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London Bridge

2025-09-25T15:27:41Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Old London Bridge (1209–1831) */Enlarged image

{{Short description|1973 Thames road bridge in London}}
{{Distinguish|Tower Bridge}}
{{Other uses|London Bridge (disambiguation)}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox bridge
|bridge_name = London Bridge
|image = File:London Bridge from St Olaf Stairs.jpg
|image_size = 280
|alt = Wide bridge over water against a grey sky with tall buildings
|caption = London Bridge in 2017
|official_name=
|carries = Five lanes of the [[A3 road|A3]]
|crosses = [[River Thames]]
|preceded = [[Cannon Street Railway Bridge]]
|followed = [[Tower Bridge]]
|locale = [[Central London]]
|maint = [[Bridge House Estates]], [[City of London Corporation]]
|id =
|design = [[Prestressed concrete]] [[box girder bridge]]
|mainspan = {{convert|104|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|length = {{convert|269|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|width = {{convert|32|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|height =
|clearance =
|below = {{convert|8.9|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|traffic =
|open = {{Start date and age|1176
|03|16|df=yes}}
|life = {{plainlist|
* [[box girder bridge|Modern bridge]] (1971–present)
* [[Arch bridge|Victorian stone arch]] (1832–1968)
* [[Arch bridge|Medieval stone arch]] (1176–1832)
* Various [[wooden bridge]]s (circa AD 50 – 1176)
}}
|closed =
|map_cue =
|map_image =
|map_text =
|map_width =
|coordinates = {{Coord|51|30|29|N|0|05|16|W|region:GB-SWK_type:landmark|display=title,inline}}
|lat =
|long =
}}

The name "'''London Bridge'''" refers to several historic crossings that have spanned the [[River Thames]] between the [[City of London]] and [[Southwark]] in [[central London]] since [[Roman Britain|Roman times]]. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a [[box girder bridge]] built from concrete and steel. It replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old stone-built medieval structure. In addition to the roadway, for much of its history, the broad medieval bridge supported an extensive built up area of homes and businesses, part of the City's [[Bridge (City of London ward)|Bridge]] ward, and its southern end in Southwark was guarded by a large stone City gateway. The medieval bridge was preceded by a succession of timber bridges, the first of which was built by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] founders of London ([[Londinium]]) around AD 50.

The current bridge stands at the western end of the [[Pool of London]] and is positioned {{convert|30|m}} upstream from previous alignments. The approaches to the medieval bridge were marked by the church of [[St Magnus-the-Martyr]] on the northern bank and by [[Southwark Cathedral]] on the southern shore. Until [[Putney Bridge]] opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road crossing of the Thames downstream of [[Kingston upon Thames]]. London Bridge has been depicted in its several forms, in art, literature, and songs, including the [[nursery rhyme]] "[[London Bridge Is Falling Down]]", and the epic poem ''[[The Waste Land]]'' by [[T. S. Eliot]].

The modern bridge is owned and maintained by [[Bridge House Estates]], an independent charity of medieval origin overseen by the [[City of London Corporation]]. It carries the [[A3 road]], which is maintained by the [[Greater London Authority]].<ref name=hmsosi>{{cite web| url = https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2000/1117/contents/made|url-status=live|archive-date=5 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305050511/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2000/1117/schedule/made| title = Statutory Instrument 2000 No. 1117 – The GLA Roads Designation Order 2000| publisher = Government of the United Kingdom| access-date = 2 May 2011}}</ref> The crossing also delineates an area along the southern bank of the River Thames, between London Bridge and [[Tower Bridge]], that has been designated as a [[business improvement district]].<ref name='TLB'>{{cite web |url=http://www.teamlondonbridge.co.uk/default.aspx?m=3&mi=173&ms=0 |title=About us |access-date=21 November 2008 |work=TeamLondonBridge |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208070656/http://www.teamlondonbridge.co.uk/default.aspx?m=3&mi=173&ms=0 |archive-date=8 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==History==
===Location===
The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand and clay. From the late [[Neolithic]] era the southern embankment formed a natural [[causeway]] above the surrounding swamp and marsh of the river's [[estuary]]; the northern ascended to higher ground at the present site of [[Cornhill, London|Cornhill]]. Between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. Both embankments, particularly the northern, would have offered stable beachheads for boat traffic up and downstream – the Thames and its estuary were a major inland and [[Europe|Continental]] trade route from at least the 9th century BC.<ref>Merrifield, Ralph, ''London, City of the Romans,'' University of California Press, 1983, pp. 1–4. The terraces were formed by glacial sediment towards the end of the last Ice Age.</ref>

There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, [[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]] settlement nearby, but until a bridge was built there, London did not exist.<ref>D. Riley, in Burland, J.B., Standing, J.R., Jardine, F.M., ''Building Response to Tunnelling: Case Studies from Construction of the Jubilee line Extension'', London, Volume 1, Thomas Telford, 2001, pp. 103 – 104.</ref> [[Watling Street#Westminster ford|A few miles upstream]], beyond the river's upper tidal reach, two ancient fords were in use. These were apparently aligned with the course of [[Watling Street]], which led into the heartlands of the [[Catuvellauni]], Britain's most powerful tribe at the time of [[Caesar's invasions of Britain#Second invasion (54 BC)|Caesar's invasion of 54 BC]]. Some time before [[Claudius]]'s [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest]] of AD 43, power shifted to the [[Trinovantes]], who held the region northeast of the Thames Estuary from a capital at [[Camulodunum]], nowadays [[Colchester]] in Essex. Claudius imposed a major ''[[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]]'' at Camulodunum, and made it the capital city of the new Roman province of [[Britannia (Roman province)|Britannia]]. The first London Bridge was built by the Romans as part of their road-building programme, to help consolidate their conquest.<ref>The site of the new bridge determined the location of London itself. The alignment of Watling Street with the ford at Westminster (crossed via [[Thorney Island (Westminster)|Thorney Island]]) is the basis for a mooted earlier Roman "London", sited in the vicinity of [[Park Lane, London|Park Lane]]. See Margary, Ivan D., ''Roman Roads in Britain, Vol. 1, South of the Foss Way – Bristol Channel,'' Phoenix House Lts, London, 1955, pp. 46 – 47.</ref>

===Roman bridges ===
It is possible that [[Roman army|Roman military]] engineers built a [[pontoon bridge|pontoon type]] bridge at the site during the conquest period (AD{{nbsp}}43). A bridge of any kind would have given a rapid overland shortcut to [[Camulodunum]] from the southern and [[Cantiaci|Kentish]] ports, along the [[Roman roads in Britain|Roman roads]] of [[Stane Street (Chichester)|Stane Street]] (now the [[A3 road (Great Britain)|A3]], [[A24 road (Great Britain)|A24]], [[A29 road (Great Britain)|A29]] and [[A285 road (Great Britain)|A285]]) and [[Watling Street]] (now the [[A5 road (Great Britain)|A5]] to the north of the river and [[A2 road (Great Britain)|A2]] south east through Kent). The Roman roads leading to and from London were probably built around AD{{nbsp}}50, and the river-crossing was possibly served by a permanent timber bridge.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Engineering Timelines - Roman Bridge, London, site of |url=http://engineering-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=662 |access-date=25 August 2022 |website=engineering-timelines.com}}</ref> On the relatively high, dry ground at the northern end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root and grew into the town of [[Londinium]].<ref>Margary, Ivan D., ''Roman Roads in Britain, Vol. 1, South of the Foss Way – Bristol Channel,'' Phoenix House Lts, London, 1955, pp. 46–48.</ref>

A smaller settlement developed at the southern end of the bridge, in the area now known as [[Southwark]]. The bridge may have been destroyed along with the town in the [[Boudica]]n revolt (AD 60), but Londinium was rebuilt and eventually, became the administrative and mercantile capital of Roman Britain. The bridge offered uninterrupted, mass movement of foot, horse, and wheeled traffic across the Thames, linking four major arterial road systems north of the Thames with four to the south. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>Jones, B., and Mattingly, D., ''An Atlas of Roman Britain'', Blackwell, 1990, pp. 168–172.</ref><ref>Merrifield, Ralph, ''London, City of the Romans,'' University of California Press, 1983, p. 31.</ref>

===Early medieval bridges {{anchor|early_medieval}}===
With the [[end of Roman rule in Britain]] in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the [[Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon period]], the river became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of [[Mercia]] and [[Wessex]]. By the late 9th century, [[Viking Age#England|Danish invasions]] prompted at least a partial reoccupation of the site by the Saxons. The bridge may have been rebuilt by [[Alfred the Great]] soon after the [[Battle of Edington]] as part of Alfred's redevelopment of the area in his system of [[burh]]s,<ref>Jeremy Haslam, 'The Development of London by King Alfred: A Reassessment'; ''Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society'', 61 (2010), 109–44. Retrieved 2 August 2014</ref> or it may have been rebuilt around 990 under the Saxon king [[Æthelred the Unready]] to hasten his troop movements against [[Sweyn Forkbeard]], father of [[Cnut the Great]]. A [[skald]]ic tradition describes the bridge's destruction in 1014 by Æthelred's ally [[Olaf II of Norway|Olaf]],<ref>{{citation|author=Snorri Sturluson|author-link=Snorri Sturluson|title=[[Heimskringla]]|date=c. 1230}}. There is no reference to this event in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''. See: {{cite journal|first1=Jan Ragnar|last1=Hagland|first2=Bruce|last2=Watson|url=http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-457-1/dissemination/pdf/vol10/vol10_12/10_12_328_333.pdf|title=Fact or folklore: the Viking attack on London Bridge|journal=London Archaeologist|volume=12|date=Spring 2005|pages=328–33}}</ref> to divide the Danish forces who held both the walled City of London and Southwark. The earliest contemporary written reference to a Saxon bridge is {{Circa|1016}}, when chroniclers mention how [[Cnut the Great|Cnut]]'s ships bypassed the crossing during his war to regain the throne from [[Edmund Ironside]].<ref>See [[Battle of Brentford (1016)]]</ref>

Following the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] in 1066, [[William I of England|King William I]] rebuilt the bridge. It was repaired or replaced by [[William II of England|King William II]], destroyed by fire in 1136, and rebuilt in the reign of [[Stephen, King of England|Stephen]]. [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] created a monastic guild, the "Brethren of the Bridge", to oversee all work on London Bridge. In 1163, Peter of [[St Mary Colechurch|Colechurch]], chaplain and warden of the bridge and its brethren, supervised the bridge's last rebuilding in timber.<ref name="Thornbury 1872, p.10">[[George Walter Thornbury|Thornbury, Walter]], ''Old and New London'', 1872, vol.2, p.10</ref>

=== Old London Bridge (1209–1831)===
{{redirect|Old London Bridge|the painting by Samuel Scott|Old London Bridge (painting)}}
[[File:London Bridge (1616) by Claes Van Visscher.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|An engraving by [[Claes Visscher]] showing Old London Bridge in 1616, with what is now [[Southwark Cathedral]] in the foreground. The spiked heads of executed criminals can be seen above the Southwark gatehouse.]]

After the murder of his former friend and later opponent [[Thomas Becket]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the penitent King [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] commissioned a new stone bridge in place of the old, with a chapel at its centre dedicated to Becket as [[martyr]]. The archbishop had been a native Londoner, born at [[Cheapside]], and a popular figure. The [[Chapel of St Thomas on the Bridge]] became the official start of [[pilgrim]]age to his [[Canterbury Cathedral|Canterbury shrine]]; it was grander than some town parish churches, and had an additional river-level entrance for fishermen and ferrymen. Building work began in 1176, supervised by Peter of Colechurch.<ref name="Thornbury 1872, p.10" /> The costs would have been enormous; Henry's attempt to meet them with taxes on wool and sheepskins probably gave rise to a later legend that London Bridge was built on [[wool bale|wool packs]].<ref name="Thornbury 1872, p.10" />

In 1202, before Colechurch's death, Isembert, a French monk who was renowned as a bridge builder, was appointed by [[John, King of England|King John]] to complete the project. Construction was not finished until 1209. There were houses on the bridge from the start; this was a normal way of paying for the maintenance of a bridge, though in this case it had to be supplemented by other rents and by tolls. From 1282 two Bridge wardens headed an organisation known as Bridge House, appointed to maintain the bridge fabric. Neglect of this duty was blamed for two known collapses of the bridge, one in 1281 (involving five arches) and one in 1437 (involving two arches). In 1212, perhaps the greatest of the [[early fires of London]] broke out, spreading as far as the chapel and trapping many people.

The bridge was about {{convert|926|ft|m|abbr=off}} long, and had nineteen piers, supported by timber piles. The piers were linked above by nineteen arches and a wooden drawbridge. Above and below the water-level, the piers were enclosed and protected by '[[Starling (structure)|starlings]]', supported by deeper piles than the piers themselves. The bridge, including the part occupied by houses, was from {{convert|20|to|24|ft|metre|abbr=off}} wide. The roadway was mostly around {{convert|15|ft|m|abbr=off}} wide, varying from about 14 feet to 16 feet, except that it was narrower at defensive features (the stone gate, the drawbridge and the drawbridge tower) and wider south of the stone gate. The houses occupied only a few feet on each side of the bridge. They received their main support either from the piers, which extended well beyond the bridge itself from west to east, or from 'hammer beams' laid from pier to pier parallel to the bridge. It was the length of the piers which made it possible to build quite large houses, up to {{convert|34|ft|m|abbr=off}} deep.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gerhold|title=London Bridge and its Houses|pages=4, 11–12, 16}}</ref>

The numerous starlings restricted the river's tidal ebb and flow. The difference in water levels on the two sides of the bridge could be as much as {{convert|6|ft|m}}, producing ferocious rapids between the [[Pier#Alternative|piers]] resembling a [[weir]].<ref>Pierce, p.45 and Jackson, p.77</ref> Only the brave or foolhardy attempted to "shoot the bridge" – steer a boat between the starlings when in flood – and some were drowned in the attempt. The bridge was "for wise men to pass over, and for fools to pass under."<ref>Rev. John Ray, ''"Book of Proverbs"'', 1670, cited in Jackson, p.77</ref> The restricted flow also meant that in hard winters the river upstream was more susceptible to freezing.

The number of houses on the bridge reached its maximum in the late fourteenth century, when there were 140. Subsequently, many of the houses, originally only 10 to 11 feet wide, were merged, so that by 1605 there were 91. Originally they are likely to have had only two [[storey]]s, but they were gradually enlarged. In the seventeenth century, when there are detailed descriptions of them, almost all had four or five storeys (counting the [[garret]]s as a storey); three houses had six storeys. Two-thirds of the houses were rebuilt from 1477 to 1548. In the seventeenth century, the usual plan was a shop on the ground floor, a hall and often a chamber on the first floor, a kitchen and usually a chamber and a waterhouse (for hauling up water in buckets) on the second floor, and chambers and garrets above. Approximately every other house shared in a 'cross building' above the roadway, linking the houses either side and extending from the first floor upwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gerhold|title=London Bridge and its Houses|pages=13, 19–21, 36, 45–46}}</ref>

[[File:The Frozen Thames 1677 by Abraham Hondius.jpg|thumb|upright=1.65|''[[The Frozen Thames]]'' (1677) by [[Abraham Hondius]] in the [[Museum of London]], showing Old London Bridge and [[Southwark Cathedral]] (St Saviours) at right]]

All the houses were shops, and the bridge was one of the City of London's four or five main shopping streets. There seems to have been a deliberate attempt to attract the more prestigious trades. In the late fourteenth century more than four-fifths of the shopkeepers were [[haberdasher]]s, glovers, [[Cutlery#Industry|cutlers]], [[bowyer]]s and [[Fletching|fletchers]] or from related trades. By 1600 all of these had dwindled except the haberdashers, and the spaces were filled by additional haberdashers, by traders selling textiles and by grocers. From the late [[seventeenth century]] there was a greater variety of trades, including metalworkers such as pinmakers and needle makers, sellers of durable goods such as trunks and brushes, booksellers and stationers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gerhold|title=London Bridge and its Houses|pages=60–75}}</ref>

The three major buildings on the bridge were the chapel, the drawbridge tower and the stone gate, all of which seem to have been present soon after the bridge's construction. The chapel was last rebuilt in 1387–1396, by [[Henry Yevele]], master mason to the king. Following the [[Reformation]], it was converted into a house in 1553. The drawbridge tower was where the severed heads of traitors were exhibited. The drawbridge ceased to be opened in the 1470s and in 1577–1579 the tower was replaced by [[Nonsuch House]]—a pair of magnificent houses. Its architect was Lewis Stockett, Surveyor of the Queen's Works, who gave it the second classical facade in London (after Somerset House in the Strand). The stone gate was last rebuilt in the 1470s, and later took over the function of displaying the heads of traitors.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gerhold|title=London Bridge and its Houses|pages=26–32}}</ref> The heads were dipped in tar and boiled to preserve them against the elements, and were [[Head on a spike|impaled on pikes.]]<ref name="world and its people">{{cite book|last=Dunton|first=Larkin|url=https://archive.org/details/worldanditspeop05duntgoog|title=The World and Its People|publisher=Silver, Burdett|year=1896|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldanditspeop05duntgoog/page/n31 23]}}</ref> The head of [[William Wallace]] was the first recorded as appearing, in 1305, starting a long tradition. Other famous heads on pikes included those of [[Jack Cade]] in 1450, [[Thomas More]] in 1535, [[John Fisher|Bishop John Fisher]] in the same year, and [[Thomas Cromwell]] in 1540. In 1598, a German visitor to London, [[Paul Hentzner]], counted over 30 heads on the bridge:<ref>{{cite web|title=Vision of Britain – Paul Hentzner – Arrival and London|url=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp?t_id=Hentzner&c_id=1|website=www.visionofbritain.org.uk}}</ref>

{{blockquote|On the south is a bridge of stone eight hundred feet in length, of wonderful work; it is supported upon twenty piers of square stone, sixty feet high and thirty broad, joined by arches of about twenty feet diameter. The whole is covered on each side with houses so disposed as to have the appearance of a continued street, not at all of a bridge. Upon this is built a tower, on whose top the heads of such as have been executed for high treason are placed on iron spikes: we counted above thirty.}}

The last head was installed in 1661;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Home|title=Old London Bridge|journal=Nature|year=1932|volume=129|issue=3244|pages=232|doi=10.1038/129016c0|bibcode=1932Natur.129S..16.|s2cid=4112097|doi-access=free}}</ref> subsequently heads were placed on [[Temple Bar, London|Temple Bar]] instead, until the practice ceased.<ref>Timbs, John. ''Curiosities of London''. p.705, 1885. Available: books.google.com. Accessed: 29 September 2013</ref>

There were two multi-seated public [[latrine]]s, but they seem to have been at the two ends of the bridge, possibly on the riverbank. The one at the north end had two entrances in 1306. In 1481, one of the latrines fell into the Thames and five men were drowned. Neither of the latrines is recorded after 1591.<ref>Gerhold, London Bridge and its Houses, pp. 32-3; Sabine, Ernest L., "Latrines and Cesspools of Mediaeval London," ''Speculum'', Vol. 9, No. 3 (Jul. 1934), pp. 305–306, 315. Earliest evidence for the multi-seated public latrine is from a court case of 1306.</ref>

In 1578–1582 a Dutchman, Peter Morris, created a waterworks at the north end of the bridge. Water wheels under the two northernmost arches drove pumps that raised water to the top of a tower, from which wooden pipes conveyed it into the city. In 1591 water wheels were installed at the south end of the bridge to grind corn.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jackson|title=London Bridge|pages=30–31}}</ref>

{{wide image|Claude de Jongh - View of London Bridge - Google Art Project bridge.jpg|960px|Detail of Old London Bridge on the 1632 oil painting ''View of London Bridge'' by [[Claude de Jongh]], in the [[Yale Center for British Art]]}}

[[File:London Bridge Fire of 1632.jpg|thumb|''A view of London Bridge burning in the fire of 1633'' Private Collection|518x518px]]

In 1633 fire destroyed the houses on the northern part of the bridge. The gap was only partly filled by new houses, with the result that there was a firebreak that prevented the [[Great Fire of London]] (1666) spreading to the rest of the bridge and to Southwark. The Great Fire destroyed the bridge's waterwheels, preventing them from pumping water to fight the fire. For nearly 20 years, only sheds replaced the burnt buildings. They were replaced In the 1680s, when almost all the houses on the bridge were rebuilt. The roadway was widened to {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=off}} by setting the houses further back, and was increased in height from one storey to two. The new houses extended further back over the river, which would cause trouble later.
{{wide image|London-bridge-1682.jpg|850px|align-cap=center|Drawing of London Bridge from a 1682 panorama|box width|center|alt=alt text}}
[[File:London Bridge before the alteration in 1757 by Samuel Scott.png|thumb|right|London Bridge in 1757 just before the removal of the houses, by [[Samuel Scott (painter)|Samuel Scott]]]]

In 1695, the bridge had 551 inhabitants. From 1670, attempts were made to keep traffic in each direction to one side, at first through a keep-right policy and from 1722, through a keep-left policy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gerhold|title=London Bridge and its Houses|pages=57, 82–90}}</ref> This has been suggested as one possible origin for the practice of traffic in Britain [[driving on the left]].<ref>''Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles That Used Them'', M. G. Lay & James E. Vance, Rutgers University Press 1992, p. 199.</ref>

{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title = London Bridge Act 1756
| type = Act
| parliament = Parliament of Great Britain
| long_title = An Act to improve, widen, and enlarge, the Passage over and through London Bridge.
| year = 1756
| citation = [[29 Geo. 2]]. c. 40
| territorial_extent = [[Great Britain]]
| royal_assent = 27 May 1756
| commencement = 24 June 1756{{efn|name=Section1|Section 1.}}
| repeal_date =
| repealing_legislation =
| related_legislation =
| status = Current
| original_text = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a7wuAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA520
| collapsed = yes
}}

A fire in September 1725 destroyed all the houses south of the stone gate; they were rebuilt.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gerhold|title=London Bridge and its Houses|pages=93}}</ref> The last houses to be built on the bridge were designed by [[George Dance the Elder]] in 1745,<ref>Pierce 2001, pp. 235–236</ref> but these buildings had begun to subside within a decade.<ref>Pierce 2001, p. 252</ref> The '''{{visible anchor|London Bridge Act 1756}}''' ([[29 Geo. 2]]. c. 40) gave the City Corporation the power to purchase all the properties on the bridge so that they could be demolished and the bridge improved. While this work was underway, a temporary wooden bridge was constructed to the west of London Bridge. It opened in October 1757 but caught fire and collapsed in the following April. The old bridge was reopened until a new wooden construction could be completed a year later.<ref>Pierce 2001, p. 252–256</ref> To help improve navigation under the bridge, its two centre arches were replaced by a single wider span, the Great Arch, in 1759.

Demolition of the houses was completed in 1761 and the last tenant departed after some 550 years of housing on the bridge.<ref>Gerhold, ''London Bridge and its Houses'', pp. 100–101.</ref> Under the supervision of Dance the Elder, the roadway was widened to {{convert|46|ft|m}}<ref>Pierce 2001, p. 260</ref> and a [[balustrade]] was added "in the [[Gothic revival|Gothic]] taste" together with 14 stone [[alcove (architecture)|alcoves]] for pedestrians to shelter in.<ref>Pierce 2001, pp. 261–263</ref> However, the creation of the Great Arch had weakened the rest of the structure and constant expensive repairs were required in the following decades; this, combined with congestion both on and under bridge, often leading to fatal accidents, resulted in public pressure for a modern replacement.<ref>Pierce 2001, p. 278–279</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="180px">
London Bridge Pugh.jpg|''London Bridge from Pepper Alley Stairs'' by [[Herbert Pugh]], showing the appearance of London Bridge after 1762, with the new "Great Arch" at the centre
File:Joseph Mallord William Turner 065.jpg|''Old London Bridge'' by [[J. M. W. Turner]], showing the new balustrade and the back of one of the pedestrian alcoves
London bridge alcove.jpg|One of the pedestrian alcoves from the 1762 renovation, now in [[Victoria Park, Tower Hamlets]] – a similar alcove from the same source can be seen at the Guy's Campus of [[King's College London]]
Old London Bridge balustrade at Gilwell Park.jpg|A section of balustrade from London Bridge, now at [[Gilwell Park]] in [[Essex]]
File:The King's Arms (7327432882).jpg|A relief of the [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom#Great Britain|Hanoverian Royal Arms]] from a gateway over the old London Bridge now forms part of the façade of the King's Arms pub, [[Southwark]]
The Demolition of Old London Bridge, 1832, Guildhall Gallery, London.JPG|The Demolition of Old London Bridge, 1832, Guildhall Gallery, London
</gallery>

===New London Bridge (1831–1967) ===

{{multiple image
| header =
| align =
| width = 200
| caption_align = center
| image1 = ‘Old London Bridge - sketched on the spot’, William Alfred Delamotte - 30 March 1832 (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = The remains of the bridge, as sketched by [[William Alfred Delamotte]] on 30 March 1832
| image2 = Clarkson Stanfield (1793-1867) - The Opening of New London Bridge, 1 August 1831 - RCIN 404711 - Royal Collection.jpg
| caption2 = ''[[The Opening of New London Bridge]]'' by [[Clarkson Stanfield]], 1832}}
[[File:New London Bridge under construction (1826).jpg|right|thumb|New London Bridge under construction, by [[William Henry Kearney]], 1826]]
In 1799, a competition was opened to design a replacement for the medieval bridge. Entrants included [[Thomas Telford]]; he proposed a single iron arch span of {{convert|600|ft|m|-1}}, with {{convert|65|ft|m|-1}} centre clearance beneath it for masted river traffic. His design was accepted as safe and practicable, following expert testimony.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1857|title=Article on Iron Bridges|journal=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Preliminary surveys and works were begun, but Telford's design required exceptionally wide approaches and the extensive use of multiple, steeply inclined planes, which would have required the purchase and demolition of valuable adjacent properties.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Life of Thomas Telford|last=Smiles|first=Samuel|date=October 2001|isbn=1404314857}}</ref>

A more conventional design of five stone arches, by [[John Rennie the Elder|John Rennie]], was chosen instead. It was built {{convert|100|ft|m|0}} west (upstream) of the original site by Jolliffe and Banks of [[Merstham]], [[Surrey]],<ref>A fragment from the old bridge is set into the tower arch inside St Katharine's Church, Merstham.</ref> under the supervision of [[John Rennie the Younger|Rennie's son]]. Work began in 1824 and the foundation stone was laid, in the southern [[coffer dam]], on 15 June 1825.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}
[[File:London Bridge (Cornell University Library).jpg|thumb|left|New London Bridge, {{Circa|1870–1890}}]]

The old bridge continued in use while the new bridge was being built, and was demolished after the latter opened in 1831. New approach roads had to be built, which cost three times as much as the bridge itself. The total costs, around £2.5 million (£{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|UK|2500000|1831}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}),{{Inflation-fn|UK}} were shared by the [[British Government]] and the [[Corporation of London]].

