |first=James Clerk |url=https://archive.org/details/electricandmagne01maxwrich/page/n39/mode/2up |title=A treatise on electricity and magnetism |date=1873 |publisher=Oxford : Clarendon Press |others=University of California Libraries |pages=3}}</ref> while [[Adolphe Hirsch]] would recall, in his 1891 [[obituary]] of Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, that the International Metre Commission had decided not to propose a new length for the metre.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Hirsch |first=Adolphe |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=M1PnAAAAMAAJ |title=Comptes-rendus des séances de la Commission permanente de l'Association géodésique internationale réunie à Florence du 8 au 17 octobre 1891 |date=1892 |publisher=De Gruyter, Incorporated |isbn=((978-3-11-128691-4)) |pages=101–109 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="Guillaume-1916">{{Cite journal |last=Guillaume |first=Ed. |date=1916-01-01 |title=Le Systeme Metrique est-il en Peril? |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916LAstr..30..242G |journal=L'Astronomie |volume=30 |pages=244–245 |bibcode=1916LAstr..30..242G |issn=0004-6302}}</ref>

In July 1870, two weeks before the conference was due to start, the [[Franco-Prussian War]] broke out. Although the delegates did meet (without a German delegation), it was agreed that the conference should be recalled once all the delegates (including the German delegation) were present.<ref name="Adler" /> Following the war, which resulted in Napoleon III's exile, Germany and Italy, now unified nations, adopted the metric system as their national system of units, but with the prototype copy of the kilogram and metre under the control of the [[French Third Republic]].<ref name=":7" /> In 1872 the new republican government reissued the invitations and the same year scientists from thirty European and American countries met in Paris.<ref name=":7">
{{cite book
|title = The Measure of all Things – The Seven-Year-Odyssey that Transformed the World
|last= Alder
|first= Ken
|year= 2002
|pages = 348–354
|publisher= Abacus
|location= London
|isbn= 0-349-11507-9
}}</ref>

When the International Metre Commission was reconvened in 1872, it was proposed that new prototype metre and kilogram standards be manufactured to reproduce the values of the existing artifacts as closely as possible.<ref name="Adler">{{cite book |last=Alder |first=Ken |title=The Measure of all Things – The Seven-Year-Odyssey that Transformed the World |publisher=Abacus |year=2002 |isbn=0-349-11507-9 |location=London |page=354}}</ref> Indeed, since its origin, the metre had kept a double definition; it was both the ten-millionth part of the quarter meridian and the length represented by the ''Mètre des Archives''. The first was historical, the second was metrological. There was much discussion, considering the opportunity either to keep as definitive the units represented by the metre and kilogram standards of the Archives, or to return to the primitive definitions, and to correct the units to bring them closer to them. The first solution prevailed, in accordance with common sense and in accordance with the advice of the French Academy of Sciences. Abandoning the values represented by the standards, would have consecrated an extremely dangerous principle, that of the change of units to any progress of measurements; the [[Metric system|Metric System]] would be perpetually threatened with change, that is to say with ruin.<ref name="Guillaume-1916" /> The Commission decided the maintenance of new international standards rather than using French existing standards which, at that time, were 70 years old and which, through wear and tear, might not be exactly the same as when they had been adopted in 1799.<ref name="Adler" /> Thus the Commission called for the creation of a new international prototype metre which length would be as close as possible to that of the ''Mètre des Archives'' and the arrangement of a system where national standards could be compared with it.<ref name="Guillaume-1916" />

=== The 1874 metre-alloy ===
[[File:Metre alloy.jpg|thumb|Preparing the first metre-alloy in May 1874, at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, Paris]]
On 6 May 1873 during the 6th session of the French section of the Metre Commission, [[Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville]] cast a 20-kilogram platinum-iridium ingot from Matthey in his laboratory at the [[École normale supérieure (Paris)]]. On 13 May 1874, 250 kilograms of platinum-iridium to be used for several national prototypes of the metre was cast at the [[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]].<ref name="BIPM-150" /> When a conflict broke out regarding the presence of impurities in the metre-alloy of 1874, a member of the Preparatory Committee since 1870 and president of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bigourdan |first=Guillaume |url=https://archive.org/details/lesystmemtri00bigo/page/n345/mode/2up |title=Le système métrique des poids et mesures ; son établissement et sa propagation graduelle, avec l'histoire des opérations qui ont servi à déterminer le mètre et le kilogramme |date=1901 |publisher=Paris : Gauthier-Villars |others=University of Ottawa |pages=313}}</ref> [[Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero]] intervened with the [[French Academy of Sciences]] to rally France to the project to create an International Bureau of Weights and Measures equipped with the scientific means necessary to redefine the units of the [[metric system]] according to the progress of sciences.<ref name="Pérard-19572">{{Cite web |last=Pérard |first=Albert |date=1957 |title=Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero (14 avril 1825 – 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire) |url=https://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/eloges/ibanez_notice.pdf |website=Institut de France – Académie des sciences |pages=26–28}}</ref> In fact, the chemical analysis of the alloy produced in 1874 by the French section revealed contamination by [[ruthenium]] and [[iron]] which led the [[General Conference on Weights and Measures|International Committee for Weights and Measures]] to reject, in 1877, the prototypes produced by the French section from the 1874 alloy. It also seemed at the time that the production of prototypes with an X profile was only possible through the [[extrusion]] process, which resulted in iron contamination. However, it soon turned out that the prototypes designed by [[Henri Tresca]] could be produced by [[Milling (machining)|milling]].<ref name="Quinn-20122">{{Cite book |last=Quinn |first=T. J. |title=From artefacts to atoms: the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-990991-9 |location=Oxford |pages=3-10, 14, 90-91, 56-57, 72, 108, 56-57 |oclc=861693071}}</ref>

== The 1875 conferences in Paris ==

The principal tasks facing the delegates at the 1875 Diplomatic Conference on the Metre was the replacement of the existing metre and kilogram artefacts that were held by the French Government and the setting up of an organization to administer the maintenance of standards around the globe. The conference did not concern itself with other units of measure. The conference had undertones of Franco-German political manoeuvring, particularly since the French had been humiliated by the Prussians during the war a few years previously. Although France lost control of the metric system, they ensured that it passed to international rather than German control and that the international headquarters were in Paris.<ref name=Adler/>

While the German astronomer [[Wilhelm Julius Foerster]] along with the Russian and Austrian representatives had boycotted the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in order to prompt the reunion of the Diplomatic Conference of the Metre and to promote the foundation of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures,<ref name="Poids-1903">{{Cite book |last=Comité Interational des Poids et Mesures |title=Procès-Verbaux des Séances. Deuxième Série. Tome II. Session de 1903 |publisher=Gauthier-Villars |location=Paris |pages=5–7}}</ref> Adolphe Hirsch, delegate of Switzerland at this Diplomatic Conference in 1875, conformed to the opinion of [[Italy]] and [[Spain]] to create, in spite of French reluctance, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France as a permanent institution at the disadvantage of the ''[[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 1875 |title=Bericht der schweizerischen Delegierten an der internationalen Meterkonferenz an den Bundespräsidenten und Vorsteher des Politischen Departements, J. J. Scherer in Erwin Bucher, Peter Stalder (ed.), Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland, vol. 3, doc. 66, dodis.ch/42045, Bern 1986. |url=https://dodis.ch/42045 |website=Dodis}}</ref>

In 1875, the Permanent Commission of the European Arc Measurement would also hold its reunion in Paris and decide the creation of an international geodetic standard for baselines' measurement calibrated against the metre.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hirsch |first=Adolphe |title=Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel |url=https://www.e-periodica.ch/digbib/view?pid=bsn-001:1874:10#581 |access-date=2025-04-08 |website=E-Periodica |page=255 |language=de}}</ref> [[Second French Empire|French Empire]] had hesitated for a long time before giving in to the demands of the European Arc Measurement, which asked the French geodesists to take part in its work. It was only after the [[Franco-Prussian War]], that [[Charles-Eugène Delaunay]] represented [[France]] at the Congress of [[Vienna]] in 1871. In 1874, [[Hervé Faye]] was appointed member of the Permanent Commission of the European Arc Measurement presided by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero who was collaborating with the French on the extension and remeasurement of the [[Arc measurement of Delambre and Méchain#Extension of Greenwich arc measurement through Spain|meridian arc of Delambre and Méchain]] since 1853.<ref name="Lebon-1899" /><ref name="Soler-1997" />

Spain notably supported France for these outcomes and the first president of the International Committee for Weights and Measures,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Comité international des poids et mesures |first= |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=QgkAAAAAMAAJ&pg=GBS.PA3&hl=fr |title=Procès-verbaux des séances de 1875-1876 |date=1876 |publisher=Bureau international des poids et mesures. |pages=3 |language=fr}}</ref> the Spanish geodesist, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero received the [[List of foreign recipients of the Légion d'Honneur|Grand Officer medal of the Légion d'Honneur]] for his diplomatic role on this issue and was awarded the [[Poncelet Prize]] for his scientific contributions to metrology and geodesy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.academie-sciences.fr/fr/|title=Carlos IBAÑEZ DE IBERO (14 avril 1825 – 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire)|last=Pérard|first=Albert|date=1957|website=Institut de France Académie des Sciences|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517112721/http://www.academie-sciences.fr/fr/|archive-date=17 May 2017|access-date=18 May 2017|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> Indeed, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, first president of the [[International Association of Geodesy|International Geodetic Association]], played a pivotal role in reconciling French and German interests.<ref name="Soler-1997" /><ref name="Pérard-1957">{{Cite web |last=Pérard |first=Albert |date=1957 |title=Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero (14 avril 1825 – 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire) |url=https://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/eloges/ibanez_notice.pdf |website=Institut de France – Académie des sciences |pages=26–28}}</ref>

=== Reference standards ===
[[Image:Platinum-Iridium meter bar.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Historical ''[[international prototype of the metre]]'', made of an alloy of platinum and iridium, that was the standard from 1889 to 1960.]]Although the [[History of the metre#International prototype metre|new standard metre]] had the same value as the old metre, it had an "X" cross-section designed by [[Henri Tresca]] rather than a rectangular cross-section as this reduced the flexing when taking measurements. Moreover, the new bar, rather than being exactly one metre in length was a little longer than one metre and had lines engraved on them that were exactly one metre apart.<ref>
{{cite book |first1=Thomas |last1=McGreevy |title=The Basis of Measurement: Volume 1 – Historical Aspects |pages=150–151 |isbn=0-948251-82-4 |year=1995 |publisher=Pitcon Publishing (Chippenham) Ltd}}
</ref> The London firm [[Johnson Matthey]] delivered 30 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms. At the first meeting of the [[CGPM]] in 1889 bar No. 6 and cylinder No. X were chosen by lot as the international prototypes. The remainder were either kept as BIPM working copies or distributed by lot to member states as national prototypes.<ref>
{{cite journal
|last1= Jabbour
|first1= Z.J.
|last2= Yaniv
|first2= S.L.
|year= 2001
|title= The Kilogram and Measurements of Mass and Force
|journal= J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.
|volume= 106
|issue= 1
|pages= 25–46
|url= http://nvl.nist.gov/pub/nistpubs/jres/106/1/j61jab.pdf
|access-date= 28 March 2011
|doi= 10.6028/jres.106.003
|pmid= 27500016
|pmc= 4865288
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110604144310/http://nvl.nist.gov/pub/nistpubs/jres/106/1/j61jab.pdf
|archive-date= 4 June 2011
|url-status= dead
}}</ref>

The comparison of the new prototypes of the metre with each other involved the development of special measuring equipment and the definition of a reproducible temperature scale. The BIPM's [[Temperature measurement|thermometry]] work led to the discovery of special alloys of iron–nickel, in particular [[invar]], whose practically negligible coefficient of expansion made it possible to develop simpler baseline measurement methods,<ref name="Guillaume-1906">{{Cite journal |last=Guillaume |first=C.-H.-Ed |date=1906-01-01 |title=La mesure rapide des bases géodésiques |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2007289 |journal=Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée |volume=5 |pages=242–263 |doi=10.1051/jphystap:019060050024200}}</ref> and for which its director, the Swiss physicist [[Charles Édouard Guillaume]], was granted the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1920. Guillaume's Nobel Prize marked the end of an era in which [[metrology]] was leaving the field of [[geodesy]] to become an autonomous [[Branches of science|scientific discipline]] capable of redefining the metre through [[Technology|technological]] applications of [[physics]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=BIPM – la définition du mètre |url=https://www.bipm.org/fr/measurement-units/history-si/evolution_metre.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430075245/http://www.bipm.org/fr/measurement-units/history-si/evolution_metre.html |archive-date=30 April 2017 |access-date=2019-05-15 |website=www.bipm.org}}</ref><ref name="BIPM-150">{{Cite web |title=History – The BIPM 150 |url=https://thebipm150.org/history/ |access-date=2025-01-24 |language=}}</ref> On the other hand, the foundation of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey by Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler paved the way to a new definition of the metre, with [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] being the first to experimentally link the metre to the wavelength of a spectral line. [[Albert A. Michelson]] soon took up the idea and improved it.<ref name="Crease-2009">{{Cite journal |last=Crease |first=Robert P. |date=2009-12-01 |title=Charles Sanders Peirce and the first absolute measurement standard |url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/62/12/39/390647/Charles-Sanders-Peirce-and-the-first-absolute |journal=Physics Today |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=39–44 |bibcode=2009PhT....62l..39C |doi=10.1063/1.3273015 |issn=0031-9228|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The prototype metre was retained as the international standard until 1960 when the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of the orange-red line of [[krypton-86]]. The current definition of the metre is "the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/{{val|299792458}} of a second".

On 16 November 2018, the 26th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM) voted unanimously in favour of revised definitions of some [[SI base unit]]s, in particular the [[kilogram]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2018/11/historic-vote-ties-kilogram-and-other-units-natural-constants|title=Historic Vote Ties Kilogram and Other Units to Natural Constants|last=Materese|first=Robin|date=16 November 2018|work=NIST|access-date=17 November 2018|archive-date=18 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118014932/https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2018/11/historic-vote-ties-kilogram-and-other-units-natural-constants|url-status=live}}</ref> The new definitions came into force on 20 May 2019, but did not change the metre.<ref name=SI-statement/><ref name=bipm>[http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/meeting/105.html "Decision CIPM/105-13 (October 2016)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824095943/http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/meeting/105.html |date=24 August 2017 }}. The day is the 144th anniversary of the Metre Convention.</ref>

=== International organization ===
The Convention created an [[international organization]] with two governing organs to facilitate the standardization of weights and measures around the world. The first, the CGPM provides a forum for representative of member states, the second, the CIPM is an advisory committee of metrologists of high standing. The Secretariat or Headquarters provides appropriate meeting and laboratory facilities in support of the CGPM and CIPM.<ref name=":2">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/
|title=The Metre Convention
|publisher=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
|access-date=1 October 2012
|archive-date=26 September 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926202046/http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

The structure may be compared to a [[corporation]], the CIPM is analogous to a [[board of directors]], and the CGPM to a [[shareholders' meeting]].

==== General Conference on Weights and Measures ====
The [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] ({{lang|fr|Conférence générale des poids et mesures}} or CGPM) is the principal decision-making body put on place by the convention. It is made up of delegates from member states and [non-voting] observers from associate states and economies.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/cgpm/
|title = General Conference on Weights and Measures
|year = 2011
|publisher = Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
|access-date = 26 September 2012
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120926233323/http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/cgpm/
|archive-date = 26 September 2012
}}</ref> The conference usually meets every four years to receive and discuss a report from the CIPM and to endorse new developments in the SI on the advice of the CIPM though at the 2011 meeting, it agreed to meet again in 2014 rather than 2015 to discuss the maturity of the [[New SI definitions|new SI proposals]].<ref name="bipm.org">
{{cite press release
| url = http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/Press_release_resolution_1_CGPM.pdf
| title = General Conference on Weights and Measures approves possible changes to the International System of Units, including redefinition of the kilogram.
| publisher = [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]]
| location = Saint-Cloud, France
| date = 23 October 2011
| access-date = 25 October 2011
| archive-date = 9 February 2012
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120209175127/http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/Press_release_resolution_1_CGPM.pdf
| url-status = live
}}</ref> It is also responsible for new appointments to the CIPM and decides on major issues concerning the development and financing of the BIPM. According to the Metre Convention (Art. 4) the President of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] is also the President of the General Conference on Weights and Measures.

==== International Committee for Weights and Measures ====
[[File:Metric seal.svg|thumb|200px|Seal of the BIPM]]
The [[General Conference on Weights and Measures#CIPM|International Committee for Weights and Measures]] ({{lang|fr|Comité international des poids et mesures}} or CIPM) is made up of eighteen (originally fourteen)<ref>Convention of the Metre (1875), Appendix 1 (Regulation), Article 8</ref> individuals from a member state of high scientific standing, nominated by the CGPM to advise the CGPM on administrative and technical matters. It is responsible for the running of ten consultative committees (CCs), each of which investigates different aspects of metrology – one CC discusses the measurement of temperature, another the measurement of mass and so on. The CIPM meets annually at Saint-Cloud to discuss annual reports from the various CCs, to submit an annual report to the governments of member states in respect of the administration and finances of the BIPM and to advise the CGPM on technical matters as and when necessary. Each member of the CIPM is from a different member state – with France, in recognition of its work in setting up the convention, always having one seat on the CIPM.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/
|title = CIPM: International Committee for Weights and Measures
|year = 2011
|publisher = Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
|access-date = 26 September 2012
|archive-date = 24 September 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120924192125/http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/
|url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web|url=https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/member-states/fr/|title=BIPM – France [Member State]|website=bipm.org|access-date=5 January 2018|archive-date=6 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106072343/https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/member-states/fr/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Secretariat of the BIPM ====
The Secretariat (or Headquarters) of the [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] ({{lang|fr|Bureau international des poids et mesures}} or BIPM) is based at Saint-Cloud, France. It has custody of the now historical [[international prototype of the kilogram]] and provides [[metrology]] services for Member States and hosts formal meetings. It also has custody of the former [[international prototype of the metre]] which was retired in 1960. Over the years the various prototypes of the metre and of the kilogram were returned to the BIPM laboratories for recalibration services.

Initially it had a staff of 9, falling to 4 once the initial batch of prototypes had been distributed;<ref>Convention of the Metre (1875), Appendix 1 (Regulation), Article 6</ref> in 2012 it had a staff of over 70 people and an annual budget of over €10 million.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/bipm/
|title = The BIPM headquarters
|year = 2011
|publisher = Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
|access-date = 26 September 2012
|archive-date = 7 November 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121107000551/http://www.bipm.org/en/bipm/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> The director of the BIPM is ''ex-officio'' a member of the CIPM and a member of all consultative committees.

=== Headquarters, language and protocol ===
[[File:BIPM courtyard.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Pavillon de Breteuil]] in [[Saint-Cloud]], Paris]]
The original treaty was written in French and the authoritative language of all official documents is French. Communication between the BIPM and member states is, in the case of France, via the French Foreign Minister and in the case of all other members, via the members' ambassador to France.<ref>Convention of the Metre, Appendix 1 (Regulations), Articles 16 and 19</ref>

The French government offered the treaty members the [[Pavillon de Breteuil]] in [[Saint-Cloud]] to house the BIPM. The Pavillon was originally built in 1675 on the estate of the Château de Saint-Cloud which was home to, amongst others, [[Napoleon III|Emperor Napoleon III]]. The château was all but destroyed during the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870–1) and the Pavillon badly damaged.<ref>
{{cite web
|title = The BIPM headquarters
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/bipm/
|access-date = 27 September 2012
|publisher = [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]]
|archive-date = 7 November 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121107000551/http://www.bipm.org/en/bipm/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> The Pavillon has been fully restored and, as headquarters of an [[intergovernmental organization]] enjoys privileges and immunities.<ref>
{{cite web
|title = Protocol
|url = http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/spip.php?page=article_imprim&id_article=15045
|access-date = 27 September 2012
|publisher = [[Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (France)|Ministère Affaires étrangères, Republique Francaise]] [Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of France]
|date = 10 January 2011
|archive-date = 3 April 2013
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130403093934/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/spip.php?page=article_imprim&id_article=15045
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

== Post-1875 developments ==
The science of metrology has progressed vastly since 1875. In particular the treaty was amended in 1921 with the result that many other international organizations have a forum within the CIPM to ensure harmonization of measurement standards across many [[Academic discipline|disciplines]]. In addition, what were originally conceived as standards for the purposes of trade have now been extended to cover a large number of aspects of human activity including medicine, science, engineering and technology.

=== Extensions to the treaty (1921) and development of the SI ===
{{main|International System of Units}}

The metre convention was originally drawn up with the main purpose of providing standards of length and mass only. Standards relating to other quantities were under the control of other bodies – time was measured by [[astronomer]]s, electrical units by a series of ad-hoc international conferences,<ref>
{{cite web
|title = System of Measurement Units
|date = 24 April 2012
|url = http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/System_of_Measurement_Units
|access-date = 1 October 2012
|publisher = [[IEEE]]
|archive-date = 21 August 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140821025655/http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/System_of_Measurement_Units
|url-status = live
}}</ref> and other physical standards and concepts were maintained or defined by international bodies such as [[International Congress of Applied Chemistry]] or the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Physics]].

In 1901 [[Giovanni Giorgi|Giorgi]] published a proposal for building a coherent set of units based on four base units – the metre, kilogram, second and one electrical unit ([[ampere]], [[volt]] or [[ohm]]). In 1921 the convention was extended to permit the promotion of standards relating to any physical quantity which greatly increased the scope of the CIPM's remit and implicitly giving it freedom to exploit Giorgi's proposals. The 8th CGPM (1933) resolved to work with other international bodies to agree to standards for electrical units that could be related back to the international prototypes.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/8/10/
|title = Résolution 10 de la 8e réunion de la CGPM (1933) – Substitution des unités électriques absolues aux unités dites " internationales "
|trans-title = Resolution 10 of the 8th meeting of the CGPM (1933) – Substitution of the so-called "International" electrical units by absolute electrical units
|language = fr
|year = 1935
|publisher = Bureau International des Poids et Meseures
|access-date = 2 October 2012
|archive-date = 26 November 2020
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201126185709/https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/8/10/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> This was agreed in principle by the International Electrotechnical Commission at its congress in Brussels in 1935 subject to the choice of the fourth unit being agreed with, amongst others, the appropriate consultative committee of the CIPM.<ref>
{{cite journal
|first = Arthur E
|last = Kennelly
|title = Adoption of the Metre-Kilogram-Mass-Second (M.K.S.) Absolute System of Practical Units by the International Electrotechnical Commission (I.E.C.), Bruxelles, June 1935
|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|date = 21 October 1935
|volume = 21
|number = 10
|pages = 579–583
|doi=10.1073/pnas.21.10.579|pmid = 16577693
|bibcode = 1935PNAS...21..579K
|pmc = 1076662
|doi-access = free
}}</ref>

In 1948, three years after the end of [[World War II]] and fifteen years after the 8th CGPM, the 9th CGPM was convened. In response to formal requests made by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and by the French Government to establish a practical system of units of measure, the CGPM requested the CIPM to prepare recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement, suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention.<ref>
{{cite conference
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/9/6/
|title = Resolution 6 – Proposal for establishing a practical system of units of measurement
|conference = 9th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM)
|date = 12–21 October 1948
|access-date = 8 May 2011
|archive-date = 14 May 2013
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130514081152/http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/9/6/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> At the same time the CGPM formally adopted a recommendation for the writing and printing of unit symbols and of numbers.<ref>
{{cite conference
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/9/7/
|title = Resolution 7 – Writing and printing of unit symbols and of numbers
|conference = 9th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM)
|date = 12–21 October 1948
|access-date = 8 May 2011
|archive-date = 28 July 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120728105127/http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/9/7/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> The recommendation also catalogued the recommended symbols for the most important [[MKS system of units|MKS]] and [[Centimetre gram second system of units|CGS]] units of measure and for the first time the CGPM made recommendations concerning derived units.

The CIPM's draft proposal, which was an extensive revision and simplification of the metric unit definitions, symbols and terminology based on the MKS system of units, was put to the 10th CGPM in 1954. In the proposal the CIPM recommended that the ampere be the base unit from which electromechanical standards would be derived. After negotiations with the CIS and IUPAP, two further base units, the degree kelvin and the candela were also proposed as base units.<ref>
{{cite conference
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/10/6/
|title = Resolution 6 – Practical system of units
|conference = 10th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM)
|date = 5–14 October 1954
|access-date = 8 May 2011
|archive-date = 1 April 2021
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210401081328/https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/10/6/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> The full system and name "Système international d'unités" were adopted at the 11th CGPM.<ref>
{{cite conference
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/11/12/
|title = Resolution 12 – Système international d'unités
|conference = 11th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM)
|date = 11–20 October 1960
|access-date = 8 May 2011
|archive-date = 14 May 2013
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130514081801/http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/11/12/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> During the years that followed the definitions of the base units and particularly the {{lang|fr|mise en pratique}}<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/appendix2/
|title = Practical realisation of the definitions of some important units
|work = SI brochure, Appendix 2
|publisher = BIPM
|date = 9 September 2010
|access-date = 5 May 2011
|archive-date = 10 August 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140810093615/http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/appendix2/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> to realize these definitions have been refined.

The formal definition of International System of Units (SI) along with the associated resolutions passed by the CGPM and the CIPM are published by the BIPM on the Internet and in brochure form at regular intervals. The eighth edition of the brochure ''Le Système international d'unités – The International System of Units'' was published in 2006.<ref>{{SIbrochure8th}}</ref>

=== Mutual Recognition Arrangements (CIPM-MRA) ===
[[File:CIPM-MRA-logo.jpg|thumb|Logo used by laboratories that have been accredited under the CIPM MRA scheme]]
During the 1940s, the United States government recognized the benefits of its suppliers keeping [[quality control]] records in respect of manufactured goods that would provide traceability of the process. This process was formalized by the British Government and in 1979 as the quality control standard [[BS 5750|BS 5750]]. In 1987 BS 5750 was adopted by [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] as the basis for [[ISO 9000]].<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bsieducation.org/Education/HE/quality-management/quality-management.shtml
|title = BSI Education: Quality Management Systems
|access-date = 2 October 2012
|year = 2008
|publisher = [[British Standards Institution]] (BSI)
|archive-date = 25 February 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120225061350/http://www.bsieducation.org/Education/HE/quality-management/quality-management.shtml
|url-status = live
}}</ref> ISO 9000 is a general purpose quality control standard which works in conjunction industry-specific standards: for example ISO 15195:2003 which gives the specific requirements for reference measurement laboratories in laboratory medicine.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=38363
|title = ISO 15195:2003 – Laboratory medicine – Requirements for reference measurement laboratories
|publisher = [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO)
|access-date = 2 October 2012
|archive-date = 8 May 2016
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160508155108/http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=38363
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

International trade is hampered by one country not recognising the quality controls in place in other countries – often due to standards being different or being incompatible with each other. At the 20th CGPM (1995), it was recognized that although ad-hoc recognition of instrument calibration between cooperating countries had been taking place for a hundred years, a need had arisen for a more comprehensive agreement. Consequently, the CIPM was mandated to investigate the setting up of a [[Mutual Recognition Agreement]] in respect of instrument calibration. Any such agreement would require the keeping of records that could demonstrate the traceability of calibrations back to the base standards. Such records would be recorded within an ISO 9000 framework. Four years later, in 1999 the text of the CIPM-MRA was agreed at the 21st CGPM.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/cipm-mra/historical.html
|title = Historical development of the CIPM MRA
|access-date = 2 October 2012
|publisher = [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures|Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
|archive-date = 19 September 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120919144100/http://www.bipm.org/en/cipm-mra/historical.html
|url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/cipm-mra/mra_online.html
|title = Text of the CIPM MRA
|access-date = 15 October 2012
|publisher = [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures|Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
|year = 2003
|archive-date = 19 September 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120919143925/http://www.bipm.org/en/cipm-mra/mra_online.html
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

The CIPM-MRA scheme is to catalogue the capabilities of National Measurement Institutes (NMIs) such as [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]] in the United States or the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory]] in Britain whose calibration procedures have been peer-assessed. The essential points of CIPM-MRA are:<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/cipm-mra/objectives.html
|title = The essential points of the CIPM MRA
|publisher = [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures|Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
|access-date = 2 October 2012
|archive-date = 19 September 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120919144035/http://www.bipm.org/en/cipm-mra/objectives.html
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
* The agreement is only open to countries that have signed the Metre Convention, either as full or as associate members.
* A country may have more than one NMI, though only one NMI is chosen as the signatory organization.
* The measurement capabilities of NMIs will be peer-reviewed at regular intervals and each NMI will recognize the measurement capabilities of other NMIs.
* The BIPM maintains a publicly available database of the measurement capabilities of each NMI.
* NMIs

Subsequent to launch of the CIPM MRA and in response to a [[European Community]] [[Directive (European Union)|directive]] on {{lang|la|in vitro}} medical devices,<ref>{{CELEX|31998L0079|text=Directive 98/79/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 October 1998 on in vitro diagnostic medical devices}}</ref> the [[Joint Committee for Traceability in Laboratory Medicine]] (JCTLM) was created in 2002 through a Declaration of Cooperation between the International Committee of Weights and Measures (CIPM), the [[International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine]] (IFCC), and the [[International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation]] (ILAC).<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/jc/jctlm/
|title = JCTLM: Joint Committee for Traceability in Laboratory Medicine
|publisher = [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures|Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
|access-date = 2 October 2012
|archive-date = 16 May 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120516010132/http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/jc/jctlm/
|url-status = live
}}</ref> The joint committee provides a forum for the harmonization of standards of the various participants.