Rennie's bridge was {{convert|928|ft|m|0}} long and {{convert|49|ft|m|0}} wide, constructed from [[Haytor]] granite. The official opening took place on 1 August 1831; [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]] and [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen|Queen Adelaide]] attended a banquet in a pavilion erected on the bridge. The northern approach road, King William Street, was renamed after the monarch and a [[Statue of William IV|statue of the king]] subsequently installed.

[[File:London bridge 1927.jpg|thumb|New London Bridge in 1927]]

In 1896 the bridge was the busiest point in London, and one of its most congested; 8,000 pedestrians and 900 vehicles crossed every hour.<ref name="world and its people"/> To designs by engineer [[Edward Cruttwell]],<ref name="Cruttwell">{{Cite web |title=About Edward Cruttwell |url=https://heritage.towerbridge.org.uk/about-edward-cruttwell/ |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=Heritage - Tower Bridge |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=21 December 1900 |title=The Widening of London Bridge |work=The Engineer |pages=613–614}}</ref> it was widened by {{convert|13|ft}}, using granite corbels.<ref>A dozen granite corbels prepared for this widening went unused, and still lie near Swelltor Quarry on the disused railway track a couple of miles south of [[Princetown]] on [[Dartmoor]].</ref> Subsequent surveys showed that the bridge was sinking an inch (about 2.5 cm) every eight years, and by 1924 the east side had sunk some three to four inches (about 9 cm) lower than the west side. The bridge would have to be removed and replaced.

====Sale to Robert McCulloch====
{{main|London Bridge (Lake Havasu City)}}
[[File:London-Bridge-March-1971.jpg|thumb|right|[[John Rennie the Elder|Rennie]]'s New London Bridge during its reconstruction at [[Lake Havasu City, Arizona]], March 1971]]

Common Council of the City of London member Ivan Luckin put forward the idea of selling the bridge, and recalled: "They all thought I was completely crazy when I suggested we should sell London Bridge when it needed replacing."<ref>{{Cite web|date=27 March 2002|title=How London Bridge was sold to the States|url=https://www.watfordobserver.co.uk/news/169982.how-london-bridge-was-sold-to-the-states/|access-date=1 March 2021|website=Watford Observer|language=en}}</ref> Subsequently, in 1968, Council placed the bridge on the market and began to look for potential buyers. On 18 April 1968, Rennie's bridge was purchased by the [[Missouri]]an entrepreneur [[Robert P. McCulloch]] of [[McCulloch Oil]] for US$2,460,000. The claim that McCulloch believed mistakenly that he was buying the more impressive [[Tower Bridge]] was denied by Luckin in a newspaper interview.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thisislocallondon.co.uk/archive/2002/03/27/Hertfordshire+Archive/5754223.How_London_Bridge_was_sold_to_the_States/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120116071636/http://www.thisislocallondon.co.uk/archive/2002/03/27/Hertfordshire+Archive/5754223.How_London_Bridge_was_sold_to_the_States/|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 January 2012|title=How London Bridge was sold to the States (From This Is Local London)|date=16 January 2012}}</ref> Before the bridge was taken apart, each granite facing block was marked for later reassembly.[[File:The London Bridge in Lake Havasu City (27698161465).jpg|thumb|Rennie's New London Bridge rebuilt, Lake Havasu City, 2016]] The blocks were taken to [[Merrivale, Devon|Merrivale]] Quarry at [[Princetown]] in [[Devon]], where {{convert|15|to|20|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}} were sliced off the inner faces of many, to facilitate their fixing.<ref>{{cite web|title=London Bridge is still here! – 21 December 1995 – Contract Journal|url=http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/1995/12/21/27226/london-bridge-is-still-here.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506144638/http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/1995/12/21/27226/london-bridge-is-still-here.html|archive-date=6 May 2008}}</ref> (Stones left behind were sold in an online auction when the quarry was abandoned and flooded in 2003.<ref>{{cite web|title=Merrivale Quarry, Whitchurch, Tavistock District, Devon, England, UK|url=http://www.mindat.org/loc-1521.html|website=www.mindat.org}}</ref>) 10,000 tons of granite blocks were shipped via the [[Panama Canal]] to [[California]], then trucked from [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]] to [[Arizona State University|Arizona]]. They were used to face a new, purpose-built hollow core steel-reinforced concrete structure, ensuring the bridge would support the weight of modern traffic.<ref name=Elborough2013>
{{cite book
|last=Elborough |first=Travis
|year=2013
|title=London Bridge in America: The tall story of a transatlantic crossing
|pages=211–212
|publisher=Random House
|isbn=978-1448181674
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EW_YhRYKxlcC&pg=PA211
|access-date=30 July 2014
}}
</ref> The bridge was reconstructed by Sundt Construction at [[Lake Havasu City, Arizona]], and was re-dedicated on 10 October 1971 in a ceremony attended by London's Lord Mayor and celebrities. The bridge carries the McCulloch Boulevard and spans the Bridgewater Channel, an artificial, navigable waterway that leads from the Uptown area of Lake Havasu City.<ref name=Wildfang2005>
{{cite book
|first=Frederic B. |last=Wildfang
|year=2005
|title=Lake Havasu City
|pages=105–122
|publisher=Arcadia Publishing
|place=Chicago, IL
|isbn=978-0738530123
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_5bdQIrEzQC&pg=PA107
|access-date=2 May 2013
}}
</ref>

===Modern London Bridge (1973–present) ===
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title = London Bridge Act 1967{{efn|name=Section1}}
| type = Act
| parliament = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title = An Act to empower the Corporation of London to reconstruct London Bridge, to construct other works and to acquire lands compulsorily; and for other purposes.
| year = 1967
| citation = [[List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1967|1967]] c. i
| territorial_extent = [[United Kingdom]]
| royal_assent = 16 February 1967
| commencement = 16 February 1967{{efn|The [[Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793]].}}
| repeal_date =
| repealing_legislation =
| related_legislation =
| status = Current
| original_text = https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/1967/1/pdfs/ukla_19670001_en.pdf
| collapsed = yes
}}

The current London Bridge was designed by architect [[William Holford, Baron Holford|Lord Holford]] and engineers [[Mott, Hay and Anderson]].<ref name="design and build">{{cite web |url=http://www.buildingtalk.com/news/cyl/cyl123.html |work=Building talk |title=Carillion accepts award for London Bridge project |date=14 November 2007 |access-date=14 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420230132/http://www.buildingtalk.com/news/cyl/cyl123.html |archive-date=20 April 2012 }}</ref> It was constructed by contractors [[Mowlem|John Mowlem and Co]] from 1967 to 1972,<ref name="design and build"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thames.me.uk/s00050.htm|title=Where Thames Smooth Waters Glide|access-date=4 May 2008|archive-date=12 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412031827/http://thames.me.uk/s00050.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> and opened by [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] on 16 March 1973.<ref>"London's new bridge— Open today: the latest in a line that goes back 1000 years", ''Evening Standard'' (London), 16 March 1973, p. 27</ref><ref>"Rooftop vigil as the Queen opens bridge", ''Leicester Mercury'', 16 March 1973, p. 1</ref><ref>"Queen Hails New London Bridge", by Tom Lambert, ''Los Angeles Times'', 17 March 1973, p. I-3 (Queen Elizabeth opened the newest London Bridge Friday, saying it showed no signs of falling down.")</ref> It comprises three spans of [[Prestressed concrete|prestressed-concrete]] [[Box girder bridge|box girders]], a total of {{convert|833|ft|m|0}} long. The cost of £4 million (£{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|UK|4000000|1971}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}),{{Inflation-fn|UK}} was met entirely by the [[Bridge House Estates]] charity. The current bridge was built in the same location as Rennie's bridge, with the previous bridge remaining in use while the first two girders were constructed upstream and downstream. Traffic was then transferred onto the two new girders, and the previous bridge demolished to allow the final two central girders to be added.<ref>Yee, plate 65 and others</ref>

In 1984, the British warship [[HMS Jupiter (F60)|HMS ''Jupiter'']] collided with London Bridge, causing significant damage to both the ship and the bridge.<ref name=Times140684>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=Frigate hits London Bridge |date=14 June 1984 |issue=61857 |page=1 |column=E-G |first=Rupert |last=Morris }}</ref>

On [[Remembrance Day]] 2004, several bridges in London were furnished with red lighting as part of a night-time flight along the river by wartime aircraft. London Bridge was the one bridge not subsequently stripped of the illuminations, which are regularly switched on at night.{{cn|date=May 2024}}

The current London Bridge is often shown in films, news and documentaries showing the throng of commuters journeying to work into [[City of London|the City]] from London Bridge Station (south to north). An example of this is actor [[Hugh Grant]] crossing the bridge north to south during the morning rush hour, in the 2002 film ''[[About a Boy (film)|About a Boy]]''.{{cn|date=May 2024}}

On 11 July 2008, as part of the annual [[Lord Mayor of London|Lord Mayor]]'s charity appeal and to mark the 800th anniversary of Old London Bridge's completion in the reign of King John, the Lord Mayor and [[Freedom of the City#Freedom of the City of London|Freemen of the City]] drove a flock of sheep across the bridge, supposedly by ancient right.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelordmayorsappeal.org/|title=A Better City for All: The Lord Mayor's Appeal 2019/2020|website=www.thelordmayorsappeal.org}}</ref>

On 3 June 2017, three pedestrians were killed by a van in [[2017 London Bridge attack|a terrorist attack]]. Altogether, eight people died and 48 were injured in the attack. Security barriers were installed on the bridge to help isolate the pedestrian pavement from the road.<ref>{{cite news |date=3 June 2017 |title='Van hits pedestrians' on London Bridge in 'major incident' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-40146916 |work=BBC News |access-date=3 June 2017}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="160">
File:London Bridge from Cannon Street Railway Bridge.jpg|View of London Bridge from a boat passing under [[Cannon Street Railway Bridge]]
File:London Bridge - geograph.org.uk - 478726.jpg|The current London Bridge in January 1987, with the [[Tower 42|National Westminster Tower]] skyscraper (Tower 42) opened six years earlier in the background
File:Views to the south from 20 Fenchurch Street - 006.jpg|London Bridge from [[20 Fenchurch Street]]
File:London Bridge security barriers.jpg|London Bridge with 2017 security barriers and the bulbous [[20 Fenchurch Street|Walkie-Talkie building]] at right
</gallery>

==Transport==
The nearest [[List of London Underground stations|London Underground stations]] are [[Bank and Monument stations|Monument]], at the northern end of the bridge, and [[London Bridge station|London Bridge]] at the southern end. London Bridge station is also served by [[National Rail]].

==In literature and popular culture==
* The [[nursery rhyme]] and [[folk song]] "[[London Bridge Is Falling Down]]" has been speculatively connected to several of the bridge's historic collapses.
* Rennie's New London Bridge is a prominent landmark in [[T. S. Eliot]]'s poem ''[[The Waste Land]]'', wherein he compares the shuffling commuters across London Bridge to the hell-bound souls of ''[[Dante's Inferno]]''. Also in that poem is a reference to the "inexplicable splendour of Ionian white and gold" of the church of [[St Magnus-the-Martyr]], designed by [[Christopher Wren|Sir Christopher Wren]], which marks the northern approach to the bridge, and the poem also ends with the lines "I sat upon the shore/fishing, with the arid plain behind me./Shall I at least set my lands in order?/London bridge is falling down, falling down, falling down".
* In [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[Sketches by Boz]]'', in the story entitled ''Scotland-yard'' there is much discussion by coal-heavers on the replacement of London Bridge in 1832, including a portent that the event will dry up the Thames.
* [[Gary P. Nunn]]'s song "London Homesick Blues" includes the lyrics, "Even London Bridge has fallen down, and moved to Arizona, now I know why."<ref>{{cite web|title=London Homesick Blues|url=http://lyricsplayground.com/alpha/songs/l/londonhomesickblues.shtml|website=International Lyrics Playground|access-date=29 April 2017}}</ref>
* English composer [[Eric Coates]] wrote a march about London Bridge in 1934.
* London Bridge is named in the [[World War II]] song "The King is Still in London" by Roma Campbell-Hunter & Hugh Charles.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Huntley|first1=Bill|title=The King is Still in London|url=http://lyricsplayground.com/alpha/songs/k/kingisstillinlondon.shtml|website=International Lyrics Playground|access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref>
* [[Fergie (singer)|Fergie]] released a song titled "[[London Bridge (Fergie song)|London Bridge]]" in 2006 as the lead single of her first solo album, ''[[The Dutchess]].''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vineyard|first=Jennifer|title=Black Eyed Peas' Fergie Gets Rough And Regal In First Video From Solo LP|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1536116/black-eyed-peas-fergie-gets-rough-and-regal-in-first-video-from-solo-lp/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924041417/http://www.mtv.com/news/1536116/black-eyed-peas-fergie-gets-rough-and-regal-in-first-video-from-solo-lp/|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 September 2014|access-date=9 August 2021|website=MTV News|language=en}}</ref> The music video for the track features the singer on a boat near London's [[Tower Bridge]],<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/WD33ii01kXI Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160804224918/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WD33ii01kXI&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Citation|title=Fergie - London Bridge (Oh Snap) (Official Music Video)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WD33ii01kXI|language=en|access-date=9 August 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> which, despite the song's title, is not London Bridge. The song peaked at number one on ''[[Billboard charts|Billboard]]''{{'}}s [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]] chart.<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Fergie|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/fergie/chart-history/hsi/|access-date=9 August 2021|magazine=Billboard}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|London}}
* [[List of Roman bridges]]
* [[Roman bridge]]
* [[List of crossings of the River Thames]]
* [[List of bridges in London]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* Gerhold, Dorian, ''London Bridge and its Houses, c.1209-1761'', London Topographical Society, 2019, {{ISBN|978-17-89257-51-9}}; 2nd edition, Oxbow Books, 2021, {{ISBN|1-789257-51-4}}.
* Home, Gordon, ''Old London Bridge'', John Lane the Bodley Head Limited, 1931.
* Jackson, Peter, ''London Bridge – A Visual History'', Historical Publications, revised edition, 2002, {{ISBN|0-948667-82-6}}.
* Murray, Peter & Stevens, Mary Anne, ''Living Bridges – The inhabited bridge, past, present and future'', Royal Academy of Arts, London, 1996, {{ISBN|3-7913-1734-2}}.
* Pierce, Patricia, ''Old London Bridge – The Story of the Longest Inhabited Bridge in Europe'', Headline Books, 2001, {{ISBN|0-7472-3493-0}}.
* Watson, Bruce, Brigham, Trevor and Dyson, Tony, ''London Bridge: 2000 years of a river crossing'', Museum of London Archaeology Service, {{ISBN|1-901992-18-7}}.
* Yee, Albert, ''London Bridge – Progress Drawings'', no publisher, 1974, {{ISBN|978-0-904742-04-6}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category|London Bridge}}
* [http://www.oldlondonbridge.com/ The London Bridge Museum and Educational Trust]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/image_galleries/old_london_bridge_gallery.shtml Views of Old London Bridge ca. 1440], [[BBC London]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507045826/http://www.southwark.gov.uk/info/200159/history_of_southwark/1010/london_bridge Southwark Council page with more info about the bridge]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/launch_vt_londonbridge.shtml Virtual reality tour of Old London Bridge]
* [https://books.google.com/ebooks/reader?id=DZwAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&pg=GBS.PA33 Old London Bridge, Mechanics Magazine No. 318, September 1829]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120803005416/http://www.thelondonbridgeexperience.com/history-of-london-bridge.asp The London Bridge Experience]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/the_bridge_that_crossed_an_ocean The bridge that crossed an ocean (And the man who moved it)] BBC News, 23 September 2018

{{ThamesCrossings | west=[[City & South London Railway]] tunnels (disused) [[Cannon Street Railway Bridge]] | east=[[Northern line]] tunnel between [[Bank–Monument station|Bank]] and [[London Bridge station|London Bridge]]}}
{{Bridges of Central London}}
{{London history}}
{{City of London gates}}
{{London Borough of Southwark}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bridges across the River Thames]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1831]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1973]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in the 13th century]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in the 1st century]]
[[Category:Bridges in London]]
[[Category:Bridges in Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Bridges in the City of London]]
[[Category:Bridges with buildings]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1209]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Southwark]]
[[Category:Former toll bridges in England]]
[[Category:History of the City of London]]
[[Category:London folklore]]
[[Category:Rebuilt buildings and structures in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in the City of London]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in the London Borough of Southwark]]
[[Category:Transport in the London Borough of Southwark]]
[[Category:William II of England]]
[[Category:William the Conqueror]]

Eise Eisinga

2025-09-25T15:20:52Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Orrery */Added location

{{Short description|Dutch astronomer (1744–1828)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Eise Eisinga
| image = Franeker. Stadhuis. 03-08-2021. (actm) 02.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Portrait by {{ill|Willem Bartel van der Kooi|nl}} (1827)
| birth_name = Eise Jeltes Eisinga
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1744|2|21|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Dronryp]], [[Dutch Republic]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1828|8|27|1744|2|21|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Franeker]], [[Netherlands]]
| nationality =
| other_names =
| occupation =
| years_active =
| known_for =
| notable_works =
}}

'''Eise Jeltes Eisinga''' (21 February 1744 – 27 August 1828) was a [[Friesland|Frisian]] [[astronomer]] and [[Autodidacticism|autodidact]] who built the [[Eise Eisinga Planetarium]] in his house in [[Franeker]], [[Dutch Republic]]. The [[orrery]] still exists and is the oldest functioning [[planetarium]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pascoe |first=Robin |date=2023-09-19 |title="Extraordinary" Franeker planetarium makes Unesco heritage list |url=https://www.dutchnews.nl/2023/09/extraordinary-franeker-planetarium-makes-unesco-heritage-list/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=DutchNews.nl |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=MacEacheran |first=Mike |title=The world’s oldest working planetarium |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180320-the-worlds-oldest-working-planetarium |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Biography==
Eise Jeltes Eisinga was born on 21 February 1744 in [[Dronryp]] in the [[Dutch Republic]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://www.eisinga-planetarium.nl/en/history/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=Koninklijk Eise Eisinga Planetarium |language=en-US}}</ref> He was the son of Jelte Eises from [[Easterlittens]], a wool [[carding|carder]], and Hitje Steffens from [[Winsum, Friesland|Winsum]].

Although Eisinga was [[intellectually gifted]], he was not allowed to go to secondary school. When he was only 17 years old, he wrote a book about [[mathematics]] and another about the principles of [[astronomy]]. Additional books about special subjects within the field of astronomy followed. Eisinga became a wool carder in Franeker, Netherlands.<ref name=":0" /> Through self-education he mastered mathematics and astronomy, which he also studied at the [[University of Franeker]]. At the age of 24, he married Pietje Jacobs<ref name=":0" /> (1748<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pietje Jacobs (± 1748-1788) » Groningse doopsgezinden » Genealogie Online |url=https://www.genealogieonline.nl/groningse-doopsgezinden/I16465.php |access-date=2025-02-22 |website=www.genealogieonline.nl}}</ref> – 18 July 1788)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zoeken |url=https://allefriezen.nl/zoeken/deeds/d71bb991-6557-49ae-a027-c7c14c6c438c?person=89ca41b4-6979-4a33-a836-e397d6c1297e |access-date=2025-02-22 |website=allefriezen.nl}}</ref> and they had three children, one girl and two boys.
* Trijntje (April 1773 – 26 April 1773)
* Jelte (29 May 1774 – 31 March 1809)
* Jacobus (17 March 1784 – 24 March 1858)

Due to a political crisis in 1787, Eisinga had to leave Friesland and went to Germany. Later he moved to [[Visvliet]] where he worked as a wool carder. He was banned from Friesland for five years and therefore stayed in Visvliet just across the border in [[Groningen]]. Meanwhile, his wife died, and on 27 May 1792, he married Trijntje Eelkes Sikkema (21 February 1764) in Visvliet. They had one son and two daughters.
* Eelke (14 October 1793 – 28 May 1795)
* Hittje (16 February 1796 – 8 May 1843)
* Minke (4 June 1798 – 17 July 1870)
In 1795 he returned to Franeker.

Eisinga remained a wool carder throughout his life, while running his planetarium with the help of public support, and occasionally guest lecturing at the [[University of Franeker]], which Napoleon ordered closed in 1811.

Eisinga died on 27 August 1828, at age 84, in [[Franeker]].

==Orrery==
{{Main|Eisinga Planetarium}}
[[Image:FranekerPlanetarium.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[orrery]] he built in his living room]]
[[Image:Franeker, Planetarium.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The brick building housing the orrery in [[Franeker]] in the [[Netherlands]]]]
On 8 May 1774 a [[Conjunction (astronomy)|conjunction]] of the moon and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter was forecast to appear. Reverend [[Eelco Alta]], from [[Boazum]], Netherlands, published a book in which he interpreted this as a return to the state of the planets at the day of [[Genesis creation narrative|creation]] and a likely occasion for [[Armageddon]]. Alta predicted that the planets and the moon would collide, with the result that the Earth would be pushed out of its orbit and burned by the Sun.<ref>{{cite book|first=Eelco |last=Alta|authorlink=Eelco Alta|title= Philosophische Bedenkingen over de Conjunctie van de Planeten Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercurius en de Maan. Op den Agtsten May 1774. staande te gebeuren, en wel over de Mogelyke en Waarschynelyke Sterre en Natuurkundige Gevolgen deezer Conjunctie|location= Boazum|year= 1774}}</ref> Due to this prediction, there was a lot of panic in Friesland.

The canonical view holds that Eisinga decided to build an orrery in his living room to prove that there was no reason for panic. He expected to finish it within six months and eventually finished it in 1781, seven years after he started. During the same year, Uranus was discovered, but there was no room for this planet on the ceiling of his living room, where the orrery was located. However, recent research indicates that this chain of causality is dubious, not least because Eijsinga appears to have commenced construction ''before'' the publication of Alta's book.<ref>Huib J. Zuidervaart, ''Speculatie, wetenschap en vernuft. Fysica en astronomie volgens Wytze Foppes Dongjuma (1707–1778), instrumentmaker te Leeuwarden'' (Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy, 1995).</ref> The construction of the orrery saved Eijsinga a lot of time, however, because he no longer needed to calculate the planets' respective positions by hand.

On 30 June 1818, [[William I of the Netherlands|King William I of the Netherlands]] and Prince Frederik visited the orrery. King William I bought the orrery for the Dutch state. In 1859, the orrery was donated by the Dutch state to the city of Franeker.

==Recognition==
Eisinga was rewarded by becoming an honorary citizen of Franeker. The street of his planetarium was renamed "Eise Eisingastraat". On 5 May 1994 an 80-cent stamp was issued by the post office to celebrate his 250th birthday. In 2006 the planetarium was given permission to use the title "royal". Eisinga was also included in the [[Canon of the Netherlands]] and the [[Canon of Friesland]], which are taught in schools in the Netherlands and the province of Friesland, respectively.

[[File:Clockwork Planetarium Eise Eisinga.webm|thumbnail|left|thumbtime=30|alt=Clockwork in action]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|title=Planetarium-boek: Eise Eisinga|language=Dutch|first1=E.|last1=Havinga|first2=W. E. |last2=van Wijk |first3=J. F. M. G. |last3=d'Aumerie|year=1928|publisher=Van Loghum Slaterus|location=Arnhem}}
*{{cite book|first=Pieter|last=Terpstra|title=Wolken en stjerren; roman oer Eise Eisinga|language=Western Frisian|year=1994|isbn=90-330-0237-X}}
*{{cite book|first=Arjen|last=Dijkstra|title=De Hemelbouwer; |language=Dutch|year=2021|isbn=978-90-5615-789-0}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Eise Eisinga}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Eisinga, Eise}}
[[Category:18th-century Dutch astronomers]]
[[Category:1744 births]]
[[Category:1828 deaths]]

[[Category:People from Franekeradeel]]
[[Category:People from Menaldumadeel]]
[[Category:19th-century Dutch astronomers]]

Christian Institute

2025-09-25T13:21:21Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: Added link

{{Short description|UK charity}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Distinguish|Christian Institute of Southern Africa}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Christian Institute
| image = Christian Institute logo.jpg
| size = 240px
| abbreviation = CI
| motto =
| formation = 1991
| headquarters = Wilberforce House, 4 Park Road, Gosforth Business Park, [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], NE12 8DG.
| type = [[Christian]] charity
| leader_title = Director
| leader_name = Vacant
| key_people =
| website = {{URL|http://www.christian.org.uk}}
}}
The '''Christian Institute''' ('''CI''') is a charity operating in the [[United Kingdom]], promoting a [[Conservative evangelicalism in the United Kingdom|conservative evangelical]] [[Christian]] viewpoint, founded on a belief in [[Biblical inerrancy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.christian.org.uk/whoweare/basisoffaith.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202091913/http://christian.org.uk/whoweare/basisoffaith.htm|url-status=dead|title=Christian Institute Homepage|archivedate=2 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=FAQ |url=https://www.christian.org.uk/who-we-are/faq/ |website=The Christian Institute |access-date=27 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kettell |first1=Steven |title=The Collective Action Framing of Conservative Christian Groups in Britain |journal=Politics and Religion |date=June 2017 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=286–310 |doi=10.1017/S1755048316000766 |url=https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/82957/4/WRAP_CAF28wrap29.pdf |access-date=27 March 2024}}</ref> The CI is a registered charity.<ref name=charity-1004774>{{EW charity|1004774|The Christian Institute}}</ref> The group does not report numbers of staff, volunteers or members with only the former director, Colin Hart, listed as a representative.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.christian.org.uk/who-we-are/|title=Who we are - The Christian Institute|website=www.christian.org.uk}}</ref> Hart died in March 2024, leaving the directorship vacant.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Colin Hart Death |url=https://www.evangelical-times.org/christian-institute-director-colin-hart-has-died/ |website=Christian Institute|date=14 March 2024 }}</ref> According to the accounts and trustees' annual report for the financial year ending 2017, the average head count of employees during the year was 48 (2016:46).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Accounts/Ends74/0001004774_AC_20171231_E_C.PDF|title=The Christian Institute Accounts and Trustees Report 2017|last=|first=|date=|website=UK Charity Commission|access-date=}}</ref>

While the CI has campaigned on issues including [[gambling]], [[abortion]] and [[euthanasia]], it is most notable for its campaigns against [[homosexuality]] and [[gay rights]]. The CI sought to retain [[Section 28]]<ref name=CI>{{cite web |title=Section 28: Briefing Paper |url=http://www.christian.org.uk/briefingpapers/section28.htm |publisher=Christian Institute |accessdate=24 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150804054721/http://www.christian.org.uk/briefingpapers/section28.htm |archivedate=4 August 2015 }}</ref> and a higher [[age of consent]] for gay and bisexual men, and opposed the [[Civil Partnership Act]], the [[Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013]] and legislation allowing same-gender couples to [[adopt]].<ref>[http://www.christian.org.uk/html-publications/counterfeitmarriage.htm Counterfeit Marriage] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728195320/http://www.christian.org.uk/html-publications/counterfeitmarriage.htm |date=2012-07-28 }} on Christian Institute website; retrieved 2012-08-16</ref> It has opposed measures to prevent gay people being discriminated against in the provision of services and goods.<ref>[https://www.christian.org.uk/news/govt-pushes-on-with-costly-equality-bill/ Govt pushes on with ‘costly’ Equality Bill] on Christian Institute website; retrieved 2012-08-16</ref> The [[Civil Partnership Act 2004]], the [[Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013]] and the [[Equality Act 2010]] were ultimately enacted by [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]].