=== Coordination of International Atomic Time ===
With the advent of the [[atomic clock]] it has been possible to define and measure [[International Atomic Time]] with sufficient precision that variations in the [[Earth's rotation]] can be detected. The [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service|International Earth Rotation Service]] monitors these changes relative to the stars at regular intervals and proposes leap seconds as and when these are needed. Currently there are over 200 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories around the world and the BIPM, in terms of the mandate given to it under the Metre Convention, coordinates the various atomic clocks.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/tai.html
|title = International Atomic Time
|publisher = [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures|Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
|access-date = 21 October 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110110113226/http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/tai.html
|archive-date = 10 January 2011
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>

=== New SI ===
{{Main|2019 revision of the SI}}
[[File:Relations between New SI units definitions.svg|thumb|250px|Relations between 2019 definitions of SI units (in colour) and with seven fundamental constants of nature (in grey) with fixed numerical values.]]
After 1960, when the definition of the metre was linked to a particular wavelength of light rather than the international prototype of the metre, the only unit of measure that remained dependent on a particular artefact was the kilogram. Over the years, small drifts which could be as high as {{gaps|20|×|10−9}} kilograms per annum in the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram were detected.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://physics.vniim.ru/SI50/files/mohr.pdf
|author = Peter Mohr
|title = Recent progress in fundamental constants and the International System of Units
|work = Third Workshop on Precision Physics and Fundamental Physical Constants
|date = 6 December 2010
|access-date = 2 January 2011
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110824105816/http://physics.vniim.ru/SI50/files/mohr.pdf
|archive-date = 24 August 2011
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> At the 21st meeting of the CGPM (1999), national laboratories were urged to investigate ways of breaking the link between the kilogram and a specific artefact.

Independently of this drift having been identified, the [[Avogadro constant#International Avogadro Coordination|Avogadro project]] and development of the [[Kibble balance|Kibble (or watt) balance]] promised methods of indirectly measuring mass with a very high precision. These projects provided tools that enabled alternative means of redefining the kilogram.<ref name=Crease>
{{cite journal
|url = http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/indepth/2011/mar/22/metrology-in-the-balance
|title = Metrology in the balance
|first1 = Robert P
|last1 = Crease
|access-date = 28 June 2012
|journal = Physics World
|volume = 24
|issue = 3
|pages = 39–45
|date = 22 March 2011
|bibcode = 2011PhyW...24c..39C
|doi = 10.1088/2058-7058/24/03/34
|archive-date = 27 April 2020
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200427013941/https://physicsworld.com/a/metrology-in-the-balance/
|url-status = live
|url-access = subscription
}}</ref>

A report published in 2007 by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry to the CIPM noted that their definition of temperature had proved to be unsatisfactory for temperatures below 20 K and for temperatures above 1300 K. The committee was of the view that the [[Boltzmann constant]] provided a better basis for temperature measurement than did the [[triple point]] of water, as it overcame these difficulties.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/wg/CCT/TG-SI/Allowed/Documents/Report_to_CIPM_2.pdf
|title = Report to the CIPM on the implications of changing the definition of the base unit kelvin
|author = Fischer, J.
|date = 2 May 2007
|access-date = 2 January 2011
|display-authors = etal
|archive-date = 23 November 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081123054012/http://www.bipm.org/wg/CCT/TG-SI/Allowed/Documents/Report_to_CIPM_2.pdf
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

Over the next few years the support for natural constants grew and details were clarified,<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.iupap.org/ga/ga26/sunamcorpt.pdf
|title = Resolution proposal submitted to the IUPAP Assembly by Commission C2 (SUNAMCO)
|publisher = International Union of Pure and Applied Physics
|year = 2008
|access-date = 8 May 2011
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927085329/http://www.iupap.org/ga/ga26/sunamcorpt.pdf
|archive-date = 27 September 2011
}}</ref><ref name="draft">
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si_brochure_draft_ch2.pdf
|title = Draft Chapter 2 for SI Brochure, following redefinitions of the base units
|author = Ian Mills
|publisher = CCU
|date = 29 September 2010
|access-date = 1 January 2011
|archive-date = 18 May 2020
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200518205720/https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si_brochure_draft_ch2.pdf
|url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/24_CGPM_Convocation_Draft_Resolution_A.pdf
|title = On the possible future revision of the International System of Units, the SI – Draft Resolution A
|publisher = [[General Conference on Weights and Measures#CIPM|International Committee for Weights and Measures]] (CIPM)
|access-date = 14 July 2011
|archive-date = 6 August 2011
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110806053509/http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/24_CGPM_Convocation_Draft_Resolution_A.pdf
|url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite conference
|conference = 24th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures
|title = On the possible future revision of the International System of Units, the SI
|url = http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/24_CGPM_Resolution_1.pdf
|publisher = International Bureau for Weights and Measures
|location = Saint-Cloud, France
|date = 21 October 2011
|access-date = 1 October 2012
|archive-date = 13 January 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120113072107/http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/24_CGPM_Resolution_1.pdf
|url-status = live
}}</ref><ref name="bipm.org"/> until in November 2018, the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures voted unanimously in favour of revised definitions of the [[SI base unit]]s.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2018/11/historic-vote-ties-kilogram-and-other-units-natural-constants
|title=Historic Vote Ties Kilogram and Other Units to Natural Constants
|publisher=NIST
|date=16 November 2018
|access-date=16 November 2018
|archive-date=18 November 2018
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118014932/https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2018/11/historic-vote-ties-kilogram-and-other-units-natural-constants
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name=Milton16>
{{cite conference
|conference=SIM XXII General Assembly
|location=Montevideo, Uruguay
|url=http://www.sim-metrologia.org.br/docs/2016Presentations/BIPM%202016.pdf#page=10
|conference-url=http://www.sim-metrologia.org.br/docs/2016Presentations/
|page=10
|title=Highlights in the work of the BIPM in 2016
|first=Martin
|last=Milton
|date=14 November 2016
|access-date=21 November 2018
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901031605/http://www.sim-metrologia.org.br/docs/2016Presentations/BIPM%202016.pdf#page=10
|archive-date=1 September 2017
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The [[2019 revision of the SI]] came into force on the 144th anniversary of the convention, 20 May 2019.<ref name=SI-statement>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/SI-statement.pdf
|title = BIPM statement: Information for users about the proposed revision of the SI
|access-date = 5 May 2018
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180121160000/https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/SI-statement.pdf
|archive-date = 21 January 2018
|url-status = live
}}
</ref>
<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/meeting/105.html
|title = Decision CIPM/105-13 (October 2016)
|access-date = 31 August 2017
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170824095943/http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/meeting/105.html
|archive-date = 24 August 2017
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

== Membership ==
The BIPM has two classes of adherents – full membership for those states that wish to participate in the activities of the BIPM and associate membership for those countries or economies<ref group = Note>As of 2012, the only "economy" that was an associate member was CARICOM (Caribbean Community) – its membership comprising [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Barbados]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Belize]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Dominica]], [[Suriname]], [[Grenada]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Guyana]]. [[Jamaica]], although also a member of CARICOM, is an associate of the CGPM in its own right.</ref> that only wish to participate in the [[Mutual recognition agreement|MRA]] programme. Associate members have observer status at the CGPM. Since all formal liaison between the convention organizations and national governments is handled by the member state's ambassador to France,<ref group = Note>In the case of France, the French Foreign Minister</ref> it is implicit that member states must have diplomatic relations with France,<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/cgpm/
|title = General Conference on Weights and Measures
|year = 2011
|publisher = Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
|access-date = 30 September 2012
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120926233323/http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/cgpm/
|archive-date = 26 September 2012
}}</ref> though during both world wars, nations that were at war with France retained their membership of the CGPM.<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/CIPM-history-EN.pdf
|title = Members of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM)
|access-date = 3 October 2012
|date = October 2011
|publisher = Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
|archive-date = 24 December 2013
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131224112652/http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/CIPM-history-EN.pdf
|url-status = live
}}</ref> The opening session of each CGPM is chaired by the French foreign minister and subsequent sessions by the president of the [[French Academy of Sciences]].<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.french-metrology.com/en/international-activities/organisations/metre-convention.asp
|title = The Metre Convention
|publisher = La métrologie française
|year = 2012
|access-date = 3 October 2012
|archive-date = 30 November 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121130094602/http://www.french-metrology.com/en/international-activities/organisations/metre-convention.asp
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>

On 20 May 1875 representatives from seventeen of countries that attended the Conference of the Metre in 1875, signed the Convention of the Metre.<ref group = Note>[[Argentina]], [[Austria-Hungary]], Belgium, [[Empire of Brazil|Brazil]], [[Denmark]], [[French Third Republic|France]], [[German Empire]], [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], [[Peru]], [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]], [[Spain under the Restoration|Spain]], [[Sweden and Norway]], Switzerland, [[Ottoman Empire]], United States and [[Venezuela]].</ref> In April 1884 HJ Chaney, Warden of Standards in London unofficially contacted the BIPM inquiring whether the BIPM would calibrate some metre standards that had been manufactured in Britain. [[Ole Jacob Broch|Broch]], director of the BIPM replied that he was not authorized to perform any such calibrations for non-member states. On 17 September 1884, the British Government signed the convention.<ref name=":4">
{{cite book |last1=Quinn |first1=Terry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jlM907kFhcgC&q=metre++quinn+1883+cipm&pg=PA127 |title=From Artefacts to Atoms: The Bipm and the Search for Ultimate Measurement Standard |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-530786-3 |pages=8–12, 133–135}}</ref> This number grew to 21 in 1900, 32 in 1950, and 49 in 2001. {{As of|2024|10|16}}, the General Conference membership was made up of 64 member states, 37 associate states and economies and four international organizations as follows (with year of partnership between brackets):<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/member-states/
|title = Member States
|year = 2016
|publisher = Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
|access-date = 10 May 2017
|archive-date = 15 January 2021
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210115093910/https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/member-states/
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

=== Member states ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Name
!Year of partnership
!Notes
|-
|Argentina
|1877
|
|-
|Australia
|1947
|
|-
|Austria
|1875
|Joined originally as [[Austria-Hungary]]
|-
|Belarus
|2020
|Belarus was previously an Associate member since 2003
|-
|Belgium
|1875
|
|-
|Brazil
|1921
|
|-
|Bulgaria
|1911
|
|-
|Canada
|1907
|
|-
|Chile
|1908
|
|-
|China
|1977
|
|-
|Colombia
|2013
|
|-
|Costa Rica
|2022
|
|-
|Croatia
|2008
|
|-
|Czech Republic
|1922
|Joined originally as part of [[Czechoslovakia]]
|-
|Denmark
|1875
|
|-
|Ecuador
|2019
|Ecuador was previously an Associate member since 2000
|-
|Egypt
|1962
|
|-
|Estonia
|2021
|
|-
|Finland
|1923
|
|-
|France
|1875
|
|-
|Germany
|1875
|Joined originally as the [[German Empire]]
|-
|Greece
|2001
|
|-
|Hungary
|1925
|
|-
|India
|1957
|
|-
|Indonesia
|1960
|
|-
|Iran
|1975
|
|-
|Iraq
|2013
|
|-
|Ireland
|1925
|Joined originally as the [[Irish Free State]]
|-
|Israel
|1985
|
|-
|Italy
|1875
|
|-
|Japan
|1885
|
|-
|Kazakhstan
|2008
|
|-
|Kenya
|2010
|
|-
|Lithuania
|2015
|
|-
|Malaysia
|2001
|
|-
|Mexico
|1890
|
|-
|Montenegro
|2018
|
|-
|Morocco
|2019
|
|-
|Netherlands
|1929
|
|-
|New Zealand
|1991
|
|-
|Norway
|1875
|Joined originally as part of [[Union between Sweden and Norway|Sweden and Norway]]
|-
|Pakistan
|1973
|
|-
|Poland
|1925
|
|-
|Portugal
|1876
|
|-
|Romania
|1884
|
|-
|Russian Federation
|1875
|Joined originally as the [[Russian Empire]]
|-
|Saudi Arabia
|2011
|
|-
|Serbia
|1879
|Joined as the [[Principality of Serbia]] in 1879, as the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] in 1929, and as the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] in 2001<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/cs/ | title=The Republic of Serbia | publisher=BIPM official site | access-date=30 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808034802/http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/cs/ | archive-date=8 August 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/yu/ | title=Serbia and Montenegro | publisher=BIPM official site | access-date=30 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808035358/http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/yu/ | archive-date=8 August 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|Singapore
|1994
|
|-
|Slovakia
|1922
|Joined originally as part of [[Czechoslovakia]]
|-
|Slovenia
|2016
|
|-
|South Africa
|1964<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theheritageportal.co.za/article/short-history-metrication-movement-south-africa |title='''The Heritage Portal''' > ''A Short History of the Metrication Movement in South Africa'' The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) announced on 15 September 1967 that a Metrication Advisory Board would be established to plan and co-ordinate the change-over to the metric system and a Metrication Department would be set up to implement its policies. There would be a ten-year grace period to allow industry and the general public to adjust. |access-date=8 January 2019 |archive-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109012031/http://www.theheritageportal.co.za/article/short-history-metrication-movement-south-africa |url-status=live }}</ref>
|
|-
|South Korea
|1959
|
|-
|Spain
|1875
|
|-
|Sweden
|1875
|Joined originally as part of [[Union between Sweden and Norway|Sweden and Norway]]
|-
|Switzerland
|1875
|
|-
|Thailand
|1912
|
|-
|Tunisia
|2012
|
|-
|Turkey
|1875
|Joined originally as the [[Ottoman Empire]]
|-
|Ukraine
|2018
|
|-
|United Arab Emirates
|2015
|
|-
|United Kingdom
|1884
|
|-
|United States
|1878
|
|-
|Uruguay
|1908
|
|}

===Associates===
At its 21st meeting (October 1999), the CGPM created the category of "associate" for those states not yet members of the BIPM and for [[economic union]]s.<ref>BIPM official site: [http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/join_associate.html Procedure for a State or Economy to become an Associate of the General Conference] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703100329/http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/join_associate.html |date=3 July 2014 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Country
!Year of partnership
!Notes
|-
|Albania
|2007
|
|-
|Azerbaijan
|2015
|
|-
|Bangladesh
|2010
|
|-
|Bolivia
|2008
|
|-
|Bosnia and Herzegovina
|2011
|
|-
|Botswana
|2012
|
|-
|Cambodia
|2005
|
|-
|Caribbean Community
|2005
|
|-
|Chinese Taipei<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/associates/tw/ | title=BIPM – Chinese Taipei | access-date=4 November 2018 | archive-date=4 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104170030/https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/associates/tw/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
|2002
|
|-
|Cuba
|2000
|Suspended during 1 January 2022 – 15 October 2024<ref>{{Cite web |title=BIPM – Cuba |url=https://www.bipm.org/en/countries/cu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241119084306/http://www.bipm.org/en/countries/cu |archive-date=19 November 2024 |access-date=6 December 2024 |publisher=BIPM}}</ref>
|-
|Ethiopia
|2018
|
|-
|Georgia
|2008
|
|-
|Ghana
|2009
|
|-
|Hong Kong
|2000
|
|-
|Jamaica
|2003
|
|-
|Kuwait
|2018
|
|-
|Latvia
|2001
|
|-
|Luxembourg
|2014
|
|-
|Malta
|2001
|
|-
|Mauritius
|2010
|
|-
|Republic of Moldova
|2007
|
|-
|Mongolia
|2013
|
|-
|Namibia
|2012
|
|-
|North Macedonia<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/associates/mk/ |title=BIPM – North Macedonia |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808091414/https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/associates/mk/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|2006
|Joined as Macedonia
|-
|Oman
|2012
|
|-
|Panama
|2003
|
|-
|Paraguay
|2009
|
|-
|Peru
|2009
|
|-
|Philippines
|2002
|
|-
|Qatar
|2016
|
|-
|Sri Lanka
|2007
|
|-
|Syria
|2012
|
|-
|Tanzania
|2018
|
|-
|Uzbekistan
|2018
|
|-
|Vietnam
|2003
|
|-
|Zambia
|2010
|
|-
|Zimbabwe
|2010
|Suspended during 1 January 2021 – 8 February 2022<ref>{{Cite web |title=BIPM – Zimbabwe |url=https://www.bipm.org/en/countries/zw |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929211517/https://www.bipm.org/en/countries/zw |archive-date=29 September 2023 |access-date=29 September 2023 |publisher=BIPM}}</ref>
|}

=== International organizations ===
The following international organizations have signed the CIPM MRA:
* [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA), [[Vienna]], Austria (1999)
* [[Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements]] (IRMM), [[Geel]], Belgium (1999)
* [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO), [[Geneva]], Switzerland (2010)
* [[European Space Agency]] (ESA), Paris, France (2012)

=== Former member states ===
The following former members were excluded from the organization following failure to pay their arrears over a span of years and upon failing to provide any form of payment plan:<ref name=gimmemoney/>
* Cameroon was a member state from 1970<ref name="cgmp24" /> until 22 October 2012.<ref>International Bureau of Weights and Measures official site: [http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/cm/ The Republic of Cameroon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029200002/http://www.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/cm/ |date=29 October 2013 }}, retrieved 4 August 2013</ref>
* North Korea was a member state from 1982<ref>{{citation |last=Lord |first=John |title=Sizes: The Online Quantinary |location=Santa Monica |publisher=Sizes Inc |contribution-url=https://sizes.com/units/General/met_sys_spred.htm |contribution=Spread of the Metric System |date=2001 |access-date=6 June 2017 |archive-date=19 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119175225/https://www.sizes.com/units/General/met_sys_spred.htm |url-status=live }}.</ref><ref name="cgmp24">[http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM/CGPM24.pdf#page=437 Proceedings of the 24th General Conference on Weights and Measures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204110506/https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM/CGPM24.pdf#page=437 |date=4 December 2020 }}, 2011, page 437</ref> until 2012<ref name=gimmemoney>{{citation |url=http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM-2014/25th-CGPM-Report-of-CIPM-President-EN.pdf |publisher=International Bureau for Weights and Measures |title=Report of the President of the CIPM on the Work Accomplished since the 24th Meeting of the CGPM |date=November 2014 |page=5 |location=Saint-Cloud |access-date=6 June 2017 |archive-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307202449/https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM-2014/25th-CGPM-Report-of-CIPM-President-EN.pdf |url-status=dead }}.</ref>
* Dominican Republic was a member state from 1954<ref name="cgmp24" /> until 31 December 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=– Dominican Republic [Member State]|url=http://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/member-states/do/|website=bipm.org|access-date=29 March 2017|archive-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021111444/https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/member-states/do/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Venezuela was a member state from 1879 until 14 November 2018.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/member-states/ve/ | title=The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela | publisher=BIPM | access-date=31 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030232949/https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/member-states/ve/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Yemen was an associate from 21 July 2014 until 1 January 2018.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/associates/ye/ | title=BIPM – Yemen | access-date=22 August 2018 | archive-date=23 August 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823005844/https://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/associates/ye/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Seychelles was an Associate from 10 September 2010 to 31 December 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Former Associate: Seychelles |url=https://www.bipm.org/en/countries/sc |access-date=27 June 2024 |website=BIPM}}</ref>
* Sudan was an Associate from 26 June 2014 to 31 December 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Former Associate: Sudan |url=https://www.bipm.org/en/countries/sd |access-date=27 June 2024}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Outline of metrology and measurement]]
* [[Metrication]]
* [[History of the metre]]
* [[Seconds pendulum]]
* [[World Metrology Day]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group = Note}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Metric System |volume= 18}}
* Kershaw, Michael. "The 'nec plus ultra' of precision measurement: Geodesy and the forgotten purpose of the Metre Convention." ''Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A'' 43.4 (2012): 563–576. [http://lib.ifsu.edu.ph/ejournal/uploads/file/pdf/20180417_085957.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* Quinn, Terry. "The Metre Convention and world-wide comparability of measurement results." ''Accreditation and quality assurance'' 9.9 (2004): 533–538.
* Stigler, S. ''The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900'' (1986).

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
{{wikisource}}
* [https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/44107685/metre-convention.pdf Text of the current version of the Convention (in French with unofficial translation in English at the end)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008110435/https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/44107685/metre-convention.pdf |date=8 October 2021 }}
* [https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000001-0039.pdf Text in English, Library of Congress] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221161448/http://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000001-0039.pdf |date=21 February 2017 }}
* [http://www.bipm.org/en/cipm-mra/mra_online.html Text of the CIPM-MRA agreement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919143925/http://www.bipm.org/en/cipm-mra/mra_online.html |date=19 September 2012 }}

{{Systems of measurement}}
{{SI units}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:History of measurement]]
[[Category:Metrology]]
[[Category:Metric system]]
[[Category:International System of Units]]
[[Category:Metrication in France]]
[[Category:1875 in France]]
[[Category:1875 treaties]]
[[Category:Treaties of Argentina]]
[[Category:Treaties of Australia]]
[[Category:Treaties of Austria-Hungary]]
[[Category:Treaties of Belgium]]
[[Category:Treaties of the First Brazilian Republic]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Kingdom of Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Treaties of Canada]]
[[Category:Treaties of Chile]]
[[Category:Treaties of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Treaties of Colombia]]
[[Category:Treaties of Croatia]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Treaties of Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Treaties of Denmark]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Treaties of Egypt]]
[[Category:Treaties of Finland]]
[[Category:Treaties of the French Third Republic]]
[[Category:Treaties of the German Empire]]
[[Category:Treaties of Greece]]
[[Category:Treaties of India]]
[[Category:Treaties of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Treaties of Pahlavi Iran]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Irish Free State]]
[[Category:Treaties of Israel]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Empire of Japan]]
[[Category:Treaties of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Treaties of Kenya]]
[[Category:Treaties of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Treaties of Mexico]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Treaties of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)]]
[[Category:Treaties of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Second Polish Republic]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Kingdom of Portugal]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Kingdom of Romania]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Treaties of Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro]]
[[Category:Treaties of Singapore]]
[[Category:Treaties of Slovakia]]
[[Category:Treaties of South Africa]]
[[Category:Treaties of South Korea]]
[[Category:Treaties of Spain under the Restoration]]
[[Category:Treaties of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Treaties of Thailand]]
[[Category:Treaties of Tunisia]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Union between Sweden and Norway]]
[[Category:Treaties of the United States]]
[[Category:Treaties of Uruguay]]
[[Category:Treaties of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Treaties establishing intergovernmental organizations]]
[[Category:May 1875]]
[[Category:Metrication]]
[[Category:IUPAP]]

Gerald of Wales

2025-10-13T00:19:38Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* Attempts to become bishop of St Davids */Removed link

{{Short description|Welsh clergyman and writer (c. 1146–1223)}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Gerald of Wales
| image = St.David's Cathedral - Dreieinigkeitskapelle 5 Giraldus Cambrensis.jpg
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption = Statue in [[St Davids Cathedral]]
| pseudonym =
| birth_name = Gerald de Barri
| birth_date = {{circa|lk=no}} 1146
| birth_place = [[Manorbier Castle]], [[Pembrokeshire]], Wales
| death_date = {{circa|lk=no}} 1223 (age about 77)
| death_place = probably [[Hereford]], England
| occupation = Clergyman
| nationality = Cambro-Norman
|alma_mater = [[University of Paris]]
|language =[[Latin]]
|movement=
|notableworks = ''[[Topographia Hibernica]]'' ''[[Itinerarium Cambriae]]'' ''[[Descriptio Cambriae]]'' ''[[De principis instructione]]''
}}
'''Gerald of Wales''' ({{langx|la|Giraldus Cambrensis}}; {{langx|cy|Gerallt Cymro}}; {{langx|fr|Gerald de Barri}}; {{circa|lk=no|1146|1223}}) was a [[Cambro-Norman]] priest and [[Historians in England during the Middle Ages|historian]]. As a royal clerk to the king and two archbishops, he travelled widely and wrote extensively. He studied and taught in France and visited Rome several times, meeting the Pope. He was nominated for several bishoprics but turned them down in the hope of becoming [[Bishop of St Davids]], but was unsuccessful despite considerable support. His final post was as [[Archdeacon of Brecon]], from which he retired to academic study for the remainder of his life. Much of his writing survives.
{{anchor|Biography|History}}

==Life==
===Early life===
[[Image:Manorbier Castle.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Manorbier Castle]], birthplace of Gerald of Wales]]
Born {{circa|lk=no|1146}} at [[Manorbier Castle]] in [[Pembrokeshire]], Wales, Gerald was of mixed [[Normans|Norman]] and [[Welsh people|Welsh]] descent. Gerald was the youngest son of William Fitz Odo de Barry (or Barri), the common ancestor of the [[De Barry family]] of [[Barry, Vale of Glamorgan|Barry]], [[Glamorgan|Glamorganshire]], who subsequently invaded Ireland, a retainer of [[Arnulf de Montgomery]] and [[Gerald de Windsor]], and one of the most powerful [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] [[baron]]s in Wales.<ref name="Mac">{{Cite web |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Giraldus Cambrensis |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06568d.htm |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> His mother was Angharad FitzGerald, a daughter of [[Gerald de Windsor|Gerald FitzWalter of Windsor]],{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} Constable of [[Pembroke Castle]], and his wife [[Nest ferch Rhys]], daughter of [[Rhys ap Tewdwr]], the last King of [[South Wales]]. Through his mother Angharad, Gerald was a nephew of [[David FitzGerald]], Bishop of St Davids, as well as a great-nephew of [[Gruffydd ap Rhys]], the son and heir of Rhys ap Tewdwr, and a cousin of [[Rhys ap Gruffydd]], the famous Arglwydd (Lord) Rhys and his family.

Gerald received his initial education at the Benedictine house of [[Gloucester]], followed by a period of study in Paris from {{circa|lk=no|1165}}–74, where he studied the [[trivium]]. He was employed by [[Richard of Dover]], the Archbishop of Canterbury, on various ecclesiastical missions in Wales, and distinguished himself by his efforts to remove supposed abuses of [[consanguinity]] and tax laws flourishing in the Welsh church at the time. He was appointed in 1174 as [[Archdeacon of Brecon]], to which was attached a residence at [[Llanddew]]. He obtained this position by reporting the existence of the previous archdeacon's mistress; the man was promptly dismissed. While administering this post, Gerald collected tithes of wool and cheese from the populace; the income from the archdeaconry supported him for many years.