The Christian Institute's activities were criticized by the [[Charity Commission]] in 2001, for breaching rules limiting overt political campaigning by charities, by publishing a 100-page report, ''Homosexuality and Young People'' (1998), which argued against reforming anti-homosexual law from a purely political viewpoint.<ref name="telegraph_reprimand">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1338340/Campaigning-charity-told-to-steer-clear-of-politics.html Campaigning charity told to steer clear of politics]. ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', 23 August 2001</ref>

In 2004, the CI funded a full-page newspaper advertisement in ''[[The Times]]'' in support of a controversial [[Bill (proposed law)|amendment]] to the [[Civil Partnership Bill]].<ref>[https://www.christian.org.uk/press-releases/public-strongly-supports-including-siblings-in-civil-partnership-bill/ Public strongly supports including siblings in Civil Partnership Bill] on Christian Institute website; retrieved 2012-08-16</ref> The amendment attempted to include within the scope of the Bill [[sibling]]s who had lived together for longer than 12 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo041109/debtext/41109-12.htm|title=House of Commons Hansard Debates for 9 Nov 2004 (pt 12)}}</ref> The amendment was ultimately rejected in both Houses of Parliament. In response to the advertisement, [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] questioned the CI's overt political campaigning in light of its charitable status.<ref>[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo041109/debtext/41109-18.htm House of Commons Hansard Debates for 9 Nov 2004 (pt 18)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060313155730/http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo041109/debtext/41109-18.htm |date=March 13, 2006 }}</ref>

==Legal actions==
In 2000, the CI became the only group to initiate a court case for an alleged breach of the now defunct [[Section 28#Political response|Section 28]]. The case failed.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/746575.stm Council halts gay group cash] website BBC News; retrieved 2012-08-16 [https://www.christian.org.uk/press-releases/glasgow-forced-not-to-promote-homosexuality/ Glasgow forced not to promote homosexuality] Christian Institute website; retrieved 2012-08-16 [https://web.archive.org/web/20160325164115/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-18747368.html Gay groups 'delighted' as Section 28 case dropped] [[The Scotsman]] July 7, 2000 on website Highbeam Research; retrieved on 2012-08-16</ref>

In 2007, the CI and others unsuccessfully sought a judicial review of the [[Sexual orientation regulations|Sexual Orientation Regulations]] in [[Northern Ireland]].<ref>[http://www.courtsni.gov.uk/en-GB/Judicial%20Decisions/PublishedByYear/Documents/2007/2007%20NIQB%2066/j_j_WEAC5888Final.htm judgment High Court of Justice in Northern Ireland - Queen’S Bench Division (2007) NIQB 66, ref. WEAC5888] retrieved 2012-08-16</ref>

In May 2008, the CI funded<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/christian-registrar-threatened-with-sack-after-refusing-to-conduct-gay-marriages-6636501.html | work=[[Evening Standard]] | title=Christian registrar 'threatened with sack' after refusing to conduct gay marriages | date=20 May 2008}}</ref> the legal costs of [[Ladele v London Borough of Islington|Lillian Ladele]], a [[Registrar General|registrar]] from [[Islington]], [[London]], who took her employer, [[Islington London Borough Council]], to the London Central [[Employment Tribunal]]. Ladele had refused to process the paperwork associated with [[Civil partnerships in the United Kingdom|civil partnerships]] on religious grounds, and following complaints from other staff she was disciplined under the Council's ''Fairness for All'' policy. Ladele claimed she had been subject to direct and indirect discrimination, and harassment in the workplace, on grounds of her religion. In July 2008, the tribunal found in Ladele's favour; however this ruling was overturned by the [[Employment Appeal Tribunal]] in December, 2008.<ref name="guardian_ladele">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/20/gayrights-law|title=Landmark rulings strengthen gay rights in workplace|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=20 December 2008}}</ref> The CI later launched an unsuccessful appeal against this ruling in the High Court, and has been refused permission to appeal to the Supreme Court.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.secularism.org.uk/islington-christian-registrar-lo.html|title=Islington "Christian registrar" loses High Court appeal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.secularism.org.uk/islington-registrar-refused-perm.html|title=Islington Registrar refused permission to appeal to Supreme Court}}</ref>

In 2010, the CI funded the defence of two Christian hotel owners accused of acting unlawfully under the [[Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations]], by refusing to let a same-gender couple in a [[Civil partnership in the United Kingdom|civil partnership]] stay in a double room reserved for married couples.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/223864/Gay-couple-hail-hotel-snub-ruling |title=Gay couple hail hotel snub ruling |agency=Press Association |newspaper=Daily Express |date=18 January 2011 |accessdate=21 February 2014}}</ref> The owners lost both the case and the subsequent appeal.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/10/christian-lose-appeal-gay-guests |title=Christian B&B owners lose appeal over turning away gay guests |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=10 February 2012 |accessdate=10 February 2012 }}</ref>

In 2015 and 2016 CI was part of the No to Named Person (NO2NP) coalition that campaigned against the "named person" scheme in Scotland, the attempt by the Scottish Government to introduce [[Children and Young People (Scotland) Act 2014|legislation]] creating a single point of contact for each child, with privileged access to data about that child.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-35752756|title=What is the named person scheme? - BBC News|work=BBC News |date=8 March 2016 |language=en-GB|access-date=2016-07-29}}</ref> NO2NP argued that this would "[undermine] parents and permits the state unlimited access to pry into the privacy of families in their homes" and would stretch child protection resources.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://no2np.org/named-person/|title=The Named Person Scheme - NO2NP|website=no2np.org|access-date=2016-07-29}}</ref> The arguments were dismissed by the Court of Session in Edinburgh in 2015. After hearing an appeal in March 2016,<ref>Supreme Court, appeal hearing, ''The Christian Institute and others (Appellants) v The Lord Advocate (Respondent) (Scotland)''[https://www.supremecourt.uk/watch/uksc-2015-0216/080316-am.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001202050/https://www.supremecourt.uk/watch/uksc-2015-0216/080316-am.html|date=2016-10-01}}</ref> the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|UK Supreme Court]] stated that the proposed legislation would breach the rights to privacy and a family life under the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], and ruled that the proposal could not be implemented in this form.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-36903513|title=Supreme Court rules against Named Person scheme - BBC News|work=BBC News |date=27 July 2016 |language=en-GB|access-date=2016-07-29}}</ref> On 19 September 2019 the Scottish Education Secretary, John Swinney, confirmed that the Scottish Government will withdraw the named person legislation.<ref>Deputy First Minister's Statement on Named Persons[https://news.gov.scot/speeches-and-briefings/getting-it-right-for-every-child]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.supremecourt.uk/cases/uksc-2015-0216 ''The Christian Institute and others (Appellants) v The Lord Advocate (Respondent) (Scotland)'', Supreme Court Judgment and Press Summary]

[[Category:Anti-abortion organisations in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Christian fundamentalism]]
[[Category:Evangelicalism in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Evangelical parachurch organizations]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Tyne and Wear]]
[[Category:Religion in Tyne and Wear]]
[[Category:Organisations that oppose LGBTQ rights in the United Kingdom]]

Patrick O'Brian

2025-09-25T11:29:13Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Life after the Second World War */Added detail

{{Short description|English novelist (1914–2000)}}
{{Other people5|Patrick O'Brien (disambiguation){{!}}Patrick O'Brien}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox author
| image =
| imagesize =
| name = Patrick O'Brian
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]]
| caption = Patrick O'Brian
| birth_name = Richard Patrick Russ
| birth_date = 12 December 1914
| birth_place = [[Chalfont St. Peter]], [[Buckinghamshire]], England
| death_date = {{death date and age|2000|1|2|1914|12|12|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Dublin]], Ireland
| resting_place = [[Collioure]], France
| resting_place_coordinates = 
| occupation = Novelist and [[translation|translator]]
| spouse = Elizabeth Jones (divorced) Mary O'Brian (1945–1998)
| notableworks = [[Aubrey–Maturin series]]
}}

'''Patrick O'Brian''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|CBE}} (12 December 1914 – 2 January 2000), born '''Richard Patrick Russ''', was an English [[novelist]] and translator, best known for his [[Aubrey–Maturin series]]. These [[sea novel]]s are set in the [[Royal Navy]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and centre on the friendship of the English naval captain [[Jack Aubrey]] and the Irish–Catalan physician [[Stephen Maturin]]. The 20-novel series, the first of which is ''[[Master and Commander]]'', is known for its well-researched and highly detailed portrayal of early 19th-century life, as well as its authentic and evocative language. A partially finished 21st novel in the series was published posthumously containing facing pages of handwriting and typescript.

O'Brian wrote a number of other novels and short stories, most of which were published before he achieved success with the Aubrey–Maturin series. He also translated works from French to English, and wrote biographies of [[Joseph Banks: A Life|Joseph Banks]] and [[Picasso]].

His major success as a writer came late in life, when the Aubrey–Maturin series caught the eye of an American publisher. The series drew more readers and favourable reviews when the author was in his seventies. Near the end of his life, and in the same year that he lost his wife, British media revealed details of O'Brian's early life, first marriage, and post-war change of name, causing distress to the very private author and to many of his readers at that time.

==Personal life and privacy==

===Childhood, early career and marriages===
O'Brian was christened as Richard Patrick Russ, in [[Chalfont St Peter]], [[Buckinghamshire]], a son of Charles Russ, an English physician of German descent, and Jessie Russ (née Goddard), an English woman of Irish descent.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} The eighth of nine children, O'Brian lost his mother at the age of four, and his biographers describe a fairly isolated childhood, limited by poverty, with sporadic schooling, at [[St Marylebone Grammar School]] from 1924 to 1926, while living in Putney, and then at [[Lewes Grammar School]], from September 1926 to July 1929, after the family moved to [[Lewes]], [[East Sussex]],<ref name="Tolstoyp72">{{Cite book |last=Tolstoy |first=Nikolai |title=Patrick O'Brian: The making of the novelist |publisher=Arrow |year=2005 |isbn=978-0393061307 |page=72 |author-link=Nikolai Tolstoy}}</ref> but with intervals at home with his father and stepmother Zoe Center.<ref name="GBrown">{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Anthony Gary |url=http://www.hmssurprise.org/patrick-and-mary-obrian |title=The Patrick O'Brian Muster Book: Persons, Animals, Ships and Cannon in the Aubrey–Maturin Sea Novels |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7864-2482-5 |edition=Second |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |orig-year=2006}}</ref>

His literary career began in his childhood, with the publication of his earliest works, including several short stories. The book ''[[Hussein, An Entertainment]]'' published by [[Oxford University Press]] in 1938, and the short-story collection ''Beasts Royal'' brought considerable critical praise, [[Novelist#Age and experience|especially considering his youth]].<ref name=kinglrev/> He published his first novel at age 15, ''Caesar: The Life Story of a Panda-Leopard'', with help from his father.<ref name=kinglrev />{{rp|50}}<ref name="Veale">{{Cite news |last=Veale |first=Scott |date=5 March 2000 |title=The Man Without a Past |work=[[The New York Times]] |department=Review |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/00/03/05/reviews/000305.05vealet.html |access-date=4 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Brian |first=Patrick |title=Caesar: The Life Story of a Panda Leopard |date=17 April 2001 |publisher=W W Norton |isbn=978-0393321821 |orig-year=1930}}</ref>

In 1927 he applied unsuccessfully to enter the [[Britannia Royal Naval College|Royal Naval College, Dartmouth]].<ref name="Tolstoyp80">{{Cite book |last=Tolstoy |first=Nikolai |title=Patrick O'Brian: The making of the novelist |publisher=Arrow |year=2005 |isbn=978-0393061307 |page=80 |author-link=Nikolai Tolstoy}}</ref> In 1934, he underwent a brief period of pilot training with the [[Royal Air Force]], but that was not successful and he left the RAF. Prior to that, his application to join the [[Royal Navy]] had been rejected on health grounds.<ref name=GBrown /> In 1935, he was living in London, where he married his first wife, Elizabeth Jones, in 1936. They had two children. The second was a daughter who suffered from [[spina bifida]], and died in 1942, aged three, in a country village in Sussex. When the child died, O'Brian had already returned to London, where he worked throughout the war.

The details of his employment during the [[Second World War]] are murky. He worked as an ambulance driver, and he stated that he worked in intelligence in the [[Political Intelligence Department (1939–1943)|Political Intelligence Department]] (PID).<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 January 2000 |title=Patrick O'Brian |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/books-obituaries/6916742/Patrick-OBrian.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108084432/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/books-obituaries/6916742/Patrick-OBrian.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 January 2010 |access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> [[Dean King]] has said O'Brian was actively involved in intelligence work and perhaps special operations overseas during the war.<ref name="kinglrev">{{Cite book |last=King |first=Dean |title=Patrick O'Brian:A life revealed |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2000 |isbn=0-340-79255-8 |location=London |author-link=Dean King}}</ref>{{rp|89–104}} Indeed, despite his usual extreme reticence about his past, O'Brian wrote in an essay, "Black, Choleric and Married?", included in the book ''Patrick O'Brian: Critical Appreciations and a Bibliography'' (1994)<ref name=cunningham1994>{{cite book |title=Patrick O'Brian: Critical Appreciations and a Bibliography |editor=Cunningham, A.E. |year=1994 |publisher=The British Library Publishing Division |location=London |isbn=0-7123-1070-3 |pages=15–19 }}</ref> that: "Some time after the blitz had died away I joined one of those intelligence organisations that flourished during the War, perpetually changing their initials and competing with one another. Our work had to do with France, and more than that I shall not say, since disclosing methods and stratagems that have deceived the enemy once and that may deceive him again seems to me foolish. After the war we retired to Wales (I say we because my wife and I had driven ambulances and served in intelligence together) where we lived for a while in a high Welsh-speaking valley..." which confirms in first person the intelligence connection, as well as introducing his wife Mary Tolstoy, née Wicksteed, as a co-worker and fellow intelligence operative.

[[Nikolai Tolstoy]], [[stepson]] through O'Brian's marriage to Mary, disputes that account,<ref>{{cite book |title=Patrick O'Brian: The making of the novelist |last=Tolstoy |first=Nikolai |author-link=Nikolai Tolstoy |year=2005 |publisher=Arrow |isbn=978-0393061307 |pages=269–274 }}</ref> confirming only that O'Brian worked as a volunteer ambulance driver during the [[The Blitz|Blitz]] when he met Mary, the separated wife of Russian-born nobleman and [[lawyer]] Count Dimitri Tolstoy. They lived together through the latter part of the war and, after both were divorced from their previous spouses, they married in July 1945. The following month he changed his name by [[deed poll]] to Patrick O'Brian.

=== Sailing experience ===
As background to his later sea-going novels, O'Brian did claim to have had limited experience on a square-rigged sailing vessel, as described within his previously-quoted 1994 essay:

{{Quote|text=The disease that racked my bosom every now and then did not much affect my strength and when it left me in peace (for there were long remissions) sea-air and sea-voyages were recommended. An uncle had a two-ton [[sloop]] and several friends had boats, which was fine, but what was even better was that my particular friend Edward, who shared a tutor with me, had a cousin who possessed an ocean-going yacht, a converted square-rigged [[merchantman]], that he used to crew with undergraduates and fair-sized boys, together with some real seamen, and sail far off into the Atlantic. The young are wonderfully resilient, and although I never became much of a topman, after a while I could hand, reef and steer without disgrace, which allowed more ambitious sailoring later on.<ref name="cunningham1994" />}}

However, in 1995, venture capitalist [[Thomas Perkins (businessman)|Thomas Perkins]] offered O'Brian a two-week cruise aboard his then sailing yacht, a {{convert|154|ft|m|adj=on}} [[ketch]]. In an article about the experience written after O'Brian's death, Perkins commented that "... his knowledge of the practical aspects of sailing seemed, amazingly, almost nil" and "... he seemed to have no feeling for the wind and the course, and frequently I had to intervene to prevent a full standing [[jibe|gybe]]. I began to suspect that his autobiographical references to his months at sea as a youth were fanciful."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latitude38.com/features/O'Brian.htm |title=Cruising with Patrick O'Brian – The Man and the Myth |last=Perkins |first=Tom |publisher=Latitude 38|date=August 2000 |access-date=30 March 2017}}</ref>

===Life after the Second World War===
Between 1946 and 1949 the O'Brians lived in [[Croesor|Cwm Croesor]], a remote valley in north Wales, where they initially rented a cottage from the architect [[Clough Williams-Ellis]]. O'Brian pursued his interest in [[natural history]]; he fished, went birdwatching, and followed the local hunt. During this time they lived on Mary O'Brian's small income and the limited earnings from O'Brian's writings.

In 1949 O'Brian and Mary moved to [[Collioure]], a Catalan town in southern France. He and Mary remained together in Collioure until her death in 1998. Mary's love and support were critical to O'Brian throughout his career. She worked with him in the British Library in the 1940s as he collected source material for his anthology ''A Book of Voyages'', which became the first book to bear his new name – the book was among his favourites, because of this close collaboration. The death of his wife in March 1998 was a tremendous blow to O'Brian. In the last two years of his life, particularly once the details of his early life were revealed to the world, he was a "lonely, tortured, and at the last possibly paranoid figure."<ref name="Tolstoy">{{cite book |last=Tolstoy |first=Nikolai |title=Patrick O'Brian: The making of the novelist |publisher=Random House |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=0-09-941584-4}}</ref>

===Media exposure and controversy in his final years===
O'Brian protected his privacy fiercely and was usually reluctant to reveal any details about his private life or past, preferring to include no biographical details on his book jackets and supplying only a minimum of personal information when pressed to do so.<ref name="Tolstoy" /> For many years reviewers and journalists presumed he was Irish,<ref>For example, [[Lord Dunsany]] referred to ''The Last Pool'' as "this charming book by an Irish sportsman" in a 1950 ''[[The Observer|Observer]]'' review (Tolstoy, 324), and [[William Waldegrave, Baron Waldegrave of North Hill|William Waldegrave]], reviewing ''The Wine-Dark Sea'' in 1993, was still referring to O'Brian's supposed "Irish, French and English childhood" (William Waldegrave, ''Patrick O'Brian'', reprinted in Patrick O'Brian, ''The Reverse of the Medal'', HarperCollins reprinted 2003)</ref> and he took no steps to correct the impression. One interviewer, Mark Horowitz, described the man in his late seventies as "a compact, austere gentleman. ... his pale, watchful eyes are clear and alert."<ref name=Horowitz /> He was polite, formal, and erudite in conversation, an erudition that Horowitz said could be intimidating. He learned from those who worked with O'Brian that the erudition did not go unnoticed, while they remained friends.

Richard Ollard, a [[naval historian]], calls this particular habit "blowing people out of the game." Ollard, who edited the early Aubrey–Maturin novels, urged O'Brian to tone down the most obscure allusions, though the books still contain numerous Latin phrases, period [[medical terminology]] and specialised naval jargon. "Like many who have struggled themselves", Ollard said of his friend, "he thought others should struggle, too." One longtime acquaintance put it more bluntly: "Patrick can be a bit of a snob, socially and intellectually."<ref name=Horowitz />

In 1998, a [[BBC]] documentary and an [[Investigative journalism|exposé]] in ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''<ref name="Telegraph Fenton">{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=/archive/1999/10/24/nobr24.html |title=The Secret Life of Patrick O'Brian |last=Fenton |first=Ben |date=24 October 1999 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=26 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060105221749/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=%2Farchive%2F1999%2F10%2F24%2Fnobr24.html |archive-date=5 January 2006 }}</ref> made public the facts of his ancestry, original name and first marriage, provoking considerable critical media comment. In his biography of O'Brian,<ref name="Tolstoy" /> Nikolai Tolstoy claims to give a more accurate and balanced account of his late stepfather's character, actions and motives, particularly in respect of his first marriage and family.

[[John Lanchester]] in reviewing Tolstoy's book, says "The last few years have been disheartening for Patrick O'Brian's many fans."<ref name=Lanchester>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3626812/Remember-him-as-a-writer.html |title=Remember him as a writer |date=9 November 2004 |last=Lanchester |first=John |newspaper=The Telegraph |access-date=4 June 2015}}</ref> He does not find the arguments altogether persuasive, and with access to documents that Dean King never saw, Tolstoy "gives a portrait of a man who is cold, bullying, isolated, snobbish and super-sensitive."<ref name=Lanchester /> Lanchester closes by saying "Let's agree, we O'Brianists, to read the novels and forget everything else." Veale, in reviewing King's book, says that "however judicious and well-grounded his [King's] speculation, he fails to crack his subject's protective shell. In the end, Aubrey and Maturin will have to thrive on their own—which is how the willfully enigmatic O'Brian most likely intended it."<ref name=Veale />

Horowitz interviewed O'Brian at his home in France in 1994: "Until recently, he refused all interviews. Those authors we know the least about, he says, are the ones we get in their purest form, like Homer. In ''Clarissa Oakes'' (published as ''The Truelove'' in the US), Stephen warns would-be interviewers that "question and answer is not a civilised form of conversation." O'Brian deflects direct inquiries about his private life, and when asked why he moved to the south of France after World War II, he stops and fixes his interrogator with a cold stare. "That seems to be getting rather close to a personal question," he says softly, walking on."<ref name=Horowitz />

At his death, many obituaries were published evaluating his work, particularly in the Aubrey–Maturin series, and the revelations of his biography prior to his marriage to Mary Wicksteed Tolstoy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/library/books/010700obit-obrian.html |title=Patrick O'Brian, Whose 20 Sea Stories Won Him International Fame, Dies at 85 |last=Prial |first=Frank J |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=7 January 2000 |quote=Critics likened the O'Brian books to the sequential novels of Trollope and Anthony Powell, but the comparison that pleased O'Brian most was to Jane Austen. }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.salon.com/2000/01/13/o_brian/ |title= Patrick O'Brian: The author of the wildly popular 18th century seagoing saga created, out of his own life, a fiction nearly as elaborate |last=Williams |first=Ian |magazine=Salon |date=13 January 2000 |access-date=8 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.philly.com/2000-01-08/news/25599146_1_aubrey-maturin-series-patrick-o-brian-stephen-maturin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231223144/http://articles.philly.com/2000-01-08/news/25599146_1_aubrey-maturin-series-patrick-o-brian-stephen-maturin |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 December 2015 |title=Novelist Patrick O'Brian, Writer of Naval Series, Dies |last=Romano |first=Carlin |newspaper=[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]] |date=8 January 2000 |access-date=8 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-jan-08-mn-52007-story.html |title=Patrick O'Brian; British Master of the High-Seas Adventure Novel |last=Balzar |first=John |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date= 8 January 2000 |access-date=8 June 2015}}</ref><ref name=IrishTimes>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/author-patrick-o-brian-dies-in-dublin-1.231499 |title=Author Patrick O'Brian Dies in Dublin |last=Holland |first=Kitty |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=7 January 2000 |access-date=8 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/jan/08/guardianobituaries.booksobituaries |title=Patrick O'Brian |last=Webb |first=W L |date=8 January 2000 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=8 June 2015}}</ref> Playwright [[David Mamet]] wrote an appreciation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/library/books/011700mamet-writing.html |title=The Humble Genre Novel, Sometimes Full of Genius |last=Mamet |first=David |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=17 January 2000 |quote=His Aubrey-Maturin series, 20 novels of the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars, is a masterpiece. It will outlive most of today's putative literary gems as Sherlock Holmes has outlived Bulwer-Lytton, as Mark Twain has outlived Charles Reade. God bless the straightforward writer, and God bless those with the ability to amuse, provoke, surprise, shock, appall. |access-date=8 June 2015}}</ref> His American publisher, W. W. Norton, wrote an appreciation, mentioning their story with O'Brian, how pleased they were the three times he came to the US, in 1993, 1995 and in November 1999 only weeks before his death, and noting sales in the US alone of over three million copies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wwnorton.com/pob/bio.htm |title=Patrick O'Brian |publisher=W W Norton |year=2003 |access-date=8 June 2015}}</ref>

==Death==
He continued to work on his naval novels until his death and spent the winter of 1998–1999 at [[Trinity College Dublin]]. He died there on 2 January 2000. His body was returned to [[Collioure]], where he is buried next to his wife.<ref name=IrishTimes /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collioure.com.au/obrian1.htm |title=Patrick and Mary O'Brian's grave in Collioure |work=Collioure.com.au |access-date=26 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014104145/http://www.collioure.com.au/obrian1.htm |archive-date=14 October 2009}}</ref>

The "Amis de Patrick O'Brian" association, (friends of Patrick O'Brian), which is located in Collioure, was bequeathed O'Brian's desk and various of his writing artefacts and research materials.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://anglophone-direct.com/sos-hms-surprise-patrick-obrian/ |title=SOS HMS Surprise. Patrick O'Brian Needs You! |date=24 April 2017 |work=P-O Life}}</ref>

==Literary career==

===As Patrick Russ===
O'Brian published two novels, a collection of stories and several uncollected stories under his original name, Richard Patrick Russ. His first novel, ''Caesar: The Life Story of a Panda-Leopard'', was written at the age of 12 and published three years later in 1930. It was a critical success, with a recommendation in the ''[[New Statesman]]'' and positive reviews in publications including the ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' and the ''[[Saturday Review of Literature]]''.<ref name=kinglrev/>{{rp|50}} Other stories followed, published in boys' magazines and [[Annual publication#British annuals|annuals]] and incorporating themes of natural history and adventure, and a collection of these and other animal stories was published in 1934 under the title ''Beasts Royal'', with illustrations by the noted artist [[Charles Tunnicliffe]], illustrator of ''[[Tarka the Otter]]''.

''Hussein: An entertainment'', set in [[India]], was published in 1938, when O'Brian was 23. It was notable for being the first book of contemporary fiction ever published by the [[Oxford University Press]],<ref name=kinglrev/>{{rp|75}} to whose annuals for boys he had been a regular contributor for some years. O'Brian published very little under his original name of Russ during World War II, and nothing after 1940. His change of surname in 1945 necessarily meant abandoning the literary reputation he had built up as R P Russ.