Upon the death of his uncle, the Bishop of [[St Davids]], in 1176, the chapter nominated Gerald as his successor. St Davids had the long-term aim of becoming independent of Canterbury, and the chapter may have thought that Gerald was the man to take up its cause. King [[Henry II of England]], fresh from his struggle with Archbishop [[Thomas Becket]], promptly rejected Gerald in favour of [[Peter de Leia]], one of his Norman retainers, possibly because Gerald's Welsh blood and ties to the ruling family of [[Deheubarth]] made him seem like a troublesome prospect. According to Gerald, the king said at the time: "It is neither necessary nor expedient for king or archbishop that a man of great honesty or vigour should become Bishop of St Davids, for fear that [[the Crown]] and Canterbury should suffer thereby. Such an appointment would only give strength to the Welsh and increase their pride." The chapter acquiesced in the decision, and Gerald, disappointed with the result, withdrew to the [[University of Paris]]. From {{circa|lk=no|1179}}-8,{{clarify|date=November 2022}} he studied and taught canon law and theology. He returned to England and spent an additional five years studying theology. In 1180, he received a minor appointment from the Bishop of St Davids, which he soon resigned.<ref name=Mac/>

===Travels===
Gerald became a royal clerk and chaplain to King Henry II of England in 1184, first acting as a mediator between the crown and Prince [[Rhys ap Gruffydd]]. He was chosen to accompany one of the king's sons, [[John, King of England|John]], in [[1185 in Ireland|1185]] on [[John's first expedition to Ireland]]. This was the catalyst for his literary career; his work ''[[Topographia Hibernica]]'' (first circulated in manuscript in 1188, and revised at least four times) is an account of his journey to Ireland; Gerald always referred to it as his ''Topography'', though "history" is the more accurate term.<ref>''Gerald of Wales, The History and Topography of Ireland'' tr. John J. O'Meara. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982. ISBN 0-14-044423-8, pg. 14</ref>

He followed it up, shortly afterwards, with an account of Henry's conquest of Ireland, the ''Expugnatio Hibernica''. Both works were revised and added to several times before his death, and display a notable degree of Latin learning, as well as a great deal of prejudice against foreign people. Gerald was proud to be related to some of the Norman invaders of Ireland, such as his maternal uncle [[Robert FitzStephen]] and [[Raymond FitzGerald]], and his influential account, which portrays the Irish as barbaric savages, gives important insight into Cambro-Norman views of Ireland and the history of the invasion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=nli |title=There once was a Welsh priest called Gerald |url=https://www.nli.ie/news-stories/stories/there-once-was-welsh-priest-called-gerald |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=www.nli.ie |language=en}}</ref>

Having thus demonstrated his usefulness, Gerald was selected to accompany the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Baldwin of Forde]], on a tour of Wales in 1188, the object being a recruitment campaign for the [[Third Crusade]]. His account of that journey, the ''[[Itinerarium Cambriae]]'' (1191) was followed by the ''[[Descriptio Cambriae]]'' in 1194.

His two works on Wales remain very valuable historical documents, useful for their descriptions (however untrustworthy and inflected by ideology, whimsy, and his unique style) of Welsh and Norman culture. It is uncertain whether Gerald was a [[Welsh language|Welsh speaker]]; although he quotes Welsh proverbs and appears familiar with the language, he seems not to have been employed as an interpreter for the expedition.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Allen|first1=Rosamund|last2=Roberts|first2=Jane|last3=Weinberg|first3=Carole|title=Reading La Amon's Brut: Approaches and Explorations: Approaches and Explorations.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA615|year=2013|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-94-012-0952-6|page=616}}</ref>

As a royal clerk, Gerald observed significant political events first-hand and was offered appointments as bishoprics{{clarify|date=November 2022}} of [[Wexford]] and Leighlin, and apparently, slightly later, the bishopric of [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Ossory|Ossory]] and the archbishopric of [[Cashel, County Tipperary|Cashel]], and later the bishopric of [[Bangor, Gwynedd|Bangor]] in Wales; and, in 1191, that of [[Llandaff]].<ref name=Mac/> He turned them all down, possibly in the hope of landing a more prominent bishopric in the future. He was acquainted with [[Walter Map]], whose career shares some similarities with Gerald's. Retiring from royal service, he lived in Lincoln from {{circa|lk=no|1196}} to 1198, when his friend, [[William de Montibus]], was chancellor of the cathedral. In this period, ''[[De principis instructione]]'' was probably the first written, a useful historical source of contemporary events. It was an influential work at the time, spreading, for example, the legend of [[MacAlpin's treason]]. Here, Gerald is frequently critical of the rule of the [[House of Plantagenet|Angevin]] kings, a shift from his earlier praise of [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] in the ''Topographia''. He also wrote a life of St [[Hugh of Lincoln]].{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

===Attempts to become bishop of St Davids===
[[Image:StDavidsCathedral Tower&SouthTransept.JPG|200px|thumb|right|[[St Davids Cathedral]] today]]
On the death of Peter de Leia in 1198, the chapter of St Davids again nominated Gerald for the bishopric, but [[Hubert Walter]], Archbishop of Canterbury, refused confirmation. Representatives of the canons followed Richard I to France, but before they could interview him, he died; his successor, King John, received them kindly and granted them permission to hold an election. They were unanimous in their selection of Gerald, and Gerald acted as bishop-elect for much of the next four years; and, as Hubert still refused to confirm the election, Gerald started for Rome to have his election confirmed. There he had an interview with [[Pope Innocent III]]. He visited Rome on three occasions (1199–1200; 1201; 1202–3) in support of his claims. But in 1198, the archbishop had forestalled him, and his agents in Rome undermined Gerald's case; and as the pope was not convinced that St David's was independent of Canterbury, Gerald's mission failed. Gerald had pleaded not only his own cause, but that of St Davids as a [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolitan]] archbishopric (and thus of the same status as Canterbury) reviving the earlier claims of [[Rhygyfarch]] and [[Bernard (bishop of St Davids)|Bishop Bernard of St Davids]]. It was in connexion with this cause that he wrote his books ''De jure Menevensis Ecclesiâ'' and ''De Rebus a Se Gestis''. Gerald returned, and his cause was now supported by the Princes of Wales, most notably [[Llywelyn the Great]], and [[Gruffydd ap Rhys II]], while King John, frequently in conflict with the Welsh, warmly espoused the cause of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1202, Gerald was accused of stirring up the Welsh to rebellion and was put on trial, but the trial came to nothing as the principal judges were absent. After this long struggle, the chapter of St David's deserted Gerald, and having been obliged to leave Wales, he fled to Rome. The ports had been closed against him, so he travelled in secret. In April 1203 Pope Innocent III annulled both elections, and Geoffrey of Henlaw was appointed to the See of St Davids, despite the strenuous exertions of Gerald. Travelling back to France, he was briefly imprisoned there for these actions. He was afterwards reconciled with the king and was forced to vow never again to support the primacy of St Davids over Canterbury. The expenses of his unsuccessful election were paid by the crown. Gerald maintained his appointment had been prevented by fear of its possible effect on national politics in Wales. He famously complained in a letter to Innocent III, "Because I am a Welshman am I to be debarred from all preferments in Wales? On the same reasoning so would an Englishman in England, a Frenchman in France, and Italian in Italy. But I am sprung from the Princes of Wales and the Barons of the Marches, and when I see injustice in either race I hate it."<ref name="Biography - Gerald of Wales">{{Cite web |title=Gerald of Wales |url=http://www.castlewales.com/gerald.html |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=www.castlewales.com}}</ref> At this point he resigned his position as archdeacon of Brecon.

===Later life===
Gerald spent the remainder of his life in academic study, most probably in Lincoln, producing works of devotional instruction and politics, and revising the works on Ireland and Wales he had written earlier in his life. He spent two years (1204–6) in Ireland with his relatives and made a fourth visit to Rome, purely as a pilgrimage, in 1206. The controversy over St Davids soured his relationship with the crown. In 1216, a baronial plan to put [[Louis VIII of France]] on the throne of England in the [[First Barons' War]] was warmly welcomed by him. He died in about 1223 in his 77th year, probably in [[Hereford]], and he is, according to some accounts, buried at [[St Davids Cathedral]].<ref>Robert Bartlett, "Gerald of Wales (c.1146–1220x23)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, Sept 2004</ref>

There is a statue, by [[Henry Poole (sculptor)|Henry Poole]] of Gerald in [[City Hall, Cardiff]], and he was included in the vote on [[100 Welsh Heroes]] for his ''Descriptio Cambriae'' and ''Itinerarium Cambriae''. His reputation in Ireland, due to his negative portrayal of the Irish, is much less friendly.

==Works==
Gerald's writings in good-quality Latin, based on a thorough knowledge of Classical authors, reflect experiences gained on his travels as well as his great knowledge of the standard authorities. He was respected as a scholar in his time and afterwards. The noted scholar [[Edward Augustus Freeman]], in his ''[[The History of the Norman Conquest of England|Norman Conquest]]'', said he was "the father of comparative philology," and in the preface to the last volume of Gerald's works in the Rolls Series, he calls him "one of the most learned men of a learned age," "the universal scholar."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vision of Britain {{!}} Gerald of Wales {{!}} Introduction |url=https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp?t_id=Cambrensis_Tour&c_id=1 |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=www.visionofbritain.org.uk}}</ref> His writings were prolific, running to about ten volumes in modern printed editions. Gerald was a man of strong opinions whose works are frequently [[polemic]]al, including bitter attacks on his enemies, but he also had an intense curiosity, recording much valuable detail of everyday life in his ethnographic works.

It is generally agreed today that his most distinguished works are those dealing with Wales and Ireland, with his two books on his beloved Wales the most important: ''Itinerarium Cambriae'' and ''Descriptio Cambriae'' which tell us much about Welsh history and geography and reflect on the [[cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English]]. Gerald, despite his desire for an independent Welsh Church and admiration for parts of Welsh life, was very loyal to [[Marcher Lord|Norman Marcher]] rule, regarding the Normans as more civilised than the Welsh, a feeling reflected in his writings. Professor Davies tells us that Gerald, whom he calls "an admirable story-teller", is the only source for some of the most famous of the Welsh folk tales including the declaration of the old man of [[Pencader, Carmarthenshire|Pencader]] to Henry II which concludes ''Descriptio Cambriae'': {{quotation|This nation, O King, may now, as in former times, be harassed, and in a great measure weakened and destroyed by your and other powers, and it will also prevail by its laudable exertions, but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath of man, unless the wrath of God shall concur. Nor do I think that any other nation than this of Wales, nor any other language, whatever may hereafter come to pass, shall on the day of severe examination before the Supreme Judge, answer for this corner of the earth.}}

It was Gerald who also wrote (of the Welsh) that "If they would be inseparable, they would be insuperable", and that, unlike the English hirelings, who fight for power or to procure gain or wealth, the Welsh patriots fight for their country. He had pleasant things to say about the poetic talents of his people, too:
{{quotation|In their rhymed songs and set speeches they are so subtle and ingenious that they produce, in their native tongue, ornaments of wonderful and exquisite invention both in the words and the sentences... They make use of [[alliterative verse|alliteration]] in preference to all other ornaments of [[rhetoric]], and that particular kind which joins by [[literary consonance|consonancy]] the first letters or syllables of words.}}

Gerald could not have predicted the later perfection of ''[[cynghanedd]]'', the complex system of sound correspondence that has characterised the strict-metre poetry of the Welsh for so many centuries and that is still practised today, especially in competitions for the ''[[eisteddfod]]'' chair. ''Cynghanedd'' did not become a formal system with strict rules until the fourteenth century, but its uniquely Welsh forms had been honed for centuries before that.

Finally, in ''Descriptio Cambriae'', Gerald penned the following words that give so much pride to Welsh singers of today, especially those who participate in the immensely popular [[cymanfa ganu|''cymanfaoedd canu'']] (hymn-singing festivals) held throughout Wales and North America:
{{quotation|In their musical concerts they do not sing in unison like the inhabitants of other countries, but in many different parts... You will hear as many different parts and voices as there are performers, who all at length unite with organic melody.}}

Another part of the above work,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext97/dscwl10.txt|title=Project Gutenberg Etext of Description of Wales by G. Cambrensis}}</ref> however, is less positive. As Gerald puts it, "an attention to order now requires that, in this second part, we should employ our pen in pointing out those particulars in which it seems to transgress the line of virtue and commendation". [[David Powel]] published an abridged version of ''Itinerarium Cambriae'' and ''Descriptio Cambriae'' in 1585, omitting Gerald's negative comments about the Welsh. Due to translations into English, the first being done by [[Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart.]], and other translations such as in [[Everyman's Library]] and [[Penguin Classics]], Gerald's works on Wales are well known today.

In Gerald's writing on Ireland, his love of music is very evident, too.
{{quotation|Chapter XI of Distinction III (''Topographia Hibernica'', Of the incomparable skill of the Irish in playing upon musical instruments): The only thing to which I find that this people apply a commendable industry is playing upon musical instruments; in which they are incomparably more skilful than any other nation I have ever seen. For their modulation on these instruments, unlike that of the Britons to which I am accustomed, is not slow and harsh, but lively and rapid, while the harmony is both sweet and gay. It is astonishing that in so complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the musical proportions can be preserved........ it must be remarked, however, that both Scotland and Wales strive to rival Ireland in the art of music......<ref>Wright, T. ''The Historical works of Giraldus Cambrensis'' (1913) London pp. 126–127</ref>}}

Gerald's works on Ireland, although invaluable for their detail, are tremendously biased, and have been extensively criticised by writers such as [[Stephen White (Jesuit)|Stephen White]]. The following passage from his ''Topographia Hibernica'' demonstrates one example of vehement [[anti-Irish sentiment]] that reverberates throughout Gerald's works: {{quotation| Distinction III *Chapter XXXV (Of the number of persons in this nation who have bodily defects): Moreover, I have never seen in any other nation so many individuals who were born blind, so many lame, maimed or having some natural defect. The persons of those who are well-formed are indeed remarkably fine, nowhere better; but as those who are favoured with the gifts of nature grow up exceedingly handsome, those from whom she withholds them are frightfully ugly. No wonder if among an adulterous and incestuous people, in which both births and marriages are illegitimate, a nation out of the pale of the laws, nature herself should be foully corrupted by perverse habits. It should seem that by the just judgements of God, nature sometimes produces such objects, contrary to her own laws, in order that those who will not regard Him duly by the light of their own consciences, should often have to lament their privations of the exterior and bodily gift of sight.<ref>Wright T. ''The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis'' (1913) London pp. 147 – 148</ref>}}

Gerald was a keen and observant student of natural history, but the value of his observations is lessened by credulity and the inability to distinguish fact from legend. He gives a vivid and accurate description of the last colony of the [[Eurasian beaver]] in Wales on the [[River Teifi|Teifi]], but spoils it by repeating the legend that beavers castrate themselves to avoid danger.<ref>Perry, Richard ''Wildlife in Britain and Ireland'' Croom Helm London 1978 pp. 41-43</ref> Likewise, he gives a good description of an [[osprey]] fishing, but adds the mythical detail that the bird has one webbed foot.<ref name="Perry p.200">Perry p.200</ref> His description of Irish wildlife has been the subject of much adverse comment for its inaccuracies and lapses into fiction<ref name=LostBirds19>D'Arcy, Gordon ''Ireland's Lost Birds'' Four Courts Press Dublin 1999 p. 19</ref> but nonetheless, despite its faults, some have argued that it gives an important glimpse of Irish fauna in the 1180s.<ref name=LostBirds19/> Certainly the book has valuable details about Irish birds: while the [[common kingfisher]] is now common in Ireland, Gerald states clearly that it was not found there in his time: on the other hand the [[white-throated dipper]], which he had evidently not seen before, was very common in Ireland.<ref>Moriarty, Christopher ''Down the Dodder'' Wolfhound Press Dublin 1991, pp. 114-5</ref> He also observed the great numbers of [[birds of prey]] in Ireland, including the [[golden eagle]] and the [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]], which he said were more numerous in Ireland than in England.<ref name="Perry p.200"/>

===List of works===
[[Image:Maurice FitzGerald, Lord Lanstephan.jpg|thumb|right|A drawing of Gerald de Barri's uncle, [[Maurice FitzGerald, Lord of Llanstephan]], from a manuscript of the ''Expugnatio Hibernica'']]
* ''[[Topographia Hibernica]]'' ("Topography of Ireland", 1187)<ref>Wright, T. ''The Historical works of Giraldus Cambrensis'' (1913) London p. viii</ref>
* ''[http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/conquest_ireland.pdf Expugnatio Hibernica]'' ("Conquest of Ireland", 1189)<ref>Wright, T. ''The Historical works of Giraldus Cambrensis'' (1913) London p. ix</ref>
* ''[[Itinerarium Cambriae]]'' ("Journey through Wales", 1191)
* ''[[Descriptio Cambriae]]'' ("Description of Wales", 1194)
* ''[[De instructione principis]]'' ("Education of a prince")
* ''De rebus a se gestis'' ("Autobiography")
* ''De iure et statu Menevensis ecclesiae'' ("Rights and privileges of the Church of St Davids")
* ''Gemma ecclesiastica'' ("Jewel of the church")
* ''Speculum ecclesiae'' ("Mirror of the church")
* ''Symbolum electorum''
* ''Invectiones''
* ''Retractationes''
* ''Speculum duorum'' ("A mirror of two men") ([https://www.uwp.co.uk/book/speculum-duorum/ Described at this link])
* ''Life of St [[Hugh of Lincoln]]''
* ''Life of [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]]''
* ''Life of [[Æthelberht II of East Anglia|St Ethelbert]]''<ref>{{cite journal |first=M. R. |last=James |title=Two Lives of St. Ethelbert, King and Martyr |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=32 |year=1917 |issue=126 |pages=214–44: 222–36 |jstor=551656 |doi=10.1093/ehr/xxxii.cxxvi.214|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1431744 }}</ref>
* ''Life of [[Remigius de Fécamp|St Remigius]]''
* ''Life of [[St David]]''

====Lost works====
* ''Vita sancti Karadoci'' ("Life of [[Saint Caradoc|St Caradoc]]")
* ''De fidei fructu fideique defectu'' ("About the fruit of faith and [about] the lack of faith")
* ''Totius Kambriae mappa'' ("Map of all Wales", c. 1205)
* ''De philosophicis flosculis'' ("The Flowers of Philosophy")

====Online editions====
* [https://archive.org/details/historicalworksc00gira The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis], containing The Topography of Ireland, and the History of the Conquest of Ireland, translated by Thomas Forester, and The Itinerary through Wales, and the Description of Wales, translated by [[Sir Richard Hoare, 2nd Baronet|Sir Richard Colt Hoare]], 1905

==In popular culture==
* Gerald's tour of Wales in 1188 was detailed in a 1988 cartoon voiced by comedian [[Max Boyce]].
* Gerald of Wales was 4th in the series of 8 by [[Nicholas Crane]] in ''Great British Journeys''.
* [[James Goldman]]'s novel ''Myself As Witness'' is written from Gerald of Wales' point of view, though in the novel he is referred to as Giraldus Cambrensis, which means Gerald of Wales in Latin.
* A train service between [[Holyhead railway station|Holyhead]] and [[Cardiff Central railway station|Cardiff]] operated by [[Transport for Wales Rail]] is named ''[[Premier Service|Gerald of Wales]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailypost.co.uk/whats-on/restaurants-bars/arriva-trains-wales-gerald-wales-2703242|title=Arriva Trains Wales' Gerald of Wales premier service|first=North Wales|last=Live|date=30 April 2011|website=North Wales Live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Cambridge University Library, Ff. i.27]], a composite manuscript containing some of Gerald of Wales's works such as ''De Descriptione Hybernie'', ''Expugnatio Hibernica'' and ''Vita Sancti Patricii Episcopi''
* [[Adam of Usk]]
* [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]
* [[Laudabiliter]]

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* ''The Autobiography of Giraldus Cambrensis'' tr. H. E. Butler. London: Cape, 1937.
* Gerald of Wales, ''Gemma ecclesiastica: The Jewel of the Church: A Translation of Gemma Ecclesiastica'', trans. John J. Hagen. Leiden: Brill, 1979.
* Gerald of Wales, ''Giraldi Cambrensis Opera'', ed. John S. Brewer, James F. Dimock, and George F. Warner. London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1861–1891, repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. [In Latin.]
* Gerald of Wales, ''The Journey Through Wales'' and ''The Description of Wales'' tr. [[Lewis Thorpe]]. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978. {{ISBN|0-14-044339-8}}
* Gerald of Wales, ''The History and Topography of Ireland'' tr. [[John J. O'Meara]]. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982. {{ISBN|0-14-044423-8}}
* Gerald of Wales, ''Speculum Duorum'' ed. Yves Lefevre and R. C. Huygens, tr. Brian Dawson. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1974. {{ISBN|0-7083-0544-X}}
* Kathryn Hurlock, ''Wales and the Crusades, c., 1095-1291'', Cardiff: University of Wales Press 2011 {{ISBN|9-7807-08324-271}} [http://www.uwp.co.uk/book/wales-and-the-crusades-ebook-mobi/ Book]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Giraldus Cambrensis|volume=12|page=44}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=536|name=Giraldus Cambrensis}}
* {{Internet Archive author |name=Giraldus Cambrensis}}
* {{OL author|928854A}}
* [http://www.bartleby.com/211/0917.html Latin Chroniclers from the Eleventh to the Thirteenth Centuries: '''Giraldus Cambrensis'''] from ''[[The Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]'', Volume I, 1907–21.
* Full text of [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/contents_page.jsp?t_id=Cambrensis_Desc Gerald of Wales's ''The Description of Wales''] on ''A Vision of Britain through Time'', with links to the places named.
* Full text of [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/contents_page.jsp?t_id=Cambrensis_Tour Gerald of Wales's ''The Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales''] on ''A Vision of Britain through Time'', with links to the places named.
* [https://archive.org/details/itinerarythroug00girauoft ''Giraldus Cambrensis, The Itinerary and Description of Wales'', Everyman's Library, Edited by Ernest Rhys, with an Introduction by W. Llewelyn Williams], January 1908

{{Archdeacons of Brecon}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gerald of Wales}}
[[Category:1140s births]]
[[Category:1220s deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Normans in Wales]]
[[Category:Christian hagiographers]]
[[Category:Medieval writers about the Crusades]]
[[Category:Welsh religious writers]]
[[Category:13th-century Welsh historians]]
[[Category:12th-century writers in Latin]]
[[Category:13th-century writers in Latin]]
[[Category:Welsh Roman Catholic priests]]
[[Category:Archdeacons of Brecon]]
[[Category:Welsh cartographers]]
[[Category:Welsh politicians]]
[[Category:Welsh-speaking clergy]]
[[Category:People from Pembrokeshire]]
[[Category:De Barry family]]
[[Category:12th-century Welsh writers]]
[[Category:Medieval cartographers]]
[[Category:12th-century geographers]]
[[Category:13th-century geographers]]
[[Category:Burials at St Davids Cathedral]]

Robert, Count of Mortain

2025-10-12T23:38:07Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* Later life */Added links

{{short description|11th-century Norman nobleman and the uterine half-brother of William the Conqueror}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
[[File:Bayeux_Tapestry_scene44_William_Odo_Robert.jpg|thumb|300px|Robert (''Rotbert''), Count of Mortain (right) sits at the left hand of his half-brother [[William the Conqueror|William, Duke of Normandy]]. Robert's full brother [[Odo of Bayeux|Odo]] (''Odo Ep[iscopu]s'', "Bishop Odo") sits to William's right, implying his seniority. This scene in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] occurs near Hastings, immediately before William ordered the building of a castle there, shortly before the [[Battle of Hastings]].]]
'''Robert, Count of Mortain, 1st [[Earl of Cornwall]] of 2nd creation''' ({{circa|1031}}–{{circa|1095}}) was a Norman nobleman and the [[Sibling#Half|half-brother]] (on their mother's side) of King [[William the Conqueror]]. He was one of the very few proven [[companions of William the Conqueror]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]] in 1066, and as recorded in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 was one of the greatest landholders in his half-brother's new [[Kingdom of England]].

==Life==
Robert was the son of [[Herluin de Conteville]] and [[Herleva|Herleva of Falaise]] and brother of [[Odo of Bayeux]].<ref name="CPIII4-694B">Detlev Schwennicke, ''Europäische Stammtafeln: Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten'', Neue Folge, Band III Teilband 4 (Marburg, Germany: Verlag von J. A. Stargardt, 1989), Tafel 694B</ref> Robert was born {{circa|1031}} in Normandy, a half-brother of William the Conqueror.<ref>George Edward Cokayne, ''The Complete Peerage of England Scotland Ireland Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant Extinct or Dormant'', Vol. III, Ed. Vicary Gibbs (London: The St. Catherine Press, Ltd., 1913), p. 427</ref> and was probably not more than a year or so younger than his brother Odo, born {{circa|1030}}.<ref name="CPIII4-694B"/><ref>George Edward Cokayne, ''The complete peerage; or, A history of the House of lords and all its members from the earliest times.'', Vol. VII, Ed. H. A. Doubleday, Howard de Walden (London: The St. Catherine Press, Ltd, 1929), p. 124</ref> About 1035, Herluin, as [[Viscount|Vicomte]] of Conteville, along with his wife Herleva and Robert, founded [[Grestain Abbey]] in [[Normandy]].<ref>David C. Douglas, ''William the Conqueror'' (Berkeley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press, 1964)p. 112</ref>

===Count of Mortain===
Around 1049 his brother Duke William made him [[List of Counts of Mortain|Count of Mortain]],<ref>K.S.B. Keats-Rohan, ''Domesday People, A Prosopography of Persons Occurring in English Documents 1066–1166'', Volume I, Domesday Book (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 1999)p. 371</ref> in place of William Werlenc, who had been banished by Duke William; according to [[Orderic Vitalis]], on a single word.<ref>Ordericus Vitalis, ''The Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy'', Trans. Thomas Forester, Vol. II (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854), p. 79</ref> William Werlenc was a grandson of [[Richard I of Normandy|Duke Richard I]]<ref name="ESII79">Detlev Schwennicke, ''Europäische Stammtafeln: Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten'', Neue Folge, Band II (Marburg, Germany: Verlag von J. A. Stargardt, 1984), Tafel 79</ref> and therefore a cousin once removed to William, Duke of Normandy.<ref name="ESII79"/> Securing the southern border of Normandy was critical to Duke William and Robert was entrusted with this key county which guarded the borders of [[Brittany]] and [[Bellême]].<ref>Brian Golding, 'Robert of Mortain', ''Anglo-Norman Studies XIII; Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1990'', Ed. Marjorie Chibnall (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1991), p. 120</ref>

===Conquest of England===
In early 1066, Robert was present at both the first [[Council of Lillebonne]], that of William's inner circle, and the second larger council held to discuss the Duke's planned conquest of England. Robert agreed to provide 120 ships to the invasion fleet,<ref>Elisabeth M.C, van Houts, 'The Ship List of William the Conqueror', ''Anglo-Norman Studies X: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1987'', Ed. R. Allen Brown (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1988), p. 161</ref> which was more than any other of William's magnates.<ref name="RM121">Brian Golding, 'Robert of Mortain', Anglo-Norman Studies XIII; Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1990, Ed. Marjorie Chibnall (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1991), p. 121</ref> Robert was one of those few known to have been at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.<ref>K.S.B. Keats-Rohan, ''Domesday People, A Prosopography of Persons Occurring in English Documents 1066–1166'', Volume I, Domesday Book (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 1999)p. 372</ref> He is pictured at a dinner at [[Pevensey]] on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], seated with his brothers William and Odo on the day of the landing in England.<ref name="RM121"/> When granting the monastery of [[St Michael's Mount]] in [[Cornwall]] to the Norman monastery on the [[Mont-Saint-Michel]] in [[Normandy]], Robert recorded that he had fought at the Battle of Hastings under the banner of [[Michael (archangel)|St Michael]] (''habens in bello Sancti Michaelis vexillum'').<ref>''The Cartulary of St. Michael's Mount, ed. P.L. Hull, Devon and Cornwall Record Society'', New Series, Vol. V (1962), p. 1</ref><ref>Henderson, C. G. (1933) "Cornwall and her patron saint", In: his ''Essays in Cornish History''. Oxford: Clarendon Press; pp. 197–201</ref>