===As Patrick O'Brian===
O'Brian returned to writing after the war when he moved to rural Wales. His non-fiction anthology ''A Book of Voyages'' (1947) attracted little attention. A collection of short stories, ''[[The Last Pool and Other Stories|The Last Pool]]'', was published in 1950 and was more widely and favourably reviewed, although sales were low.<ref name=kinglrev/>{{rp|151–151}} The countryside and people around his village in Wales provided inspiration for many of his short stories of the period, and also his novel ''[[Testimonies (novel)|Testimonies]]'' (1952), which is set in a thinly disguised Cwm Croesor, and which was well received by [[Delmore Schwartz]] in ''[[Partisan Review]]'' in 1952.<ref name=Veale /><ref name=Horowitz /> His next novel was ''The Catalans'', published in 1953. The review in ''The New York Times'' noted O'Brian's accomplishments in ''Testimonies''; ''The Catalans'' was viewed as a series of well-written scenes by an observant author, but the reviewer did not think it held together as a novel.<ref>{{cite news |title=Books of The Times |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |last=Prescott |first=Orville |author-link=Orville Prescott |date=1 January 1954 |access-date=20 February 2019 |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1954/01/01/83743731.html?pageNumber=21 |page=21 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In the 1950s, O'Brian wrote three books aimed at a younger age group, ''[[The Road to Samarcand]]'', ''[[The Golden Ocean]]'', and ''[[The Unknown Shore]]''. Although written many years before the [[Aubrey–Maturin series]], the two naval novels reveal literary antecedents of [[Jack Aubrey|Aubrey]] and [[Stephen Maturin|Maturin]]. In ''The Golden Ocean'' and ''The Unknown Shore'', based on events of [[George Anson's voyage around the world]] from 1740 to 1744, they can be clearly seen in the characters of Jack Byron and Tobias Barrow in the latter novel.<ref name=kinglrev/>{{rp|180}}

Over four decades he worked on his own writings, his British literary reputation growing slowly. He became an established translator of French works into English. His early novels and several of the translations were published by [[Publications by Rupert Hart-Davis|Rupert Hart-Davis]] from 1953 to 1974. O'Brian wrote the first of the [[Aubrey–Maturin series]] in 1969 at the suggestion of American publisher [[J. B. Lippincott & Co.|J B Lippincott]], following the 1966 death of [[C. S. Forester]], a writer of popular nautical novels.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Patrick O'Brian: a life revealed |last=King |first=Dean |publisher=H Holt |year=2000 |isbn=0805059768 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=192–200 |oclc=42437180}}</ref> The Aubrey–Maturin books were quietly popular in Britain; after the first four volumes, they were not published in the United States.

In the early 1990s, the series was successfully relaunched into the American market by the interest of [[Starling Lawrence]] of [[W. W. Norton & Company]],<ref name=Horowitz>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/10/18/specials/obrian-comesin.html |title=Patrick O'Brian's Ship Comes In |last=Horowitz |first=Mark |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |department=Books |date=16 May 1993 |access-date=4 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/06/30/lawrence-steps-down-as-nortons-editor-in-chief/?_r=0 |title=Lawrence Steps Down as Norton's Editor in Chief |last=Bosman |first=Julie |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=30 June 2011 |access-date=4 June 2015}}</ref> attracting critical acclaim and dramatically increasing O'Brian's sales and public profile in the UK and America.<ref name=kinglrev/>{{rp|Ch.22–23}} Paul D. Colford notes that when O'Brian "visited the United States a few weeks ago [in December 1993], fans waiting to meet, lunch and have tea with him included [[Walter Cronkite]], Sen. [[Dirk Kempthorne]] (R-Idaho) and Supreme Court Justice [[Anthony Kennedy]], who invited O'Brian to attend a session of the high court. Hollywood also wants a piece of the press-shy storyteller."<ref name=Colford>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-01-06-vw-8805-story.html |title=The Tide Is Changing for an Obscure Novelist |date=6 January 1994 |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |last=Colford |first=Paul D |access-date=16 March 2015}}</ref>

The novels sold over three million copies in 20 languages.<ref name=Veale /> In its review of ''[[The Final Unfinished Voyage of Jack Aubrey|21: The Final Unfinished Voyage of Jack Aubrey]]'' (published in 2004), ''Publishers Weekly'' said that over six million copies had been sold.<ref name=PW>{{cite web |url=http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/21-patrick-obrian/1103810573?ean=9780393344141 |date=October 2004 |title=21: The Final Unfinished Voyage of Jack Aubrey |work=Editorial Reviews |publisher=Publishers Weekly |access-date=31 March 2015}}</ref> Thus O'Brian's greatest success in writing, gaining him fame, a following, and invitations to events and interviews came late in his life, when he was well into his seventies and accustomed to his privacy.<ref name=Veale />

Shortly before his last completed novel was published in October 1999, O'Brian wrote an article for a series of the best in the millennium ending, titled "Full Nelson", choosing for his topic [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Admiral Nelson's]] victory in the [[Battle of the Nile]] in 1798.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/library/magazine/millennium/m1/obrian.html |last=O'Brian |first=Patrick |title=BEST NAVAL BATTLE – Full Nelson: Outmanned and outgunned, the British flummoxed the French |newspaper=[[The New York Times Magazine]] |department=Best in 1,000 Years |year=1999 |quote=It was a famous victory: it shattered Bonaparte's scheme in Egypt and India; it had great political influence in Europe; it was splendidly rewarded, with medals, promotions and quantities of presents bestowed on those who fought, and it awakened the world to Lord Nelson's glory. |access-date=8 June 2015 }}</ref>

===Aubrey–Maturin series===
{{Main|Aubrey–Maturin series}}
Beginning in 1969, O'Brian began writing what turned into the 20-volume [[Aubrey–Maturin series]] of novels. The books are set in the early 19th century and describe the lives and careers of Captain [[Jack Aubrey]] of the Royal Navy and his friend, naval physician and naturalist Dr [[Stephen Maturin]], a man of Irish and Catalan parents. The books are distinguished by O'Brian's deliberate use and adaptation of actual historical events, either integrating his protagonists in the action without changing the outcome, or using adapted historical events as templates. In addition to this trait and to O'Brian's distinctive literary style, his sense of humour is prominent (see [[Aubrey–Maturin series#Humour|Humour]] in main article, ''Aubrey–Maturin series'').

The series employs technical sailing terminology throughout. Some critics consider the books a [[roman fleuve]], which can be read as one long story; the books follow Aubrey and Maturin's professional and domestic lives continuously.

===Other works===
As well as his [[historical novel]]s, O'Brian wrote three adult mainstream novels, six short-story collections, and a history of the Royal Navy aimed at young readers. He was also a respected translator, responsible for more than 30 translations from the French into English, including [[Henri Charrière]]'s ''[[Papillon (book)|Papillon]]'' (UK) and ''[[Banco (novel)|Banco: The further adventures of Papillon]]'', [[Jean Lacouture]]'s biography of [[Charles de Gaulle]], as well as many of [[Simone de Beauvoir]]'s later works.

O'Brian wrote detailed biographies of [[Joseph Banks|Sir Joseph Banks]], an English naturalist who took part in [[James Cook|Cook]]'s [[First voyage of James Cook|first voyage]] (and who appears briefly in O'Brian's Aubrey-Maturin series), and [[Pablo Picasso]]. His biography of Picasso is a massive and comprehensive study of the artist. Picasso and O'Brian both lived in the French village of [[Collioure]] and became acquainted there.

[[Peter Weir]]'s 2003 film, ''[[Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World]]'' is loosely based on the novel ''The Far Side of the World'' from the [[Aubrey–Maturin series]] for its plot, but draws on a number of the novels for incidents within the film.

===Awards, honours and recognition===
In 1995 he was awarded the inaugural [[Heywood Hill Literary Prize]], in the amount of £10,000 for his lifetime's writings. In his acceptance speech in July 1995, O'Brian, then age 80, said it was the first literary prize of his adult life.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DsktwMvI3uAC&q=Heywood+Hill+Literary+Prize+1995&pg=PA355 |title=Patrick O'Brian: A Life |last=King |first=Dean |page=355 |year=2001 |publisher=Henry Holt and Co |location=New York |isbn=9780805059779 }}</ref> He received an [[honorary doctorate]] from [[Trinity College Dublin]], and a [[CBE]] on June 17, 1997.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v43/n09/christopher-tayler/for-want-of-a-dinner-jacket|title=For Want of a Dinner Jacket |first=Christopher|last=Tayler |date=6 May 2021|volume=43|issue=9 |magazine=[[London Review of Books]] }}</ref><ref name=kinglrev/>

On 21–23 September 2001, the [[National Museum of the Royal Navy, Portsmouth]], organised a ''The Patrick O'Brian Weekend'' to celebrate O'Brian's achievement in depicting Nelson's Navy in his novels. The weekend featured lectures by some of Britain's leading naval historians on "how the novels closely reflect the insights of modern scholarship". There was a concert of contemporary music and readings from his books. The weekend concluded with a tour of Nelson's flagship [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']] followed by a dinner on her lower gundeck.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Other Conferences and Meetings |journal=Newsletter of the Society for Nautical Research |date=August 2001 |issue=43 |page=6}}</ref> The event was repeated one year later at the same venue.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Patrick O'Brian Weekend, 13–15 September 2002 |journal=Newsletter of the Society for Nautical Research |date=August 2002 |issue=47 |page=4}}</ref>

==Original manuscripts==
O'Brian claimed that he wrote "like a Christian, with ink and quill"; Mary was his first reader and typed his manuscripts "pretty" for the publisher. O'Brian handwrote all his books and stories, shunning both typewriter and word processor. The handwritten manuscripts for 18 Aubrey-Maturin novels have been acquired by the [[Lilly Library]] at [[Indiana University]]. Only two, ''The Letter of Marque'' and ''Blue at the Mizzen'', owned by Stuart Bennet, remain in private hands. Bennet donated his correspondence from O'Brian to the Lilly Library; one letter recommends to Bennet that he donate the two manuscripts he holds to Indiana University, where the rest of the manuscripts reside.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://beta.worldcat.org/archivegrid/?q=contributor:5361&label=Indiana+University&limit=25 |title=Letters, 1985–1996. O'Brian, Patrick, 1914–2000. |access-date=4 June 2015 |work=Archive Grid |publisher=Indiana University}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Letters, 1985–1996. |publisher=WorldCat |oclc = 233040638}}</ref> The O'Brian manuscript collection at the Lilly Library also includes the manuscripts for ''Picasso'' and ''Joseph Banks'' and detailed notes for six Aubrey/Maturin novels. The 2011 exhibit Blue at the Mizzen suggests that the manuscript was donated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/digital/collections/items/show/886 |title=Blue at the Mizzen: Patrick O'Brian and the 19th century: an exhibition |date=14 September 2011 |access-date=4 June 2015 |publisher=Indiana University |work=The Lilly Library}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://iub.edu/~mfawrite/?page_id=29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024001804/http://iub.edu/~mfawrite/?page_id=29 |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 October 2007 |title=Creative Writing Program: Additional Opportunities |work=Lilly Library holdings |publisher=Indiana University |access-date=4 June 2015 }}</ref>

Nikolai Tolstoy also has an extensive collection of O'Brian manuscript material, including the second half of ''Hussein'', several short stories, much of the reportedly "lost" book on Bestiaries, letters, diaries, journals, notes, poems, book reviews, and several unpublished short stories.<ref name=Tolstoy2005>{{cite book |title=Patrick O'Brian: The making of the novelist |last=Tolstoy |first=Nikolai |author-link=Nikolai Tolstoy |year=2005 |publisher=Arrow |isbn=978-0393061307 |pages=Various }}</ref>

==Works==

===Aubrey–Maturin series===
{{Main|Aubrey–Maturin series}}
#''[[Master and Commander]]'' (1969)
#[[Post Captain (novel)|''Post Captain'']] (1972)
#[[HMS Surprise (novel)|''HMS Surprise'']] (1973)
#''[[The Mauritius Command]]'' (1977)
#[[Desolation Island (novel)|''Desolation Island'']] (1978)
#''[[The Fortune of War]]'' (1979)
#''[[The Surgeon's Mate]]'' (1980)
#''[[The Ionian Mission]]'' (1981)
#''[[Treason's Harbour]]'' (1983)
#''[[The Far Side of the World]]'' (1984)
#''[[The Reverse of the Medal]]'' (1986)
#''[[The Letter of Marque]]'' (1988)
#''[[The Thirteen-Gun Salute]]'' (1989)
#''[[The Nutmeg of Consolation]]'' (1991)
#''[[Clarissa Oakes]]'' (1992) (published as ''The Truelove'' in the US)
#''[[The Wine-Dark Sea]]'' (1993)
#[[The Commodore (novel)|''The Commodore'']] (1994)
#''[[The Yellow Admiral]]'' (1996)
#[[The Hundred Days (novel)|''The Hundred Days'']] (1998)
#''[[Blue at the Mizzen]]'' (1999)
#''[[The Final Unfinished Voyage of Jack Aubrey]]'' (2004) (published as ''21'' in the US)

===Fiction (non-serial)===
*''[[Caesar (O'Brian novel)|Caesar]]'' (1930, his first book, which led him to be often labelled by critics as the 'boy-[[Thoreau]]')
*''[[Hussein, An Entertainment]]'' (1938)
*''[[Testimonies (novel)|Testimonies]]'' (1952) (First published in the UK as ''Three Bear Witness'' )
*''[[The Catalans]]'' (1953) (''The Frozen Flame'' in the UK)
*''[[The Road to Samarcand]]'' (1954)
*''[[The Golden Ocean]]'' (1956)
*''[[The Unknown Shore]]'' (1959)
*''[[Richard Temple (novel)|Richard Temple]]'' (1962)

===Short story collections===
*''[[Beasts Royal]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Last Pool and Other Stories]]'' (1950)
*''[[The Walker and Other Stories]]'' (1955)
*''[[Lying in the Sun and Other Stories]]'' (1956)
*''[[The Chian Wine and Other Stories]]'' (1974)
*''[[Collected Short Stories (O'Brian book)|Collected Short Stories]]'' (1994) (''The Rendezvous and Other Stories'' in the US)
*''[[The Complete Short Stories]]'' (2023)

===Non-fiction===
*''[[Men-of-War: Life in Nelson's Navy]]'' (1974). {{ISBN|0-393-03858-0}}
*''Pablo Ruiz Picasso: A Biography'' (1976) {{ISBN|978-0-393-31107-5}}
*''[[Joseph Banks: A Life]]'' (1987) The Harvill Press, London. Paperback reprint, 1989. {{ISBN|1-86046-406-8}}
* ''Histoire Naturelle Des Indes: The Drake Manuscript in the Pierpont Morgan Library'' (1996) with Morgan Pierpont and Ruth S Kraemer, Translator, London: W W Norton. {{ISBN|978-0-393-03994-8}}

===Poetry===
*''The Uncertain Land and Other Poems'' (2019)

===French to English translations of other authors' works===
*''Daily Life of the Aztecs on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest'' by [[Jacques Soustelle]]. London, George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd (1961)
*''Daily Life in the Time of Jesus'' by [[Henri Daniel-Rops]]. London, George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd (1962)
*''Munich: Peace for Our Time'' by Henri Nogueres. London, George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd (1965)
*''The Horsemen'' by [[Joseph Kessel]]. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux (1968)
*''[[Papillon (book)|Papillon]]'' by [[Henri Charrière]]. London, Rupert Hart-Davis (1970)
*''[[Banco (novel)|Banco: The further adventures of Papillon]]'' by [[Henri Charrière]]. New York, William Morrow (1973)
*''Target: Heydrich'' by [[Miroslav Ivanov (writer)]]. London. Hart-Davis, MacGibbon (1973)
*Works by [[Simone de Beauvoir#Translations|Simone de Beauvoir]]
*''De Gaulle The Rebel'' 1890 – 1944 by [[Jean Lacouture]]. London, Collins Harvill (1990) {{ISBN|978-0-393-02699-3}}

===Edited by O'Brian===
*''A Book of Voyages'' (1947) (First American Edition 2013) {{ISBN|978-0-393-08958-5}}

==Published biographies of O'Brian==
Since O'Brian's death, two biographies have been published, though the first was well advanced when he died. The second is by O'Brian's stepson [[Nikolai Tolstoy]].

[[Dean King]]'s ''Patrick O'Brian: A Life Revealed'' was the first biography to document O'Brian's early life under his original name.<ref name=kinglrev/>

Tolstoy's two-volume biography, ''Patrick O'Brian: The Making of the Novelist'' (2004) and ''Patrick O'Brian: A Very Private Life'' (2019) make use of material from the Russ and Tolstoy families and sources, including O'Brian's personal papers and library which Tolstoy inherited on O'Brian's death.<ref name="Tolstoy" />{{sfn|Tolstoy|2019}}

==See also==
* [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Lord Cochrane "the sea wolf"]] (1775–1860)
* [[C. S. Forester]] (1899–1966), author of the ''[[Horatio Hornblower]]'' novels
* [[Edward Pellew]] (1757–1833)

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== General and cited references ==
* {{Cite book|title=Patrick O'Brian: A Life Revealed |last=King |first=Dean |publisher=[[Hodder and Stoughton]] |year=2000 |location=London|isbn=0-340-792558}}
* {{Cite book|first=Dean H |last=King|title=In Search of Patrick O'Brian|publisher=Holt (Henry) & Co, US|year=2001|isbn=0-8050-5977-6}} (US edition of the above book)
* {{Cite book|title=Patrick O'Brian: The Making of the Novelist |last=Tolstoy |first=Nikolai |publisher=[[Penguin Random House|Century]] |year=2004 |location=London|isbn=0-7126-7025-4| url=https://archive.org/details/patrickobrianmak0000tols }}
* {{Cite book | first=Nikolai |last=Tolstoy | title=Patrick O'Brian: The Making of the Novelist 1914–1949 | publisher=W W Norton & Co Ltd | year=2005 | isbn=0-393-06130-2}} (US edition of the above book)
* {{Cite book|title=Patrick O'Brian: A Very Private Life |last=Tolstoy |first=Nikolai |publisher=[[HarperCollins|William Collins]] |year=2019 |location=London|isbn=978-0-00-835058-1}}

Also of importance when studying O'Brian's works:

* {{Cite book |editor-last=Cunningham |editor-first=A E |year=1994 |title=Patrick O'Brian: Critical Appreciations and a Bibliography |publisher=British Library |isbn=0-7123-1071-1 }}
** {{cite book |editor-last=Cunningham |editor-first=Arthur E |year=1994 |title=Patrick O'Brian: Critical Essays and a Bibliography |url=https://archive.org/details/patrickobrian00patr |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=978-0393036268 }} (US edition of above book)
* {{Cite book |last=O'Neill |first=Richard |author-link=Richard O'Neill (author) |year=2003 |title=Patrick O'Brian's Navy: The Illustrated Companion to Jack Aubrey's World |publisher=Salamander Books |isbn=0-7624-1540-1}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://books.wwnorton.com/books/Author.aspx?ID=4929 Patrick O'Brian Home Page] – introduction to the author and his books, by his US publisher.
* {{cite journal| url=http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/1628/the-art-of-fiction-no-142-patrick-obrian| title=Patrick O'Brian, The Art of Fiction No. 142 |last=Becker |first=Stephen |journal=The Paris Review | year=1995 | volume=Summer 1995 | issue=135 }}
* [http://wiki.hmssurprise.org/index.php/Main_Page WikiPOBia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816160543/http://wiki.hmssurprise.org/index.php/Main_Page |date=16 August 2009 }} – wiki to annotate the written works of Patrick O'Brian.
* [http://www.cannonade.net Patrick O'Brian Mapping Project] – A Google Maps mashup project to map all 21 books in the [[Aubrey–Maturin series]].
* A Gunroom guide to [https://web.archive.org/web/20120815231143/http://www.prismnet.com/gibbonsb/pob/ Patrick O'Brian Web Resources] – comprehensive annotated link list
* [http://hmssurprise.org/ The Gunroom of HMS ''Surprise'']: resource and discussion site.
* [http://www.hmssurprise.org/News/Daisya_obriani.html ''Daisya obriani''] – Lesser Weevil named for O'Brian
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100108084432/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/books-obituaries/6916742/Patrick-OBrian.html Patrick O'Brian's ''Daily Telegraph'' obituary]

{{PatrickOBriansWork}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Obrian, Patrick}}
[[Category:Works by Patrick O'Brian| ]]
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century English translators]]
[[Category:20th-century English male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century English novelists]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:English historical novelists]]
[[Category:English male novelists]]
[[Category:English people of German descent]]
[[Category:English people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:French–English translators]]
[[Category:Nautical historical novelists]]
[[Category:People from Chalfont St Peter]]
[[Category:Writers about the Age of Sail]]
[[Category:Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period]]
[[Category:Writers of historical fiction set in the modern age]]

Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel

2025-09-25T11:25:26Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Early life */

{{short description|Royal Navy Admiral and politician (1725–1786)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox military person
|honorific_prefix = [[Admiral (Royal Navy)|Admiral]] [[The Right Honourable]]
|name=The Viscount Keppel
|honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|PC}}
|birth_date=25 April 1725
|death_date= {{death date and age|df=yes|1786|10|2|1725|4|25}}
|image=Augustus Keppel BHC2821.jpg
|caption=''[[Portrait of Augustus Keppel]]'', 1749, [[Joshua Reynolds]]'s first painting of him, produced on Menorca
|nickname=
|birth_place=
|death_place=
|allegiance={{Flag|Kingdom of Great Britain}}
|branch={{navy|Kingdom of Great Britain}}
|serviceyears=1735–1786
|rank=[[Admiral (Royal Navy)|Admiral]]
|unit=
|commands= {{HMS|Wolf|1742|6}} {{HMS|Greyhound|1741|6}} {{HMS|Sapphire|1741|6}} {{HMS|Maidstone|1744|6}} {{HMS|Anson|1747|6}} {{HMS|Centurion|1732|6}} [[Mediterranean Fleet]] [[Commander-in-Chief, North American Station|North American Station]] {{HMS|Swiftsure|1750|6}} [[HMS Neptune (1683)|HMS ''Torbay'']] {{HMS|Valiant|1759|6}} [[Jamaica Station (Royal Navy)|Jamaica Station]] [[Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty]] [[Channel Fleet]] [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]
|battles={{Tree list}}
*[[War of the Austrian Succession]]
**[[George Anson's voyage around the world|Anson expedition]])
*[[Seven Years' War]]
**[[Raid on Rochefort]]
**[[Raid on St Malo]]
**[[Capture of Gorée]]
**[[Battle of Quiberon Bay]]
**[[Capture of Belle Île]]
**[[Siege of Havana]]
*[[American Revolutionary War]]
**[[Battle of Ushant (1778)|Battle of Ushant]]
{{tree list/end}}
|awards=
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}

[[Admiral (Royal Navy)|Admiral]] '''Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel''', [[Privy Council (United Kingdom)|PC]] (25 April 1725{{snd}}2 October 1786) was a [[Royal Navy]] officer and politician who sat in the [[House of Commons]] from 1755 to 1782. He saw action in command of various ships, including the [[fourth-rate]] {{HMS|Maidstone|1744|2}}, during the [[War of the Austrian Succession]]. He went on to serve as [[North America and West Indies Station|Commodore on the North American Station]] and then [[Jamaica Station (Royal Navy)|Commander-in-Chief, Jamaica Station]] during the [[Seven Years' War]]. After that he served as [[First Sea Lord|Senior Naval Lord]] and then Commander-in-Chief of the [[Channel Fleet]].

During the [[American Revolutionary War]] Keppel came into a notorious dispute with [[Hugh Palliser|Sir Hugh Palliser]] over Palliser's conduct as his second-in-command at the inconclusive [[Battle of Ushant (1778)|Battle of Ushant]] in July 1778; the dispute led to Keppel and Palliser facing [[courts martial]], which acquitted both of them. During the final years of the American Revolutionary War Keppel served as [[First Lord of the Admiralty]].