===Lands granted by William the Conqueror===
Robert's contribution to the success of the invasion was clearly regarded as highly significant by the Conqueror, who awarded him a large share of the spoils; in total 797 manors at the time of [[Domesday Book|Domesday]].<ref name="CPIII428">George Edward Cokayne, ''The Complete Peerage of England Scotland Ireland Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant Extinct or Dormant'', Vol. III, Ed. Vicary Gibbs (London: The St. Catherine Press, Ltd., 1913), p. 428</ref> The greatest concentration of his honours lay in [[Earl of Cornwall|Cornwall]] where he held virtually all of that Earldom and was considered by some the Earl of Cornwall.<ref group=lower-alpha>His position of authority in the south west has therefore led many to consider him as the Earl of Cornwall, although it appears uncertain whether he was formally created as such. The Complete Peerage, III, 428 states while he may have been considered the earl he was only known officially as ''Comes Moritoniensis''. According to [[Charles G. Henderson|Charles Henderson]] "Count Robert did not call himself Earl of Cornwall [but] enjoyed the power that in the following century belonged to the earls, and after them the dukes". See: Henderson, C. G. (1933) "Cornwall and her patron saint", In: his ''Essays in Cornish History''. Oxford: Clarendon Press; pp. 197–201.</ref><ref name="CPIII428"/> While Robert held lands in twenty counties, the majority of his holdings in certain counties was as few as five manors. The overall worth of his estates was £2100.<ref name="RM124">Brian Golding, 'Robert of Mortain', ''Anglo-Norman Studies XIII; Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1990'', Ed. Marjorie Chibnall (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1991), p. 124</ref> He administered most of his southwestern holdings from [[Launceston, Cornwall]], and [[Montacute|Montacute in Somerset]].<ref name="RM124"/> The holding of single greatest importance was the [[rape of Pevensey]] (east Sussex) which protected one of the more vulnerable parts of the south coast of England.<ref name="RM124"/>

==Later life==
In 1069, together with [[Robert, Count of Eu|Robert of Eu]], he led an army against a force of Danes in [[Lindsey, Lincolnshire|Lindsey]] and effected great slaughter against them.<ref name="CPIII428"/> After that there is little mention of Robert who appears to have been an absentee landholder spending the majority of his time in Normandy.<ref name="RM144">Brian Golding, 'Robert of Mortain', ''Anglo-Norman Studies XIII; Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1990'', Ed. Marjorie Chibnall (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1991), p. 144</ref> Along with his brother Odo he participated in a revolt in 1088 against [[William II of England|William II]] but afterwards he was pardoned.<ref name="CPIII428"/> Robert died in 1095, possibly on 9 December,<ref>{{Cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19339|title=Robert, count of Mortain (d. 1095), magnate {{!}} Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|year=2004|language=en|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/19339}}</ref> and chose to be buried at [[Grestain Abbey]] in [[Normandy]],<ref name="CPIII428"/> near his father and next to his first wife Matilda.<ref name="RM144"/>

==Character==
He was described by [[William of Malmesbury]] in his ''[[Gesta Regum Anglorum]]'' as a man of stupid dull disposition (''crassi et hebetis ingenii'').<ref name="RM122">Brian Golding, 'Robert of Mortain', ''Anglo-Norman Studies XIII; Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1990'', Ed. Marjorie Chibnall (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1991), p. 122</ref> William the Conqueror considered him one of his greatest supporters and trusted him with the important county of Mortain.<ref name="RM122"/> Further clues to his character are found in the ''Vita'' of [[Vitalis of Savigny]], a very wise monk whom Robert sought out as his chaplain.<ref name="RM122"/> One incident tells of Robert beating his wife and Vital, intervening, threatened to end the marriage if Robert did not repent.<ref name="RM123">Brian Golding, 'Robert of Mortain', ''Anglo-Norman Studies XIII; Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1990'', Ed. Marjorie Chibnall (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1991), p. 123</ref> In still another entry Vital tells of his leaving Robert's service abruptly and after being escorted back to him, Robert begged for Vital's pardon for his actions.<ref name="RM123"/> Overall, Robert was proficient in every duty William assigned him. He was a religious man yet ill-tempered enough to beat his wife, but was not known as a man of great wisdom.<ref name="RM123"/>

==Family==
Robert was married to Matilda, daughter of [[Roger de Montgomery, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury]], before 1066<ref name="CPIII428"/> and together they had:

* [[William, Count of Mortain]], who succeeded him, was offered to wed [[Mary of Scotland, Countess of Boulogne|Mary of Scotland]].<ref name="CPIII4-694B"/>
* Agnes who married André de Vitré, seigneur of Vitré.<ref name="CPIII4-694B"/>
* Denise, married in 1078 to Guy, 2nd Sire de Laval.<ref name="CPIII4-694B"/>
* Emma of Mortain (ca. 1058 – 1080), married to [[William IV of Toulouse]], Duke of Narbonne.<ref name="CPIII4-694B"/>

Through Emma's daughter [[Philippa, Countess of Toulouse]], Robert was the great-great-grandfather of [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] and hence an ancestor of all English monarchs after [[Henry II of England|Henry II]].

After Matilda de Montgomery's death in 1084<ref>K.S.B. Keats-Rohan, ''Domesday People, A Prosopography of Persons Occurring in English Documents 1066–1166'', Volume I, Domesday Book (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1999), p. 372</ref> Robert secondly married Almodis.<ref name="CPIII428"/> The couple had no children.

==Portrayals on screen==
On screen, Robert has been portrayed by Gordon Whiting in the two-part [[BBC]] TV play ''Conquest'' (1966), part of the series ''[[Theatre 625]]'', and by Richard Ireson in the TV drama ''Blood Royal: William the Conqueror'' (1990).

==Notes==
{{Portal|Cornwall}}
{{commonscat|Robert of Mortain}}
{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-reg|fr}}
{{succession box | before=[[William Warlenc]] | title=[[Count of Mortain]] | years=1049–1095 | after=[[William, Count of Mortain|William]]}}
{{s-reg|en}}
{{succession box | before=[[Brian of Brittany]] | title=[[Earl of Cornwall]] | years=1072–1095 | after=[[William, Count of Mortain|William]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1030s births]]
[[Category:1090s deaths]]
[[Category:11th-century English nobility]]
[[Category:Anglo-Normans]]
[[Category:Companions of William the Conqueror]]
[[Category:Norman warriors]]
[[Category:Devon Domesday Book tenants-in-chief]]

Goodmayes

2025-10-09T02:10:38Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* Local Scout groups */Added apostrophe

{{short description|Area of east London, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2015}}
{{infobox UK place
| country = England
| region = London
| official_name = Goodmayes
| post_town = ILFORD
| postcode_area = IG
| postcode_district = IG3
| post_town1 = ROMFORD
| postcode_area1 = RM
| postcode_district1 = RM6
| london_borough = Redbridge
| dial_code = 020
| os_grid_reference = TQ465865
| coordinates = {{coord|51|33|47|N|00|06|48|E|display=inline,title}}
| constituency_westminster = [[Ilford South (UK Parliament constituency)|Ilford South]]
| static_image_name = Goodmayes High Road - geograph.org.uk - 600174.jpg
| static_image_caption = Goodmayes High Road in 2005
| population = 13,069
| population_ref = (2011 Census. Ward)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadKeyFigures.do?a=7&b=13689012&c=Goodmayes&d=14&e=62&g=6335486&i=1001x1003x1032x1004&o=362&m=0&r=1&s=1476788525400&enc=1|title=Redbridge Ward population 2011|access-date=18 October 2016|publisher=Office for National Statistics|work=Neighbourhood Statistics|archive-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021060427/http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadKeyFigures.do?a=7&b=13689012&c=Goodmayes&d=14&e=62&g=6335486&i=1001x1003x1032x1004&o=362&m=0&r=1&s=1476788525400&enc=1|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| area_total_sq_mi =
| charingX_distance_mi = 11
| charingX_direction = WSW
}}
'''Goodmayes''' is an area in [[Ilford]], in [[East London]], England. It is a ward of the [[London Borough of Redbridge]], eleven miles north-east of [[Charing Cross]], and forms part of both the Romford and Ilford post towns. Historically part of [[Essex]], it was part of the [[Municipal Borough of Ilford]] until 1965 when it was incorporated into [[Greater London]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://ilfordhistoricalsociety.weebly.com/| title = Ilford Historical Society - Home}} </ref>

==History==
The name ''Goodmayes'' and ''Goodmaistrete'' is recorded in 1456, and the name is likely to be associated with the family of John Godemay who was referred to in a document of 1319.<ref>The Place Names of Essex, P.H. Reaney, English Place-name Society Volume 12, Cambridge University Press, p 97</ref> A farm called ''Goodmath'' is recorded on the ''Chapman and Andre'' 1 inch to one mile map of Essex from 1777. Barley Lane is believed to be named after Dorothy Barley, the sister of [[Henry Barley]], Dorothy was the last [[Abbess]] of nearby [[Barking Abbey]] (elected 1527).

Goodmayes was part of the Chadwell ward of the ancient parish of [[Barking, London|Barking]], [[Essex]]. In 1888 the Chadwell and Great Ilford wards of Barking became a new parish of Ilford. This became Ilford Urban District in 1894 and was the [[Municipal Borough of Ilford]] from 1926 to 1965. The [[London Borough of Redbridge]] was formed in 1965 from Ilford and other areas. Councillors for the [[Goodmayes (ward)|electoral ward of Goodmayes]] were first elected in 1964.

Goodmayes was largely undeveloped until the end of the 19th century, when large scale suburban development took place as London expanded. Most of the area here and in neighbouring [[Seven Kings]] was only built up between 1898 and 1910 by the developer A. C. Corbett who used new stations on the [[Great Eastern Main Line|Great Eastern Railway]] to promote the new suburbs.<ref>''Victoria County History: A History of the County of Essex Volume 5'', [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=42730 Chapter 36 ''The Borough of Ilford''] (1966)</ref> [[Goodmayes station]] was built in 1901.<ref>Cherry, O'Brien and Pevsner, ''The Buildings of England - London 5: East'' (2005), Yale University Press, New Haven {{ISBN|0-300-10701-3}}</ref> Since then, little has changed in the area, although there have been, and still are, regeneration projects taking place within the area. However, the lines of [[Edwardian]] [[terraced housing]] continue to dominate the district with relatively few more recent additions.

Former extensive railway sidings near Goodmayes Station were closed in the 1970s and later redeveloped for retail purposes. A large [[Tesco]] store and a branch of [[Wickes]] now occupy the site. On the [[A118 road]], a Homebase store occupied the site until it was demolished in early 2023.

==Facilities==
{{unsourced|section|date=January 2022}}
Goodmayes Park, an area of open space containing a lake, basketball and tennis courts, is located here. It once contained a bandstand and a boathouse but these are no longer available. Another local park is named Barley Lane Park.

Brookside, based on Barley Lane, is, according to 'the quality network for inpatient CAMHS services' (QNIC), an adolescent unit that provides a high standard of care. It comprises Brookside Main, Interact Outreach service and the Brookside High Dependency Unit.

Barley Lane Primary School is located on Barley Lane.

On Goodmayes Lane there is a clinic known as 'Mayesbrook Clinic', however it is now abandoned.

==Local media==
[[Goodmayes Hospital]] & [[King George Hospital, London|King George Hospital]], Ilford had its own in-house [[Hospital radio|Hospital Radio]] service. The service was operated volunteers as Goodmayes Hospital Radio Association (GHR) a registered charity<ref>{{Cite web |title=D to K (Towns & Cities) P3 |url=http://hospitalradio4u.com/index.php/d-to-k-towns-cities-p3/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216053828/http://hospitalradio4u.com/index.php/d-to-k-towns-cities-p3/ |archive-date=16 February 2019 |access-date=23 May 2023 |website=hospitalradio4u.com}}</ref> and began broadcasting in 1975.

In 2015 the celebrated its 40th anniversary of broadcasting to patients of [[Goodmayes Hospital]] and the [[North East London NHS Foundation Trust]]. However, a burst radiator forced the station off-air causing £30,000 of damage.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-11-13 |title=Hospital radio station faces £30k bill after radiator explodes |url=https://www.guardian-series.co.uk/news/14030255.hospital-radio-station-faces-30k-bill-after-radiator-explodes/ |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=East London and West Essex Guardian Series |language=en}}</ref> The Association merged the radio service with Bedrock Radio (a registered charity)<ref>{{Cite web |title=BEDROCK RADIO - Charity 1180476 |url=https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-search/-/charity-details/5129177 |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> and service was resumed.

Bedrock Radio provide a wider community health ([[hospital radio]]) service across East London, South Essex and immediate surrounding areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bedrock Radio - Your Healthy Music Mix |url=https://www.bedrockradio.org.uk/ |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=Bedrock Radio |language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Nearest places===
* [[Ilford]]
* [[Becontree]]
* [[Dagenham]]
* [[Chadwell Heath]]
* [[Seven Kings]]
*[[Chigwell Row]]
* [[Collier Row]]
* [[Romford]]

==Transport==
[[Goodmayes railway station]] is served by the [[Elizabeth line]], which took over operation of the route and station from [[TFL Rail]] in May 2022. Services operate from [[Shenfield railway station|Shenfield]] to [[Heathrow Terminal 4 railway station|Heathrow Airport]] and [[Reading railway station|Reading]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Elizabeth Line Timetables |date=May 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |url= https://tfl.gov.uk/modes/elizabeth-line/elizabeth-line-timetables |quote=}}</ref>

Bus routes serving Goodmayes are [[London Buses]] services, operated by [[Stagecoach London]] and [[Blue Triangle]]. Services link the district with Barking, Ilford, Romford and Stratford. [[East London Transit]] route EL3 to [[Barking Riverside]] has serves the station and surrounding area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stops in Goodmayes|work=Bus Times |date=2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |url= https://bustimes.org/localities/goodmayes |quote=}}</ref>

The nearest [[London Underground]] stations are [[Barking railway station|Barking]] on the [[District line|District]] and [[Hammersmith & City line]]s, and [[Newbury Park tube station|Newbury Park]] on the [[Central line (London Underground)|Central line]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Central Line timetable |date=May 2023 |access-date=8 June 2023 |url= https://tfl.gov.uk/tube/timetable/central/ |quote=}}</ref>

==Notable people==
Actor [[Cardew Robinson]] was born in Goodmayes on 14 August 1917. He is best remembered for character and cameo roles, the best known being the fakir in the 1968 film ''[[Carry On Up the Khyber]]''. He died in [[Roehampton]] in 1992.

[[Ian Holm|Sir Ian Holm]] was born at [[Goodmayes Hospital]] on 12 September 1931 to Scottish parents, Jean Wilson Holm and James Harvey Cuthbert. His mother was a nurse and his father was a psychiatrist and superintendent of the West Ham Corporation Mental Hospital, as Goodmayes Hospital was then known. Cuthbert was one of the pioneers of electric shock therapy for treating mental illness. Ian Holm was created a CBE in 1989 and was knighted in 1998.

==Local Scout groups==
Goodmayes is home to various local Scout groups, most notably 4th Goodmayes, who are located on Barley Lane next to St Paul’s Church. Established for 90 years, their home is traditionally called the Gaffery, which has had many different buildings in the past but they have remained on the same site. The group's current home is incorporated within the St Paul's Community Centre, which opened in 2005.
Ages start from 6 up to 14, with the three sections called the Beavers, the Cubs and the Scouts.
In 2010, they opened up their own Explorer Unit for 14- to 18-year-olds and incorporated it into a Young Leader Scheme, providing trained and qualified young leaders for other Scouting sections to assist their leaders.
<ref>4th Goodmayes Scout Group - [https://web.archive.org/web/20240529035821/https://4thgoodmayes.com/ Webpage]</ref>

The 7th Goodmayes scout group was established in 2006 and has over 100 members. It is the first scout group in East London to be run by Muslims. It has accomplished many tasks and activities, including visiting the [[House of Lords]], [[Buckingham Palace]], and partaking in numerous water sports activities including rafting, sailing, kayaking and canoeing. The group also aims to contribute to the community through activities such as tree planting and a sponsored walk for Comic Relief, raising over 1000 pounds.<ref>[http://search.bbc.co.uk/cgi-bin/search/results.pl?q=7th+goodmayes&uri=%2Flondon%2F&go.x=32&go.y=9 BBC News - Comic Relief]</ref>
Other activities include archery, wall climbing and camping.<ref>7th Goodmayes Scout Group - [http://www.7thgoodmayes.org.uk/ Webpage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511182843/http://www.7thgoodmayes.org.uk/ |date=11 May 2008 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.thetimechamber.co.uk/sites/Hospital/Goodmayes/Goodmayes.php Goodmayes Hospital - History & Photographs]
* [https://sites.google.com/view/ftctofficialsite/location-and-country-of-origin]

{{Geographic Location
|title = Neighbouring areas of Goodmayes
|Northwest = [[Barkingside]]
|North = [[Hainault, London|Hainault]]
|Northeast = [[Marks Gate]]
|West = [[Ilford]]
|Centre = Goodmayes
|East = [[Chadwell Heath]]
|Southwest = [[Barking, London|Barking]]
|South = [[Becontree]]
|Southeast = [[South Hornchurch]]
}}
{{LB Redbridge}}

[[Category:Areas of London]]
[[Category:Districts of the London Borough of Redbridge]]

Chris Foss

2025-10-09T01:55:57Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* Career */Enlarged images

{{Short description|British artist (born 1946)}}
{{For|the military author|Christopher F. Foss}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2012}}
[[File:Chris Foss - Utopiales 2014 - P960138.jpg|thumb|Chris Foss at the 2014 edition of the [[Utopiales]] in [[Nantes]]]]

'''Christopher Frank Foss''' (born 1946)<ref name=biography>{{cite web |last=Foss |first=Chris |title=Chris Foss: Biography |url=http://www.chrisfossart.com/biography/ |website=Chrisfossart.com |year=2011 |access-date=9 September 2011}}</ref> is a British artist and science fiction [[illustrator]]. He is best known for his [[science fiction]] book covers and the black and white illustrations for the original editions of ''[[The Joy of Sex]]''.

==Career==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 250
| header =
| image1 = Science fiction monthly 197402.jpg
| alt1 =The cover of issue 2 of ''Science Fiction Monthly''
| caption1 = The cover of issue 2 of ''[[Science Fiction Monthly]]''
| image2 =IGBCAT.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Cover art for the album ''Clear Air Turbulence'' by the artist [[Ian Gillan Band]]
}}

===Early work===
Born in 1946 in [[Guernsey]], Channel Islands,<ref name=biography/> Foss started working there as an artist in his teens, creating signage for local companies.<ref name="tny">{{cite magazine |last=Parkin |first=Simon |title=The $5.7 Million Magazine Illustration |url=https://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/culture/2014/02/the-multimillion-dollar-magazine-illustration.html |magazine=The New Yorker |date=20 February 2014 |access-date=21 February 2014}}</ref> He went to a boarding school in [[Dorset]]; his master encouraged him to train for an art scholarship.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chrisfossart.com/biography/ |title=Chris Foss Bio |website=Chrisfossart.com |access-date=11 January 2017}}</ref> While studying at [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]], he started pursuing professional magazine commissions, including the then recently launched ''[[Penthouse (magazine)|Penthouse]]'' magazine.<ref name="tny"/>

===Science-fiction illustrations===
Books featuring Foss illustrations include the 1970s British [[paperback]] covers for [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[Foundation Trilogy]], several of [[Edmund Cooper]]'s novels, and [[E. E. Smith|E. E. "Doc" Smith]]'s [[Lensman]] and ''[[Skylark (series)|Skylark]]'' series. Some of the art he did produce was specific to the stories and some examples of this are the covers he did for the Grafton publications of the Demon Princes novels by [[Jack Vance]] in the late 1980s, ''[[Star King]]'', ''[[The Killing Machine]]'', ''[[The Palace of Love]]'', ''[[The Face (Vance)|The Face]]'' and ''[[The Book of Dreams (Vance novel)|The Book of Dreams]]''.

Not being a fan of science fiction, Foss typically did not read the books he illustrated, preferring to paint scenes entirely from his imagination.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2011/09/chris-foss-the-joy-of.html|title=Chris Foss: The Joy of Starships|publisher=New Scientist|date=7 September 2011|author=Sumit Paul-Choudhury}}</ref>

In 1975, Foss was hired by director [[Alejandro Jodorowsky]] for an intended film version of the science-fiction novel ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' by author [[Frank Herbert]]. He delivered several conceptual studies published in the book ''21st Century Foss'', {{ISBN|90-6332-571-1}}, containing a foreword by Jodorowsky. The project failed. In 1977 Foss worked for several months on studies for the movie ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' (not being used in the movie) and also did some designs of the planet Krypton for the movie ''[[Superman (1978 film)|Superman]]''. Some of his crystal structures for the planet were realised in the movie, although they were used as ice-structures.

During this period Chris Foss illustrated the sleeve of the album ''[[Clear Air Turbulence (album)|Clear Air Turbulence]]'' for the [[Ian Gillan Band]].

Painter [[Glenn Brown (artist)|Glenn Brown]] controversially appropriated individual space scene paintings by Foss<ref name="tny"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2011/09/chris-foss-the-joy-of.html |title=CultureLab: Chris Foss: The Joy of Starships |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120906130212/http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2011/09/chris-foss-the-joy-of.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in the one case copying and altering it (''Exercise One (for Ian Curtis)'', 1995) and in the other, leaving it entirely unchanged (''Dark Angel (for Ian Curtis)'', 2002).

Chris Foss created much of the colour concept art for Sweetpea Entertainment's ''[[Traveller (role-playing game)|Traveller]]'' franchise, as produced by [[Imperium Games]].<ref name="designers">{{Cite book|author=Shannon Appelcline|title=Designers & Dragons|publisher=Mongoose Publishing|year=2011| isbn= 978-1-907702-58-7}}</ref>{{rp|332}} He produced 12 pages of artwork for the new ''Traveller'' edition's first supplement, ''Starships'' (1996).<ref name="designers"/>{{rp|332}} He also illustrated a number of covers for Imperium's ''Traveller''.<ref name="designers"/>{{rp|333}}

===''The Joy of Sex''===
In contrast, Foss's numerous illustrations for the [[sex manual]] ''[[The Joy of Sex]]'' are done in a soft, natural style.{{fact|date=March 2024}} The illustrations were based on photographs taken by Chris in his studio in Fulham, London.{{fact|date=March 2024}}

== Film work ==
* 1977 [[Dune (novel)#Early stalled attempts|Jodorowsky version of ''Dune'']], spaceship and vehicle design.<ref name="youtube.com">{{YouTube|id=3m2V-f2xzSQ&list=UL7T02tRRut08}}</ref>
* 1978 ''[[Superman (1978 film)|Superman]]'' by Richard Donner. Planet Krypton and set design (not used)<ref name="youtube.com"/>
* 1979 ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' by Ridley Scott. Spaceship design (not used)<ref name="youtube.com"/>
* 1980 ''[[Flash Gordon (film)|Flash Gordon]]'' by Mike Hodges. Redesign of Gordon's rocket cycle<ref name="ReferenceA">{{YouTube|id=SJjsfBAnIY4&list=UL3m2V-f2xzSQ&playnext=44}}</ref>
* 1995 ''{{ill|Heaven or Bust|de|Die Sturzflieger}}'' (German Sc-fi comedy) Spaceship design<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* 2000 ''[[A.I. Artificial Intelligence]]'' under Stanley Kubrick, until Kubrick's death in 1999<ref name="youtube.com"/>
* 2014 ''[[Guardians of the Galaxy (film)|Guardians of the Galaxy]]'' under James Gunn, who brought him on board to design the film's various spacecraft.<ref name="io9_Meredith">{{cite web|last1=Woerner|first1=Meredith|title=Chris Foss Designed Spaceships For Guardians of the Galaxy!|url=https://io9.gizmodo.com/chris-foss-designed-spaceships-for-guardians-of-the-gal-1579059560|website=Io9.gizmodo.com|date=20 May 2014 |access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="Foss_Official">{{cite web|last1=Foss|first1=Chris|title=Chris Foss – Artist|url=http://www.chrisfossart.com/|website=Chrisfossart.com|access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref>

==Bibliography==
* Foss, Chris. ''21st Century Foss''. Dragon's Dream, 1978. {{ISBN|0-906196-09-4}}.
* Foss, Chris. ''Hardware: The Definitive SF Works of Chris Foss''. Titan Publishing, 2011. {{ISBN|0-85768-559-7}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.chrisfossart.com Chris Foss's Official site]
* {{ISFDB name}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071227081756/http://bricabrac.perso.cegetel.net/chrisfoss.html A gallery of Foss's French books covers]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051217214244/http://stalker.hautetfort.com/archive/2005/01/26/chris_foss_ou_l_eveil_insoupco.html About Chris Foss] in [[French language|French]]
* [https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2011/09/chris-foss-the-joy-of.html ''New Scientist'' interview with Chris Foss]
* {{YouTube|id=jMy5mRF08LU&list=ULnAq8j9R8kHY|Chris Foss channel}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Foss, Chris}}
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Guernsey artists]]
[[Category:British illustrators]]
[[Category:British science fiction artists]]

Fred Dibnah

2025-10-08T02:40:21Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* First marriage */Added country

{{Short description|English steeplejack, mechanic and television personality}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Fred Dibnah in 1985.jpg
| caption = Dibnah in 1985
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|MBE}}
| birth_name = Frederick Dibnah
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1938|4|28|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Bolton]], [[Lancashire]], England
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2004|11|6|1938|4|28|df=yes}}
| death_place = Bolton, England
| resting_place = [[Tonge, Bolton|Tonge]] Cemetery, Bolton, England
| spouse = {{Unbulleted list | {{marriage|Alison Foster|1967|1985|end=div}}
| {{marriage|Susan Lorenz|1987|1996|end=div}}
| {{marriage|Sheila Grundy|1998|}}}}
| parents =
| children = 5
| occupation = [[Television presenter]], [[steeplejack]], [[mechanical engineer]]
}}

'''Frederick Travis Dibnah''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|MBE}} (28 April 1938 – 6 November 2004), was an English [[steeplejack]] and television personality. Having a keen interest in [[mechanical engineering]], he described himself as a "backstreet mechanic."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007929w|title = BBC Two - Fred Dibnah's World of Steam, Steel and Stone, Backstreet Mechanic}}</ref>

When Dibnah was born, Britain relied heavily upon coal to fuel its industry. As a child, he was fascinated by the [[steam engine]]s which powered the many [[textile mill]]s in [[Bolton]], but he paid particular attention to chimneys and the men who worked on them. He began his working life as a [[joiner]], before becoming a steeplejack. From age 22, he served for two years in the [[Army Catering Corps]] of the [[British Army]], undertaking his [[National Service Act 1948|National Service]]. Once [[demobilization|demobilized]], he returned to steeplejacking but met with limited success until he was asked to repair [[St Peter's Church, Bolton|Bolton's parish church]] tower. The resulting publicity provided a boost to his business, ensuring he was almost never out of work.

In 1978, while making repairs to [[Bolton Town Hall]], Dibnah was filmed by a regional [[BBC]] news crew. The BBC then commissioned a documentary, which followed the rough-hewn steeplejack as he worked on chimneys, interacted with his family and talked about his favourite hobby – steam. His [[Lancashire dialect|Lanky]] manner and gentle, self-taught philosophical outlook proved popular with viewers and he featured in a number of television programmes. Towards the end of his life, the decline of Britain's industry was mirrored by a decline in his steeplejacking business and Dibnah increasingly came to rely on public appearances and after-dinner speaking to support his income. In 1998, he presented a programme on Britain's industrial history and went on to present a number of series, largely concerned with the [[Industrial Revolution]] and its mechanical and architectural legacy.

Dibnah died from [[bladder cancer]] in November 2004, aged 66.<ref name=bolton>{{Citation |first=James |last=Higgins |url=http://www.theboltonnews.co.uk/news/1185171.Fred_Dibnah___1m_will_shock_for_widow_Sheila/ |title=Fred Dibnah £1m will shock for widow Sheila |work=The Bolton News |date=10 February 2007 |access-date=19 March 2018}} (incorrectly reports death as November 2005)</ref>

==Early life==

===Childhood===
Fred Dibnah was born on 28 April 1938.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/fred-dibnah-532436.html | title=Fred Dibnah | newspaper=The Independent }}</ref> He was the son of Frank and Betsy Dibnah (''née'' Travis),{{sfn|Hayward|2008}} who were initially both employed at a [[bleach]] works. His mother later worked as a [[charwoman]] at a gas works.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=12}}</ref> Named after his uncle Frederick,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.greatbritishlife.co.uk/people/22614401.submit-vote-greatest-lancastrian/ | title=Submit your vote for the greatest Lancastrian | date=14 August 2017 }}</ref><ref name="theboltonnews">{{Citation |first=Gayle |last=McBain |title = 17 facts you didn't know about Fred Dibnah |url = https://www.theboltonnews.co.uk/news/10712387.17-facts-you-didnt-know-about-fred-dibnah/ |work = The Bolton News |date = 2 October 2013 |access-date = 15 January 2019 |location=Bolton}}</ref> he was brought up in the [[Historic counties of England|historic]] Lancashire town of [[Bolton]], then a predominantly industrial town with a history in the spinning and weaving of [[cotton]]. As a child, Dibnah was fascinated by the sights and sounds of industry and the dozens of chimney stacks visible around [[Burnden Park]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=3–4}}</ref> and paid particular attention to the [[steeplejack]]s he saw on his way to school.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=6}}</ref> A popular pastime for local children was playing around the many [[mill lodge]]s (industrial ponds) which once littered the area. An inventive child, Dibnah and some friends designed a makeshift [[diving suit]] from a [[Potato chip|crisp]] tin, a car [[inner tube]] and some piping. After being told to remove it from the local [[swimming baths]], they tested it in one of the lodges, but were unsuccessful.<ref name="Hallpp911">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=9–11}}</ref>

The Bolton arm of the [[Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal]] was one of Dibnah's regular haunts. The canal was by then largely disused (the Bolton arm had been mostly closed in 1924) and Dibnah sometimes dredged it with an iron hook on a rope, for what he called 'plunder'. Much of this was stored in the back yard of his mother's house. Dibnah and his friend Alan Heap built a [[canoe]] from old bicycle wheels (cut in half to make the ribs), slate [[lath]]s and a canvas sheet from the back of a lorry. Much to the consternation of his mother, Dibnah sailed the boat along the nearby [[River Croal]].<ref name="Hallpp911"/> He once astonished his teachers when, following the theft of the school keys, he cut new keys for each classroom door.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=16}}</ref>

===As a young man===
[[File:Freds chimney.jpg|left|thumb|upright|The chimney built by Dibnah for his mother, in Bolton]]
At school Dibnah was placed in an art class (his reading and writing skills were judged to be poor),<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=8}}</ref> following which he spent three years at art college, where his work was based mainly on industrial themes such as machinery, pithead gear and spinning mills. On leaving college at 16 he was offered a job at a funeral parlour, but left quickly to begin work at a local [[Joinery (woodworking)|joinery]] workshop.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=23–24}}</ref>

{{Quote box | quote = He clapped that chimney on the roof when he was sixteen, I've had to live with it ever since. It's awful. I came home one day from work and there it was, sticking up in the sky. The photographer came from the ''Evening News''. People drove here on Sunday afternoons to stare at it. Everyone said our Fred was a lunatic. | source = Betsy Dibnah<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=9}}</ref> | align = right | width = 33%}}

Dibnah had watched the activities of steeplejacks throughout his childhood, and first witnessed a [[chimney felling]] from his father's allotment near Bolton's greyhound track at [[Raikes Park Greyhound Stadium|Raikes Park]]. The steeplejacks removed the top of the chimney and then created a hole in its base, propped with blocks of wood. They then lit a fire, destroying the supports and causing the chimney to collapse. Unfortunately, on this occasion the chimney fell in the wrong direction, onto the greyhound track's dog kennels, a local café and a series of power cables.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=21–22}}</ref>

His first job that involved ladders was given to him while he still worked as a joiner. He was asked to [[Repointing|point]] a garden wall and then the gable end of the customer's house. He used several short ladders, lashed together with rope and hardboard. This gave Dibnah valuable experience and his employer expanded the business to include property repairs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=26}}</ref> Aged about 17–18 he climbed the {{convert|262|ft|m|adj=on}} chimney at [[Barrow Bridge, Bolton|Barrow Bridge]], for a 10 [[shilling]] bet. During the night he took two [[Union flag]]s to the top and secured each to the lightning conductors there. The ''[[Bolton Evening News]]'' reported the incident, with a photograph of Dibnah's feat, but attributed it to the activities of students from [[Victoria University of Manchester|Manchester University]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=28–30}}</ref> At about the same time, Dibnah decided to replace the chimney stack at his mother's house on Alfred Street with one of his own design, as his mother used only one fireplace—leaving four of the five chimney pots redundant. As the single opening at the top of the new stack was only about {{convert|4|in|cm}} wide, the flue needed regular maintenance. On one occasion, he was cleaning the flue using a sack of bricks tied to a rope when the sack ripped open, breaking several pipes and flooding his mother's kitchen. After the death of his mother, the house was sold and the council placed a [[Historic preservation|preservation order]] on the chimney, which remains standing {{as of|2007|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=30–31}}</ref>

===National service===
Aged 22, Dibnah was conscripted into the army to complete his [[Conscription in the United Kingdom|National Service]] and was given a position in the cook house. He spent six weeks training at [[Aldershot]], before being sent to [[Catterick Garrison|Catterick]] to learn the basics of army catering. He was then posted with the [[14th/20th King's Hussars]] and sent to [[West Germany]]. There he persuaded his commanding officer to let him repair the regiment's farmhouse (used for stabling horses and hounds) and he was soon given a more permanent position as a builder and handyman.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=42–43}}</ref> He dug a {{convert|35|ft|m|adj=on}} deep shaft into which the horse manure and dog faeces would be emptied and he also fed the animals. He impressed his commanding officers by making a [[weathercock]] from army kitchen trays, but was also chastised when he was found with a 1914 [[Luger P08 pistol]] he had bought from a fellow soldier.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|pp=33–38}}</ref> He often received parcels of alcohol and tobacco from his mother, which allowed him to maintain the habits he had formed when he began his working life.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=8}}</ref> Although Dibnah initially resented being called into service, he would later be more positive about the experience:

{{Blockquote|It wasn't a bad thing, if National Service had been kept going it might have kept all the vandals and hooligans we have now in line.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=45}}</ref>}}

==Steeplejack==
[[File:Bolton Parish Church 2007.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[St Peter's Church, Bolton|Bolton parish church]]]]
On his return from National Service in 1962 Dibnah retrieved his tools from storage, bought a 1927 350 cc [[AJS]] motorcycle for 21 [[Guinea (British coin)|guineas]] and looked for more work. Bolton, however, was in the midst of post-industrial decline; between 1957 and 1965 about 70 mills were closed in the town, leaving only 37 mills operational and about 50 disused.<ref name="Hallpp4647">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=46–47}}</ref> Initially he was unable to find much work and existed on smaller, domestic jobs, until he earned enough to buy his own set of ladders and secured his first commission while working at a local mill. He was paid £140 to [[Repointing|point]] a mill tower, which he did on weekends. He struggled, however, to get any more meaningful work, until he met Lonsdale Bonner, one of his teachers from art college. The two agreed a deal whereby Bonner would be paid a commission for each job he got for Dibnah. His first job was dismantling a chimney alongside the [[Manchester and Bolton Railway]], a difficult proposition, as a mistake could force the temporary closure of the railway.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=34–38}}</ref> The two managed to gain commissions for several jobs, but their relationship was terminated when Dibnah was called upon to undertake another six months of National Service.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=39}}</ref>

He was then commissioned to repair a chimney at a local brewery. While working on this, he met a local welder who also knew the vicar of Bolton (Richard Greville Norburn), who wanted some repairs made to Bolton [[St Peter's Church, Bolton|parish church]]'s [[weathervane]]s. The vicar drove a 1929 [[Humber Limited|Humber]] limousine and was impressed by Dibnah's AJS motorcycle; the two quickly became friends. The church was the tallest building in Bolton and once Dibnah had repaired the weathervane the vicar asked him to [[Gilding|gild]] it. Dibnah appeared in the local newspaper and the publicity and his friendship with the vicar enabled him to gain more work from the local clergy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=47–50}}</ref>

His next major job was for local firm [[B. Hick and Sons|Hick Hargreaves]], the proceeds of which enabled him to expand his collection of ladders to 30. He was commissioned to remove the top half of a {{convert|270|ft|m|adj=on}} chimney and employed an assistant, Percy Porter. The top of the chimney contained a length of railway line, which had been used for lifting materials during construction. Dibnah hacksawed the line into pieces, letting each piece fall to the ground, while his assistant below kept the area clear. He then spent the next six months removing each brick by hand while the chimney was still in use, as the factory could not afford to halt production.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=50–51}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

===First marriage===
[[File:Dibnah house 2.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|Dibnah's home, 121 Radcliffe Road, a former [[Victorian era|Victorian]] gatehouse in Bolton. Now the (closed) Fred Dibnah Heritage Centre]]
In 1967, following disagreements over who should be invited to their wedding, Dibnah and 19-year-old hairdresser Alison Mary Foster eloped to [[Gretna Green]] in Scotland, to get married.{{sfn|Hayward|2008}}<ref name="Hallpp5861"/> Dibnah had first spotted Alison from the top of a chimney and, when one day she walked into the pub where he was drinking, he asked her out; six weeks later, the two became engaged.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=62}}</ref> They left notes for their parents, caught a train to [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]] and from there on a series of buses to [[Dumfries]]. They had initially planned to stay at the house of a friend but as he had returned to Bolton for his holidays, they stayed instead at a local farmhouse. The two had to be resident for at least 21 days to be married and so Dibnah agreed to point the gable ends of a local hotel in exchange for bed and board.

On 19 May,{{sfn|Hayward|2008}} the two married at the church at Gretna Green and returned to live at Dibnah's mother's house. They later moved into a Victorian gatehouse on the [[Earl of Bradford]]'s estate, just outside Bolton.<ref name="Hallpp5861">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=58–61}}</ref> Dibnah spent years restoring the property, including building an extension. The house was a [[listed building]] and so he had to source appropriately aged bricks for the extension. A vicar offered him some of the old gravestones from the church graveyard, which Dibnah then used to create the stone [[lintel]]s and [[mullion]]s, though he later expressed his fear that his property would now be haunted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=108}}</ref> The couple later purchased the house for £5,000, although it required major repairs to stabilize the rear wall.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|pp=65–66}}</ref>

The couple had their first child, a girl named Jayne, in June 1968. Alison was initially worried about her husband's occupation but learned to deal with the risk and to trust Fred. She organised his accounts and even collected debts. She also helped him demolish some of the chimneys that he worked on, by lighting the fire to burn away the temporary supports he had put in place.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=61–63}}</ref>

===Chimney felling===

Having mastered his trade repairing chimneys, Dibnah became aware of the demand for a cost-effective method of demolishing them. He offered to remove them without using [[explosive material|explosives]], by cutting an ingress at the base of the chimney—supporting the brickwork with wooden props—and then burning away the props so that the chimney fell, hopefully in the intended direction. Although this was a tried and tested method, it was not without its opponents. On one occasion he was contracted by the local council to fell two chimneys. The contract obliged him to dismantle each by hand, but he decided to fell them by cutting away the base. The first chimney collapsed as planned, but the council terminated his contract and refused to pay. Dibnah contacted the borough engineer and offered to fell the second chimney for no charge, to prove the effectiveness of his technique. He even offered to let the engineer light the fire, but the wind blew so hard that the chimney did not draw the flames and once the props had been burnt through, it remained standing. Dibnah resorted to using a hydraulic jack to apply extra pressure to the intact side of the base and the chimney eventually fell.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=66–68}}</ref> He later told the engineer that "it was all about fine balancing and counteracting high wind forces."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=68}}</ref>

He almost lost his life in 1997, when a concrete chimney he had been asked to fell on [[Canvey Island]] began to collapse before the felling team had finished preparing the base. As the team ran from the chimney, Dibnah tripped and fell and was greeted by the sight of 2,500 tonnes of concrete leaning toward him, but fortunately the chimney righted itself and then fell in the opposite direction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=162–163}}</ref> The last chimney he felled, which was his 90th, was in [[Royton]] in [[Manchester]], in May 2004.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=280}}</ref>

===Steam===
Dibnah's interest in steam power stemmed from his childhood observations of the steam locomotives on the nearby railway line,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=72}}</ref> and his visits to his father's workplace—a bleach works in Bolton—where he was fascinated by the steam engines used to drive the [[line shaft]]ing.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=13–14}}</ref> A small mill near his childhood home was sometimes [[wikt:mothball#Verb|mothballed]] and Dibnah once broke in:

{{Blockquote|I remember getting into the mill and lifting up a dust sheet to have a look at the engine they'd got under it. I found there was this beautiful [[British racing green]] steam engine under there with all the brasses left on. The boilers were still there and there was plenty of grease on everything, all ready and waiting for the next job. It was a bit sad really to see it standing there idle like that.|Fred Dibnah<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=17–18}}</ref>}}

{{quote box|quote=... we steamed about twenty miles through the night. Back then in the days of gas lamps it were quite exciting. It were near the end of the steam era and the fireman knew there were no future for him so he didn't give a monkey's and he gave me the job of firing the locomotive. I remember him saying to me, "It doesn't matter what you do, as long as you don't lose the shovel." It were really good fun and I finished up doing it lots and lots of times
|source=Fred Dibnah<ref name="Hallp75"/>|align=right|width=33%}}

He later became a steam enthusiast, befriending many of the engine drivers and firemen who worked on the nearby railway. As a teenager he met a driver who invited him onto the footplate of his locomotive and who asked him to keep the boiler supplied with fuel.<ref name="Hallp75">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=75}}</ref> Dibnah became so enamoured with steam engines that he eventually looked for one he could buy. He learned of a [[steamroller]] kept in a barn near [[Warrington]] and which the owners had bought from [[Flintshire]] County Council. He had the boiler pressure-tested and, despite its being in poor condition, bought it for £175. He towed it to a friend's house, spent a fortnight making various repairs, and drove it to his mother's house in Bolton.

After he had married and bought his own property on Radcliffe New Road, he cut an access road to the garden of his new house and moved the steamroller there. Restoring the engine took many years, as Dibnah had to create his own replacement parts, using [[Victorian era|Victorian]] engineering techniques and equipment he built in his garden. The boiler was in poor condition and needed serious work, but Dibnah fell back on local knowledge and was eventually able to build a new boiler.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=79–90}}</ref> Once it was restored, he used the 1910 [[Aveling and Porter]] steamroller<ref name="Timesobit">{{Citation | title = Fred Dibnah | url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article504175.ece | work = The Times | date = 8 November 2004 | access-date = 18 October 2009 | location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604114908/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article504175.ece |archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref> together with a [[living van]] he bought and restored, to take his family around the local [[steam fair]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=96}}</ref> While driving the vehicle was relatively safe, Dibnah had experienced several mishaps, including one instance when he lost control while descending a steep hill and was forced to drive the engine into a concrete barrier to bring it to a halt, smashing the front fork in the process.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=84}}</ref>

[[File:Glynllifon Steam Engine.jpg|left|thumb|The single-cylinder engine restored by Dibnah and Carney|300px]]
Restoring the steamroller placed a heavy burden upon his marriage and Alison would often complain that her husband spent more time in the shed, repairing the engine, than he did in the house. He responded by naming the vehicle ''Alison'', telling his wife "It's not every woman that has a steam engine named after her."<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|pp=88–89}}</ref> Alison eventually developed an affection for the antique vehicle, saying, "We've done without for so many years to get it built up. I couldn't bear to part with it. There's too much of us in it."<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=89}}</ref>

His next purchase, made in the autumn of 1980,<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=123}}</ref> was a 1912 Aveling & Porter [[traction engine]]. Dibnah paid a friend £2,300 for the vehicle and moved it to the garden behind his home. He built a steam-driven workshop in his garden, salvaging parts from various mills, including line shaft gear and a stationary engine from a mill in Oldham. He gave a conservative estimate of four years to complete the work, but the restoration eventually took 27 years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=105–107}}</ref> The engine was sold at auction in July 2010 for £240,000.<ref name="BBC 25/07/2010">{{cite news |title=Dibnah's engine sold for £240,000 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-10754039 |work=BBC News |date=25 July 2010 |access-date=12 March 2011}}</ref>

In 1988, he was asked by [[Caernarfon]] Council to make repairs to a chimney at [[Glynllifon|Parc Glynllifon]].<ref name="Carney">{{Citation |last=Carney |first=Neil |date=2005 |chapter=On the buses' to 'up the ladders |editor-last=Langston |editor-first=Keith |title=Fred Dibnah MBE Remembered: The life & times of a Great Briton 1938–2004 |publisher=Mortons Media Group |isbn=978-0-9542442-6-2}}</ref> Beneath the chimney, an engine room contained an 1854 single-cylinder steam engine in poor condition. Dibnah repaired the chimney and several weeks later was asked to repair the engine, which he dismantled during the winter of 1988/89 and took back to Bolton.<ref name="Carney"/> With his assistant Neil Carney, he spent six months repairing the engine. The two sourced a replacement boiler from a local pork pie factory and re-installed the engine in Wales. Dibnah later won a prize for the quality of the restoration work.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=131–134}}</ref> He also spent about seven months restoring the boiler, engine and [[blunger]] at [[Wetheriggs Pottery]] near [[Penrith, Cumbria|Penrith]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=142}}</ref>

==Fame==

===''Fred Dibnah, Steeplejack''===
[[File:Bolton Town Hall 2007.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Bolton Town Hall]]
In 1978, Dibnah was commissioned to make repairs to [[Bolton Town Hall]]. Decades of exposure to soot and rain had caused serious damage to the clock tower and Dibnah alerted the Clerk of Works to the condition of the 16 stone pillars at the top of the tower. He bought new stone, built a [[lathe]] in his workshop and created the replacement pillars. He was given the job of repairing the clock tower and he also gilded the golden sphere at the top of the building. While Dibnah was working from his [[bosun's chair]], a public relations officer at the Town Hall informed Dibnah that ''[[BBC North West Tonight|BBC Look North West]]'' wanted to interview him. The following week, the film crew arrived and Alistair MacDonald conducted the interview from the top of the building, with Dibnah perched outside on his scaffolding.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=99–101}}</ref>

His warm and friendly manner combined with his enthusiasm and broad Lancashire accent proved popular and he was later contacted by producer Don Haworth, with a view to making a documentary. After several meetings over the course of a few weeks, filming began early one morning just as Dibnah had climbed to the top of a {{convert|245|ft|m|adj=on}} chimney at [[Shaw and Crompton]], [[Oldham]]. Sporadic filming took place over an 18-month period and captured Dibnah (with assistant Donald Paiton) working on a range of buildings, spending time with his family and enjoying his hobbies. [[Giulio Briccialdi]]'s ''Carnival of Venice'' (performed by [[James Galway]]) was the music chosen to accompany Dibnah's work on Bolton Town Hall. One of the more notable aspects was Dibnah's 1979 demolition of a chimney in [[Rochdale]]. Standing only yards away from the base of the chimney as it began to collapse, his retreat to safety and subsequent boyish outburst of "Did you like that?" endeared him to viewers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=101–103}}</ref><ref name=MENtribute>{{Citation | title = Tribute to Fred Dibnah | url = http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/s/136/136136_tribute_to_fred_dibnah.html | work = Manchester Evening News | date = 8 November 2004 | access-date = 28 October 2009}}</ref>

''Fred Dibnah, Steeplejack'' won the 1979 [[BAFTA]] award for best documentary,<ref>{{Citation|title=Television Nominations 1979 |url=http://www.bafta.org/awards/television/nominations/?year=1979 |year=1979 |access-date=19 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115011424/http://www.bafta.org/awards/television/nominations/?year=1979 |archive-date=15 January 2009 |work=Past Winners and Nominees |publisher=British Academy of Film and Television Arts}} {{Citation |title=Television {{!}} Documentary in 1980 |url=https://awards.bafta.org/award/1980/television/documentary-programme |work=Awards Database |publisher=British Academy of Film and Television Arts |access-date=2 May 2019}}</ref> and over the years Haworth returned to film more documentaries.{{sfn|Hayward|2008}} With his newly found fame, however, came distractions from his work. Visitors would arrive at his house, to see his garden. He began to receive fan mail; one individual wrote to offer Dibnah a steam-powered machine he no longer wanted. One company, who were apparently disturbed to see Dibnah's [[match]]es being extinguished by the wind while at the top of a chimney, sent him a sample of their windproof matches.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=111}}</ref> Filming would also interfere with his work. Cameraman Martin Lightening would climb with Dibnah to the top of a chimney—with a [[16 mm film#Cameras|16mm film camera]]—and film him at work, often hundreds of feet above the ground.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=111}}</ref>

{{Quote box|quote=I've seen them from close-up and they're fantastic, great big stones perched two hundred feet up in the sky, covered in incredible carvings and all fitting perfectly, in an attempt to keep them up for ever. That's why I don't get much pleasure demolishing a chimney, when I think of those fellows manhandling tens of thousands of bricks and tons of mortar, to build the thing in the first place.|source=Fred Dibnah<ref name="Hallp112">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=112}}</ref>|align=right|width=33%}}

Several years later, Dibnah and his family went on holiday, to [[Blackpool]]. The trip was filmed for television and showed Dibnah's preference for working rather than holidaying. He did however manage to undertake the removal of a small chimney stack from a business in the town, under a distinctly grey sky and aided by his wife, Alison. His payment for the job was a new front plate for the boiler of his traction engine. Dibnah, however, refused to take any more holidays and, after 18 years of marriage, Alison booked and paid for a holiday to Greece, taking their three children (Jayne, Lorna and Caroline)<ref name="Hallp184"/> with her. Dibnah remained at home and was surprised when, upon her return, she asked for a divorce.<ref name="Hallpp122124">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=122–124}}</ref>

One day in October 1985, Dibnah attended a solid fuel exhibition in nearby [[Bury, Greater Manchester|Bury]]. Upon his return he discovered that Alison had left the house, taking with her their three children, the dog and some items of furniture.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=133}}</ref> Short of money, he was forced to sell his antique AJS motorcycle.<ref name="Hallpp122124"/> He found life without his family difficult but defended his wife: "There is no doubt whatsoever, she were a good help to me and I'm going to miss her. It was just that all the pressure got too much for her."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=124}}</ref>

===Second marriage===
[[File:Fred Dibnah 1981.jpg|thumb|Dibnah in 1981]]
Dibnah met his second wife Susan Lorenz—a 28-year-old social worker{{sfn|Hayward|2008}}—at a steam rally in Cheshire. In ''The Fred Dibnah Story'' (1996) she recalled their first meeting: "He looked sad and miserable, quite a pathetic sort of figure really, none of the bounce that people knew him for."<ref name="Freddibnahstory">{{Citation | title = The Fred Dibnah Story | publisher = BBC | year = 1985}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=May 2019}} He later invited her to a chimney felling in Oldham and then a talk he had been invited to give to a group of fans in [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]], known as The Fred Dibnah Appreciation Society. Sue moved into Dibnah's home in Bolton and the two married on 27 February 1987.{{sfn|Hayward|2008}} She encouraged him to grow a moustache and also to give up smoking.<ref name="Freddibnahstory"/>

Many of the chimneys around Bolton had now been either repaired, or demolished and so Dibnah was forced to travel further afield for work. He travelled to the [[Yorkshire Dales]] to install a [[lightning conductor]] on the [[St Michael's Church, Kirkby Malham|parish church in Kirkby Malham]]. While digging the hole for the conductor, they uncovered human bones, for which a reinterment ceremony was held. Their first son, Jack (named after his father's trade),<ref name="Haworthp164">{{Harvnb|Haworth|1993|p=164}}</ref> was born in 1987. Dibnah offered to make a weathercock, provided that his son was christened in the same church.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=128–129}}</ref> His second son, Roger, was born in 1991.<ref name="Hallpp122124"/>

==Later life==
In 1996, Dibnah repaired the {{convert|262|ft|m|adj=on}} chimney at Barrow Bridge—the same chimney he had scaled for a bet, in his youth. He was also asked to install a [[peregrine falcon]] nest at the top.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=143}}</ref> He was later influential in ensuring the chimney was made a [[listed building]].<ref name="Timesobit"/> As a notable raconteur, he also became an after-dinner speaker and would wear his trademark [[flat cap]] with his dinner jacket.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=144}}</ref> He made an appearance in a 1996 television advertisement for [[Kelloggs]].{{sfn|Hayward|2008}}

However, the strain of living with a man so dedicated to his hobbies began to take its toll on his wife: {{blockquote|Sometimes he'll have busted his thumb because he's hit it with a hammer; you couldn't really expect him then to come in and start doing things in the house. I just don't think it's fair though, I think you've got to strike a balance and I think ours is about 90/10. Me for 90 per cent of the housework and Fred for 10.<ref name="Hallp148">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=148}}</ref>}} Susan met another man and moved out, taking Roger with her and leaving Jack with Fred.<ref name="Hallp148"/>

{{Blockquote|She went away from here saying, "I don't want your antiques, I don't want your house, I don't want any money," [...] But what she did do was take my lads away from me and I can't forgive her for that.|Fred Dibnah<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=148–149}}</ref>}}

===Third marriage===
By 1997 Dibnah was living alone, with little work or money. Competition from Manchester had reduced his income from steeplejacking and filming for the BBC had dried up completely. He had, however, met Sheila Grundy, a former magician's assistant. She had arrived one day with her parents and young son to see Dibnah's back yard, and signed the visitor's book. The two remained in contact and became friends; they shared an interest in steam and Grundy was fascinated by Dibnah's tales of steeplejacking.<ref name="Hallpp153158">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=153–158}}</ref> She and her son moved in with Dibnah in 1998 and the couple married on 26 September that year.{{sfn|Hayward|2008}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=182}}</ref> At their wedding reception in Bolton, Dibnah was surprised and moved to tears when his youngest daughter, Caroline, came to see him. Dibnah had had little contact with his daughters in the years since his divorce from Alison.<ref name="Hallp184">{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=184}}</ref>

===Television presenting===
In 1997, Dibnah met author David Hall. Hall had been raised in the [[Bradford, Manchester|Bradford]] district of Manchester and the two swapped tales of growing up in the latter half of the 20th century. Hall suggested that Dibnah would be unlikely to have any further television work commissioned on his life and that he should consider becoming a television presenter.<ref name="Hallpp153158"/> The two worked on new ideas for a programme focussed on [[industrial archaeology]] that would show Dibnah touring the country, visiting important locations of [[industrial heritage]] and speaking to the men involved in the maintenance and restoration of machinery and architecture. The programme would also exploit Dibnah's working-class attitude and show him operating some of the machinery he visited.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=158–159}}</ref> Filming of ''Fred Dibnah's Industrial Age'' began in July 1998. The first location was near Bolton, at the [[Wet Earth Colliery]] and the crew then moved on to various locations around the country, continuing to film through the summer and autumn of 1998.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=169–181}}</ref>

The series achieved high viewing figures, with positive reviews, and the associated website became the second most-visited BBC website at the time. A complementary book was also published and was one of the top five best-selling history books of the year. Dibnah admitted he found speaking to a camera more nerve-racking than climbing a chimney,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=187–188}}</ref> but the success of ''Fred Dibnah's Industrial Age'' was a portent; he later presented several other television series. Before filming began for ''Fred Dibnah's Magnificent Monuments'', he had installed his red ladders on the steeple at [[Church of St Walburge, Preston|St Walburge]]'s in [[Preston, Lancashire|Preston]], ready for an inspection. With filming for television now taking up much of his time, however, he was unable to complete the job. He left the ladders at the church for several years and donated them to the tradesman who eventually took the job.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=196–197}}</ref>

==Last years==

[[File:Robert Howlett (Isambard Kingdom Brunel Standing Before the Launching Chains of the Great Eastern), The Metropolitan Museum of Art (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|upright|alt=A 19th-century man wearing jacket trousers and waistcoat, hands in pockets, cigar in mouth, wearing a tall stovepipe top hat, standing in front of giant iron chains on a drum.|[[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] was much admired by Dibnah.]]
In 2001, to mark the centenary of the death of [[Queen Victoria]], the BBC transmitted a season of programmes based on a Victorian theme and Dibnah presented ''Fred Dibnah's Victorian Heroes''. He had long been fascinated by the Victorians, especially [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], who was his hero. During filming he visited a number of locations, including the {{convert|245|ft|m|adj=on}} high [[Clifton Suspension Bridge]] and the slipway for the [[SS Great Eastern|SS ''Great Eastern'']].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=207–210}}</ref>

===Illness===
In early 2001, Dibnah was due to begin filming ''Fred Dibnah's Building of Britain'', but suffered severe abdominal pains and was admitted to hospital for tests. He was discharged and began filming at locations around the country, including the [[Globe Theatre]], [[Ely Cathedral]] and [[Glamis Castle]]. Dibnah was the chairman of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal Society and an episode on the construction of Britain's canal network was therefore of particular interest to him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=212–216}}</ref> Toward the end of filming, Dibnah went to Bolton Royal Hospital for a check-up, where a [[tumour]] was found on his right [[kidney]]. The kidney was removed and the tumour was found to be [[malignant]]. He went to [[Christie Hospital]] in [[Manchester]], where further growths were discovered around his [[Urinary bladder|bladder]]. On the same day, Sheila's father fell from the roof of his house and died. Dibnah underwent [[chemotherapy]] and once his treatment was finished, tests showed that he was free of cancer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=232–234}}</ref>

Filming for ''Fred Dibnah's Age of Steam'' began early in 2003, at the [[Trencherfield Mill]], near [[Wigan Pier]]. The film crew visited a number of locations, including a steam rally in [[Cornwall]] and the [[Bluebell Railway]] in [[Sussex]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=241–248}}</ref> Dibnah was travelling around the country working on a subject that fascinated him, visiting old friends and making money from his hobby. The restoration of his traction engine was almost complete; later that year, however, Dibnah had another checkup at Christie Hospital and was told that a large tumour had been found on his bladder.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=250}}</ref>

===''Dig with Dibnah''===
Dibnah had another course of chemotherapy, but this time the treatment was unsuccessful. Undeterred, he began to dig a replica [[coal mining|coal mine]] in the back garden of his home. Although the sight of [[Head frame|pithead gear]] may have been considered by his neighbours to be unusual, as a child raised in Bolton, he had been surrounded by pits such as [[Ladyshore Colliery]] and had long harboured an interest in mining. He had already assembled the wooden pithead gear and was planning to sink a {{convert|100|ft|m|adj=on}} brick-lined shaft below this into the hillside.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=251–253}}</ref> At the bottom of the shaft, a horizontal tunnel would have led out to the steep side of the valley above which his garden sits.