==Early life==
A member of a leading [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] aristocratic family (which had come to England with [[William III of England|William of Orange]] in 1688), Augustus Keppel was the second son of [[Willem van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle]] and, [[Anne van Keppel, Countess of Albemarle|Anne van Keppel]], a daughter of the [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond|1st Duke of Richmond]] (himself an illegitimate son of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]]).<ref name=dnb>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Keppel, Augustus|first=John Knox |last=Laughton |volume=31}}</ref> Educated briefly at [[Westminster School]], Keppel went to sea at the age of ten, and had already five years of service to his credit when he was appointed to {{HMS|Centurion|1732|2}} and sent with [[George Anson, 1st Baron Anson|Lord Anson]] round the world in 1740.<ref name=dnb/> He had a very narrow escape from being killed at the capture of [[Paita]] (13 November 1741) and was promoted to acting [[Lieutenant (navy)|lieutenant]] in March 1742.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Keppel, Augustus Keppel, Viscount|volume=15|pages=751–752|first=David|last=Hannay|author-link=David Hannay (historian)}}</ref><ref name=dnb/> Also on this voyage, he made friends with [[John Campbell (Royal Navy officer)|John Campbell]], and lost many of his teeth to the [[scurvy]] prevalent on the voyage. After their return from the circumnavigation, in November 1744, he was promoted to be [[Commander#Royal Navy|commander]] and [[post-captain]] of the 14-gun [[sloop-of-war|sloop]] {{HMS|Wolf|1742|2}}.<ref>Winfield 2007, p. 300</ref> He transferred to the [[sixth-rate]]
{{HMS|Greyhound|1741|2}} in December 1744, to the [[fifth-rate]] {{HMS|Saphire|1741|2}} in February 1745 and the [[fourth-rate]] {{HMS|Maidstone|1744|2}} in November 1745.<ref name=dnb/> In June 1747 he ran his ship, the ''Maidstone'', ashore near Belleisle while chasing a French vessel, but was honourably acquitted by a court martial, and reappointed to another command,<ref name="EB1911"/> the fourth-rate {{HMS|Anson|1747|2}}.<ref name=dnb/> He was actively employed throughout the rest of the [[War of the Austrian Succession]], until [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|peace]] was signed in 1748.<ref name=dnb/>

[[File:Captain the Honourable Augustus Keppel 1725-86 by Sir Joshua Reynolds.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Keppel, by [[Joshua Reynolds|Reynolds]], 1752–53, in a pose not much like the [[Apollo Belvedere]].]]
Early in 1749, he was introduced by [[George Edgcumbe, 1st Earl of Mount Edgcumbe|Lord Edgecombe]] to [[Joshua Reynolds|Sir Joshua Reynolds]]. When, on 11 May 1749, Keppel sailed from Plymouth to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], as Commodore commanding the [[Mediterranean Fleet]],<ref name=odnb>{{cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15439?docPos=3 |title=Augustus Keppel |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/15439 |access-date=29 July 2017|last1=MacKay |first1=Ruddock }}</ref> (with his pennant in his old ship HMS ''Centurion'' intending to persuade the [[Dey]] of [[Algiers]] to restrain the [[Barbary pirates|piratical]] operations of his subjects<ref name="EB1911"/>) Reynolds travelled with him as far as [[Menorca]] and there painted the first of his 6 portraits of Keppel,{{efn|One of the 6, belonging originally to Edmund Burke,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cone |first1=Carl B. |title=Edmund Burke's Art Collection |journal=The Art Bulletin |date=1947 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=126–131 |doi=10.2307/3047117 |jstor=3047117}}</ref> is now in the [[National Gallery]] where there is also one by him of Keppel's mother<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/sir-joshua-reynolds-anne-2nd-countess-of-albemarle|title=Anne, 2nd Countess of Albemarle|publisher=National Gallery|access-date=29 July 2017}}</ref>}} along with others of officers of the British garrison there.{{efn|Reynolds then stayed on the island for the rest of 1749 before leaving for Rome, where he stayed 2 years}} Keppel concluded an agreement with the [[Dey of Algiers]] which protected British commerce. After negotiating treaties at Tripoli and Tunis, Keppel returned to England in July 1751.<ref name=odnb/>

==Seven Years' War==
{{further|Great Britain in the Seven Years' War}}
During the [[Seven Years' War]] he saw constant service. He served as [[North America and West Indies Station|Commodore on the North American Station]] with his broad pennant in the fourth-rate {{HMS|Norwich|1745|2}} from 1751 to 1755.<ref>[http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_augustus_keppel.htm Augustus Keppel] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127131246/http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_augustus_keppel.htm |date=27 November 2010 }} Royal Navy Museum</ref> He was on the coast of France in 1756 and was detached on an [[Capture of Gorée|expedition to conquer Gorée]], a French island off the west coast of Africa in 1758. His ship, [[HMS Neptune (1683)|''Torbay'' (74)]], was the first to get into action in the [[Battle of Quiberon Bay]] in November 1759.<ref name=dnb/>

In 1757 he had formed part of the court martial which had condemned Admiral [[John Byng]], but was active among those who endeavoured to secure a pardon for him; but neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out.<ref name=dnb/> In March 1761, Keppel transferred to the [[third-rate]] {{HMS|Valiant|1759|6}} and was put in command of a squadron to reduce Belle Isle, which was successfully completed in June 1761.<ref name=dnb/>

===Havana expedition===
{{Main|Battle of Havana (1762)}}

When [[Spain]] joined [[France]] in 1762 he was sent as second in command with [[George Pocock|Sir George Pocock]] in the [[Battle of Havana (1762)|British expedition against Cuba]] which took [[Havana]].<ref name=dnb/> His health suffered from the fever which carried off an immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors. The £25,000 of prize money which he received freed him from the unpleasant position of "younger son of a family ruined by the extravagance of his father".<ref name="EB1911"/>

===Achievement of flag rank===
[[File:Augustus Keppel by Thomas Hickey.jpg|thumb|right|Keppel, wearing flag officer's [[Full dress|undress uniform]], 1765, by [[Joshua Reynolds|Reynolds]] ([[National Maritime Museum]])]]
Promoted to [[Rear admiral (Royal Navy)|rear admiral]] on 21 October 1762, Keppel became Commander-in-Chief of the [[Jamaica Station (Royal Navy)|Jamaica Station]] late in the year.<ref>Cundall, p. xx</ref> He was a member of the [[Board of Admiralty]] in the [[First Rockingham ministry]] from July 1765 and was [[First Sea Lord|Senior Naval Lord]] in the [[Chatham ministry]] from September 1766<ref>Rodger, p. 51–52</ref> until leaving the Admiralty Board in December 1766.<ref name=Sainty-18-31>{{cite web|title=Sainty, JC, ''Lord High Admiral and Commissioners of the Admiralty 1660–1870, Office-Holders in Modern Britain: Volume 4: Admiralty Officials 1660–1870'' (1975), pp. 18–31.|url=http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=16652|access-date=4 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025436/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=16652|archive-date=7 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1768 he acquired [[Elveden Hall]] in [[Suffolk]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mrs. Stirling|title=A Master of the Horse|journal=The Nineteenth Century and After|date=July 1911|volume=70|page=525|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htJCAQAAMAAJ|access-date=2 November 2014}}</ref> He was promoted to [[Vice admiral (Royal Navy)|vice admiral]] on 24 October 1770. When the [[Falklands Crisis (1770)|Falklands Crisis]] occurred in 1770 he was to have commanded the fleet to be sent against Spain, but a settlement was reached, and he had no occasion to hoist his flag.<ref name="EB1911"/>

==American War of Independence==
The most prominent period of his life belongs to the opening years of the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Keppel was a strong supporter of the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] connection, led by the [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Marquess of Rockingham]] and the [[Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond|Duke of Richmond]]. The Whigs were then excluded from power by [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]. As a member of Parliament, in which he had a seat for [[Chichester (UK Parliament constituency)|Chichester]] from 1755 until 1761, [[Windsor (UK Parliament constituency)|Windsor]] from 1761 until 1780, and then for [[Surrey (UK Parliament constituency)|Surrey]] from 1780 to 1782, Keppel was a Whig partisan, hostile to the King's Friends. The Whigs believed that the king's ministers, and in particular [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich|Lord Sandwich]], then [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], were capable of any villainy. When Keppel was promoted to full [[Admiral (Royal Navy)|admiral]] on 29 January 1778<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=11844|page=2|date=27 January 1778}}</ref> and appointed to command the [[Western Squadron]], the main fleet prepared against France, he thought the First Lord would be glad for him to be defeated.<ref name="EB1911"/><ref name=dnb/>

Prior to 1778 Keppel failed to persuade Sandwich to ignore technical difficulties and "[[Copper sheathing|copper sheath]] only a few ships"; he was later possibly unfairly to make political capital out of this in ''[[The London Magazine]]'', March 1781. He had remarked that coppering "gave additional strength to the navy" and he reproached Lord Sandwich with having "refused to sheath only a few ships with copper" at his request, when he had since ordered the whole navy to be sheathed. The lack of coppering the Navy was one of the key reasons leading to Britain losing the [[Thirteen Colonies]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Keppel and Sandwich|url=http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/copper-bottomed.html|website=phrases.org.uk|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>

One of Keppel's subordinate admirals was [[Hugh Palliser|Sir Hugh Palliser]], a member of the Admiralty Board, a member of parliament, and in Keppel's opinion responsible with his colleagues for the bad state of the [[Royal Navy]]. The battle which Keppel fought with the French on 27 July 1778 (the [[Battle of Ushant (1778)|First Battle of Ushant]]) ended badly. Reasons included Keppel's own management, but also the failure of Palliser to obey orders. Keppel became convinced that he had been deliberately betrayed.<ref name="EB1911"/>

==Keppel–Palliser affair{{anchor|Court-martial on Admiral Keppel Act 1779}}==
[[File:Keppels Court Martial.jpg|thumb|Keppel's court-martial at the [[Domus Dei|Governor's House]], Portsmouth]]
Though Keppel praised Palliser in his public despatch, he [[Keppel–Palliser affair|attacked him in private]]. The Whig press, with Keppel's friends, began a campaign of calumny. The ministerial papers answered in the same style, and each side accused the other of deliberate treason. The result was a scandalous series of scenes in Parliament and of courts martial. Keppel was first tried and acquitted, and then Palliser was also tried and acquitted. Keppel left his post in March 1779.<ref name="EB1911"/><ref name=dnb/> A [[Keppel's Column|column]] was built in the late 18th century to commemorate his acquittal, commissioned by [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham]] and designed by [[John Carr (architect)|John Carr]].<ref name="village">{{cite web|url=http://www.wentworthvillage.net/keppelscolumn.shtml |title=Keppel's Column |publisher=wentworthvillage.net |access-date=13 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509133814/http://www.wentworthvillage.net/keppelscolumn.shtml |archive-date=9 May 2008 }}
</ref>

==Political career==
[[File:Augustus Keppel, Viscount Keppel by Sir Joshua Reynolds.jpg|thumb|right|Lord Keppel in his later years.]]
When the [[North ministry]] fell in 1782 he became [[British Admiralty|First Lord of the Admiralty]], was raised to the peerage as '''Viscount Keppel''', of Elveden in the County of Suffolk,<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=12290 |date=23 April 1782 |page=1 }}</ref> and sworn of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]].<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=12282 |date=26 March 1782 |page=1 }}</ref> His career in office was not distinguished, and he broke with his old political associates by resigning as a protest against the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Peace of Paris]]. He finally discredited himself by joining [[Fox–North coalition|the Coalition ministry]] formed by North and [[Charles James Fox|Fox]], and with its fall disappeared from public life in December 1783.<ref name=dnb/> Keppel died unmarried on 2 October 1786.<ref name=dnb/> [[Edmund Burke|Burke]], who regarded him with great affection, said that "he had something high in his nature, and that it was a wild stock of pride on which the tenderest of all hearts had grafted the milder virtues".<ref name="EB1911"/> The peerage died with him.<ref name=dnb/>

==In popular culture==
Keppel appears in [[Patrick O'Brian]]'s 1956 novel ''[[The Golden Ocean]]'' as a midshipman aboard the ''Centurion''. He is often the comic relief, winding up bald and toothless due to the various privations of the voyage.<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Brian, Patrick |title=The Golden Ocean |publisher=Recorded Books |year=1995 |isbn=0-7887-4469-0}}</ref>

==Legacy==
[[Great Keppel Island]] and [[Keppel Bay]] in [[Australia]], and [[Keppel Island]] in the [[Falkland Islands]] are named after Keppel.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8106|title=Captain Cook's Journal During the First Voyage Round the World|access-date=30 July 2017}}</ref> [[Keppel's Column]] in [[Rotherham]] was constructed to mark his acquittal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/101314632-keppels-column-keppel-ward|title=Keppels Column, Keppel, Rotherham|website=www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk|access-date=11 March 2018}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Commons category|Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel}}
*{{cite book | last1 = Barry | first1 = Quintin | title = From Ushant to Gibraltar: The Channel Fleet 1778-1783 | series = From Reason to Revolution | publisher = Helion & Company | year = 2022 | location = Warwick | isbn = 9781915070395}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Keppel, Augustus Keppel, Viscount|volume=15|pages=751–752}}
*{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924020417527#page/n27/mode/2up|title=Historic Jamaica|first=Frank|last=Cundall|publisher=West India Committee|year=1915}}
*{{cite DNB|wstitle=Keppel, Augustus|first=John Knox |last=Laughton |volume=31}}
* {{cite book|last=Rodger|first=N.A.M. |year=1979|title=The Admiralty. Offices of State|publisher= Lavenham: T. Dalton Ltd|isbn=0900963948}}
* {{cite book | last = Winfield| first = Rif|title = British Warships of the Age of Sail 1714–1792: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates | publisher = Seaforth| year = 2007|isbn=9781844157006}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-par|gb}}
{{succession box | title=[[Member of Parliament]] for [[Chichester (UK Parliament constituency)|Chichester]]
| with = [[John Page (died 1779)|John Page]]| years=1755–1761 | before=[[John Page (died 1779)|John Page]] [[George Keppel, 3rd Earl of Albemarle|Viscount Bury]] | after=[[John Page (died 1779)|John Page]] [[Lord George Henry Lennox]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Member of Parliament]] for [[Windsor (UK Parliament constituency)|Windsor]]
| with = [[John Fitzwilliam (British Army officer)|John Fitzwilliam]] 1761–1768 [[Lord George Beauclerk]] 1768 [[Richard Tonson]] 1768–1772 [[John Hussey-Montagu]] 1772–1780 | years=1761–1780 | before=[[Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland|Henry Fox]] [[John Fitzwilliam (British Army officer)|John Fitzwilliam]] | after=[[John Hussey-Montagu]] [[Peniston Portlock Powney]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Member of Parliament]] for [[Surrey (UK Parliament constituency)|Surrey]]
| with = [[Joseph Mawbey|Sir Joseph Mawbey]]| years=1780–1782 | before=[[Joseph Mawbey|Sir Joseph Mawbey]] [[James Scawen]] | after=[[Joseph Mawbey|Sir Joseph Mawbey]] [[George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer|Viscount Althorp]]}}
|-
{{s-mil}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Sir James Douglas, 1st Baronet|Sir James Douglas]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Jamaica Station (Royal Navy)|Commander-in-Chief, Jamaica Station]]| years=1762–1764}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Sir William Burnaby, 1st Baronet|William Burnaby]]}}
|-
{{succession box|title=[[First Sea Lord|Senior Naval Lord]]|before=[[Charles Saunders (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Charles Saunders]]|after=[[Peircy Brett|Sir Peircy Brett]]|years=September 1766–December 1766}}
|-
{{s-off}}
{{succession box | title=[[British Admiralty|First Lord of the Admiralty]] | before=[[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich|The Earl of Sandwich]] | after=[[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|The Viscount Howe]] | years=1782–1783}}
{{succession box | title=[[British Admiralty|First Lord of the Admiralty]] | before=[[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|The Viscount Howe]] | after=[[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|The Viscount Howe]] | years=1783}}
{{s-reg|gb}}
{{s-new | creation}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Viscount Keppel]]
| years = 1782–1786
}}
{{s-non | reason = Extinct }}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}
{{First Sea Lord}}
{{First Lords of the Admiralty}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Keppel, Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount}}
[[Category:1725 births]]
[[Category:1786 deaths]]
[[Category:Keppel family|Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel]]
[[Category:Lords of the Admiralty]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals]]
[[Category:Viscounts in the Peerage of Great Britain]]
[[Category:Peers of Great Britain created by George III]]
[[Category:Younger sons of earls]]
[[Category:Royal Navy personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession]]
[[Category:Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War]]
[[Category:Royal Navy personnel of the Seven Years' War]]
[[Category:Royal Navy officers who were court-martialled]]
[[Category:People acquitted of treason]]
[[Category:British MPs 1754–1761]]
[[Category:British MPs 1761–1768]]
[[Category:British MPs 1768–1774]]
[[Category:British MPs 1774–1780]]
[[Category:British MPs 1780–1784]]

Bible errata

2025-09-23T16:18:57Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* King James */Added date

{{Short description|Typographical errors that have occurred in various editions of The Bible}}
{{about|translation, scribal and typographical errors in the Bible|other types of error|Criticism of the Bible}}
[[Image:Judas Bible2.jpg|thumb|280px|alt=A Bible passage written in a heavy gothic font. The name 'Judas' is partially covered by a piece of paper reading 'Jesus', which is peeling off the page and has been circled in red.|The "Judas Bible" (1613) contains a misprint in Matthew 26:36,<ref>{{bible|Matthew|26:36}}</ref> in which the name "Judas" appears instead of "Jesus". In this copy, a slip of paper has been pasted over the misprint (circled in red).{{efn|name=StMarysChurchNote|According to a note in St Mary's Church, Totnes, Cornwall}}]]
Throughout history, [[typographical error|printers' errors]], unconventional [[Bible translations|translations]]{{efn|Note that Bibles with an unconventional but deliberate overall translation style, such as an [[idiom (language structure)|idiomatic]] style, a [[dynamic and formal equivalence|dynamic equivalence]] style or a [[paraphrase|paraphrasitic]] style, are not included in this list.}} and translation mistakes have appeared in a number of published [[Bible]]s. Bibles with features considered to be erroneous are known as '''Bible errata''', and were often destroyed or suppressed due to their contents being considered [[heretical]] by some.

==Manuscript Bibles==
[[File:KellsFol201rGeneolgyOfChrist.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A page from the [[genealogy of Jesus]], in [[Book of Kells|Kells]]]]

===The Book of Kells, {{circa|800}}===
{{main|Book of Kells}}
The Book of Kells features two errors within its text:

* The [[genealogy of Jesus]], in the [[Gospel of Luke]], lists an extra ancestor in Luke 3:26.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|3:26}}</ref> This error is considered to have resulted from the transcriber reading the phrase {{lang|la|"QUI FUIT MATHATHIAE"}} as {{lang|la|"QUI FUIT MATHATH IAE"}}, with the {{lang|la|"IAE"}} being considered an additional individual, resulting in the lines {{lang|la|"QUI FUIT MATHATH"}} and the additional {{lang|la|"QUI FUIT IAE"}}, rather than the singular {{lang|la|"QUI FUIT MATHATHIAE"}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sullivan|first=Edward|title=The Book of Kells|year=1920|publisher=The Studio|pages=120|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/bok/bok20.htm}}</ref>
* In the [[Gospel of Matthew]], 10:34b should read "I came [[But to bring a sword|not to send peace, but the sword]]". However, rather than the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|[[gladius|gladium]]}}, meaning "sword", the Book of Kells has {{lang|la|gaudium}}, meaning "joy", rendering the verse "I came not [only] to send peace, but [also] joy".<ref>{{cite book|last=Nathan|first=George Jean Nathan|title=The American Mercury|year=1951|pages=572|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXgWAQAAIAAJ&q=%22refused%20to%20adopt%20St.%20Jerome's%20phrase%22|author2=Henry Louis Mencken|quote=The compilers of the late seventh century manuscript, The Book of Kells, refused to adopt St. Jerome's phrase "I come not to bring peace but a sword." (" ... non pacem sed gladium.") To them the phrase made no sense and they altered it ...}}</ref>

===The Book of Deer, 10th century===
The Scottish ''[[Book of Deer]]'' in [[Cambridge University Library]] has a number of errors. In the genealogy of Jesus in the Gospel of Luke, it has [[Seth]] as the first man and grandfather of [[Adam]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stuart|first=John|title=The Book of Deer |year=1869|publisher=Spalding club|pages=xxxii|url=https://archive.org/details/bookdeeredforsp00stuagoog}}</ref>

==Printed Bibles==
===Geneva===
* '''"Place-makers' Bible"''' 1562: the second edition of the [[Geneva Bible]], [[Beatitudes|Matthew 5:9]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|5:9}}</ref> reads "Blessed are the placemakers: for they shall be called the children of God"; it should read "peacemakers".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Coogan |first2=Michael D. |title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=143 |isbn=978-0-19-974391-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&q=place+makers |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>
** In its chapter heading for Luke 21, the Place-makers' Bible has "Christ condemneth the poor widow", rather than "commendeth".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Coogan |first2=Michael D. |title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=143 |isbn=978-0-19-974391-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&q=place+makers |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>

===Douai===
* '''"Manchester edition"''' 1793: The heading on Chapter 3 of Leviticus and the first verse has "bees" rather than "beeves" (plural of beef). It reads: "How the pacifique hosts must be of bees, sheep, lambs and goats" ("pacifique hosts" meaning peace offerings).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1409/1424529493_aeaafaad84_o.jpg|title=Photographic image of page of the Bible|publisher=Farm2.static.flickr.com|format=[[JPG]]|access-date=21 January 2015}}</ref>

===King James===
[[File:Marked Wicked bible.jpg|thumb|The [[Wicked Bible]] of 1631 renders Exodus 20:14<ref>{{bibleverse|Exodus|20:14}}</ref> as "thou shalt commit adultery" instead of "[[thou shalt not commit adultery]]"]]
In various printings of the [[King James Version]] of the Bible, some of the more famous examples have been given their own names. Among them are:
* '''"Judas Bible"''', from 1613: This Bible has Judas, not Jesus, saying "Sit ye here while I go yonder and pray" (Matthew 26:36).<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|26:36}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Summon |first1=Parminder |title=Summon's Bible Miscellany |date=2006 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |page=28 |isbn=9780802833907 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5yqqPJMfF8C&pg=PA30 |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> A second folio edition printed by [[Robert Barker (printer)|Robert Barker]], printer to King James I, is held in St. Mary's Church, [[Totnes]], [[Devon]]. In this copy, the misprint has been covered with a small slip of paper glued over the name of Judas.{{efn|name=StMarysChurchNote}}
* '''"Printers Bible"''', from 1612: In some copies, Psalm 119:161<ref>{{bibleverse|Psalm|119:161}}</ref> reads, "Printers have persecuted me without a cause", rather than "{{em|Princes}} have persecuted me..."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Coogan |first2=Michael D. |title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=143 |isbn=978-0-19-974391-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&q=place+makers |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>
* '''"[[Wicked Bible]]"''', '''"Adulterous Bible"''' or '''"Sinner's Bible"''', from 1631: Barker and Lucas: Omits an important "not" from Exodus 20:14,<ref>{{bibleverse|Exodus|20:14}}</ref> making the [[Ten Commandments|seventh commandment]] read "Thou shalt commit adultery." An 1886 study of [[Star Chamber]] case reports suggests that this was just one of the "two grossest errors" in the printing, alongside Deuteronomy 5:24,<ref>{{bibleverse|Deuteronomy|5:24}}</ref> which read "the LORD our God hath shewed us his glory and his great-asse" instead of the correct "greatness[e]".<ref name=Gardiner>{{cite book |last1=Rawson Gardiner |first1=Samuel |title=Reports of Cases in the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission |date=1886 |publisher=Nichols and Sons |page=305 |isbn=9780384197602 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iKI1R0UJT4kC&q=%22great+asse%22&pg=PA305 |access-date=28 April 2021}}</ref> However, this second error does not appear in any extant copy of the Bible.<ref name="Campbell">{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Gordon |title=Bible: The Story of the King James Version 1611 — 2011 |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199693016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05mIWA1BqrAC&q=%22great+asse%22&pg=PT126 |access-date=28 April 2021}}</ref> The printers were fined £300 and most of the copies were recalled immediately. Only 15 copies survive in the collections of public institutions in the English-speaking world.<ref>{{cite news |last1=L. Brown |first1=DeNeen |title=The Bible Museum's 'Wicked Bible': Thou Shalt Commit Adultery |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/11/17/the-new-bible-museums-wicked-bible-thou-shalt-commit-adultery/ |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=14 December 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
* '''"More Sea Bible"''', from 1641: "...the first heaven and the first earth were passed away and there was more sea", rather than "...the first heaven and the first earth were passed away and there was no more sea", from [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 21:1<ref>{{bibleverse|Revelation|21:1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Coogan |first2=Michael D. |title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=143 |isbn=978-0-19-974391-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&q=place+makers |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>
* '''"{{vanchor|Unrighteous Bible}}"''' or '''"Wicked Bible"''', from 1653, Cambridge Press: Another edition carrying this title omits a "not" before the word "inherit", making [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 6:9<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|6:9}}</ref> read "Know ye not that the unrighteous shall inherit the kingdom of God?". In addition, [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 6:13<ref>{{bibleverse|Romans|6:13}}</ref> reads "Neither yield ye your members as instruments of righteousness into sin", where it should read "unrighteousness".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Russel |first1=Ray |title=The "Wicked" Bibles |journal=Theology Today |date=1980 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=360–363 |doi=10.1177/004057368003700311 |s2cid=170449311 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/004057368003700311 |access-date=30 March 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* '''"Sin On Bible"''', from 1716: Jeremiah 31:34<ref>{{bibleverse|Jeremiah|31:34}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Paul|first=William E.|date=April–June 2003|title=Curiosities in Bible Editions|url=http://www.biblecollectors.org/articles/curiosities.htm|journal=Bible Editions & Versions|access-date=March 3, 2014}}</ref> reads "sin on more" rather than "sin no more".
[[File:Vinegar Bible Farnham 2024.jpg|thumb|right|Heading for "The Parable of the Vineyard" in a copy of the "Vinegar Bible"]]
* '''"Vinegar Bible"''', from 1717: J. Baskett, Clarendon Press: The chapter heading for [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 20 reads "The Parable of the Vinegar" instead of "The Parable of the Vineyard." One reviewer called this particular edition "a Baskett full of errors" due the abundance of typographical errors. One copy sold for $5,000 in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.anglicanjournal.com/vinegar-bible-returns-to-lunenburg-8107/|title='Vinegar Bible' returns to Lunenburg|date=2008-10-01|work=Anglican Journal|access-date=2008-10-15|issue=8|volume=134|page=1}}</ref>
* '''"The Fools Bible"''', from 1763: Psalm 14:1<ref>{{bibleverse|Psalm|14:1}}</ref> reads "the fool hath said in his heart there is a God", rather than "there is no God". The printers were fined £3,000 and all copies ordered destroyed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Toseland |first1=Martin |title=A Steroid Hit the Earth |date=2009 |publisher=Portico |isbn=978-1906032708 |page=95}}</ref>
* '''"Murderer's Bible"''', from 1801: "Murmurers" is printed as "murderers", making [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]] 16 read: "These are murderers, complainers, walking after their own lusts; and their mouth speaketh great swelling words, having men's persons in admiration because of advantage."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Coogan |first2=Michael D. |title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=143 |isbn=978-0-19-974391-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&q=place+makers |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>
* '''"To-remain Bible"''', from 1805: In [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] 4:29,<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|4:29}}</ref> a proofreader had written in "to remain" in the margin, as an answer to whether a comma should be deleted. The note inadvertently became part of the text, making the edition read "But as then he that was born after the flesh persecuted him that was born after the Spirit to remain, even so it is now."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Summon |first1=Parminder |title=Summon's Bible Miscellany |date=2006 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |page=28 |isbn=9780802833907 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5yqqPJMfF8C&pg=PA30 |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>
* '''"Standing Fishes Bible"''', from 1806: "Fishes" replaced "fishers" making [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 47:10<ref>{{bibleverse|Ezekiel|47:10}}</ref> read "And it shall come to pass, that the fishes shall stand upon it from Engedi even unto Eneglaim; they shall be a place to spread forth nets; their fish shall be according to their kinds, as the fish of the great sea, exceeding many."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Coogan |first2=Michael D. |title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=143 |isbn=978-0-19-974391-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&q=place+makers |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>
* '''"Wife-hater Bible"''', from 1810: "Wife" replaces "life" in this edition, making Luke 14:26<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|14:26}}</ref> redundantly read "If any man come to me, and hate not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters, yea, and his own wife also, he cannot be my disciple."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Coogan |first2=Michael D. |title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=143 |isbn=978-0-19-974391-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&q=place+makers |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>
* '''"The Large Family Bible"''', from 1820: [[Isaiah]] 66:9<ref>{{bibleverse|Isaiah|66:9}}</ref> reads: "Shall I bring to birth and not cease to bring forth?" rather than "Shall I bring to birth and not cause to bring forth?"
* '''"Rebecca's Camels Bible"''', from 1823: "Camels" replaces "damsels" in one instance, making Genesis 24:61<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|24:61}}</ref> read "And Rebecca arose, and her camels, and they rode upon the camels, and followed the man: and the servant took Rebecca and went his way."
* '''"Owl Bible"''', from 1944: "Owl" replaces "own", making [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] 3:5<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Peter|3:5}}</ref> read, "For after this manner in the old time the holy women also, who trusted God, adorned themselves, being in subjection unto their owl husbands." The error was caused by a printing plate with a damaged letter {{em|n}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Summon |first1=Parminder |title=Summon's Bible Miscellany |date=2006 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |page=30 |isbn=9780802833907 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5yqqPJMfF8C&pg=PA30 |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>

===English Standard Version===
* '''"Contrary Bible"''', from 2016: this edition of the [[English Standard Version]] text used the unconventional translation of ''contrary'' for the Hebrew word ''‘el'' in Genesis 3:16 and 4:7, deviating from its translation in previous editions of the ESV as well as the consensus translations of those verses in other [[Modern English Bible translations]]. In the ESV's 2025 revision, the wording in these verses were reverted back to its pre-2016 text.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Alsup |first=Wendy |date=February 24, 2025 |title=How the ESV Changed What Women Want |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/2025/02/esv-update-genesis-316-gender-submission-desire-contrary-what-women-want/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250313062832/https://www.christianitytoday.com/2025/02/esv-update-genesis-316-gender-submission-desire-contrary-what-women-want/ |archive-date=March 13, 2025 |access-date=March 13, 2025 |work=[[Christianity Today]]}}</ref>{{Efn|The 2016 wording for both verses (contrary to{{Nbsp}}... but) was changed to use the original wording (for{{Nbsp}}... and).<ref name=":20" />}}

==Fictional Bible errata==
* In the novel ''[[Good Omens]]'', [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Terry Pratchett]] created the '''"Buggre Alle This Bible"''' of 1651 (and the '''Charing Cross Bible'''). The typesetter replaced [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 48:5 with a rant complaining about his job. It also has three extra verses at the end of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 3 about the loss of the [[Flaming sword (mythology)|flaming sword]] by the [[angel]] Aziraphale, added by Aziraphale himself, a character in the story.
* In the BBC science-fiction sitcom ''[[Red Dwarf]]'', one of the main characters, [[Arnold Rimmer]], tells of his family belonging to an obscure fundamentalist Christian sect, the "Seventh Day Advent Hoppists". According to Rimmer – who is revealed in another episode to have the middle name [[Judas]] due to his parents' unconventional take on Christianity – the Hoppists' unique form of worship arose from a misprinted Bible wherein [[1 Corinthians]] 13:13 reads "Faith, hop and charity, and the greatest of these is hop." The membership consequently spent every Sunday hopping. Rimmer says he never agreed with the faith, but claims to be liberal on religious matters.
* ''[[The Poisonwood Bible]]'' is a 1998 bestselling novel by [[Barbara Kingsolver]] which mentions some of the famous "misprint Bibles" such as the ''Camel Bible'', the ''Murderer's Bible'', and the ''Bug Bible''. The novel's title refers to the character of Nathan Price, a missionary in the 1950s [[Belgian Congo]] who creates his own "misprint" by mispronouncing the local expression "Tata Jesus is bängala", meaning "Jesus is most precious". In his pronunciation, he actually says "Jesus is [[poisonwood]]!"
* In the novel ''[[The Hundred-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out the Window and Disappeared (novel)|The Hundred-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out the Window and Disappeared]]'' by the Swedish author [[Jonas Jonasson]], a Bible erratum plays heavily into the plot. The Bibles in question carry an extra verse (Revelation 22:22), reading "And they all lived happily ever after".

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap10.htm The Examiner – Incidental Bible Facts – Charles A. Holt – Publisher: Truth & Freedom Ministry, Inc., Chattanooga, TN (USA)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060107223145/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc02.bible_versions.html The New Schaff-Herzog – Bible Versions]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070713011958/http://www.biblecollectors.org/bible_misprints.htm "Bibles With Misprints or Unusual Renderings"]
* [http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=1791 The History of the English Bible: Part I: From Wycliffe to King James]
*Russell, Ray. "[http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/oct1980/v37-3-criticscorner2.htm The Wicked Bibles]" Theology Today, Vol. 37, No. 3, October 1980.
*William Rose Benét, ''The Reader's Encyclopedia'', Thomas Y. Crowell Co., New York, 1965
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120314095848/http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/searching-for-better-text.asp Searching for the Better Text: How errors crept into the Bible and what can be done to correct them] Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://homeshalom.blogspot.com/2010/02/ten-surprising-yet-indisputable-bible.html Ten Surprising (yet indisputable) Bible translation errors that should effect (sic) your walk], February 11, 2010, [http://homeshalom.blogspot.com/ Home Shalom]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bible Errata}}
[[Category:Bible versions and translations]]
[[Category:Linguistic error]]

Wootton Wawen

2025-09-23T16:05:35Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Parish church */Added comma

{{Short description|Village and civil parish in Warwickshire, England}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox UK place
|official_name= Wootton Wawen
|static_image_name= Wootton Warwen Church-1.jpg
|static_image_caption= St Peter's parish church, viewed from the south
|coordinates = {{coord|52.267|-1.779|display=inline,title}}
|label_position= bottom
|civil_parish= Wootton Wawen
|population= 1,318
|population_ref= ([[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 Census]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadKeyFigures.do?a=7&b=11130952&c=Wootton+Wawen&d=16&e=62&g=6472155&i=1001x1003x1032x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1450781072396&enc=1|title=Civil Parish population 2011|access-date=22 December 2015}}</ref>
|shire_district= [[Stratford-on-Avon (district)|Stratford-on-Avon]]
|shire_county= [[Warwickshire]]
|region= West Midlands
|country= England
|constituency_westminster= [[Stratford-on-Avon (UK Parliament constituency)|Stratford-on-Avon]]
|post_town= HENLEY-IN-ARDEN
|postcode_district= B95
|postcode_area= B
|dial_code= 01564
|os_grid_reference= SP153630
|london_distance= {{convert|108|mi}} [[Boxing the compass|SE]]
|website= [http://www.woottonwawen-pc.gov.uk/ Parish Council Website for Wootton Wawen]
}}

'''Wootton Wawen''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|w|ʊ|t|ən|_|ˈ|w|oʊ|.|ən}} is a village and [[civil parishes in England|civil parish]] in the [[Stratford-on-Avon (district)|Stratford-on-Avon district]] of [[Warwickshire]], England. The village is on the [[A3400 road|A3400]] in mid-western Warwickshire, about {{convert|20|mi}} from [[Birmingham]], about {{convert|2|mi|0}} south of [[Henley-in-Arden]] and about {{convert|6.5|mi|0}} north of [[Stratford-upon-Avon]]. The soil is a strong clay and some arable crops are grown, but the land is mainly in pasture. The common fields were [[Inclosure Acts|inclosed]] in 1776, but some inclosures had already been made about 1623.<ref name=Cooper>{{cite book |last=Cooper |first=William |year=1936 |title=Wootton Wawen, its history and records }}</ref>

The scenery is wooded and undulating, rising from about {{convert|200|ft}}, in the south to {{convert|488|ft}}, in the north-west at College Farm, above Forde Hall. Near here is Mockley Wood, which, with May's Wood in the centre of the parish and Austy Wood near Edstone, is one of the larger blocks of woodland.<ref name=VCH>{{cite book |editor-last=Styles |editor-first=Philip |year=1945 |chapter=Wootton Wawen |title=A History of the County of Warwick, Volume 3: Barlichway Hundred |series=[[Victoria County History]] |location=London |url= http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=57011 |pages=196–295}}</ref> The older part of the village straddling the A3400 is designated as a Conservation Area because of its open, rural character and many historic buildings.

==History==
The [[Toponymy|toponym]] "Wootton Wawen" means "farm near a wood, belonging to Wagen". ''Wagen'' or ''Waga'' is an [[Old Norse]] name.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mills |first=AD |year=1991 |title=A Dictionary of English Place-names |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-866191-6 |page=370}}</ref>

The oldest surviving record of Wootton is from when [[Æthelbald of Mercia|Æthelbald]], King of the [[Mercia]]ns, gave to the Earl Aethilric 20 [[hide (unit)|hides]] of land for a minster between the years 723 and 737. The first wooden church was built at Wootton as a direct result of this charter of land, (about {{convert|2000|acre|ha|abbr=off}}) on which to build a monastery or minster of [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Saint Mary]]. The first church may have been burnt and pillaged by Viking invaders, but between about 970 and 1040, Wagen, an Anglo-Danish landowner, established the present church. This land was in the district of the ''[[Stoppingas]]'' near the river ''Aeluuinnae'', now called the [[River Alne|Alne]].<ref name=VCH/>

[[Domesday Book]] (1086) records, "in Pathlow [[Hundred (country subdivision)|Hundred]] in Wotton (Wawen) 7 hides. Land for 9 ploughs. 23 villagers with a priest and 22 smallholders who have 6 ploughs. 2 mills at 11s and 8 sticks of eels; woodland 2 leagues long and one league wide. Value £4. Waga held it freely."<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Morris |editor-first=John |title=Domesday Book for Warwickshire |publisher=[[The History Press|Phillimore]] |isbn=0-85033-141-2 |page=not cited}}</ref> Waga was one of the witnesses to [[Leofric, Earl of Mercia|Earl Leofric]]'s foundation of the monastery at Coventry in the first year of the reign of [[Edward the Confessor]] (1042–43). His lands extended beyond those at Wootton Wawen, but, after the [[Norman conquest of England]], Wootton was bestowed by [[William the Conqueror]] on [[Robert de Stafford]], descended from the [[House of Tosny|de Tonei]] family and who had fought stoutly with Duke William against [[Harold Godwinson|King Harold]]. He made [[Stafford Castle]] his principal seat and took his surname thence.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dugdale |first=William |author-link=William Dugdale |year=1656 |title=The Antiquities of Warwickshire |url=https://archive.org/details/antiquitiesofwar00dugd |page=not cited}}</ref>

[[Charles II of England|Charles II]] passed through Wootton on his travels while escaping from England after the Battle of Worcester. Here, the king, disguised as the man-servant of the daughter of one of his supporters, [[Jane Lane, Lady Fisher|Jane Lane]], met with a party of [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] troopers:
{{blockquote|before we came to Stradford upon Avon we espied upon the way a Troop of Horse whose riders were alighted, and the Horses eateing some grass by the wayside, staying there (as I thought) while their Muster-Maister was provideing their Quarters; Mrs Lanes Sisters Husband (who went along as far as Stradford) seeing this Troop of Horse just in our way, sayd that for his part he would not goe by them, for he had once or twice been beaten by some of the Parliament Soldiers, and he would not run the venture again. I heareing him say soe begged Mrs Lane softly in her Eare that we might not turne back but goe on, for that Enemy would certainly send after us to enquire who we were if they should see us turne. But all she could say in the world would not doe, but her Brother in law turned quite round and went to Stradford another way the troop of Horse being there just getting on Horse-back about twice 12 score off, and I told her we did meete the Troop just but in the Towne of Stradford.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Matthews |editor-first=William |year=1966 |title=Pepys Transcription of the Kings Account of his Escape, Charles II's Escape from Worcester |page=not cited}}</ref>}}The [[Cinema Museum, London|Cinema Museum]] in London holds Archive film of Wootton Wawen from the summer of 1952.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cinema Museum Home Movie Database.xlsx |url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1OJqSWnOFAn6RJ24jtwb21Z4Hv5svJjbp/edit?usp=embed_facebook |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=Google Docs |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Economy==
Wootton Wawen has always been primarily a farming settlement, but over the centuries industrial activity has included milling; two mills are mentioned in Domesday Book. Early in the 19th century there was a mill used for papermaking, as it probably was a century earlier – a reference to William Martin, "paperman" of Wootton, occurring in 1717<ref name=Cooper/> – but there has also been a [[Fulling|fulling mill]] for the production of [[hemp]] and [[flax]] on Wootton Green, and a dyehouse at nearby Blue Hole. There was also a hurdle-making industry in the village for a time. Today the area is largely agricultural with many residents commuting to nearby cities for employment.

==Governance==
Wootton Wawen is a ward within Stratford on Avon District Council and represented by Councillor Ian Shenton of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] who is also the County Councillor for the Arden Division of the County Council which includes Wolverton, Langley, Preston Bagot, Henley, Wootton Wawen, Ullenhall, Tanworth in Arden and Earlswood Parishes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://democracy.stratford.gov.uk/mgMemberIndex.aspx?bcr=1|title=Your Councillors|date=29 March 2023}}</ref> Nationally it is part of [[Stratford-on-Avon (UK Parliament constituency)|Stratford-on-Avon constituency]], whose Member of Parliament has been [[Manuela Perteghella]] of the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] since the 2024 general election. It was included in the [[West Midlands (European Parliament constituency)|West Midlands]] electoral region of the European Parliament.

==Parish church==
[[File:Wootton Wawen St Peters 0034.JPG|thumb|St Peter's church from the south-east]]
The [[Church of England parish church]] of [[Saint Peter]] is notable for having the most pronounced [[Anglo-Saxon architecture|Anglo-Saxon]] work in the county. It is the oldest church in Warwickshire, although much of the present fabric is later. It comprises a [[chancel]] with a south chapel, [[nave]], South aisle and on the North the tower [[Battlement|embattled]] and pinnacled. There are also North and South porches the east jamb of the south porch has several [[Votive offering|votive]] crosses scored into it.<ref name=Bird>{{cite book |last=Bird |first=W Hobart |year=1936 |title=Old Warwickshire Churches |page=not cited}}</ref> The base of the tower and the first two stages are Saxon with four doorways, the top of the tower is 15th century as are the [[clerestory]], the nave battlements, the north doorway and porch, the middle arch of the arcade, the west window with busts of a king and queen and the east window with a leaf frieze. The tower is the earliest part of the church, preserved in the middle despite restricting views of the chancel from the nave,<ref>{{cite book |last=Salter |first=Mike |title=The Old Parish Churches of Warwickshire |page=not cited}}</ref> which is the current site of the altar. The font is an octagonal bowl resting on eight sculptured heads similar to others in the county at [[Snitterfield]] and [[Lapworth]].<ref name=Bird/> The old oak pulpit and choir screen is 15th century.<ref name=Bird/>

The church has a small [[chained library]] of 17th-century theological works and some notable [[monumental brass]]es, particularly the altar tomb of John Harewell and his wife Anna (1505).<ref name=Bird/>

===Bells===
The tower has a [[Change ringing|ring]] of six bells.<ref name=Chester>{{cite web |url= http://www.warksbells.co.uk/wootton_wawen.htm |last=Chester |first=Mike |title=Wootton Wawen |work=Church Bells of Warwickshire |access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref> The second bell was cast in 1591 by a member of the Watts family of [[Bellfounding|bellfounders]] of [[Leicester]]. The tenor bell was cast in 1719 by Richard Sanders<ref name=DoveDetails>{{cite web |url= http://dove.cccbr.org.uk/detail.php?searchString=Wootton+Wawen&Submit=+Go+&DoveID=WOOTTON+WA |last1=Chester |first1=Mike |last2=Higson |first2=Andrew |title=Wootton Wawen S Peter |work=[[Dove's Guide for Church Bell Ringers]] |publisher=[[Central Council of Church Bell Ringers]] |date=6 August 2009 |access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref> of [[Bromsgrove]].<ref name=DoveFounders>{{cite web |url= http://dove.cccbr.org.uk/founders.php |title=Bell Founders |author=Dovemaster |work=[[Dove's Guide for Church Bell Ringers]] |publisher=[[Central Council of Church Bell Ringers]] |date=31 October 2012 |access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref> The fourth bell was cast in 1784<ref name=DoveDetails/> by Charles and John [[Rudhall of Gloucester]] and the third bell was cast in 1803 by John Rudhall<ref name=DoveDetails/> of Gloucester.<ref name=DoveFounders/>

The treble bell was cast in 1742 by Henry Bagley<ref name=DoveDetails/> of [[Chacombe#Social and economic history|Chacombe]]<ref name=DoveFounders/> and the fifth was cast in 1761 by Thomas Rudhall<ref name=DoveDetails/> of Gloucester.<ref name=DoveFounders/> For a long time the treble was cracked and bolted with iron and then from 1911 the fifth was bound with an iron band around the inscription.<ref name=Chester/> The latter repair was by Thomas Bond of [[Burford#Bell foundry|Burford]], Oxfordshire who at the same time re-hung all six bells.<ref name=Chester/> Then in 1955 the two damaged bells were recast by [[John Taylor & Co]] of [[Loughborough]],<ref name=DoveDetails/> who at the same time tuned the other bells and re-hung all six again.<ref name=Chester/>

All canons (metal loops at the top of the bells) have been removed and replaced with bolted iron joists for ringing. The 16th-century oak frame with pits for three bells still exists: the posts have moulded [[corbel]]ling at the tops and are strengthened by curved struts. It has been altered to take four bells, the treble and second being hung to the north of it.<ref name=VCH/>

===Clergy===
The vicar at the time of the Puritan ''Survei of the Ministrie in Warwickshire'' of 1586 was described as ''mascall'' (John Mascall 1580–1642):
{{blockquote|vicar a precher thogh he be growen Idle negligent & slouthfull. a man defamed & of tainted life he hath two charges beside Wooton videlicet, Henley & Ownall [[Ullenhall]] he supplieth by his hirelinges: whereof one vpon a rumor of change of religion in mounsiers daies did shave his beard [indicative of a reversion to [[Catholicism]]]. Value xl yearlie.<ref>{{cite book |title=Survei of the Ministrie in Warwickshier |year=1586 |url=https://archive.org/stream/publicationsdugd10dugduoft/publicationsdugd10dugduoft_djvu.txt}}</ref>}}

<gallery>
File:Wootton Wawen St Peters 0032.JPG|St Peter's nave
File:Wootton Wawen St Peters 0022.JPG|St Peter's [[Baptismal font|font]]
File:Wootton Wawen St Peters 0026.JPG|St Peter's [[Chained Library]]
File:Wootton Wawen St Peters 0016.JPG|Chest tomb of John Harewell, 1365–1428
File:Wootton Wawen St Peters 0035.JPG|Votive crosses in the jamb of the south doorway
</gallery>

In the [[Black Death]], bodies from Coventry were transported to the churchyard for burial in an area which has become known as the "Coventry Piece". This ground still cannot be disturbed.{{citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Priory==
{{Main|Wootton Wawen Priory}}
Not long after the [[Norman Conquest]], Robert de Stafford gave the church of Wootton with a hide of land nearby and another hide at "Doversele" to the [[Benedictine]] Abbey of St Peter de Castellion of [[Conches-en-Ouche|Conches]] in Normandy which had been established in 1035<ref name=VCH/> by his father, Roger de Tonei.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rebeccastafford.net/rogerdetoni.htm |title=Roger de Toni |access-date=3 January 2010 |archive-date=28 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128194014/http://www.rebeccastafford.net/rogerdetoni.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> They established a small [[alien priory]] here: a [[Prior (ecclesiastical)|prior]] and one monk constituted its community and the church was re-dedicated to [[Liberation of Saint Peter#Veneration|St Peter ad Vincula]]. In 1398 [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] gave the priory to the [[Carthusian]]s at Coventry, but the grant was reversed soon after by [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] and the monks re-established. It was bestowed with all its possessions on 12 December 1443 upon the Provost and Scholars of [[King's College, Cambridge]], and on 30 November 1447 the Abbey of Conches released all title to the Priory to the college, in whose hands the manor still remains. No trace of the priory buildings remains but they stood between the churchyard and the ancient fishpond that is near the Henley Road.<ref name=VCH/>

At the start of the reign of [[Edward I of England|Edward I]], Peter de Altaribus was prior. He became involved in a brawl which brought about the intervention of the bishop. The circumstances are related with considerable detail in the episcopal registers of [[Godfrey Giffard]], [[Bishop of Worcester]]. An inquisition was held at Warwick on the Tuesday after [[Palm Sunday]], 1281, to hear the dispute between Peter de Altaribus, and brother Roger his monk. William the vicar of Wootton, had been summoned to the priory to stop the brawl, and on arrival he met the prior coming out of the hall door whilst inside he found brother Roger sitting in a chair with his nose bleeding. The prior accused Roger of wounding himself in his nose with his own finger; whereas Roger claimed the prior had hit him on the nose, which was corroborated by others who added that Roger did not return the blow. The argument was over Peter's withdrawal of distributions to the poor, lack of hospitality, wasting the priory's goods, and drunkenness. Both were found guilty and [[Excommunication#Catholic Church|excommunicated]] which after appeal they were absolved and recalled to the monastery of Conches, to receive punishment from their [[abbot]]. It is exceptional to find an alien priory subject to diocesan [[Canonical visitation|visitation]], but this small priory was also visited by Bishop Giffard in 1269, 1284, and 1290.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Page |editor-first=W.H. |editor-link=William Henry Page |year=1908 |chapter=Alien houses: Priory of Wootton Wawen |title=A History of the County of Warwick, Volume 2 |series=[[Victoria County History]] |location=London |url= http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=36525 |pages=133–136}}</ref>

==Historic secular buildings==
{{Anchor|Wootton Hall}}
Between the mill and the church is Wootton Hall, a large stone building in the [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]] style, mainly built in 1687 but incorporating parts of an earlier, probably [[Elizabethan architecture|Elizabethan]], house. It was originally the home of the Carington family. Outbuildings behind the house are possibly the remains of the earlier manor-house.<ref name=VCH/> At the end of the Second World War the Hall was in a dilapidated condition and threatened with demolition but was bought in 1958 by Bill Allen, of Allen's Caravans,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.allenscaravans.com/residential-parks/findapark/wootton-hall |title=Allens Caravans - Residential Parks, Caravan Parks, Caravan Sites, Touring, Hire, Worcestershire, Midlands, UK - Wootton Hall Homepage |access-date=2 January 2010 |archive-date=14 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214212605/http://www.allenscaravans.com/residential-parks/findapark/wootton-hall |url-status=dead }}</ref> who developed the grounds into a mobile home park. This development rescued and restored the Hall and revitalised the community.<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Graham |year=1999 |title=The Saxon Sanctuary |isbn=0-9537349-0-0 |page=not cited}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Wootton Wawen War Memorial 001.JPG|Wootton War Memorial
File:Wootton Wawen Wootton Hall 002.JPG|Wootton Hall and Park
File:Wootton Wawen Wootton Hall 003.JPG|Wootton Hall Lodge Gate
File:Wootton Wawen Wootton Hall 005.JPG|Wootton Hall
</gallery>

Other notable buildings include the Bull's Head Inn, situated at the south end of the street, being an L-shaped low building of timber-framing, probably of the 16th century. Inside are wide fireplaces, one with a lintel inscribed M 1697 TH, and open-timbered ceilings, however there is a stone giving the date of the building as 1317. Three of the buildings north of it on the same side, and The Cottage, facing the south end of the village street, have remains of 17th-century [[timber framing]]. In a short lane south of the church is the old Workhouse, now a dwelling-house; it is a small timber-framed building covered with rough-cast cement and has a gabled north end with a [[Jettying|jettied]] upper storey.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

The Manor Farm, at the north end of the village, is built of early-18th-century brick, but the chimneystack of diagonal shafts looks earlier. The west front, slightly recessed between gabled cross-wings, has a doorway with a semi-domical hood carved with palm leaves and a basket of fruit and flowers.<ref name=VCH/>

<gallery>
File:Wootton_Wawen_Cottages_4.JPG|Cottages at Wootton Wawen
File:Wootton_Wawen_Manor_Farm_3.JPG|Manor Farm
File:Wootton Wawen Manor Farm 2.JPG|Doorway at Manor Farm
</gallery>

==Transport==
[[File:Wootton Wawen aqueduct from canal.jpg|thumb|The [[Wootton Wawen Aqueduct]] on the [[Stratford-upon-Avon Canal]]]]
The A3400 (former A34) provides transport links to the neighbouring settlements, notably [[Birmingham]] and [[Stratford-upon-Avon]] and also connects to the [[M40 motorway]] northwards at [[Hockley Heath]] affording direct motorway access to London. Regular bus services on this road provide transport to Birmingham and Stratford-upon Avon.

The Birmingham and [[Stratford-upon-Avon Canal]] crosses the parish, leaving it near Silesbourne Farm, close to which there was a hermitage, mentioned in 1428 and 1470.<ref name=Cooper/> The canal is carried over the main Stratford to Birmingham road by a cast-iron [[Navigable aqueduct|aqueduct]] bearing the date 1813.<ref name=VCH/> There are moorings and a canal boat marina in Wootton Wawen Basin. The canal was built by William James of [[Henley-in-Arden]], who was later a pioneer of the railway system. A cast-iron plaque on the aqueduct records details of the building of the canal.

The [[Monarch's Way]], a long-distance footpath which approximates to [[Escape of Charles II|the escape route]] taken by [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1651 after his defeat in the [[Battle of Worcester]], passes through Wootton Wawen.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qlhs.org.uk/oracle/monarchs-way/monarchs-way.htm |title=The Monarch's Way |year=2005 |publisher=The Quinton Oracle |access-date=30 August 2008 |archive-date=28 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828205231/http://www.qlhs.org.uk/oracle/monarchs-way/monarchs-way.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Wootton Wawen railway station]] was opened in 1908 on a branch of the [[Great Western Railway]]. The route is now the [[Birmingham to Stratford Line]]. The line south of [[Stratford upon Avon railway station]] continued as the [[Honeybourne Line]] to [[Honeybourne railway station]] (which is on the [[Cotswold Line]]) and onwards to [[Cheltenham]].

==Notable residents==
In the Second World War the Russian composer [[Nikolai Medtner]] and his wife lived in a secluded house outside Wootton Wawen, where he completed his [[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Medtner)|Piano Concerto No. 3]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.britishrussian.org.uk/composer.htm |title=British-Russian Society |access-date=2012-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911064513/http://www.britishrussian.org.uk/composer.htm |archive-date=2011-09-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Author Bill Watkins spent much of his youth in Wootton Wawen; his book ''A Celtic Childhood'' records his childhood adventures in and around the village during the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Celtic Childhood|last=Watkins|first=Bill|year=2011|publisher=PGW|isbn=978-0976520184}}</ref>
‘The Greens from Wootton Wawen’ are mentioned in Theroux’s travel book, [[The Pillars of Hercules]].<ref> chapter 13 page 299 in the Penguin 1996 edition. </ref>

{{Geographic location
| title = '''Neighbouring villages'''<ref name="Google">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/googlebooks/library/index.html|title=Google Books Library Project – An enhanced card catalog of the world's books|access-date=26 January 2015}}</ref>
|width=auto
|Centre = Wooton Wawen
|North = [[Henley-in-Arden]]
|Northeast = [[Preston Bagot]]
|East = [[Langley, Warwickshire|Langley]]
|Southeast = [[Bearley]]
|South = [[Aston Cantlow]]
|Southwest = [[Shelfield, Warwickshire|Shelfield]]
|West = [[Studley, Warwickshire|Studley]]
|Northwest = [[Oldberrow]]
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Wootton Wawen}}
*{{gbmapping|SP153630}}
*[http://www.xenophon.org.uk/woottonhall.html History of Wootton Hall and its 'Secret Tunnel']
{{Stratford-on-Avon district}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Civil parishes in Warwickshire]]
[[Category:Villages in Warwickshire]]

Ampthill

2025-09-23T15:52:50Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Cultural references */Added link

{{Short description|Town and civil parish in Bedfordshire, England}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox UK place
|country = England
|static_image_name= Ampthill market place.jpg
|static_image_caption= Ampthill town centre with clock tower (1852) and market place
|coordinates = {{coord|52.0263|-0.4906|display=inline,title}}
|official_name =Ampthill
|civil_parish = Ampthill
| population_ref = 8,822 (Parish, 2021)<ref>{{cite web |title=Ampthill parish |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/eastofengland/admin/central_bedfordshire/E04012803__ampthill/ |website=City Population |access-date=23 April 2024}}</ref>
|unitary_england= [[Central Bedfordshire]]
|lieutenancy_england = [[Bedfordshire]]
|region=East of England
|constituency_westminster= [[Mid Bedfordshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Mid Bedfordshire]]
|post_town= BEDFORD
|postcode_district = MK45
|postcode_area= MK
|dial_code= 01525
|os_grid_reference= TL035375
| london_distance_mi= 40
| london_direction= SE
}}

'''Ampthill''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|m|t|(|h|)|ɪ|l}})<ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref><ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> is a town and [[civil parishes in England|civil parish]] in the [[Central Bedfordshire]] district of [[Bedfordshire]], England. It lies between [[Bedford, Bedfordshire|Bedford]] and [[Luton]]. At the 2021 census it had a population of 8,825.