The intention was to have a [[narrow gauge railway]] running along the tunnel, back up the hillside on a rope-hauled [[inclined plane]], returning to the pithead. The ultimate aim was to be able to demonstrate the basic working of an early colliery. Seven years before his diagnosis, therefore, Dibnah had sourced drawings of suitable pithead gear and built a frame from timber and iron bolts. He had applied for and was given planning permission to erect the structure, but made no mention of his wish to dig a shaft underneath it. The BBC decided to make a documentary on Dibnah's proposed mine, which would entail his travelling once again around the country, visiting working collieries and heritage mines. Filming started late in 2003, by which time Dibnah and his friend Alf Molyneux had already made a start on the shaft.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=259–262}}</ref>

[[File:Fred dibnah pit.jpg|right|thumb|The pithead gear at the rear of the Fred Dibnah Heritage Centre, previously Dibnah's home]]
Using traditional shaft-sinking techniques and the labour of mining friends Alf Molyneux and Jimmy Crooks, the shaft was sunk to a depth of {{convert|20|ft|m}} and lined with brick. The work had been undertaken without [[planning permission]] and, when the council eventually found out what was happening, they insisted he apply for planning permission.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=266–267}}</ref>

Following the sale of Dibnah's property, the headgear was acquired by James Palmer of Hindley Green, a lifelong fan of Dibnah, for The Lancashire Mining Museum, where it stands today, funded by Stephen Eckersley .

Palmer says that the day he visited Dibnah's House to save the headgear from going to Cumbria was an important day for Dibnah's Legacy, as it should stay in Lancashire.

Palmer dismantled the headgear along with Fred fan and friend Jack Bracegirdle ready for transportation to the LMM.

===''Fred Dibnah's Made in Britain'' {{anchor|Fred Dibnah's Made in Britain}}===
Despite Dibnah's best efforts, planning permission was refused. Although he appealed against the decision,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=270}}</ref> a new series diverted his attention. At the end of 2003 production began for ''Fred Dibnah's Made in Britain''. With his friend, Alf Molyneux, Dibnah would tour the country on his completed traction engine, visiting the workshops that still could produce the parts needed for his antique vehicle. His engine, however, was not yet complete and Dibnah's medical diagnosis was not good: he knew he had only a short time to live. His traction engine developed a serious fault, but with the help of friends, it was quickly repaired and its restoration completed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=272–276, p. 281}}</ref>

[[Image:GCR Dibnah.jpg|thumb|Dibnah visiting the [[Great Central Railway (preserved)|Great Central Railway]] works at Loughborough, as part of his final televised tour of Britain's industrial heritage]]
In December 2003, his traction engine was now in working order and planning for the new series commenced. Dibnah's illness necessitated that he sleep in hotels, rather than the [[living van]] the engine would tow during the trip. For the long distances between locations, the engine would be transported on the back of a [[Lowboy (trailer)|low loader]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=285–286}}</ref> Dibnah's engine suffered early mechanical problems; it could barely tow the fully loaded living van uphill, as the cylinder had been placed very slightly closer to the [[footplate]] than it should have been. As a result of this, every time the piston was fully forward it covered the steam [[inlet port]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|p=288}}</ref> The engine was repaired, and with some minor repair work to one of the pistons, was brought up to full power. The team was joined by Dibnah's sons, Jack and Roger.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=292–293}}</ref>

The production crew made every effort to reduce Dibnah's workload. Changes were made to the filming schedule, to allow Dibnah more time to rest at home between filming days. The crew visited the [[Forth Road Bridge]] and Dibnah became the first man to drive a traction engine under its own steam across the bridge. Such pleasures provided a welcome distraction for Dibnah, who was by then ill and in pain. By the end of June, he was so ill, he could not continue filming. He was sent home to rest and given medication to alleviate his condition, so that he could collect his [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=295–300}}</ref>

Filming continued at various locations around the country, with sons Jack and Roger, who had become essential members of the tour, providing much-needed support for their father. By the end of July, the crew had filmed only 34 days with Dibnah, out of a planned 60. It was becoming more difficult by the day for Dibnah to fulfil his filming duties and the crew decided to cut short the schedule. Once home, Dibnah decided to [[creosote]] the pithead gear in his garden, but fell and injured his back. He was adamant that he would continue filming, however, and made the trip to North Wales to complete filming. He later made a partial recovery and completed his last days filming at an [[Ironworks]] in [[Atherton, Greater Manchester|Atherton]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=310–317}}</ref>

===Honours===
In mid-2000, Dibnah was awarded an [[honorary degree]] of [[Doctor of Technology]] for his achievement in engineering, by [[Robert Gordon University]] in [[Aberdeen]],<ref>{{Citation | title = Graduation Summer 2000 | url = http://www.rgu.ac.uk/news/disp_NewsPreview.cfm?PGE_ID=468&vmenu=2 |work=RGU News Article | publisher = Robert Gordon University | date = 3 August 2000 | access-date = 20 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927031432/http://www.rgu.ac.uk/news/disp_NewsPreview.cfm?PGE_ID=468&vmenu=2 |archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> and on 19 July 2004, he was made an honorary Doctor of the university by the [[University of Birmingham]].<ref>{{Citation | title = Honorary Graduates July 2004 | magazine = Buzz | url = http://www.buzz.bham.ac.uk/Buzz_47.pdf | publisher = The University of Birmingham | date = July 2004 | volume = 3 | issue = 47 | page = 2 | access-date = 19 October 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070710130549/http://www.buzz.bham.ac.uk/Buzz_47.pdf | archive-date = 10 July 2007 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

{{Quote box
| quote = I was slightly nervous shaking hands with the Queen. She asked me if I was still climbing chimneys. It beats me how she keeps tabs on everybody. I never thought I would be receiving an MBE. | source = Fred Dibnah<ref name="steammonster">{{Citation | title = Fred's steam monster barred for his big day | url = http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/s/123/123406_freds_steam_monster_barred_for_his_big_day.html | work = Manchester Evening News | date = 8 July 2004 | access-date = 30 October 2009}}</ref> | align = left | width = 33%}}

Dibnah was appointed a [[Order of the British Empire|Member of the Order of the British Empire]] in the [[2004 New Year Honours]] for services to heritage and broadcasting.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=57155 |date=31 December 2003 |page=16 |supp=y}}</ref> He said "I'm looking forward to meeting the [[Elizabeth II|Queen]] but I shall probably have to get a new cap. And I'd like to meet [[Charles III|Prince Charles]] because we share the [[Charles III#Built environment|same views about modern architecture]]."<ref>{{Citation | title = Fred Dibnah honoured| url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/manchester/3357375.stm |work=BBC News | date = 31 December 2003 | access-date = 30 October 2009}}</ref>

On 7 July 2004, Dibnah went to [[Buckingham Palace]] to receive his award from the Queen. He initially planned to drive his traction engine into the palace grounds, but was refused as the [[The Royal Parks|Royal Parks Agency]] feared that its weight would damage the surface of [[The Mall, London|The Mall]]. Eventually, he was allowed to drive the engine to [[Wellington Barracks]], a short distance from the palace. He collected his medal wearing [[morning dress]] and a [[top hat]].<ref name="BBC 25/07/2010"/><ref name="steammonster"/>

Dibnah was the Castaway on ''[[Desert Island Discs]]'' on 1 December 1991.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p0093ylr |title=Desert Island Discs |date=1 December 1991 |website=BBC Sounds |publisher=BBC Radio 4 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref>

===Death===
[[File:Fred dibnah funeral.jpg|right|thumb|Dibnah's coffin being drawn along the streets of Bolton]]
[[File:Fred Dibnah Grave in 2009.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Fred Dibnah's grave in [[Tonge, Bolton|Tonge]] Cemetery]]
Dibnah died on 6 November 2004, after suffering from cancer for three years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freddibnah.co.uk/bolton-evening-news-tribute.htm |title=Town says farewell to Fred Dibnah |work=Bolton Evening News |date=8 November 2004 |access-date=3 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623160921/http://www.freddibnah.co.uk/bolton-evening-news-tribute.htm |archive-date=23 June 2012 |via=freddibnah.co.uk }}</ref> He was 66 years old.<ref name="Timesobit"/><ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/steeplejack-fred-dibnah-dies-at-66-532320.html |title=Steeplejack Fred Dibnah dies at 66 |work=The Independent |date=7 November 2004 |access-date=30 October 2009 |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131103859/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/steeplejack-fred-dibnah-dies-at-66-532320.html |archive-date=31 January 2011 }}</ref>

Eleven days later, thousands of mourners watched as Dibnah's coffin (on top of which his trademark flat cap was placed) was towed through the centre of Bolton by his restored traction engine, driven by his son. A cortège of steam-powered vehicles followed, as the procession made its way to Bolton Parish Church. During the hour-long service, David Hall told the congregation "He wasn't a posh TV presenter. He was recognised as a working man who had learned through experience."<ref>{{Citation | last = Bunyan | first = Nigel | title = Steam-powered funeral for Fred Dibnah | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1476786/Steam-powered-funeral-for-Fred-Dibnah.html | work = The Telegraph | date = 17 November 2004 | access-date = 28 October 2009 | location=London}}</ref> Following the service, led by the Vicar of Bolton, Canon Michael Williams (a friend of Dibnah), he was buried at [[Tonge, Bolton|Tonge]] Cemetery, behind his home.<ref>{{Citation | title = Steeplejack Dibnah laid to rest | url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/manchester/4015223.stm |work=BBC News | date = 16 November 2004 | access-date = 29 October 2009}}</ref>

Dibnah changed his will two weeks before his death. He left everything, about £1 million, to his five children from two previous marriages. His last wife Sheila, who was 20 years his junior, subsequently applied to the [[High Court]] in a claim for half of the estate, on the basis of "reasonable provision"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/hp/front/i-deserve-something-says-dibnah-wife-left-out-of-ps1m-will-7177023.html |title=I deserve something, says Dibnah wife left out of £1m will |date=13 April 2012 |publisher=standard.co.uk |access-date=27 June 2023}}</ref> and the estate eventually reached a settlement.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/jul/31/disinheritance-and-the-law |title=Disinheritance and the law: why you can't leave your money to whoever you please |date=31 Jul 2015 |publisher=theguardian.com |access-date=8 January 2024}}</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Fred Dibnah Memorial, Bolton (4).JPG|thumb|right|upright|Statue of Dibnah in [[Bolton]]]]
Through his television work Dibnah became famous for felling chimneys (he felled 90 in his lifetime), although it was one of his least favourite jobs.<ref name="Hallp112"/> As he made more films with Don Haworth, his outspoken views on changing society, work ethics and delinquency, made him the embodiment of the views of many of his fans and epitomised the view of a northern working man.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hall|2006|pp=115–117}}</ref>


Dibnah was praised by many notable British people. After reporting on his death, television presenter [[Peter Sissons]] remarked: "They don't make them like that any more". Comedian [[Peter Kay]] said: "It's very sad news. He was one of a kind and now he has gone I think there will be no one else like him. He was enthusiastic about a way of life that has virtually disappeared now." Brian Tetlow, chairman of the Bolton and District Civic Trust, said: "He's unique, not just to Bolton but to Britain and the world. Our thoughts are with his wife and children."<ref>{{Citation | via = Famous Boltonians |title=No one quite like Fred... |work=Bolton Evening News | url = http://legacy.thisislancashire.co.uk/lancashire/bolton/famousboltonians/freddibnah-tribute.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718232735/http://legacy.thisislancashire.co.uk/lancashire/bolton/famousboltonians/freddibnah-tribute.html |archive-date=18 July 2006 | date = 8 November 2004 | access-date = 19 October 2009}}</ref>

An {{convert|8|ft|m|adj=on}} bronze statue of Dibnah was unveiled by the [[List of mayors of Bolton|Mayor of Bolton]], in Bolton town centre, on 29 April 2008. The sculpture was created by [[Jane Robbins (sculptor)|Jane Robbins]].<ref>{{Citation |title = Dibnah tribute towers over town |url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/manchester/7373440.stm |work=BBC News |date = 29 April 2008 |access-date = 30 October 2009}}</ref> His home was converted into a heritage centre in 2010<ref>{{Citation |url = http://www.freddibnahheritagecentre.co.uk/ |title = Win Fred's House! |work = The Fred Dibnah Heritage Centre |first = Leon & Jan |last = Powsney |access-date = 3 May 2011 |archive-date = 11 March 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110311113741/http://www.freddibnahheritagecentre.co.uk/ |url-status = dead }}</ref> but its contents were sold at auction in March 2018.<ref>{{citation |title=Fred Dibnah Heritage Centre items sold at auction |date=18 March 2018 |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-43448181 |access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref>

A play titled ''The Demolition Man'', based on his final years, was staged in 2011 at Bolton's [[Octagon Theatre, Bolton|Octagon Theatre]].<ref>{{Citation |last = Hulme |first = Alan |title = News & Reviews: The Demolition Man |url = http://www.citylife.co.uk/news_and_reviews/reviews/10019320_review__the_demolition_man___bolton_octagon |work = CityLife |date = 11 April 2011 |access-date = 25 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405090646/http://www.citylife.co.uk/news_and_reviews/reviews/10019320_review__the_demolition_man___bolton_octagon |archive-date=5 April 2012}}</ref>

The life and times of Dibnah were celebrated by [[St Helens, Merseyside|St Helens]] comedy folk band [[The Lancashire Hotpots (band)|the Lancashire Hotpots]], who released their song "Dibnah" with a music video in 2016. Band member Dickie Ticker said of Dibnah "When Fred came on the screens – other than on ''[[Coronation Street]]'' – there was no one with a broad [[Lancashire dialect|Boltonian accent]]. He was a working class and genuinely nice bloke. Since posting the video we have had dozens and dozens of comments and no one has got a bad word to say about him."<ref>{{Citation |last = Chaudhari |first = Saiqa | title = Life and times of Fred Dibnah celebrated by folk band The Lancashire Hotpots |url = https://www.theboltonnews.co.uk/news/14386568.Life_and_times_of_Fred_Dibnah_celebrated_by_folk_band_The_Lancashire_Hotpots/ |work = The Bolton News |date = 23 March 2016 |access-date = 17 March 2019}}</ref>

The American rock band [[Tuff Sunshine]] released a song, "The Steeplejack" in 2019 that had been inspired by the 1979 BBC documentary ''Fred Dibnah: Steeplejack''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://tuffsunshine.bandcamp.com/track/the-steeplejack |title=The Steeplejack |author=Tuff Sunshine |date=2 March 2019 |website=Tuff Sunshine |access-date=29 April 2019}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{div col}}
*''Fred Dibnah: Steeplejack'' (1979)
*''Fred'' (1982)
*''Fred – A Disappearing World'' (1983)
*''A Year with Fred'' (1987)
*''A Year with Fred – New Horizons'' (1991)
*''Fred Dibnah – Getting Steamed Up'' (1991)
*''Life With Fred'' (1994)
*''Fred Dibnah's The Ups and Downs of Chimneys'' (1994)
*''Fred Dibnah's All Steamed Up'' (1994)
*''Fred Dibnah Getting Steam Up'' (1995)
*''The Fred Dibnah Story'' (1996)
*''Fred Dibnah's Industrial Age'' (1999)
*''Fred Dibnah's Magnificent Monuments'' (2000)
*''Fred Dibnah's Victorian Heroes'' (2001)
*''Fred Dibnah's Building of Britain'' (2002)
*''Fred Dibnah's Age of Steam'' (2003)
*''Dig with Dibnah'' (2004)
*''A Tribute to Fred Dibnah'' (2004)
*''Fred Dibnah's Made in Britain'' (2005)
*''Fred Dibnah's World of Steam, Steel and Stone'' (2006)
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
108 Fred's ladder makes an appearance on a chimney in [[Brass]] episode 13

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Citation | last = Hall | first = David | title = Fred | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NGlEzl2tyfwC&q=david+hall+fred | publisher = Bantam Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-593-05664-7 |ol=7544298M}}
*{{Citation | last = Haworth | first = Don | title = Did You Like That? Fred Dibnah in his own words | publisher = [[BBC Books]] | year = 1993 | isbn = 0-563-36950-7 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/freddibnahstory0000hawo }}
*{{Cite ODNB | last = Hayward | first = Anthony | title = Dibnah, Frederick [Fred] | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/94314 |edition=online |via=oxforddnb.com | date = January 2008 | url-access=registration | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/94314 | access-date = 25 October 2009}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book | year = 2008 | title = Fred Dibnah's Chimney Drops | last = McEwen | first = Alan | publisher = Sledgehammer Engineering Press | isbn = 978-0-9532725-1-8}}
*{{Cite book | date = September 2009 | title = Fred Dibnah – A Tribute | last = Langsten | first = Keith | publisher = [[Pen And Sword Books]] | isbn = 978-1-84563-115-4 }}
*{{Cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/stage/2003/01/dibnah.shtml |work=BBC News | title = An Evening with Fred Dibnah | date = 20 January 2003 | access-date = 24 April 2007}}
*{{Cite news | last = Barker | first = Dennis | title = Steeplejack who became a television celebrity | url = https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,,1345735,00.html |work=The Guardian | date = 8 November 2004 | access-date = 30 October 2009 | location=London}}
*''Steeplejack'' by Fred Dibnah, 1983, Line One Publishing, {{ISBN|0 907036 17 1}}
*''Steams On'' by Fred Dibnah with Peter Nicholson, 1984, Line One Publishing, {{ISBN|0 907036 20 1}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category|Fred Dibnah}}




* [https://www.freddibnah.org/ Fred Dibnah Foundation website]
* [http://www.wiganworld.co.uk/fred/ Fred Dibnah Tribute site with many pictures]


* {{IMDb name|0225139}}

{{coord|53.576561|-2.413272|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{Good article}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dibnah, Fred}}
[[Category:14th/20th King's Hussars soldiers]]
[[Category:Military personnel from the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton]]
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:2004 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century British Army personnel]]
[[Category:BBC television presenters]]
[[Category:Burials in the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton]]
[[Category:Deaths from bladder cancer in England]]
[[Category:English television presenters]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:People from Bolton]]
[[Category:Steeplejacks]]
[[Category:Television personalities from Greater Manchester]]
[[Category:Television personalities from Lancashire]]

Harrier jump jet

2025-10-07T22:48:55Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* Background */Removed link

{{Short description|Multirole combat aircraft family by Hawker Siddeley, later British Aerospace}}
{{For|the video game|Harrier Jump Jet (video game)}}

{{Use British English|date=August 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox aircraft
|name = Harrier jump jet
|image = File:Spanish EAV-8B Harrier II+ "Cobra" (27448607244) (cropped).jpg
|caption = A Harrier II in hover with downward jet exhaust
|type = [[Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing|V/STOL]] [[Attack aircraft|strike aircraft]]
|manufacturer = [[Hawker Siddeley]] [[British Aerospace]] / [[McDonnell Douglas]] [[Boeing]] / [[BAE Systems]]
|designer =
|first_flight = 28 December 1967
|introduction = 1969
|national_origin = United Kingdom
|retired =
|status = In service
|primary_user = [[United States Marine Corps]] 
|more_users = [[Royal Air Force]] (retired) [[Spanish Navy]] [[Italian Navy]]
|produced = 1967–2003
|number_built =
|developed_from = [[Hawker Siddeley P.1127]]
|variants = [[Hawker Siddeley Harrier]] [[British Aerospace Sea Harrier]] [[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II]] [[British Aerospace Harrier II]]
}}

The '''Harrier''', informally referred to as the '''Harrier jump jet''', is a family of jet-powered [[attack aircraft]] capable of [[vertical/short takeoff and landing]] operations (V/STOL). Named after [[Harrier (bird)|the bird of prey]],<ref>{{Cite web|author=Searle, Adrian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/jun/28/tate-britain-fiona-banner1|title=Fiona Banner's toys for boys are a turn-on at Tate Britain|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=29 June 2010|access-date=21 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022100907/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/jun/28/tate-britain-fiona-banner1|archive-date=22 October 2013|quote=the Harrier is in any case named after a bird of prey.}}</ref> it was originally developed by British manufacturer [[Hawker Siddeley]] in the 1960s. The Harrier emerged as the only truly successful V/STOL design of the many attempted during that era. It was conceived to operate from improvised bases, such as car parks or forest clearings, without requiring large and vulnerable [[air base]]s. Later, the design was adapted for use from [[aircraft carrier]]s.

There are two generations and four main variants of the Harrier family, developed by both UK and US manufacturers:
{{Tree list}}
* [[Hawker Siddeley Harrier]] (first generation)
** [[British Aerospace Sea Harrier]]
* [[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II]] (second generation)
** {{Tree list/final branch}} [[British Aerospace Harrier II]]
{{Tree list/end}}

The Hawker Siddeley Harrier is the first generation-version and is also known as the AV-8A or AV-8C Harrier; it was used by multiple air forces, including the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) and the [[United States Marine Corps]] (USMC). The Sea Harrier is a [[naval aviation|naval]] strike/air defence fighter derived from the Hawker Siddeley Harrier; it was operated by both the [[Royal Navy]] and the [[Indian Navy]]. During the 1980s, a second generation Harrier emerged, manufactured in the United States as the AV-8B and in Britain as the British Aerospace Harrier II respectively. By the start of the 21st century, the majority of the first generation Harriers had been withdrawn, many operators having chosen to procure the second generation as a replacement. In the long term, several operators have announced their intention to supplement or replace their Harrier fleets with the [[STOVL]] variant of the [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35 Lightning II]], designated as the F-35B.

==Development==
===Background===
Throughout the 1950s, particularly in the years following the [[Korean War]], a number of aircraft companies in both Europe and America separately decided to investigate the prospective capabilities and viability of [[VTOL|vertical take-off and landing]] (VTOL) aircraft, which would eliminate the requirement for vulnerable runways by taking off and landing vertically as opposed to the conventional horizontal approach.<ref name= "mason 3">Mason 1967, p. 3.</ref> In addition to military applications, the prospect of applying such technology to commercial airliners was also viewed with considerable interest by the mid-1950s, thus the value of developing viable vertical take-off systems was judged to be substantial. However, during this era, few companies envisioned that a VTOL aircraft could also be compatible with the characteristics of high performance military aircraft.<ref name= "mason 3"/>

[[File:Hawker P.1127 ‘XP831’ (19253036156).jpg|thumb|Underside view of the first prototype P.1127. The rotating jet nozzles were a key design element of its VTOL capability]]
During 1957, following an approach by the British aero engine manufacturer [[Bristol Engine Company]], who were designing an innovative [[vectored thrust]] engine, British aviation conglomerate [[Hawker Aircraft]] developed their design for an aeroplane that could meet an existing [[NATO]] specification calling for a ''"Light Tactical Support Fighter"''.<ref name= "mason 3"/> Bristol's projected vectored thrust engine, which received the name ''Pegasus'',<ref group= "N">The name "[[Pegasus]]" for the engine was in keeping with Bristol's tradition of naming engines after figures from [[classical mythology]].</ref> harnessed rotatable "cold" jets which were positioned on either side of the [[Gas turbine engine compressors|compressor]] along with a "hot" jet which was directed via a conventional central tailpipe; this concept had originated from Michel Wibault, a French aviation consultant. Throughout much of the early development work, there was no financial support for the project from [[HM Treasury]]; however, support for the engine development portion of the effort was sourced via NATO's Mutual Weapon Development Program (MWDP).<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1965/1965%20-%202487.html |title=VTOL Aircraft 1965 |work=Flight |date=20 May 1965 |pages=769–770 |number=2932 |volume=87 |first=James |last=Hay Stevens}}</ref><ref name= "mason 3">Mason 1967, p. 3.</ref><ref name= Jefford_21-22>Jefford 2006, pp. 21–22.</ref>

Senior project engineer [[Ralph Hooper]] at Hawker promptly set about establishing an initial layout for a theoretical aircraft to take advantage of the Pegasus engine, using data provided by Bristol.<ref name= "mason 3"/> During March 1959, the newly merged [[Hawker Siddeley]] decided to privately fund a pair of prototypes of the design, which had received the internal company designation of [[Hawker Siddeley P.1127|P.1127]], to demonstrate the design's capabilities.<ref>Spick and Gunston 2000, p. 358.</ref> During the 1960s, the P.1127 attracted the attention of the RAF; this would eventually result in the development and issuing of Requirement ASR 384, which sought a V/STOL aircraft for ground attack operations.<ref name= Jefford_13>Jefford 2006, p. 13.</ref> During late 1965, the RAF placed an order for six pre-production ''P.1127 (RAF)'' aircraft.<ref name= Jenkins_p21>Jenkins 1998, p. 21.</ref>

===Requirements and emergence===
{{Main|Hawker Siddeley P.1127|Hawker Siddeley P.1154}}
[[File:Hawker Siddeley XV-6A Kestrel USAF.jpg|thumb|Hawker Siddeley XV-6A Kestrel in later USAF markings|alt=An aircraft landed on a runway]]
Around the same time as the RAF's interest in the concept, NATO proceeded to develop their own specification, [[NBMR-3]], which called for a [[vertical takeoff and landing]] (VTOL) aircraft; specific requirements included the expectation for the performance of such an aircraft to be equivalent to the conventional [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II]] fighter. Specifications called for a supersonic V/STOL strike fighter with a [[combat radius]] of {{Convert|250|nmi|km|order=flip}}, a cruise speed of Mach 0.92, and a dash speed of Mach 1.5.<ref name= "wood 215">Wood 1975, p. 215.</ref> During the early 1960s, Hawker commenced work upon developing a supersonic version of the P.1127, designated the ''P.1150'', culminating in the abortive [[Hawker Siddeley P.1154|Hawker P.1154]]. NBMR.3 also attracted ten other contenders, among which was P.1154's principal competitor, the [[Dassault Mirage IIIV]]. The P.1154 was ultimately selected to meet NBMR-3; however, this did not lead to orders being placed.<ref name= "wood 216">Wood 1975, p. 216.</ref>