==History==
The name 'Ampthill' is of [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] origin. The first settlement was called 'Æmethyll', which literally means either '[[Ant colony|anthill]]' or 'ant-infested hill'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kepn.nottingham.ac.uk/map/place/Bedfordshire/Ampthill|title=Key to English Place-names|website=kepn.nottingham.ac.uk|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716161239/https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.7.1/jquery.min.js|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[Domesday Book]], Ampthill is referred to as 'Ammetelle', with the landholder in 1086 being Nigel de la Vast. The actual entry reads: ''Ammetelle: Nigel de la Vast from [[Nigel de Albini of Cainhoe|Nigel d'Aubigny]].'' A further variation may be 'Hampthull', in 1381.<ref>Plea Rolls of the Court of Common Pleas; National Archives; CP 40/483; http://aalt.law.uh.edu/AALT6/R2/CP40no483/483_0101.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223121130/http://aalt.law.uh.edu/AALT6/R2/CP40no483/483_0101.htm |date=23 December 2015 }}; a front; 7th entry, with 'John Baldok de Hampthull'</ref>

In 1219 King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] granted a charter for a weekly market to be held on a Thursday. In 2019 the market celebrated 800 years.

[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] was a frequent visitor to {{anchor|Ampthill Castle}} Ampthill Castle, and it was there that [[Catherine of Aragon]] lived from 1531 until her marriage was annulled in 1533, when she was moved to [[Kimbolton Castle|Kimbolton]]. The castle was built in the 15th century by [[John Cornwall, 1st Baron Fanhope|Sir John Cornwall]], later Lord Fanhope, from ransoms after the [[Battle of Agincourt]]. Today a park remains just north of the town centre, site of Ampthill's former castle, where Henry VIII would come and hunt. It was in the castle's Great Dining Room that Queen Catherine defiantly received news of the end of her marriage. A cross erected in the 1770s marks the site of this important building which is set within Ampthill Great Park, a [[Capability Brown|"Capability" Brown]] landscape.

In 1542 an Act of Parliament created the 'Honour of Ampthill', an area of 45 parishes around the town, including 11 in [[Buckinghamshire]], in which the crown owned extensive property and the [[Manorialism|manorial]] rights. The Honour was sold to the [[Duke of Bedford|Dukes of Bedford]] in parts between 1730 and 1881.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol3/pp268-275|title=Parishes: Ampthill | British History Online}}</ref>

In the mid-1780s, John Fitzpatrick, the 2nd [[John FitzPatrick, 2nd Earl of Upper Ossory|Earl of Upper Ossory]], led a campaign to improve the town centre. He created the current [[Marketplace|market place]], erected the [[Pump|water pump]] and built a new [[clock tower]]. Lord Upper Ossory was also responsible for a cross commemorating [[Catherine of Aragon]], with an inscription by [[Horace Walpole]], and a row of [[thatching|thatched cottages]] built between 1812 and 1816 to house his estate workers.
[[File:Ampthill thatched cottages.jpg|left|thumb|Thatched cottages in Woburn Street, Ampthill. Built 1812–16]]
On the death of Lord Upper Ossory in 1818, [[Ampthill Park]] became the seat of [[Baron Holland|Lord Holland]] in whose time [[Holland House, London|Holland House]] in [[Kensington]], London, became famous as a [[gathering place]] for intellectuals.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Ampthill|volume=1|page=894}}</ref> Lady Holland planted trees to create the Alameda walk, inspired by the Almeida in Madrid.<ref name="vch">{{cite web |title=Parishes: Ampthill Pages 268-275 A History of the County of Bedford: Volume 3. |url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/beds/vol3/pp268-275#h3-0004 |website=British History Online |publisher=Victoria County History, 1912 |access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref> Ampthill Park was later home to [[Baron Ampthill]].<ref name="vch"/>

In 1835 Ampthill became the centre of a [[Poor Law Union]], and a workhouse was built on Dunstable Street shortly afterwards to serve the town and surrounding parishes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.workhouses.org.uk/Ampthill/ |title=Ampthill Poor Law Union |last=Higginbotham |first=Peter |date=2021 |website=The Workhouse |access-date=6 August 2021}}</ref>

The [[London and North Western Railway|London and North Western Railway's]] Bedford Railway branch line opened in 1846, with a station at [[Millbrook railway station (Bedfordshire)|Millbrook]], three miles north-west of Ampthill. At different times this station was known as "Ampthill", "Ampthill (Marston)" and "Millbrook for Ampthill", before the name was changed to "Millbrook" in 1910. In 1868 the [[Midland Railway]] opened its main line from the Midlands to London. In order to cross the ridge of high ground on which Ampthill stands, the [[Ampthill Tunnel]] was built to the west of the town. [[Ampthill railway station]] was built to the south of the tunnel, at the bottom of the hill and over a mile from the market place. This station closed in 1959.

During WWII there was a farming camp near Ampthill where volunteers recovered sugarbeet and were accommodated in tents in the grounds of a nearby country mansion.

Recent years have witnessed substantial development in Ampthill and the surrounding area. The former site of the old Ampthill Brewery in Bedford Street area was substantially redeveloped in 2006/2007, with the demolition of a [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] petrol station, shopping arcade and small [[Budgens]] supermarket, to make way for a new [[Waitrose]] supermarket, an improved town car park and a development of shops and apartments known as Oxlet House. The supermarket opened on 29 September 2006, with Oxlet House being completed in late 2007. Since then, two major new housing estates have been constructed on the south side of town - Ampthill Heights to the west and Ampthill Gardens to the east. Other significant housing developments have been completed behind The Limes, at the former site of Russell House, off Swaffield Close and in the old orchard off Church Street. A microbrewery reviving the name of the Ampthill Brewery was started in 2014 on the Ampthill industrial estate but ceased operations the following year.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ratebeer.com/brewers/ampthill-brewery/22183/ | title=Ampthill Brewery, Ampthill, Bedfordshire, England | access-date=22 June 2019 | archive-date=22 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622102532/https://www.ratebeer.com/brewers/ampthill-brewery/22183/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Governance==
[[File:Park Lodge, Ampthill.jpg|thumb|Park Lodge: Town Council offices]]
There are two tiers of local government covering Ampthill, at [[civil parish|parish]] (town) and [[Unitary authorities of England|unitary authority]] level: Ampthill Town Council and [[Central Bedfordshire Council]]. The town council has its headquarters at Park Lodge in Ampthill Great Park, off Woburn Street.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ampthill Town Council |url=https://www.ampthill-tc.gov.uk/ |access-date=6 October 2023}}</ref>

===Administrative history===
Ampthill was an [[ancient parish]]. Until 1893 it was governed by its [[vestry]] and [[manorial court]]s. In 1893 it was made a [[Local Board of Health#Local Government Act 1858|local government district]], administered by an elected local board.<ref>{{cite book |title=Annual Report of the Local Government Board |date=1893 |page=236 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xEMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA236 |access-date=23 April 2024}}</ref> The board held its first meeting on 14 April 1893 at the town's courthouse on Church Street, which had been built in the 1860s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ampthill's Local Parliament |url=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/search-newspapers |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=Bedfordshire Mercury |date=22 April 1893 |location=Bedford |page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Old Court House |url=http://www.ampthillmasoniccentre.com/our-building/ |website=Ampthill Masonic Centre |access-date=23 April 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Old Court House, Ampthill.jpg|thumb|left|Old Court House, 29b Church Street]]
Such districts were reconstituted as [[Urban district (England and Wales)|urban districts]] in 1894.<ref>[[Local Government Act 1894]]</ref> The urban district council continued to meet at the courthouse until 1920, when it moved its meetings to a room at the town's fire station at 10 Bedford Street, which had been built in 1902.<ref>{{cite news |title=New Fire Station at Ampthill |url=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/search-newspapers |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=Bedfordshire Mercury |date=17 April 1903 |location=Bedford |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ampthill: Urban District Council |url=https://www.findmypast.co.uk/search-newspapers |access-date=23 April 2024 |work=Bedfordshire Times and Independent |date=20 February 1920 |location=Bedford |page=4}}</ref> After a new fire station was built in Oliver Street in 1954, the council converted the rest of the old fire station into its offices.<ref>Planning Application 672/54: 10 Bedford Street, Ampthill, Conversion to Council Offices (approved) – referenced in planning application MB/02/00139/REG3 to Mid Bedfordshire District Council, available from Central Bedfordshire Council.</ref>

[[File:10 Bedford Street, Ampthill.jpg|thumb|10 Bedford Street: Built 1902 as fire station]]
Ampthill Urban District was abolished in 1974 under the [[Local Government Act 1972]]. It merged with four other districts to become [[Mid Bedfordshire District|Mid Bedfordshire]]. The new district council had one of its main offices in the town at the former [[Ampthill Rural District|Ampthill Rural District Council]]'s headquarters at 12 Dunstable Street.<ref>{{NHLE|desc=Mid Bedfordshire District Council Offices, formerly the Ampthill Rural District Council Offices, 12 Dunstable Street|grade=II|num=1390958}}</ref> A [[successor parish]] of Ampthill was created in 1974 for the former urban district, with its council taking the name Ampthill Town Council.<ref>{{cite legislation UK|type=si|si=The Local Government (Successor Parishes) Order 1973|year=1973|number=1110|access-date=6 October 2023}}</ref>
[[File:12 Dunstable Street, Ampthill (October 2023).jpg|thumb|left|12 Dunstable Street: Completed 1965 for Ampthill Rural District Council, then offices of Mid Bedfordshire District Council 1974–2006]]

Mid Bedfordshire and [[Bedfordshire County Council]] were both abolished in 2009, since when Ampthill has formed part of the unitary authority of [[Central Bedfordshire]].<ref>{{cite legislation UK|type=si|si=The Bedfordshire (Structural Changes) Order 2008|year=2008|number=907|access-date=26 October 2023}}</ref>

==Economy==
Ampthill is a commercial centre for surrounding villages; it has several [[public house|pubs]], restaurants, a [[Waitrose]] supermarket and a selection of small independent specialist shops. A number of small businesses such as solicitors, [[estate agent]]s, [[financial services]], hairdressers, are also located in town, with larger businesses found on the commercial and industrial developments on the outskirts, along the town's bypass.

Ampthill is one of the most expensive places to buy a house in Bedfordshire, even in comparison with other mid-Bedfordshire towns such as neighbouring Flitwick, and Cranfield.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} In a survey,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ampthill.org.uk/questionnaire_results_web.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522223438/http://www.ampthill.org.uk/questionnaire_results_web.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Ampthill.org.uk|archivedate=22 May 2006}}</ref> it was found that the majority of Ampthill's workers are employed locally, with around 20% working in Ampthill itself, and most of the remainder travelling to nearby centres of employment such as Bedford, Luton and [[Milton Keynes]]. Around 13% of workers commute from Ampthill to London daily. The survey also found that the turnover of residents was low, most having been in Ampthill for well over a decade.

==Sport and leisure==

[[File:ArsenalCelebrityCharityAmpthill.JPG|thumb|[[Arsenal Celebrity Charity Team]] against [[Ampthill Town F.C.|Ampthill Town]]. Ampthill (yellow) vs Arsenal (red).]]
Ampthill has a [[non-League football]] team, [[Ampthill Town F.C.]] who play at Ampthill Park. Ampthill Super7s is the local 7-a-side football league. It takes place every Monday and Thursday at [[Redborne Upper School and Community College|Redborne Upper School]]. The town's [[rugby union]] club [[Ampthill RUFC]] was established in 1881 and plays in the [[RFU Championship]], the second from top-tier league in the [[English rugby union system]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Ampthill RUFC |url=http://www.championshiprugby.co.uk/clubs/ampthill-rugby |publisher=Rugby Football Union |access-date=26 April 2022 }}</ref> and are thus one of the top 24 sides in the country. The Rugby Club has over 1000 registered members, fields teams from every age group from U6's up to U18's. They also have 2 ladies sides and 6 adult men sides. Ampthill Town Cricket Club has been established since 1890 and currently have teams playing in the Hertfordshire league and the Bedfordshire league putting out at least four teams on Saturdays and Sunday. They also host a [[Bedfordshire County Cricket Club|Bedfordshire CCC match]] yearly and host an annual friendly game with London Zoo. Their home is in Ampthill Great Park with a clubhouse and scorebox near the west carpark.

Ampthill also has a very popular and active Bowls Club, off Brinsmade Road and accessed through the attractive Kings Arms Path Gardens. The club celebrated its centenary in 2019, and has a llama as its emblem, representing the zoo owned by club founder, Sir Anthony Wingfield. All ages and abilities welcomed.

The [[Greensand Ridge Walk]] and the [[Greensand Cycle Way]] pass through the lower end of the town.

There is a [[Center Parcs UK and Ireland|Center Parcs]] site at Warren Wood to the west of Ampthill.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/beds/bucks/herts/6981314.stm|title=Holiday village is given go ahead|date=6 September 2007|via=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=2 November 2018|archive-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116083654/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/beds/bucks/herts/6981314.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Culture and community==
Ampthill formerly hosted its own annual festival weekend in the summer. This event included two music events: a live rock music event "AmpRocks", which hosted acts such as [[Razorlight]] and [[Toploader]], and the "Ampthill Park Proms", where classical music was performed by bands such as Ampthill Orchestra, Ampthill Band and Redborne Jazz Band from the local upper school. This event was held in Ampthill Great Park, where a temporary soundstage was erected to entertain local residents.

The event also included the Ampthill Gala, which began with a parade of floats around the town, built and staffed by people from the local schools and communities. The parade ended at Ampthill Cricket Club, located just outside of Ampthill Great Park, where a variety of stalls set up by local charities and businesses could be found, as well as a number of fairground attractions.

The Ampthill Festival was first held in 1981<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ampthillfestival.com/ampgala|title=Celebrating 40 Years in 2021}}</ref> and was held annually with some exceptions. In 2023 the event was cancelled due to adverse weather conditions and as a result the company behind the festival, Ampthill Festival CIC, entered administration due to a lack of funding and the event was permanently cancelled in 2024.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cjmdlpdwlkyo | title=Ampthill Festival company goes into "devastating" administration | date=22 January 2024 }}</ref>

[[File:Ampthill Town Remembrance Day Parade 14 November 2021.jpg|thumb|Ampthill Town Remembrance Day Parade 14 November 2021]]

The annual Remembrance Day parade takes place, commencing at St Andrews Church, passing through the town streets, down the Alameda walk to the Cenotaph war memorial. The parade includes marchers representing all the services and civilian organisations of Ampthill who each leave a wreath on the memorial.

Ampthill has a high concentration of public amenities, including schools, doctors surgeries, a fire and ambulance station.

As part of [[Central Bedfordshire]], Ampthill's schools are organised in a [[three-tier education|three-tier system]]. There are two lower schools (Russell and The Firs), one middle school (Alameda) and one upper school, [[Redborne Upper School and Community College|Redborne]], which is shared with the neighbouring town of [[Flitwick]].

===Cultural references===
Ampthill Park was the burial place for the golden hare in the [[Kit Williams]] [[Treasure hunt (game)|treasure hunt]] ''[[Masquerade (book)|Masquerade]]'' near the cross-shaped monument to Queen [[Catherine of Aragon]], at the precise spot touched by the tip of the monument's shadow at noon on the day of either the March or September equinox.

==Media==
Local news and television programmes are provided by [[BBC East]] and [[ITV Anglia]]. Television signals are received from the nearby [[Sandy Heath transmitting station|Sandy Heath]] TV transmitter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ukfree.tv/transmitters/tv/Sandy_Heath|title=Full Freeview on the Sandy Heath (Central Bedfordshire, England) transmitter|date=1 May 2004|website=UK Free TV|accessdate=16 December 2023}}</ref>

Local radio stations are [[BBC Three Counties Radio]] on 95.5 FM, [[Heart East]] on 96.9 FM, [[In2beats]] on 106.5 FM, and Bedford Radio, a community based radio station which broadcast online.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bedford.radio/about |title=Bedford Radio|access-date=16 December 2023}}</ref>

The town is served by the local newspaper, Bedford Today (formerly [[Times & Citizen]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bedfordtoday.co.uk/ |title=Bedford Today|access-date=16 December 2023}}</ref>

==Transport==
Ampthill is located along the [[A507 road|A507]], which links to the [[M1 motorway|M1]] to the west and the [[A6 road (England)|A6]] to the east.

[[Grant Palmer (bus operator)|Grant Palmer]] provides frequent bus services to [[Bedford]] and [[Flitwick]], along with less frequent services to [[Milton Keynes]], [[Dunstable]], and several smaller villages surrounding the town.

The Bedfordshire Railway & Transport Association is campaigning for the reopening of [[Ampthill railway station]] which closed in 1959.<ref>[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/sbates/brta/html/ampthill.html Ampthill Station.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513022307/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/sbates/brta/html/ampthill.html |date=13 May 2008 }}</ref> The nearest railway station is [[Flitwick railway station]] approximately 2.5 km (1.6 miles) south of Ampthill.

The nearest airport is [[Luton Airport|London Luton Airport]], which is accessible by [[Thameslink]] train via Flitwick to [[Luton Airport Parkway railway station|Luton Airport Parkway]] railway stations.

==Notable buildings==
===St Andrew's Church of England===
The church of [[Saint Andrew|St Andrew]] ranges in date from [[Early English Period|Early English]] to [[Perpendicular Period|Perpendicular]]. It contains a monument to [[Richard Nicolls]] (1624–1672), an Ampthill native, who, under the patronage of [[James II of England|the Duke of York]], brother to [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], to whom the king had granted the Dutch North American colony of [[New Netherland]], received the submission of its chief town, [[New Amsterdam]], in 1664, and became its first English governor, the town taking the name of New York.<ref name="Marquis 1607-1896">{{cite book | title = Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607–1896 | publisher = Marquis Who's Who | location = Chicago | year = 1963}}</ref> Nicolls perished in the action between the English and Dutch fleets at the [[Battle of Solebay]] off the [[Suffolk]] coast, and the cannonball which killed him is preserved on his tomb.<ref name="EB1911"/> The church also contains a ring of eight [[church bell|bells]]. There were six until 1981, when the two new bells were installed. Services run weekly, with Sung Eucharist at 9.30am and Evensong at 6.30pm on Sundays. The church has a regular 4-part choir, which has sung morning and evening services for over 100 years.

===Houghton House===
[[File:Houghton House.jpg|right|thumb|[[Houghton House]]]]
[[Houghton House]] was built in 1621 by Mary, [[Mary Sidney|Countess of Pembroke]] and sister of the poet [[Philip Sidney|Sir Philip Sidney]]. In 1675, the house may have provided the inspiration for 'House Beautiful' in [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]''. It is thought that Bunyan's work is loosely based on his own journey between [[Bedford]] and [[Luton]], and the steep slope leading into Ampthill could have been the model for the 'Hill of Difficulty'. Houghton House passed to the [[Duke of Bedford]] in 1738 and became a ruin after the removal of the roof in 1794.

==Notable people==
{{alumni|residents|date=October 2018}}
*Sir Anthony Wingfield (1857 - 1952) who lived in Ampthill House (demolished in 1953). Sir Anthony served as [[High Sheriff of Bedfordshire]] and was known for keeping a menagerie of animals including cheetas, sloth bears, barbary rams, llamas, ostriches and camels. In 1939, the outbreak of war necessitated the disposal of this private zoo and the animals were relocated to [[Whipsnade Zoo|Whipsnade zoo]] which Sir Anthony had helped to establish a few years earlier. The site of Ampthill House {{Coord|52.0313|-0.4889|display=inline|name=Ampthill House location}} was developed for housing along Church Avenue, with the site adjacent to the Wingfield Club of which Sir Anthony was president.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mathews |first=Charles |editor-last1=Underwood| editor-first1=Andrew |date=2003 |title=The Clock Strikes Five |url=http://www.ampthillhistory.co.uk |publisher=Ampthill History Forum |page= |isbn=0-9542619-1-7}}</ref>
*Notable 20th-century architect Sir [[Albert Richardson (architect)|Albert Richardson]] lived in Ampthill from 1919 until his death in 1964 at Avenue House, 20 Church Street. Among his last projects was the building that housed Mid Bedfordshire District Council (formerly the [[Ampthill Rural District]] Council offices) until August 2006, at 12 [[Dunstable]] Street (1963–1965).
*[[Brian Clemens]], screenwriter and producer of many famous action/adventure TV series including ''[[The Avengers (TV series)|The Avengers]]'' and ''[[The Professionals (TV series)|The Professionals]]'' lived at Park Farm until his death in January 2015. One episode of ''The Avengers'', "Noon Doomsday", was filmed there in July 1968.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theavengers.tv/forever/king-9.htm|title=Noon Doomsday|website=The Avengers Forever|access-date=26 January 2016}}</ref>
*[[Ray Austin (director)|Raymond Austin]] AKA Raymond DeVere-Austin Baron of Delvin, film and television director, screenwriter, novelist and producer of many action/adventure TV series including ''[[The Avengers (TV series)|The Avengers]]'' and ''[[The Professionals (TV series)|The Professionals]]'' reactivated Elizabethan cottage in Millbrook and lived there for many years until he moved to America in 1969 where he directed and produced many American TV shows. He was a known philanthropist and benefactor in Bedfordshire.
*[[Lewis Ludlow]], [[Gloucester Rugby]] back-row forward, also originally hails from Ampthill.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/LewisLudlow94?s=09|website=Twitter|access-date=7 October 2018|title=Lewis Ludlow (@LewisLudlow94) | Twitter|archive-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716161230/https://twitter.com/LewisLudlow94?s=09|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Ben Chilwell]], [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] and [[England national football team|England]] footballer, was raised in Ampthill.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Ben played out of position to challenge himself' - How Chelsea new boy Chilwell became England's best left-back {{!}} Goal.com |url=https://www.goal.com/en-us/news/how-chelsea-new-boy-chilwell-became-englands-best-left-back/dh6oc8n4yfs51gi2bfvtv5e89 |access-date=2022-11-10 |website=www.goal.com}}</ref>
*[[Robert Daws]], the actor, has lived in the town for many years with his wife, actress and singer [[Amy Robbins]].
*[[Richard Nicolls]], the first governor of the province of New York, was born in Ampthill.<ref>{{cite web |title='Biography of Richard Nicolls' | url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Nicolls|access-date=2024-12-08| website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>
*[[Catherine of Aragon|Cathrine of Aragon]] resided in Ampthill castle during her divorce from [[Henry VIII|King Henry Viii]]

==Twin towns==
Ampthill is [[sister city|twinned]] with [[Nissan-lez-Enserune]], France.

==See also==
*[[Sport in Bedfordshire]]
*[[Baron Ampthill]]
*[[Ampthill Square Estate]] in London, named after Ampthill

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Ampthill}}
* [http://www.ampthilltowncouncil.org.uk/ Ampthill Town Council Website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090117033018/http://www.ampthillhistory.co.uk/ Ampthill History Site]
* {{OpenDomesday|TL0338|ampthill|Ampthill}}
* {{wikivoyage inline|Ampthill}}

{{Bedfordshire}}
{{Places in Bedfordshire}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Ampthill| ]]
[[Category:Market towns in Bedfordshire]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in Bedfordshire]]
[[Category:Towns in Bedfordshire]]
[[Category:Central Bedfordshire District]]

Mickleham, Surrey

2025-09-21T22:52:35Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Landmarks */Added comma

{{short description|Village in Surrey, England}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}

{{infobox UK place
|country = England
|static_image_name = St Michaels Mickleham.jpg
|static_image_caption = St Michael's Church
|coordinates = {{coord|51.268|-0.321|display=inline,title}}
|official_name= Mickleham
|map_type= Surrey
|label_position=left
| population = 585
|population_ref=(Civil Parish 2011)<ref name=ons>[http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk Key Statistics; Quick Statistics: Population Density] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030211201309/http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/ |date=11 February 2003 }} [[United Kingdom Census 2011]] ''[[Office for National Statistics]]'' Retrieved 21 November 2013</ref>
|area_total_km2=7.31
|civil_parish='''Mickleham'''
|shire_district= [[Mole Valley]]
|shire_county = [[Surrey]]
|region= South East England
|constituency_westminster= [[Dorking and Horley (UK Parliament constituency)|Dorking and Horley]]
|post_town= Dorking
|postcode_district = RH5
|postcode_area= RH
|dial_code= 01372 or 01306
|os_grid_reference= TQ171534
}}
'''Mickleham''' is a village in [[South East England|south east England]], between the towns of [[Dorking]] and [[Leatherhead]] in [[Surrey]]. The [[civil parishes in England|civil parish]] covers {{convert|7.31|km2|acre}} and includes the hamlet of Fredley.<ref>[http://www.surreycc.gov.uk/sccwebsite/sccwspublications.nsf/591f7dda55aad72a80256c670041a50d/5704c50aaae44f6580256e350052f5c1/$FILE/Mole%20Valley%20parishes.pdf Surrey Council census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928031545/http://www.surreycc.gov.uk/sccwebsite/sccwspublications.nsf/591f7dda55aad72a80256c670041a50d/5704c50aaae44f6580256e350052f5c1/$FILE/Mole%20Valley%20parishes.pdf |date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> The larger [[parish|ecclesiastical parish]] includes the majority of the neighbouring village of [[Westhumble]],<ref name=Mickleham_PC>{{cite web |url= http://www.micklehampc.org.uk/community/mickleham-parish-council-7875/home/ |title= Home |author=  |website= Mickleham Parish Council |access-date= 14 October 2020 |archive-date= 16 October 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201016101327/http://www.micklehampc.org.uk/community/mickleham-parish-council-7875/home/ |url-status= live }}</ref> from which Mickleham is separated by the [[River Mole]].

==History==
Mickleham lies near to the old Roman road known as [[Stane Street (Chichester)|Stane Street]], which ran from London to [[Chichester]]. It acquired its Old English based name in [[Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon times]], when it was a small settlement lying within the [[Copthorne (hundred)|Copthorne]] [[hundred (division)|hundred]].

Mickleham appears in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 as ''Michelham'' and ''Micleham''. It was partly held by Nigel from the [[Bishop of Bayeux]] and partly by Oswald from (under) [[Richard de Tonbridge]]. Its Domesday assets were: 7 [[hide (unit)|hide]]s; 1 church, 7 [[plough]]s, {{convert|3|acre|m2}} of [[meadow]], [[woodland]] worth 4 [[hog (swine)|hog]]s. It rendered £10 per year [[feudal system|to its overlords]].<ref>[http://www.gwp.enta.net/surrnames.htm Surrey Domesday Book] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715015325/http://www.gwp.enta.net/surrnames.htm |date=15 July 2007 }}</ref>

Nearby Mickleham Downs was the venue for a [[single wicket cricket]] match in June 1730. The game was between two teams of three and played for a stake of [[Pound sign|£50]]. The teams, [[Surrey county cricket teams|Surrey]] and [[Sussex county cricket teams|Sussex]], were described in a contemporary newspaper report as "esteemed the best in the respective counties" but it does not name the players.<ref>{{cite book |last=Buckley |first=G. B. |author-link=G. B. Buckley |title=Fresh Light on 18th Century Cricket |year=1935 |publisher=Cotterell |location=Birmingham |page=4 }}</ref> This is the first and only reference to Mickleham in association with cricket of a senior level.