On 6 December 1961, prior to the design being submitted to NATO, it was decided that the P.1154 would be developed with the requirements for use by both the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) and [[Royal Navy]] (RN).<ref name=buttler_118-119>Buttler 2000, pp. 118–119.</ref> Following the cancellation of the NBMR-3 requirement, HSA focused all its attention on the British joint requirement.<ref name= "wood 216">Wood 1975, p. 216.</ref> Accordingly, development of the type continued for some time; however, by October 1963, the Ministry of Aviation was concerned with the project's progress, and noted that the effort to combine a strike aircraft and a fighter in a single aircraft, and trying to fit that same airframe to both of the services, was "unsound".<ref name=buttler_120>Buttler 2000, p. 120.</ref> On 2 February 1965, work on the P.1154 was cancelled by the new British government on grounds of cost at the point of prototype construction.<ref name=buttler_121>Buttler 2000, p. 121.</ref>

Irrespective of work on the P.1154 programme, development had continued on the subsonic P.1127 evaluation aircraft.<ref name= Jenkins_p21/> A total of nine aircraft, known as the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel, was ordered and manufactured for testing.<ref name= "mason 7">Mason 1967, p. 7.</ref> During 1964, the first of these had commenced flight operations; the Kestrel was assessed by the multinational "Tri-partite Evaluation Squadron", which consisted of British, US and German pilots, to determine how VTOL aircraft could be operated; the evaluations were finalised in November 1965.<ref>Spick and Gunston 2000, p. 362.</ref> During 1966, following the cancellation of the P.1154, the RAF opted to proceed with ordering a modified derivative of the P.1127/Kestrel for service, which was designated the Harrier GR.1.<ref name= Jenkins_p21>Jenkins 1998, p. 21.</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1966/1966%20-%201559.html "VTOL Aircraft 1966".] ''Flight International'', 26 May 1966. p. 884.</ref>

===First-generation Harriers===
{{Main|Hawker Siddeley Harrier|British Aerospace Sea Harrier}}
{{multiple image
|align = right
|direction = horizontal
|total_width = 400
|image1 = DN-ST-87-06219.JPEG
|width1 = 1900 |height1 = 1100
|alt1 =
|caption1 = Hawker Siddeley Harrier, in Spanish service
|image2 = SeaHarrier (cropped).jpg
|width2 = 1600 |height2 = 1000
|alt2 =
|caption2 = British Aerospace Sea Harrier, in Royal Navy service
|footer =
}}
The ''[[Hawker Siddeley Harrier]] GR.1/GR.3'' and the ''AV-8A Harrier'' were the first generation of the Harrier series, the first operational close-support and reconnaissance [[attack aircraft]] with vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) capabilities. These were developed directly from the Hawker P.1127 prototype and the Kestrel evaluation aircraft. On 18 April 1969, the Harrier GR.1 officially entered service with the RAF when the Harrier Conversion Unit at [[RAF Wittering]] received its first aircraft.<ref name="evans p21-22">Evans 1998, pp. 21–22.</ref> The [[United States Marine Corps]] (USMC) also chose to procure the type, receiving 102 AV-8A and 8 TAV-8A Harriers between 1971 and 1976.<ref name= Nordeen_31>Nordeen 2006, p. 31.</ref>

The [[British Aerospace Sea Harrier]] is a naval V/STOL jet fighter, reconnaissance and attack aircraft; it was a navalised development of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier. The first version entered service with the [[Royal Navy]]'s [[Fleet Air Arm]] in April 1980 as the ''Sea Harrier FRS.1'', and was informally known as the ''Shar''.<ref name="Grove">Grove 1987, pp. 319–320.</ref> Sea Harriers played a high-profile role in the [[Falklands War]] of 1982, flying from the aircraft carriers [[HMS Invincible (R05)|HMS ''Invincible'']] and [[HMS Hermes (R12)|HMS ''Hermes'']].<ref name= 'max.af.mil'>{{cite journal |url= http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1984/mar-apr/duffner.html |title= Conflict in the South Atlantic: the impact of air power |first= Robert W. |last= Duffner |journal= Air University Review |location= Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama |publisher= Department of the Air Force |date= March–April 1984 |issn= 0002-2594 |access-date= 18 November 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100110214537/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1984/mar-apr/duffner.html |archive-date= 10 January 2010 |url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=T3MhAAAAIBAJ&pg=3796,8465827&dq=sea+harrier&hl=en |title= Sea Harrier changes face of air warfare |newspaper=Tri City Herald |first= Patrick J |last= Sloyan |date= 23 May 1982}}{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref> Wartime experiences led to the production of an improved model in the form of the upgraded ''Sea Harrier FA2''; this version entered operational service on 2 April 1993.<ref name='janesx'>{{cite journal|url=http://defense-archive.teldan.com/Article/First-Flight-for-Sea-Harrier-FRS.aspx?sID=277683 |title=First Flight for Sea Harrier FRS2 |publisher=Janes Defense Weekly |volume=10 |issue=13 |page=767 |date=1 November 1988}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name ='retiregraph'>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1389438/Sea-Harrier-cuts-leave-the-fleet-exposed-The-decision-to-retire-the-decisive-weapon-of-the-Falklands-conflict-means-the-Navy-will-have-to-rely-on-America-for-air-support.-David-Graves-reports.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1389438/Sea-Harrier-cuts-leave-the-fleet-exposed-The-decision-to-retire-the-decisive-weapon-of-the-Falklands-conflict-means-the-Navy-will-have-to-rely-on-America-for-air-support.-David-Graves-reports.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title= Sea Harrier cuts leave the fleet exposed The decision to retire the decisive weapon of the Falklands conflict means the Navy will have to rely on America for air support |first= David |last= Graves |work=The Telegraph |date= 2 April 2002 |access-date=1 January 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The Sea Harrier was also procured by the [[Indian Navy]], where the first Indian Sea Harriers entered squadron service during December 1983.<ref name ='Hir 276.'>Hiranandani 2000, p. 276.</ref>

===Second-generation Harriers===
{{Main|McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II|British Aerospace Harrier II}}
{{multiple image
|align = right
|direction = horizontal
|total_width = 400
|image1 = Harrier AV-8B banking left, revealing under-fuselage section.jpg
|width1 = 1570 |height1 = 1100
|alt1 =
|caption1 = McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II, in United States Marine Corps service
|image2 = British Aerospace Harrier GR5, UK - Air Force AN0964385.jpg
|width2 = 1600 |height2 = 1000
|alt2 =
|caption2 = British Aerospace Harrier II, in Royal Air Force service
|footer =
}}

As early as 1973, Hawker Siddeley and American aviation manufacturer McDonnell Douglas were jointly working on development of a more capable version of the Harrier. Early efforts concentrated on the development of an improved [[Rolls-Royce Pegasus|Pegasus engine]], designated the ''Pegasus 15'', which was being tested by [[Bristol Siddeley]].<ref name=Wilson_p26>Wilson 2000, p. 26.</ref> During August 1981, the program received a boost when [[British Aerospace]] (BAe) and McDonnell Douglas signed a [[Memorandum of Understanding]] (MoU), marking the UK's re-entry into the program.<ref name=Wilson_p26/> The Harrier was extensively redeveloped by McDonnell Douglas, and later joined by British Aerospace (now parts of [[Boeing]] and [[BAE Systems]], respectively), leading to the family of second-generation V/STOL jet [[multi-role aircraft]]. The American designation for this was the ''[[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II|AV-8B Harrier II]]''.<ref>Nordeen, Lon O. ''Harrier II, Validating V/STOL''. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2006. {{ISBN|1-59114-536-8}}.</ref>

On 12 December 1983, the first production AV-8B was delivered to the USMC. The AV-8B is primarily used for attack or multi-role tasks, typically operated from small [[aircraft carrier]]s.<ref name=Nordeen_p59>Nordeen 2006, p. 59.</ref><ref>Jenkins 1998, p. 76.</ref> The RAF also chose to procure the second generation of the British Aerospace-built (with McDonnell Douglas as subcontractor) [[British Aerospace Harrier II|Harrier II GR5/GR7/GR9]], which entered service in the mid-1980s.<ref name="jeff 81-82">Jefford et al. 2006, pp. 81–82.</ref> This model was also operated by several other [[NATO]] countries, including Spain and Italy. In December 1989, the first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier II was declared operational.<ref name="Nordeen 68">Nordeen 2006, p. 68.</ref> The British Harrier II was used by the RAF and later by the [[Royal Navy]] up to 2010, at which point the Harrier II and the [[Joint Force Harrier]] operational unit was disbanded as a cost-saving measure.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-12003381 |title=Last trip for one of Britain's iconic aircraft |work=BBC News |date=15 December 2010 |access-date=15 December 2010}}</ref><ref>Wyatt, Caroline. [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-11997084 "Struggle at the top over decision to scrap UK Harriers."] ''BBC News'', 15 December 2010.</ref>

Between 1969 and 2003, 824 Harriers of all types were delivered. While the manufacture of new Harriers concluded in 1997, the last remanufactured aircraft (Harrier II Plus configuration) was delivered in December 2003, ending the Harrier production line.<ref>[http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/harrier/ "Harrier Projects"]. airforce-technology.com. Retrieved: 21 July 2011.</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=domain on WP:BLACKLIST|date=June 2016}}

==Operation==
[[File:Aircraft engine RR Pegasus cut-out RH.jpg|thumb|Rolls-Royce Pegasus engine on display; sections have been cut out to provide an internal view|alt=Aircraft engine, partially uncovered as an exhibit]]
[[File:Pegasus-engine-diagram.svg|thumb|alt=Nozzle locations|Locations of the four nozzles at the sides of the Pegasus engine]]

The Harrier jump jet, though capable of taking off vertically, can do so only at less than its maximum loaded weight. In most cases a [[STOL|short take off]] is needed to lift the required amount of fuel and weapons needed for a training sortie/mission, using forward speed to supplement the jet lift with aerodynamic lift. A short takeoff also uses less fuel than a [[VTOL|vertical take off]]. On some aircraft carriers, a [[Ski-jump (aviation)|ski-jump ramp]] is used at the bow of the carrier to help the aircraft become airborne. Landings are not usually done in a conventional manner because the range of speeds at which this is advisable is narrow due to the relatively vulnerable outrigger undercarriage. Operationally, a near-vertical landing with some forward speed is preferred; this technique is called [[shipborne rolling vertical landing]] (SRVL). Rotating the vectored thrust nozzles to some angle other than rearwards during normal flight (to a maximum of 8-degree forward of vertical, i.e. 98 deg.) is called [[vectoring in forward flight]], or "VIFFing". This is a [[dog fight|dog-fighting]] tactic, allowing for more sudden braking and higher turn rates. Braking could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier, a technique formally developed by the USMC for the Harrier in the early 1970s.<ref name=Nordeen_33-4>Nordeen 2006, pp. 33–34.</ref><ref name=spick_382>Spick 2000, pp. 382–383.</ref> This technique was much discussed in the media before the [[Falklands War]] in 1982, but ultimately not used by British pilots in that conflict.<ref>"Air War South Atlantic" by Jeffrey Ethel and Alfred Price published in 1983.</ref> However, the ability to rotate the nozzles slightly forwards did allow the aircraft to fly slowly backwards in the hover, which was widely used in British and American airshows.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/bKQlxCbaRQ4 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200615044004/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bKQlxCbaRQ4&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bKQlxCbaRQ4 |title = British Aerospace Harrier flying backwards |website=[[YouTube]]|date = 21 July 2008 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The wind direction is critical during VTOL manoeuvres because unless it enters the intake from straight ahead it will push the nose sideways as it turns to enter the intake (known as intake momentum drag). If not corrected immediately, the aircraft will roll out of control. The pilot has a wind vane in front of the windscreen to help keep pointing into the wind.<ref>A View From The Hover My Life In Aviation, John Farley2008, {{ISBN|978 0 95327 52 5 0}}, p.81</ref> The procedure for vertical takeoff involves facing the aircraft into the wind. The swivelling nozzles are pointed vertically downwards (thrust vector 90°) and the throttle is pushed to its maximum stop, at which point the aircraft leaves the ground. The throttle is adjusted until hovering is achieved at the desired altitude.<ref name= Brown_83>Brown 1970, p. 83.</ref> The short-takeoff procedure involves proceeding with a normal takeoff and then rotating the nozzles partially downwards (a thrust vector less than 90°) at a speed below the normal takeoff speed; usually this is done at about {{convert|65|kn|km/h}}. For a shorter takeoff run the thrust vector is greater for more jet lift.<ref name= Jefford_42/> The reaction control system uses thrusters at the aircraft extremities, nose, tail and wingtips. Thrust from the engine can be temporarily syphoned to control the aircraft's pitch, roll and yaw before it is going fast enough for the elevators, rudder and ailerons to become effective.<ref>[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Theories_of_Flight/control/TH28G9.htm "Hawker Harrier reaction control system"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014143000/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Theories_of_Flight/control/TH28G9.htm |date=14 October 2011}} ''U.S. Centennial of Flight'', 2003. Retrieved 28 August 2011.</ref>

The Harrier has been described by pilots as "unforgiving" to fly.<ref>Nordeen 2006, p. 60.</ref> The aircraft is capable of forward flight (where it behaves like a fixed-wing aircraft above its [[Stall (flight)|stall]] speed) and [[VTOL]] (where the conventional [[lift (force)|lift]] and [[Flight control surfaces|control surfaces]] are ineffective) along with [[STOL]]. Accelerating and decelerating transitions between hovering and conventional flight required considerable skill and concentration on the part of the pilot, especially in crosswind conditions.<ref name="Merriman p.178,179">Properly To Test, Book One "The Early Years",Reminiscences Of Flying At The Aeroplane And Armament Experimental Establishment Boscombe Down, Bernard Noble 2003, {{ISBN|0 9544507 1 X}}, Chapter 21 Merriman, p.178,179</ref> Pilots for the combined UK/US/Germany trials on the Kestrel were first given several hours of helicopter tuition.{{refn|In preparation for flying the Kestrel, pilots of the Tripartite Evaluation Squadron were provided with several hours of helicopter piloting tuition, all of whom agreed on the effort being highly worthwhile preparation.<ref name= Jefford_41/>|group=N}}<ref name= Jefford_41>Jefford 2006, p. 41.</ref> [[Royal Air Force]] pilots destined for Harrier squadrons were usually selected from those with single-seat fast-jet experience. On two occasions the [[Royal Air Force]] explored whether experienced helicopter pilots, with their ability to hover and transition to forward flight, would be a better source for Harrier squadrons. In both cases the pilots were completely out of their depth with conventional flight, navigation, orientation and weapons delivery at the high speeds of a fast jet.<ref name="Merriman p.178,179"/> With the introduction of two-seat Harriers, less experienced pilots were introduced. The [[United States Marine Corps]] also started with very experienced pilots, who were mostly test pilots.<ref>Flight International Magazine, "The Royal Air Force record", 27 August 1977, p.588,589</ref> In addition to normal flight controls, the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectoring nozzles. Pilots were impressed that to control the aircraft's vertical flight required only a single lever added in the cockpit.<ref name= Jefford_42>Jefford 2006, p. 42.</ref> For horizontal flight, the nozzles are directed rearwards by shifting the lever to the forward position; for short or vertical takeoffs and landings, the lever is pulled back to point the nozzles downward.<ref>Markman and Holder 2000, pp. 74–77.</ref><ref name=Jenkins_25>Jenkins 1998, p. 25.</ref>

===Replacement===
During 2010, it was announced that the RAF and RN would retire their remaining Harriers by 2011,<ref name="sdsr2010">[http://www.direct.gov.uk/prod_consum_dg/groups/dg_digitalassets/@dg/@en/documents/digitalasset/dg_191634.pdf "Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence and Security Review"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222022127/http://www.direct.gov.uk/prod_consum_dg/groups/dg_digitalassets/%40dg/%40en/documents/digitalasset/dg_191634.pdf |date=22 December 2010}}. ''HM Government'', 19 October 2010. Retrieved: 19 October 2010.</ref> and in December 2010 the RAF's Harrier GR9s made their last operational flights.<ref name="BBC News">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-11996936 "Harrier jump jets make final flight from RAF Cottesmore"]. BBC News,</ref> In June 2011, the MoD denied press reports that the aircraft were to be sold to the [[US Marine Corps]] for spares to support their AV-8B fleet.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/8576541/Harrier-jump-jets-sold-for-peanuts.html "Harrier jump-jets sold 'for peanuts'{{-"}}]. ''The Telegraph'', 15 June 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.defencemanagement.com/news_story.asp?id=16612 "MoD denies sale of Harriers to US"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701030547/http://www.defencemanagement.com/news_story.asp?id=16612 |date=1 July 2011}}. ''DMJ'', 15 June 2011.</ref> However, at the end of November 2011, Defence Minister [[Peter Luff]] announced the sale of the final 72 Harriers to the [[US Marine Corps]], with the aircraft to be used as sources of spare parts for the Marine Corps's airworthy fleet.<ref name="flight fatigue">{{cite web |last=Majumdar |first=Dave |title=USMC hopes new method for tracking fatigue life will help extend Harrier to 2030 |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/usmc-hopes-new-method-for-tracking-fatigue-life-will-help-extend-harrier-to-2030-372797/ |work=Flightglobal |access-date=12 August 2012 |date=9 June 2012}}</ref>

{{As of|2024|05|06}}, the [[STOVL]] variant of the [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35 Lightning II]], designated the F-35B, has replaced the [[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II|AV-8B Harrier II]] in service with the [[US Marine Corps]].<ref name="harrier_org_uk">[http://www.harrier.org.uk/history/history_production.htm "Harrier Production"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224191029/http://www.harrier.org.uk/history/history_production.htm |date=24 December 2017}}. Harrier.org.uk. Retrieved: 21 July 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.lockheedmartin.com/data/assets/aeronautics/mediacenter/mediakits/f35/F-35FastFacts01142010.pdf "F-35 Lightning II Program Update & Fast Facts"]{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}. lockheedmartin.com. Retrieved: 26 August 2010.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Marine Attack Squadron 214 Transitions to the F-35B |url=https://www.marines.mil/News/News-Display/Article/2980238/marine-attack-squadron-214-transitions-to-the-f-35b/ |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=United States Marine Corps Flagship |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[RAF]] and [[Royal Navy]] introduced the F-35B in June 2018 with their first F-35 unit, [[617 Squadron]].<ref>{{cite news |title=''Dambusters To Be Next Lightning Ii Squadron'' |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/news/archive/dambusters-to-be-next-lightning-ii-squadron-18072013 |date=18 July 2013 |newspaper=RAF MOD |access-date=19 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715012639/http://www.raf.mod.uk/news/archive/dambusters-to-be-next-lightning-ii-squadron-18072013 |archive-date=15 July 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Jennings |first=Gareth |title=UK orders first operational F-35 combat aircraft|url=http://www.janes.com/article/46164/uk-orders-first-operational-f-35-combat-aircraft |access-date=23 November 2014 |newspaper=Janes Defence |date=18 June 2015}}</ref><ref>Chuter, Andrew. [https://archive.today/20120730111759/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20120510/DEFREG01/305100002/It-8217-s-Official-U-K-Switch-Back-STOVL-F-35 "It’s Official: U.K. To Switch Back to STOVL F-35"]. Defense News, 10 May 2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Lockheed |title=United Kingdom |url=https://www.f35.com/f35/global-enterprise/united-kingdom.html |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=www.f35.com |language=en}}</ref>

As of March 2021, Italian Navy AV-8Bs had been replaced by F-35Bs, on the Italian aircraft carrier ''Cavour''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Italy |url=https://www.f35.com/f35/global-enterprise/italy.html |access-date=2023-07-18 |author=Lockheed Martin |website= f35.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=Nativi, Andy |author2=Menon, Jay |author3=Sweetman, Bill |title=Navies Worldwide Invest In Sea-Based Airpower |work=[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]] |publisher=Penton Media |location=New York |date=5 April 2012 |issn=0005-2175}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gain |first=Nathan |date=2021-03-26 |title=Italian Navy's Cavour aircraft carrier certified for F-35B operation |url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/03/italian-navys-cavour-aircraft-carrier-certified-for-f-35b-operation/ |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=Naval News |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2016, the [[Indian Navy]] retired the last of their remaining 11 Sea Harriers, which had been operating from {{INS|Viraat}} in favour of the conventional [[Mikoyan MiG-29K]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Raghuvanshi|first1=Vivek|title=Indian Navy Retires Sea Harriers|url=http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/naval/naval-aviation/2016/03/21/indian-navy-retires-sea-harriers/82070296/|access-date=21 May 2017|work=Defense News|date=21 March 2016}}</ref>

Starting in 2007, Spain was looking to replace its Harrier IIs – with the likely option being the F-35B.<ref>{{cite news |first= Jim |last= Wolf |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/fighter-lockheed-buyers-idUKN2735708720090227 |title= Lockheed says interest growing in F-35 fighter |work=Reuters |date= 27 February 2009 |access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704203809/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2009/02/27/fighter-lockheed-buyers-idUKN2735708720090227|archive-date=4 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hoyle |first=Craig |title=Farnborough: Face the Facts with Steve O'Bryan |work=[[Flightglobal]] |date=20 July 2010 |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/farnborough-face-the-facts-with-steve-obryan-344745/ |access-date=31 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308182547/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/farnborough-face-the-facts-with-steve-obryan-344745/|archive-date=8 March 2012}}</ref> However, in May 2014, the Spanish government announced that it had decided to extend the aircraft's service life to beyond 2025 due to a lack of funds for a replacement aircraft.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ing|first=David|title=Spain to extend AV-8B Harrier service life|journal=Jane's Defence Weekly|volume=51|issue=27|date=28 May 2014|publisher=Jane's Information Group|location=Surrey, UK|issn=0265-3818}}</ref>

==Variants==
{{Main|List of Harrier variants}}

; Hawker P.1127
: (1960)
; Kestrel FGA.1
: (1964)
; Harrier GR.1/1A/3/3A
: (from 1966)
; Harrier T.2/2A/4/4A/8/52/60
: (from 1970)
; AV-8A/C/S Harrier Mk.50/53/55/Matador
; TAV-8A/S Harrier Mk.54/Matador
; Sea Harrier FRS.1/FRS.51/F(A).2
: (from 1978)
; AV-8B Harrier II/EAV-8B Matador II/AV-8B Harrier II Night Attack/AV-8B Harrier II Plus
: (from 1983)
; TAV-8B Harrier II/ETAV-8B Matador II/
; Harrier GR.5/5A/7/7A/9/9A
: (from 1985)
; Harrier T.10/12

<gallery widths="200" heights="150">
File:Hawker P. 1127 - NASA.jpg|The Hawker P.1127, predecessor to the Harrier
File:Harrierxv752.jpg|An RAF Harrier GR3 on display at Bletchley Park, England
File:SeaHarriers FA2 in Persian Gulf.jpg|Royal Navy [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier FA2s]] of [[801 Naval Air Squadron]] on the deck of [[HMS Illustrious (R06)|HMS ''Illustrious'']] in the Persian Gulf
File:Harrier AV-8B.jpg|US Marine Corps AV-8B Harrier
File:AV-8B Harrier landing aboard Principe de Asturias (R11).jpg|AV-8B Harrier landing aboard ''Principe de Asturias''
File:Bae harrier gr9 zg502 takeoff arp.jpg|[[RAF]] Harrier GR9 arrives at [[RIAT]] 2008
</gallery>

==Operators==
{{Main|List of Harrier operators}}
[[File:Harrier operators.png|thumb|Operators of the Harrier (all variants)]]
[[File:DN-ST-87-06219.JPEG|thumb|A Spanish Navy AV-8S Matador aircraft|alt=A parked Harrier]]
[[File:AV8A-159240-0247.jpg|thumb|United States Marine Corps AV-8A of [[VMA-231]] in 1980|alt=several Harriers stored on board a ship]]
{{Update|section|date=April 2021}}

;{{IND}}
*[[Indian Navy]] (former)<ref>[http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/naval/naval-aviation/2016/03/21/indian-navy-retires-sea-harriers/82070296/ Indian Navy Retires Sea Harriers] 21 March 2016. Accessed 3 April 2016.</ref>
;{{ITA}}
*[[Italian Navy]] (former)
;{{ESP}}
*[[Spanish Navy]]
;{{THA}}
*[[Royal Thai Navy]] (former)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pacificwingsmagazine.com/2011/03/08/end-of-a-legend%E2%80%94harrier-farewell/ |title=Pacific Wings Magazine | Leading the Way in Aviation Coverage | Aviat… |access-date=26 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714183820/http://pacificwingsmagazine.com/2011/03/08/end-of-a-legend%E2%80%94harrier-farewell/ |archive-date=14 July 2012 }}</ref>
;{{UK}}
*[[Royal Air Force]] (former)
*[[Royal Navy]] (former)
;{{USA}}
*[[United States Marine Corps]]

==Specifications==
An unusual feature of the Harrier family of aircraft is their use of two types of [[flight control]] to provide pitch, roll and yaw control: conventional [[Flight control surfaces|control surfaces]] for wingborne flight, and a system of reaction control valves directing jets of [[bleed air]] from the high-pressure compressor of the engine out through the extremities of the nose, tail, and at the wingtips during [[vectored thrust]]–borne flight and hover modes. The two systems are fully interlinked but air is not supplied to the reaction control valves during conventional wingborne flight.<ref>"[http://www.harrier.org.uk/technical/Basic_TechNet.htm Technical] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416065615/http://harrier.org.uk/technical/Basic_TechNet.htm |date=16 April 2012 }}" page on harrier.org.uk website, viewed 24 November 2013</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! !! Kestrel FGA.1 !! Harrier GR3/AV-8A !! Sea Harrier FA2 !! Harrier GR9 !! AV-8B+ Harrier
|-
!Crew
| colspan="5" | One (Two for trainer versions)
|-
!Length
| {{convert|42|ft|6|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on|lk=on}}|| {{convert|47|ft|2|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|46|ft|6|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|46|ft|4|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|47|ft|8|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}
|-
!Wingspan
| {{convert|22|ft|11|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|25|ft|3|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|25|ft|3|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|30|ft|4|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|30|ft|4|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}
|-
!Height
| {{convert|10|ft|9|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|11|ft|4|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|12|ft|4|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|11|ft|8|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|11|ft|8|in|m||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}
|-
!Empty weight
| {{convert|10000|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on|lk=on}}|| {{convert|12200|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|14052|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|12500|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}?|| {{convert|13968|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}
|-
!Maximum take-off weight (short takeoff)
| {{convert|17000|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|26000|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|26200|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|31000|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|31000|lb|kg||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}
|-
!Max speed
| {{convert|545|mph|km/h|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|731|mph|km/h|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|735|mph|km/h|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|662|mph|km/h|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|662|mph|km/h|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}
|-
!Combat radius
| || {{convert|200|nmi|km||sigfig=3|abbr=on}} || || {{convert|300|nmi|km||sigfig=3|abbr=on}} || {{convert|300|nmi|km||sigfig=3|abbr=on}}
|-
!Engine
| [[Rolls-Royce Pegasus|Pegasus 6]] || Pegasus 11 Mk 101 || Pegasus 11 Mk 106 || Pegasus 11 Mk 107 || Pegasus 11 Mk 105
|-
!Thrust
| {{convert|15000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on|lk=on}} || {{convert|21800|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|21800|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on}}|| {{convert|24750|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} || {{convert|23500|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on}}
|-
!Radar
| None || None || [[Ferranti Blue Fox|Blue Fox]] / [[Blue Vixen]] || None || [[APG-65 and APG-73|AN/APG-65]]
|}
: Sources: Nordeen<ref>Nordeen 2006, Appendix C.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Aviation|United Kingdom}}
{{aircontent

|see also=
* [[Aircraft in fiction#Harrier family|Aircraft in fiction - Harrier family]]
* [[Leonard v. Pepsico, Inc.]]
* [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II]]
|related=
* [[Hawker Siddeley P.1127|Hawker P.1127/Hawker Siddeley Kestrel]]
* [[Hawker Siddeley P.1154]]
* [[Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
* [[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II]]
* [[British Aerospace Harrier II]]
|similar aircraft=
* [[Bell X-14]]
* [[Hunting H.126]]
* [[Rockwell XFV-12]]
* [[Ryan XV-5 Vertifan]]
* [[Short SC.1]]
* [[Yakovlev Yak-36]]
* [[Yakovlev Yak-38]]
|lists=
* [[List of VTOL aircraft]]
* [[List of aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm]]
* [[List of attack aircraft]]
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
* [[List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force]]
* [[List of Harrier family losses]]
* [[List of active United States military aircraft]]
* [[List of active United Kingdom military aircraft]]
}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=N}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* Brown, Kevin. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qNgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA80 "The Plane That Makes Airfields Obsolete"]. ''Popular Mechanics'', 133(6), June 1970, pp. 80–83.
* Buttler, Tony. ''British Secret Projects: Jet Fighters Since 1950''. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85780-095-8}}.
* {{cite book |last= Hiranandani |first= G.M. |title= Transition to Triumph: History of the Indian Navy, 1965–1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zFyMKROi46kC|location=New Delhi, India |publisher= Lancer Publishers |year= 2000 |isbn =1-897829-72-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Grove |first=Eric J |title=Vanguard to Trident; British Naval Policy since World War II |publisher=The Bodley Head |year=1987 |isbn=0-370-31021-7}}
* Jefford, C.G., ed. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110105084744/http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/documents/Journal%2035A%20-%20Seminar%20-%20the%20RAF%20Harrier%20Story.pdf ''The RAF Harrier Story.''] London: Royal Air Force Historical Society, 2006. {{ISBN|0-9530345-2-6}}.
* Jenkins, Dennis R. ''Boeing/BAe Harrier''. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 1998. {{ISBN|1-58007-014-0}}.
* Markman, Steve and Bill Holder. ''Straight Up: A History of Vertical Flight''. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2000. {{ISBN|0-7643-1204-9}}.
* Mason, Francis K. ''The Hawker P.1127 and Kestrel (Aircraft in Profile 93)''. Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1967.
* {{Cite book |last=Nordeen |first=Lon O. |title=Harrier II, Validating V/STOL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m9aQXZ5rsLYC|location=Annapolis, Maryland |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute|Naval Institute Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=1-59114-536-8}}
* Spick, Mike and Bill Gunston. ''The Great Book of Modern Warplanes''. Osceola, WI: MBI Publishing, 2000. {{ISBN|0-7603-0893-4}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Stewart |title=BAe/McDonnell Douglas Harrier |publisher=Airlife, 2000 |isbn=1-84037-218-4 |year=2000}}
* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Derek |title= Project Cancelled |publisher=Macdonald and Jane's |year=1975 | location=London| isbn=0-356-85109-5}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Eden |editor-first=Paul |title=The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft |date=July 2006 |location=London, UK |publisher=Amber Books, 2004 |isbn=1-904687-84-9 |ref={{harvid |Eden |2004}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bull |first=Stephen |title=Encyclopedia of military technology and innovation |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-57356-557-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gunston |first=Bill and Mike Spick |title=Modern Air Combat: The Aircraft, Tactics and Weapons Employed in Aerial Warfare Today |location=New York |publisher=Crescent Books |year=1983 |isbn=0-517-41265-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/modernaircombata0000guns }}
* {{Cite book |last=Cordesman |first=Anthony H. |title=The Iraq War: strategy, tactics, and military lessons |url=https://archive.org/details/iraqwarstrategyt00cord |url-access=registration |publisher=Centre for Strategic and International Studies |year=2003 |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-89206-432-3 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Epstein |first=David G. |title=Making and Doing Deals: Contracts in Context ''(second edition)'' |location=Newark, New Jersey |publisher=LexisNexis |year=2006 |isbn=0-8205-7044-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Andy |title=BAE / McDonnell Douglas Harrier |year=1998 |publisher=The Crowood Press |location=Ramsbury, UK |isbn=1-86126-105-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Grove |first=Eric |title=The Future of Sea Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qM4OAAAAQAAJ |publisher=Routledge |year=1990 |location=London, UK |isbn=0-415-00482-9 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Robert |title=NATO air power |location=Shrewsbury, UK |publisher=Airlife Publishing |year=1987 |isbn=0-906393-80-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lambert |first=Mark |title=Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1993–94 |publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]] |year=1993 |location=Coulsdon, UK |isbn=0-7106-1066-1}}
* Polmar, Norman, and Dana Bell. ''One Hundred Years of World Military Aircraft''. Annapolis, Maryland, USA: Naval Institute Press, 2003. {{ISBN|1-59114-686-0}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Polmar |first=Norman |title=The Naval Institute guide to the ships and aircraft of the U.S. fleet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MwyTX-iA2wC |location=Annapolis, Maryland |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute|Naval Institute Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=1-59114-685-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=John W. R. |author-link=John W. R. Taylor |title=Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89 |location=Coulsdon, UK |publisher=Jane's Defence Data |year=1988 |isbn=0-7106-0867-5}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ashley |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAZt49uUiuIC&pg=PA56 |title=Jump Jet |journal=[[Popular Science]] |volume=233 |issue=4 |date=October 1988 |pages=56–59, 112, 114 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Karen |title=V/STOL Comes of Age |journal=[[Flight International]] |date=19 July 1986 |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1986/1986%20-%201660.html |pages=23–25 |access-date=22 July 2011 }}
* Bishop, Chris and Chris Chant. ''Aircraft Carriers''. Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA: Zenith Imprint, 2004. {{ISBN|0-7603-2005-5}}.
* Braybrook, Roy. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUjMYkfr-pwC ''Battle for the Falklands: Air Forces''.]{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1982. {{ISBN|0-85045-493-X}}.
* Bull, Stephen. ''Encyclopedia of Military Rechnology and Innovation''. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Publishing, 2004. {{ISBN|1-57356-557-1}}.
* Burr, Lawrence and Peter Bull. ''US Fast Battleships 1938–91: The Iowa Class''. New York, USA: Osprey Publishing, 2010. {{ISBN|1-84603-511-2}}.
* Congress Committee on Appropriations. "Department of Defense Appropriations for 1979: Part 5". Washington D.C., USA: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979.
* Cowan, Charles W. (ed.) ''Flypast 2''. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1972. {{ISBN|0-85383-191-2}}.
* Davies, Peter and Anthony M. Thornborough. ''The Harrier Story''. Annapolis, Maryland, USA: Naval Institute Press, 1997. {{ISBN|978-1-55750-357-2}}.
* Evans, Andy. ''BAe/McDonald Douglas Harrier''. Ramsbury, UK: The Crowood Press, 1998. {{ISBN|1-86126-105-5}}.
* Farley, John, OBE. ''A View From The Hover: My Life In Aviation''. Bath, UK: Seager Publishing/Flyer Books, 2010, first edition 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-9532752-0-5}}.
* Freedman, Lawrence. ''The Official History of the Falklands Campaign. Volume II: War and Diplomacy''. London, UK: Routledge, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-415-41911-6}}.
* Friedman, Norman. ''U.S. Aircraft Carriers: an Illustrated Design History''. Annapolis, Maryland, USA: Naval Institute Press, 1983. {{ISBN|0-87021-739-9}}.
* Gunston, W. T. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1977/1977%20-%200201.html "Pegasus updating prospects".] ''Flight International'', 22 January 1977, pp. 189–191.
* Hannah, Donald. ''Hawker FlyPast Reference Library''. Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK: Key Publishing Ltd., 1982. {{ISBN|0-946219-01-X}}.
* Jackson, Paul. "British Aerospace/McDonnell Douglas Harrier". ''World Air Power Journal'', Volume 6, Summer 1991. pp. 46–105.
* James, Derek N. ''Hawker, an Aircraft Album No. 5''. New York: Arco Publishing Company, 1973. {{ISBN|0-668-02699-5}}. (First published in the UK by Ian Allan in 1972)
* Layman, R D and Stephen McLaughlin. ''The Hybrid Warship''. London: Conway, 1991. {{ISBN|0-85177-555-1}}.
* Mason, Francis K. ''Harrier''. Wellingborough, UK: Patrick Stephens Limited, Third edition, 1986. {{ISBN|0-85059-801-X}}.
* Mason, Francis K. ''Hawker Aircraft since 1920''. London: Putnam, 1991. {{ISBN|0-85177-839-9}}
* Miller, David M. O. and Chris Miller. "Modern Naval Combat". Crescent Books, 1986. {{ISBN|0-517-61350-6}}.
* Moxton, Julian. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1982/1982%20-%202681.html "Supersonic Harrier: One Step Closer".] ''Flight International'', 4 December 1982, pp. 1633–1635.
* Sturtivant, Ray. ''Fleet Air Arm Fixed-Wing Aircraft since 1946. '' Tonbridge, Kent, UK: [[Air-Britain]] (Historians), 2004. {{ISBN|0-85130-283-1}}.
* Sturtivant, Ray. ''RAF Flying Training and Support Units since 1912''. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: [[Air-Britain]] (Historians), 2007. {{ISBN|0-85130-365-X}}.
* Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. ''United States Navy Aircraft since 1911''. Putnam Aeronautical, 1990. {{ISBN|0-87021-792-5}}.
* Vann, Frank. ''Harrier jump jet''. New York, USA: Bdd Promotional Book Co, 1990. {{ISBN|0-7924-5140-6}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Markman |first=Steve and Bill Holder |chapter=MAC-DAC/BAe AV-8 Harrier Vectored Thrust VTOL |title=Straight Up: A History of Vertical Flight |location=Atglen, Pennsylvania |publisher=Schiffer Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=0-7643-1204-9}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1962/1962%20-%202326.html ''The P.1127 Analysed''] – a 1962 ''[[Flight International]]'' article on the Hawker P.1127
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1963/1963%20-%200628.html ''P.1127 Development''] – a 1963 ''Flight International'' article on the development of the Hawker P.1127
* [http://www.combataircraft.com/aircraft/fseaharrier.aspx British Aerospace Sea Harrier]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081121094050/http://www.airsceneuk.org.uk/hangar/2003/shars/shars.htm Sea Harrier Still Alive and Kicking (archive article)]
* [http://www.harrier.org.uk/ Harrier history website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402071911/http://harrier.org.uk/welcome/index.htm |date=2 April 2009 }}
* [http://www.naval-history.net/F63braircraftlost.htm Harriers lost in the Falklands]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828062011/http://www.wingweb.co.uk/aircraft/Harrier_VTOL_Jump-Jet_part1.html Harrier development & service, 4 part series]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120215085053/http://www.photoboxgallery.com/MaritimeAviationNews Photographs of Harrier G R Mk 7 deployed aboard HMS Illustrious]
* [http://www.rtptv.homestead.com/rtpharrier.html RTP-TV AeroSpace Show: Video of Harrier Hovering]
* [http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/av8b/index.htm AV-8B Plus product page] at Boeing.com
* [http://www.navair.navy.mil/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.display&key=40EAA7E2-1C25-4857-A429-E2D7D16ED62B AV-8B Harrier II fact sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204032951/http://www.navair.navy.mil/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.display&key=40EAA7E2-1C25-4857-A429-E2D7D16ED62B |date=4 December 2011}} and [https://archive.today/20121205011112/http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/av8.htm AV-8B Harrier II history page] at Navy.mil
* [http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/attack/av8/ McDonnell Douglas/British Aerospace AV-8B Harrier II Attack Fighter page] on Aerospaceweb.org
* [http://www.virtualusmcmuseum.com/3-D_Models2.asp?pc_strURL=Tower_3&strModel=VR_Harrier 3D view of Harrier AV-8B] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314093326/http://www.virtualusmcmuseum.com/3-D_Models2.asp?pc_strURL=Tower_3&strModel=VR_Harrier |date=14 March 2012}} at the National Museum of the Marines Corps site
* Greg Goebel {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060925134615/http://www.vectorsite.net/avav8_3.html Harriers]}}
* [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?distict_entry=true&aircraft_genericsearch=British%20Aerospace%20Harrier Photos of this aircraft on Airliners.net]
* [http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2005/03/av8b-harrier-finding-success-in-iraq/index.php Defense Industry Daily: AV-8B Harrier finding Success in Iraq (30 March 2005)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224042605/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2005/03/av8b-harrier-finding-success-in-iraq/index.php |date=24 February 2007}}

{{Hawker Aircraft aircraft}}
{{US Army VTOL}}
{{US STOL and VTOL aircraft}}
{{McDD aircraft}}
{{Harrier variants}}
{{US attack aircraft}}
{{BAE aircraft}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Harrier Jump Jet| ]]
[[Category:British Aerospace aircraft|Sea Harrier]]
[[Category:1970s British attack aircraft]]
[[Category:1980s British attack aircraft]]
[[Category:1960s British experimental aircraft]]
[[Category:1960s British fighter aircraft]]
[[Category:1970s British fighter aircraft]]
[[Category:1980s British fighter aircraft]]
[[Category:British inventions]]
[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:Hawker aircraft|P1127]]
[[Category:Hawker Siddeley aircraft|Harrier]]
[[Category:History of science and technology in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:McDonnell Douglas aircraft]]
[[Category:Single-engined jet aircraft]]
[[Category:1970s United States attack aircraft|V-08AB Harrier II]]
[[Category:1980s United States attack aircraft]]
[[Category:V/STOL aircraft by thrust vectoring]]
[[Category:Aircraft with retractable bicycle landing gear]]

Lingfield, Surrey

2025-10-07T11:59:49Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:7DBE:EAD0:8F2E:4F95: /* Landmarks */Added link

{{short description|Village, civil parish and post town in Tandridge District, Surrey, South East England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2015}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2015}}
{{Infobox UK place
|country = England
|coordinates = {{coord|51.175|-0.0171|display=inline,title}}
|official_name = Lingfield
|map_type= Surrey
|static_image_name=St.Peter and St.Paul, Lingfield - geograph.org.uk - 1741024.jpg
|static_image_caption=Grade I listed Church of Saints Peter and Paul
|static_image_2_name=Oast House at Lullenden Manor, Hollow Lane, Lingfield, Surrey - geograph.org.uk - 1140336.jpg
|static_image_2_caption= Example of [[Tudor period architecture]] in Lingfield
| population = 4,467
|population_ref=(Civil Parish 2011)<ref name=ons>[http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk Key Statistics; Quick Statistics: Population Density] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030211201309/http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/ |date=11 February 2003 }} [[United Kingdom Census 2011]] ''[[Office for National Statistics]]'' Retrieved 21 November 2013</ref>
|area_total_km2=8.76
|civil_parish='''Lingfield'''
|shire_district = [[Tandridge (district)|Tandridge]]
|shire_county = [[Surrey]]
|region= South East England
|constituency_westminster = [[East Surrey (UK Parliament constituency)|East Surrey]]
|post_town = LINGFIELD
|postcode_district = RH7
|postcode_area= RH
|dial_code = 01342
|os_grid_reference = TQ395385
|london_distance={{convert|23.4|mi}}
}}

'''Lingfield''' is a village and [[civil parishes in England|civil parish]] in the [[Tandridge (district)|Tandridge]] district of [[Surrey]], England, approximately {{convert|23|mi}} south of [[London]]. Several buildings date from the [[Tudor period]] and the [[timber-frame]] medieval church is [[listed building|Grade I listed]]. The [[village cage|stone cage or old gaol]], constructed in 1773, was last used in 1882 to hold a [[Poaching|poacher]].

[[Lingfield Park Racecourse]] is to the south of the village. In addition to turf racing over jumps, there is also an all-weather course for flat racing.

==History==
The village lay within the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] administrative division of [[Tandridge (hundred)|Tandridge]] [[hundred (division)|hundred]].

Lingfield was not listed in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086,<ref>[http://domesdaymap.co.uk/place/TQ3750/tandridge Domesday Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203015428/http://www.domesdaymap.co.uk/place/TQ3750/tandridge/ |date=3 December 2013 }} Transcription site.</ref> but is shown on the map as ''Leangafeld'', its spelling in 871AD.<ref>[http://www.gwp.enta.net/surrnames.htm Surrey Domesday Book] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715015325/http://www.gwp.enta.net/surrnames.htm |date=15 July 2007 }}</ref>

The southern part of the parish is in the old [[wealden iron industry|iron district]]. A forge and a furnace 'about Copthorne and Lingfield' were owned by Lady Gage in 1574, and Clarke's pond and Cook's pond may have been heads for water power to work hammers. Henry Malden wrote in 1911 that Lingfield is mostly: {{blockquote|...agricultural, but since the opening of the railway station on the ...line from Croydon to East Grinstead in 1884, the laying out of the Dormansland estate with the opening of a station there, and the making of the Lingfield Park racecourse, where another railway station has been opened, the village has become a small town and building has been carried out at Plaistow Street and elsewhere.

The Victoria Memorial Institute was built by subscription in 1901. It contains reading rooms and a library. A parish school and infants' school were founded in 1849. The old schoolhouse belonging to a school which [[Baron Howard of Effingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]] endowed with £3 a year was sold and the proceeds applied to the new schools. The school was rebuilt in 1860. The infants' school was carried on in the old building until the latter was rebuilt in 1906. Baldwin Hill School was built in 1874 and enlarged in 1898.}}

On the creation of [[Surrey County Council]] in the late 19th century, the civil parish's responsibilities became somewhat lessened but its area was approximately the same as in the medieval period, {{convert|36.8|km2}} and it was this size which led to the decision to make Lingfield a post town across an even larger area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=43069 |title=Parishes: Lingfield |editor=H.E. Malden |publisher=Institute of Historical Research |date=1912 |work=A History of the County of Surrey: Volume 4 |access-date=4 November 2014 |archive-date=12 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812223411/http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=43069 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/place/5908 Vision of Britain history website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104165601/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/place/5908 |date=4 November 2014 }} Description by [[John Marius Wilson]] 1870-2.</ref>

With the backing of the [[Women's Farm and Garden Union]], [[Louisa Wilkins]] and [[Katherine Courtauld]] established a cooperative set of [[small holding]]s in 1920 on Wire Mill Lane in Lingfield.<ref name=meredith/> Surrey County Council created small holdings for over 250 servicemen in Surrey.<ref name=meredith/> It was the small holdings at Lingfield that provided small holdings for women. The initial funders included [[Margaret Ashton]] and [[Sydney Renee Courtauld]] and the experiment lasted until the 1930s.<ref name=meredith>{{Cite journal|last=Meredith|first=Anne|title=From ideals to reality: The women’s smallholding colony at Lingfield, 1920–39|url=https://bahs.org.uk/AGHR/ARTICLES/54n1a6.pdf|journal=Agricultural History Review|volume=54|pages=105–121}}</ref>

==Landmarks==
The [[Church (building)|Church]] of St. Peter and St. Paul was rebuilt in 1431, although the original 14th-century tower remains. Its collection of [[monumental brass]]es and monuments are amongst the finest in England, including the impressive tomb of [[Reginald de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lingfieldparishchurch.org/about/ |title=Lingfield Parish church |access-date=29 January 2012 |archive-date=6 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606005901/http://www.lingfieldparishchurch.org/about/ |url-status=live }}</ref> There had been a church on the site for some centuries before the 14th-century building.<ref>[http://www.eastsurreyfhs.org.uk/parishes/lingfield.htm East Surrey family history society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707003235/http://www.eastsurreyfhs.org.uk/parishes/lingfield.htm |date= 7 July 2007 }}</ref> Listed at Grade I, the highest category of architectural listing, the church is among a low percentage to have this status in the country.<ref>Church of St Peter and St Paul - Grade I listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1029906|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref>

The area around the church has been designated a conservation area as it has many early preserved buildings from the 16th to 18th centuries.<ref>[http://www.tandridge.gov.uk/Planning/Conservation,ListedBuildingandTrees/conservation_areas_an_introduction.htm Tandridge DC conservation areas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531083336/http://www.tandridge.gov.uk/Planning/Conservation%2CListedBuildingandTrees/conservation_areas_an_introduction.htm |date=31 May 2013 }}</ref> In the main street, there is a cross and village cage. Unusually highly listed buildings merit mention below.

===Cage, St Peter's Cross, Old Town Hall and Cottage===
[[File:Village_Cross_and_Cage,_Lingfield_(geograph_1909337).jpg|thumb|Cage (or Old Gaol) and pillared cross]]
The cage, last used in 1882 to hold a [[Poaching|poacher]], was built in 1773.<ref>Village Cage and St Peter's Cross Grade I listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1005942|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref>

Old Town Hall and Old Town Cottage form one Grade II* [[listed building]]<ref>Old Town Hall and Old Town Cottage Grade II* listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1029910|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref>

The journal Le Globe Trotter from 26 February 1903, page 130, describes this place and provides a drawing of it, writing that this is the smallest church in the world, and not a prison place.

===The Library, Secular Cottage, Magnus Deo, Old House and The Garth===
The [[library]] is housed in the Old Guest House of the College for Secular [[Chaplain]]s built in 1431 which adjoins and is at Grade II*.<ref>College Grade II* listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1205289|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref> This [[hall-house]] is all that remains of the original College. Architecturally this building has Grade II* status, so too does the nearby building ''Magnus Deo''.<ref>Old Guest House Grade II* listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1205909|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref><ref>Magnus Deo - Grade II* listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1205825|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref> Unusually for an English village, two other buildings are at Grade II* within the village centre, The Old House (pre-[[Tudor period]])<ref>Old House Grade II* listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1205370|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref> and The Garth (1729).<ref>The Garth Grade II* listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1205754|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref>

===Pollard Cottage and Pollard House===
One secular building in Lingfield has the architectural accolade of Grade I listing: Pollard Cottage/Pollard House, a pre [[Tudor period]] hall house which is timber-framed and part whitewashed. To the right is Kentish bracing; to the centre flying braces across the centre first floor and forming the lower part of the roof coved [[eaves]]. Dragon posts and dragon beams, alongside irregular leaded windows add to the well-surviving display of medieval architecture.<ref>Pollard Cottage/House - Grade I listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1029911|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref>

===Church House and Star Inn Cottages===
This narrow terrace of Grade II* listed cottages is at the end of the narrow central street leading to the church though excluding the end-of-terrace Church Gate Cottage which is lower listed, dates to the [[Tudor period]] with a [[georgian (architecture)|Georgian]] front including a deep wooden [[modillion]] eaves [[cornice]], formerly in part an Inn.<ref>Church House/Star Inn Cottages - Grade II* listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1205173|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref>

===Remains of Starborough Castle and Moat===
In what was the parish until 2000 but is [[Dormansland]] civil parish {{convert|2|mi}} east is the site of [[Starborough Castle]], fortified by [[Baron Cobham|Lord Cobham]] (a medieval peerage) in 1341. Little now remains except parts of its walls, Grade II* listed<ref>Starborough Castle Walls & Garden House Grade II* listing {{National Heritage List for England|num=1205666|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref> and the moat, which is stone revetted, waterfilled and in good condition.<ref>Starborough Castle [[Scheduled Monument|Scheduled Ancient Monument]] {{National Heritage List for England|num=1017522|access-date=14 November 2012}}</ref>

Lingfield is also home to one of the world's oldest cricket clubs, with the first recorded match being against London on 18 June 1739.<ref>[[H T Waghorn]], Cricket Scores, Notes, etc. (1730-1773), Blackwood, 1899</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Tandridge Civil Parishes.png|Tandridge Civil Parishes]] 
Lingfield's location in [[Tandridge (district)|Tandridge District]] is shown above. The [[Prime Meridian]] passes close to the eastern border of Lingfield.

[[London]] is (centred) {{convert|23.4|mi}} [[boxing the compass|north-by-northwest]] and Oxted, the administrative centre of Tandridge is {{convert|5.3|mi}} north. [[Guildford]], [[Surrey]]'s county town is {{convert|24.3|mi}} west-by-northwest.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gridreferencefinder.com/ |title=Grid reference Finder measurement tools |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=12 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912054323/http://gridreferencefinder.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Geographic location
|title = '''Nearest Settlements'''
|Centre = Lingfield
|North = [[Crowhurst, Surrey|Crowhurst]]
|Northeast = ''Across the Haxted part of [[Dormansland]]'' [[Edenbridge, Kent]]
|East = [[Dormansland]]
|Southeast = [[Dormansland]]
|South = ''Across Felcourt, Lingfield'' [[Dormansland]]
|Southwest = [[Felbridge]]
|West = [[Horne, Surrey|Horne]]
|Northwest = [[Tandridge, Surrey|Crowhurst Lane End in Tandridge]]
}}

Elevations range between 76m [[Above Ordnance Datum|AOD]] in Lingfield Park Golf Course adjoining Lingfield Park and Felcourt to 46.5m [[Above Ordnance Datum|AOD]] along the northern border, the Eden Brook from Moat Farm to the railway line.<ref>[http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/mapsearch.aspx Map] created by [[Ordnance Survey]], courtesy of [[English Heritage]] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424060625/http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/mapsearch.aspx |date=24 April 2012 }}</ref>

==Notable venues==
{{more citations needed|section|date=September 2020}}

===Social and activity clubs===
Among these are:
*Lingfield and Dormansland Rifle Club for competition shooters
*Lingfield Silver Band – a traditional Silver band.

===Charities===
Lingfield hosts the national charity Young Epilepsy (formerly named NCYPE/St. Piers/Lingfield Hospital School/Lingfield Epileptic Colony), which provides residential care and education for students with epilepsy and learning difficulties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://youngepilepsy.org.uk/ |title=Young Epilepsy |access-date=16 July 2012 |archive-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710043601/http://www.youngepilepsy.org.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Nearby to the west of the [[A22 road|A22]] at [[Newchapel, Surrey|Newchapel]] is the [[London England Temple]] of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], known as the [[Mormon]] Temple.

==Culture and Community==
Lingfield Civil Parish run annual events, meetings and village hall facilities offered by the third-tier local council.

==Localities==

===Felcourt===
Felcourt's large Manor House and parkland was the head office of [[Rentokil Initial]] from 1949 until 2006; converted to apartments and a small business park.

===Felcourt Farm and Business Park===
Felcourt Farm is a large dairy farm, having in its area a small business park with 15 units, rented to businesses or available for rent.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

==Sport and leisure==
Lingfield has a [[Non-League football]] club, [[Lingfield F.C.]], who play at The Sports Pavilion.

Lingfield has another thriving sport with [[cricket (sport)|cricket]] clubs also playing in the village.

A short lived [[Greyhound racing in the United Kingdom|greyhound racing]] track was opened from October 1991 until 1992 at the Nestledown Kennels off the Eastbourne Road. It had served as a schooling track previously but the racing took place on Saturdays at 1.00pm. The track had a large circumference of 475 metres with race distances of 300, 475 and 700 yards and two hares available, an Inside Sumner and an Outside McKee. The racing was independent (not affiliated to the sports governing body the [[National Greyhound Racing Club]]) and was known as a flapping track, which was the nickname given to independent tracks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=Julia|title=Daily Mirror Greyhound Fact File, page 417|year=1988|publisher=Ringpress Books|isbn=0-948955-15-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Closures and openings over the past 10 years, July 1993, page 18|year=1993|newspaper=Greyhound Star}}</ref>

==Transport==

===Rail===
[[Lingfield railway station]] is on the East Grinstead branch of the [[Oxted line]] to [[London Victoria station]] and [[London Bridge station]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nationalrail.co.uk/ |title=Association of Train Operating Companies – official timetable |access-date=14 November 2012 |archive-date=25 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225033735/http://www.nationalrail.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Bus===
Bus services cover destinations such as [[Caterham]], [[Oxted]], [[Redhill, Surrey|Redhill]], Crawley, Edenbridge, Dormansland and [[East Grinstead]] and are Southdown, Cruisers and Metrobus operations.

==Demography and housing==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ '''2011 Census Homes'''
|-
!Output area !!Detached !!Semi-detached!!Terraced!!Flats and apartments!!Caravans/temporary/mobile homes!!shared between households<ref name=ons/>
|-
|(Civil Parish)||634 || 518 || 316 || 284 || 68 || 2
|}
The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ '''2011 Census Key Statistics'''
|-
!Output area !!Population !!Households !!% Owned outright !!% Owned with a loan!!hectares<ref name=ons/>
|-
|(Civil Parish)||4,467||1,822||36.7%||36.3%||876
|}
The proportion of households in the civil parish who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free).

==See also==
*[[List of places of worship in Tandridge (district)]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Lingfield, Surrey}}

{{Tandridge}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in Surrey]]
[[Category:Tandridge]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in Surrey]]