Mickleham is mentioned in [[Jane Austen]]'s novel ''[[Emma (novel)|Emma]]'' (1815).

The philosopher and amateur botanist [[John Stuart Mill]] protested against the building of a railway though the "beautiful valley of Mickleham" in 1836,<ref>Dictionary of National Biography. Vol XIII, 1903, Smith and Elder. Leslie Stephen</ref> while [[1852 Grand National]] winner, Miss Mowbray was prepared for the race in the Village by trainer, George Dockeray. The village has featured in cycling, following the loops of Box Hill adopted by various versions of the [[London-Surrey Cycle Classic]] which was an annual event for a few years after its use in the [[2012 Summer Olympics]].

==Amenities==

===Places of worship===
[[File:Lychgate, Mickleham - geograph.org.uk - 251173.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|St Michael's Church and [[lychgate]], viewed from the south west.]]
{{main|list of places of worship in Mole Valley}}

The main place of worship is St. Michael's Church, surrounded by [[St. Michael's Churchyard, Mickleham|St Michael's Churchyard]]. The church (in full the "Parish Church of St. Michael and All Angels in Mickleham") has a Norman west tower and a Norman chancel arch, raised in the 1871 restoration by [[Ewan Christian]], who added neo-Norman aisles and east end. The Norbury chapel on the north side is late Perpendicular, with chequerboard flint and [[clunch]] walling.<ref>Ian Nairn and Nikolaus Pevsner, The Buildings of England – Surrey, 1962</ref> The majority of the stained glass windows are by [[Clayton and Bell]] with others by [[Percy Bacon Brothers|Percy Bacon Bros]], [[Morris & Co.|Morris & Sons]] and a modern window by Alfred Fisher (2015).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stainedglassrecords.org/Ch.asp?ChId=30658|title=Stained Glass Windows at St. Michael|website=Church Stained Glass Windows|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=23 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123105300/https://www.stainedglassrecords.org/Ch.asp?ChId=30658|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Community facilities and commerce===
The village has a Village Hall, two [[pub]]s (The Running Horses and The King William IV) and a restaurant (51 Degrees North).

===Schools===
[[File:Box Hill School - geograph.org.uk - 1393906.jpg|thumb|right|[[Box Hill School]] - Dalewood House in Mickleham village, now a boarding school. It follows [[Kurt Hahn]]'s educational principles.]]
In the village are [[Box Hill School]], an independent secondary school, St Michael's Infant C of E (Aided) School and St Michael's Community Nursery.

===Transport===
;Roads
The [[A24 road (Great Britain)|A24]] bypasses Mickleham with a dual-carriageway bypass.

;Railway
[[Box Hill & Westhumble railway station|Box Hill & Westhumble station]], located across the A24, and towards [[Westhumble]], provides a link to London and Horsham.<ref name=Mickleham_PC/>
{{clear}}

;Buses
The 465 bus route runs every hour or half-hour (except nights) between Kingston upon Thames and Dorking, via Mickleham village.<ref name=Mickleham_PC/>

==Localities==

===Fredley===
The [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]] and former [[Manorialism|manor]] of Fredley is approximately 300m south of the centre of Mickleham. [[Juniper Hall]], run by the [[Field Studies Council]] is located there.

[[James Clavell]], the Australian novelist and screenwriter, lived at Fredley Manor between 1970 and 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last= Churchill |first= Penny |date= 9 March 2017 |title= For Your Eyes Only: The Surrey manor where James Clavell hosted 007 (and JR Ewing) |url= https://www.countrylife.co.uk/property/fredley-manor-eyes-surrey-country-manor-hosted-007-151570 |work= Country Life |location= Farnborough, Hampshire |access-date= 21 September 2020 |archive-date= 30 September 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200930000322/https://www.countrylife.co.uk/property/fredley-manor-eyes-surrey-country-manor-hosted-007-151570 |url-status= live }}</ref>

===Mickleham Downs===
The hillside to the east of the village, known as Mickleham Downs, was donated to the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] in January 1939 by [[Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook|Lord Beaverbrook]], the proprietor of the [[Daily Express]] newspaper, who had recently purchased the [[Cherkley Court]] estate.<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title= Mickleham Downs |date= 6 January 1939 |page= 12 |issue=48196 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title= Mickleham Downs: Gift To The National Trust |date= 6 January 1939 |page= 16 |issue=48196 }}</ref>

===Norbury Park===
Across the Mole and the A24 is [[Norbury Park]]. In this is the 'Druids Grove' which is an area of mature [[taxus|Yew tree]]s.

===The Burford Bridge and the zig-zag road===
Here is the hotel that was frequented by [[Lord Nelson]], 150m north of which starts the Zig-Zag road, one of the two local roads for motor vehicles climbing [[Box Hill, Surrey|Box Hill]].

== Landmarks ==
{{main|North Downs|River Mole, Surrey|Box Hill, Surrey}}
The surrounding area contains many Sites of Special Scientific Interest ([[SSSI]]) including the Mickleham Downs and panoramic beauty spot of [[Box Hill, Surrey|Box Hill]].

The [[River Mole, Surrey|River Mole]] flows nearby. As its name suggests, the river in places goes underground due to the chalk bed being dissolved, forming swallow holes ([[sinkhole]]s). Ian Middleton tells of his father, sometime in the 1950s, the village police officer P.C. Middleton, looking past his bathroom mirror one morning whilst shaving to see a mature oak tree disappear into the ground.<ref>{{cite news |title= Oak tree disappears |date= 10 February 1940 |work= Surrey Advertiser and County Times |volume= CXLII |issue= 10259 |page= 5}}</ref> It turned out that the river flowing underground had been gradually wearing away the supporting ground under the tree, forming a giant such hole which had collapsed.<ref>{{cite news |title= The strange secret of the River Mole |date= 10 July 1964 |work= Surrey Mirror and County Post |issue= 4581 |page= 21 }}</ref> The subsequent pit was not filled in until about 1968 approx, when it was still 30 ft deep and 30 ft across.

==Notable residents==
* Sir [[Carl Aarvold]] (1907–1991), Recorder of London (senior judge at the Old Bailey), who tried the [[Kray twins]], and who played rugby for England and the British Lions 1928–1933, lived in Westhumble.
* [[Maurice Allom]] (1906–1995) England Test cricketer 1930–31, lived at Eastfield Cottage.
*[[Richard Bedford Bennett, 1st Viscount Bennett]], [[Prime Minister]] of Canada from 1930 to 1935, retired here after his life in politics. He is buried in St Michael's Churchyard, the only former Prime Minister of Canada not buried in that country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/clmhc-hsmbc/Sepulture-gravesiteindx/listesepulture-listgravesite/bennett.aspx|title=Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada – Former Prime Ministers and Their Grave Sites – The Right Honourable Richard Bedford Bennett|author=|date=20 December 2010|website=Parks Canada|publisher=Government of Canada|access-date=27 February 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022111712/http://www.pc.gc.ca/clmhc-hsmbc/Sepulture-gravesiteindx/listesepulture-listgravesite/bennett.aspx|archive-date=22 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
*[[Maria Kinnaird|Mrs. Maria Drummond]] lived at Fredley and was buried here.
* Sir [[Stuart Etherington]] (b. 1955), leading charity executive and former social worker, was brought up in the village.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lynch|first1=Andrew|title=Leading edge: Sir Stuart Etherington|url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/public/Appointments/article1196867.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012162325/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/public/Appointments/article1196867.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 October 2013|issue=9828|page=4|access-date=6 February 2016|work=The Sunday Times|date=20 January 2013}}</ref>
* Detective story writer [[Cyril Hare]] was born in Mickleham Hall in 1900 and died at [[Westhumble]] in the parish in 1958; he is buried in the churchyard. So is his wife's grandfather, [[Sir Trevor Lawrence, 2nd Baronet|Sir Trevor Lawrence]], who had famous orchid houses at Burford Lodge in the parish.
* Sir [[George Lloyd-Jacob]] (1897–1969), British High Court judge.
*[[Sir John Norton-Griffiths, 1st Baronet]], "Empire Jack", the driving force behind the [[Tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers]] in WW I, was buried at Mickleham Church on 18 October 1930.
*[[Richard Sharp (politician)|Richard "Conversation" Sharp]] (1759-1835), politician, had a country retreat at Fredley Farm and entertained many leading figures of the day there.<ref>Knapman, D. – ''Conversation Sharp – The Biography of a London Gentleman, Richard Sharp (1759–1835), in Letters, Prose and Verse''. Chapter 9 (2004).</ref>
*[[William Wingfield (MP for Bodmin)|William Wingfield]] MP, was born here.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boase|first=George Clement |authorlink = George Clement Boase|author2=William Prideaux Courtney |title=Bibliotheca Cornubiensis: A Catalogue of the Writings, Both Manuscript and Printed, of Cornishmen, and of Works Relating to the County of Cornwall, with Biographical Memoranda and Copious Literary References|publisher=Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer|year=1878|edition=Digitized 5 Sep 2007|volume=2|pages=895|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScEMAAAAYAAJ&q=William-Wriothesley-Digby&pg=PA895}}</ref>

==Demography and housing==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ '''2011 Census Homes'''
|-
!Output area !!Detached !!Semi-detached!!Terraced!!Flats and apartments!!Caravans/temporary/mobile homes!!shared between households<ref name=ons/>
|-
|(Civil Parish)||74 || 51 || 15 || 35 || 0 || 0
|}
The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ '''2011 Census Key Statistics'''
|-
!Output area !!Population !!Households !!% Owned outright !!% Owned with a loan!!hectares<ref name=ons/>
|-
|(Civil Parish)||585||175 ||27.4% ||24.6%||731
|}
The proportion of households in the civil parish who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free).

==See also==
* [[HMS Mickleham|HMS ''Mickleham'']], a [[Ham class minesweeper|''Ham'' class minesweeper]]; the village gave its name to this.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Mickleham, Surrey}}
* [http://www.leatherheadweb.org.uk/mickleham/ Parish of Mickleham]
* [http://www.micklehamchoral.org.uk/ Mickleham Choral Society]

{{Mole Valley}}
{{English cricket venues to 1770}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:1730 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in Surrey]]
[[Category:Cricket grounds in Surrey]]
[[Category:Cricket in Surrey]]
[[Category:Defunct cricket grounds in England]]
[[Category:Defunct sports venues in Surrey]]
[[Category:English cricket venues in the 18th century]]
[[Category:Mole Valley]]
[[Category:Sport in Surrey]]
[[Category:Sports venues completed in 1730]]
[[Category:Sports venues in Surrey]]
[[Category:Villages in Surrey]]

Château Gaillard

2025-09-21T21:45:53Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Construction */

{{Short description|French medieval castle in Les Andelys, Normandy}}
{{For|the commune in the department of [[Ain]]|Château-Gaillard, Ain}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox military installation
|name=Château Gaillard
|partof=
|location=[[Les Andelys]], France
|map_type=France
|map_alt=Château Gaillard is in the north-west of France, roughly mid-way between the north-west coast and Paris
|coordinates = {{coord|49.238|1.4025|type:landmark|display=inline}}
|image=[[File:Château Gaillard (Les Andelys), vu du ciel.JPG|alt=The ruins of a castle in grey limestone. It dominates the landscape.|300px]]
|caption=Château Gaillard's inner bailey
|type=[[Concentric castle]]
|built=c. 1196–1198
|builder=[[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart, King of England]]
|materials= [[Limestone]]
|height=
|used=
|demolished=1599–1611
|condition=Ruins
|ownership=
|controlledby=
|garrison=
|past_commanders={{flagicon|England}} [[Roger de Lacy (1170–1211)|Roger de Lacy]]
|occupants={{flagicon|Normandy}} [[Duchy of Normandy]] {{flagicon|England}} [[Kingdom of England]] {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|valois}} [[Kingdom of France]]
|battles=[[Siege of Château Gaillard|Siege of Château Gaillard 1203–1204]]
|events=[[Angevin Empire]] [[Hundred Years' War]]
}}
'''Château Gaillard''' ({{IPA|fr|ʃɑto ɡajaʁ}}) is a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[castle]] ruin overlooking the [[River Seine]] above the [[Communes of France|commune]] of [[Les Andelys]], in the French [[Departments of France|department]] of [[Eure]], in [[Normandy]]. It is located some {{convert|95|km}} north-west of Paris and {{convert|40|km}} from [[Rouen]]. Construction began in 1196 under the auspices of [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]], who was simultaneously [[King of England]] and feudal [[Duke of Normandy]]. The castle was expensive to build, but the majority of the work was done in an unusually short period of time. It took just two years and, at the same time, the town of [[Les Andelys|Petit Andely]] was constructed. Château Gaillard has a complex and advanced design, and uses early principles of concentric fortification; it was also one of the earliest European castles to use [[machicolation]]s. The castle consists of three enclosures separated by dry [[moat]]s, with a [[keep]] in the inner enclosure.

Château Gaillard was captured in 1204 by the king of France, [[Philip II of France|Philip II]], after a lengthy siege. In the mid-14th century, the castle was the residence of the exiled [[David II of Scotland]]. The castle changed hands several times in the [[Hundred Years' War]], but in 1449 the French king captured Château Gaillard from the English king definitively, and from then on it remained in French ownership. [[Henry IV of France]] ordered the demolition of Château Gaillard in 1599; although it was in ruins at the time, it was felt to be a threat to the security of the local population. The castle ruins are listed as a ''[[monument historique]]'' by the [[French Ministry of Culture]]. The [[inner bailey]] is open to the public from March to November, and the [[outer bailey]]s are open all year.

==History==

===Background===
Richard the Lionheart inherited Normandy from his father, [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], in 1189 when he ascended the throne of England. There was a rivalry between the [[House of Capet|Capetians]] and the [[House of Plantagenet|Plantagenet]]s, Richard as the Plantagenet king of England was more powerful than the Capetian king of France, despite the fact that Richard was a vassal of the French king and paid homage for his lands in the country.<ref>{{harvnb|Flori|1999|pp=27–28.}}</ref> From 1190 to 1192, Richard the Lionheart was on the [[Third Crusade]]. He was joined by [[Philip II of France]] as each was wary that the other might invade his territory in his absence.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=123.}}</ref> Richard was captured and imprisoned on the return journey to England, and he was not released until 4 February 1194. In Richard's absence, his brother [[John of England|John]] revolted with the aid of Philip; amongst Philip's conquests in the period of Richard's imprisonment was the [[Norman Vexin]] and a few towns around such as [[Le Vaudreuil]], [[Verneuil-sur-Avre|Verneuil]] and [[Évreux]]. It took Richard until 1198 to reconquer a part of it.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2004}}.</ref>

===Construction===
Perched high above the River Seine, an important transport route, the site of Château Gaillard, in the [[manorialism|manor]] of Andeli, was identified as a naturally defensible position.<ref name="Gillingham 301">{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=301.}}</ref> In the valley below the site was the town of Grand Andely.<ref name="Holbach 297">{{harvnb|Holbach|1912|p=297.}}</ref> Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Louviers]] (January 1196) between Richard and Philip II neither king was allowed to fortify the site; despite this, Richard intended to build a castle at ''Andeli''.<ref name="Gillingham 301"/> Its purpose was to protect the duchy of Normandy from Philip II<ref name="Allen Brown 113">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|2004|p=113.}}</ref>—it helped fill a gap in the Norman defences left by the fall of [[Château de Gisors]] and above all [[Château de Gaillon]], a castle which belonged to Philip and used as an advanced French fortification to block the Seine valley—and to act as a base from which Richard could launch his campaign to take back the [[Norman Vexin]] from French control.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=303–305.}}</ref> Indeed, Les Andelys is located just in front of Gaillon on the other side of the Seine valley. Richard tried to obtain the manor through negotiation. [[Walter de Coutances]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Rouen|Archbishop of Rouen]], was reluctant to sell the manor as it was one of the diocese's most profitable, and other lands belonging to the diocese had recently been damaged by war.<ref name="Gillingham 301"/> When Philip [[siege|besieged]] [[Aumale]] in northern Normandy, on the border with Picardy, Richard grew tired of waiting and seized the manor,<ref name="Gillingham 301"/><ref>{{harvnb|Turner|1997|p=10.}}</ref> although the act was opposed by the [[Catholic Church|Church]].<ref>{{harvnb|Packard|1922|p=20.}}</ref>
[[File:Richard I of England.png|left|thumb|A 17th-century portrait of Richard the Lionheart, the man responsible for building Château Gaillard.]]

In an attempt to get [[Pope Celestine III]] to intercede, Walter de Coutances left for Rome in November 1196. Richard sent a delegation to represent him in Rome. One of the parties, Richard's [[Lord Chancellor]] [[William Longchamp]] (who was also [[Bishop of Ely]]), died during the journey, although the rest, including [[Philip of Poitou]], [[Bishop of Durham]], and Guillaume de Ruffière, [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Lisieux|Bishop of Lisieux]], arrived in Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=301–302.}}</ref> Walter de Coutances meanwhile issued an [[Interdict (Catholic canon law)|interdict]] against the [[duchy of Normandy]] which prohibited church services from being performed in the region. [[Roger of Howden]] detailed "the unburied bodies of the dead lying in the streets and square of the cities of Normandy". Construction began with the interdict hanging over Normandy, but it was later repealed in April 1197 by Celestine, after Richard made gifts of land to Walter de Coutances and the diocese of Rouen, including two manors and the prosperous port of [[Dieppe, Seine-Maritime|Dieppe]].<ref name="Gillingham 302">{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=302–304}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|2004|p=112.}}</ref> The site of Château Gaillard had not been fortified before, and the town of [[Les Andelys|Petit Andely]] was constructed at the same time; together with the historical Grand Andely, the two are known as Les Andelys.<ref name="Holbach 297"/><ref name="Allen Brown 62">{{harvnb|Allen Brown|2004|p=62.}}</ref> The castle sits on a high limestone promontory, 90 m above Les Andelys and overlooking a bend in the [[Seine|River Seine]]. The castle was connected with Les Andelys through a series of contemporary outworks.<ref name="Gillingham 302"/>

During King Richard's reign, [[the Crown]]'s expenditure on castles declined from the levels spent by [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], Richard's father, although this has been attributed to a concentration of resources on Richard's war with the king of France.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|1955|pp=355–356.}}</ref> However, the work at Château Gaillard cost an estimated £12,000 between 1196 and 1198.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=304.}}</ref> Richard only spent an estimated £7,000 on castles in England during his reign, similar as his father Henry II.{{sfn|McLynn|2012|p=261}} The [[Pipe rolls]] for the construction of Château Gaillard contain the earliest details of how work was organised in castle building and what activities were involved. Amongst those workmen mentioned in the rolls are miners, stone cutters, quarrymen, masons, lime workers, carpenters, smiths, hodmen, water carriers, soldiers to guard the workers, diggers who cut the ditch surrounding the castle, and carters who transported the raw materials to the castle.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=302.}}</ref> A master mason is omitted, and military historian Allen Brown has suggested that it may be because Richard himself was the overall architect; this is supported by the interest Richard showed in the work through his frequent presence.<ref name="Allen Brown 113"/>
[[File:Donjonvuegénérale.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A tall pale grey wall around an enclosure and surrounded by a ditch. A modern metal bridge leads up to the entrance between two towers in the wall. A square stone tower rises above the wall.|The keep of Château Gaillard is surrounded by a [[moat]].]]

Not only was the castle built at considerable expense, but it was built relatively rapidly;<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/> construction of large stone castles often took the better part of a decade; for instance, the work at [[Dover Castle]] took place between 1179 and 1191 (at a cost of £7,000).{{sfn|McLynn|2012|p=261}} Richard was present during part of the construction to ensure construction proceeded at a rate he was happy with.<ref>{{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|pp=42–43.}}</ref> According to [[William of Newburgh]], in May 1198 Richard and the labourers working on the castle were drenched in a "[[blood rain|rain of blood]]". While some of his advisers thought the rain was an evil omen, Richard was undeterred:<ref name="Gillingham 2002 303">{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=303.}}</ref>

{{Quote|the king was not moved by this to slacken one whit the pace of work, in which he took such keen pleasure that, unless I am mistaken, even if an angel had descended from heaven to urge its abandonment he would have been roundly cursed.|William of Newburgh<ref>Quoted by {{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|pp=112–113.}}</ref>}}

After just a year, Château Gaillard was approaching completion and Richard remarked "Behold, how fair is this year-old daughter of mine!"<ref name="Allen Brown 113"/> Richard later boasted that he could hold the castle "were the walls made of butter".<ref>{{harvnb|Oman|1991|p=32.}}</ref> By 1198, the castle was largely completed.<ref name="Allen Brown 113"/> At one point, the castle was the site of the execution of three soldiers of the king of France in retaliation for a massacre of Welsh mercenaries ambushed by the French; the three were thrown to their deaths from the castle's position high above the surrounding landscape.<ref name="McGlynn">{{harvnb|McGlynn|1998}}</ref> In his final years, the castle became Richard's favourite residence, and writs and charters were written at Château Gaillard, bearing "''apud Bellum Castrum de Rupe''" (at the Fair Castle of the Rock).<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/> Richard did not enjoy the benefits of the castle for long, however, as he died in Limousin on 6 April 1199, from an infected arrow wound to his shoulder, sustained while besieging [[Châlus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Flori|1999|pp=200, 208.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=323–325.}}</ref>

===The Siege of Château Gaillard===
{{Main|Siege of Château Gaillard}}
[[File:Siege.Chateau.Gaillard.png|thumb|alt=A line drawing of Château Gaillard under siege. To the south of the castle is the fortified town of Les Andelys, while the besieging forces are camped to the south. There are catapults and a siege tower ready to assault the castle.|An impression by [[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]], a 19th-century architect experienced in renovating castles, of how the Siege of Château Gaillard would have looked]]

After Richard's death, [[John, King of England|King John of England]] failed to effectively defend Normandy against Philip's ongoing campaigns between 1202 and 1204.<ref>{{harvnb|Turner|1993|pp=171–200.}}</ref> The [[Château de Falaise]] fell to Philip's forces, as well as castles from [[Mortain]] to [[Pontorson]] while Philip simultaneously besieged Rouen,<ref>{{harvnb|Powicke|1999|p=259.}}</ref> which capitulated to French forces on 24 June 1204, effectively ending Norman independence.<ref>{{harvnb|Previté-Orton|1975|p=708.}}</ref> Philip laid siege to Château Gaillard, which was captured after a long siege from September 1203 to March 1204. As Philip continued the siege throughout the winter and King John made no attempt to relieve the castle, it was only a matter of time before the [[castellan]] was forced to capitulate.<ref name="Oman 37">{{harvnb|Oman|1991|p=37.}}</ref> The main source for the siege is ''Philippidos'', a poem by [[William the Breton]], Philip's chaplain. As a result, modern scholars have paid little attention to the fate of the civilians of Les Andelys during the siege.<ref name="McGlynn"/>

The local Norman population sought refuge in the castle to escape from the French soldiers who ravaged the town. The castle was well supplied for a siege, but the extra mouths to feed rapidly diminished the stores. Between 1,400 and 2,200 non-combatants were allowed inside, increasing the number of people in the castle at least fivefold. In an effort to alleviate the pressure on the castle's supplies, [[Roger de Lacy (1170–1211)|Roger de Lacy]], the castellan, evicted 500 civilians; this first group was allowed to pass through the French lines unhindered, and a second group of similar size did the same a few days later. Philip was not present, and when he learned of the safe passage of the civilians, he forbade further people being allowed through the siege lines. The idea was to keep as many people as possible within Château Gaillard to drain its resources.<ref name="McGlynn"/> Roger de Lacy evicted the remaining civilians from the castle, at least 400 people, and possibly as many as 1,200. The group was not allowed through, and the French opened fire on the civilians, who turned back to the castle for safety, but found the gates locked. They sought refuge at the base of the castle walls for three months; over the winter, more than half their number died from exposure and starvation. Philip arrived at Château Gaillard in February 1204, and ordered that the survivors should be fed and released. Such treatment of civilians in sieges was not uncommon, and such scenes were repeated much later at the sieges of [[Siege of Calais (1346)|Calais]] in 1346 and [[Siege of Rouen (1418–1419)|Rouen]] in 1418–1419, both in the [[Hundred Years' War]].<ref name="McGlynn"/>

The French gained access to the outermost ward by undermining its advanced main tower. Following this, Philip ordered a group of his men to look for a weak point in the castle. They gained access to the next ward via the chapel. After ambushing several unsuspecting guards, and setting fire to the buildings, Philip's men then lowered the movable bridge and allowed the rest of their army into the castle. The Anglo-Norman troops retreated to the inner ward.<ref name="Oman 37"/> After a short time, the French successfully breached the gate of the inner ward, and the garrison retreated finally to the keep. With supplies running low, Roger de Lacy and his garrison of 20 [[knight]]s and 120 other soldiers surrendered to the French army, bringing the siege to an end on 6 March 1204.<ref name="Oman 37"/> In drawn-out medieval sieges, contemporary writers often emphasised the importance of dwindling supplies in the capitulation of the garrison, as was the case with the Siege of Château Gaillard.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|2004|p=139.}}</ref> With the castle under French control, the main obstacle to the French entering the [[Seine|Seine valley]] was removed; they were able to enter the valley unmolested and take Normandy. Thus, for the first time since it had been given as a duchy to [[Rollo]] in 911, Normandy was directly ruled by the French king.<ref name="Baldwin 1">{{harvnb|Baldwin|1969|p=1.}}</ref> The city of Rouen surrendered to Philip II on 23 June 1204.<ref>{{harvnb|Cothren|1986|pp=211–212.}}</ref> After that, the rest of Normandy was easily conquered by the French.<ref name="Baldwin 1"/>

===Under French control===
In 1314, Château Gaillard was the prison of [[Margaret of Burgundy, Queen of France|Margaret]] and [[Blanche of Burgundy]], who both later became queens of France; they had been convicted of adultery in the [[Tour de Nesle Affair|''Tour de Nesle'' Affair]], and after having their heads shaved they were locked away in the fortress, where they remained, including throughout their respective reigns.<ref>{{harvnb|Caviness|1993|pp=334–336.}}</ref> Following the Scottish defeat at the [[Battle of Halidon Hill]] in 1333, during the [[Second War of Scottish Independence]], the child-king [[David II of Scotland|David II]] and certain of his court were forced to flee to France for safety. At the time, southern [[Scotland]] was occupied by the forces of King [[Edward III of England]]. David, then nine years old, and his bride [[Joan of the Tower]], the twelve-year-old daughter of [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], were granted the use of Château Gaillard by [[Philip VI of France|Philip VI]]. It remained their residence until David's return to Scotland in 1341. David did not stay out of English hands for long after his return; he was captured after the [[Battle of Neville's Cross]] in 1346 and endured an eleven-year captivity in the [[Tower of London]].<ref>{{harvnb|Webster|2004}}</ref>

During the Hundred Years' War between the English and French crowns, possession of the castle switched several times. Château Gaillard—along with [[Château de Gisors]], [[Ivry-la-Bataille]], and [[Mont Saint-Michel]]—was one of four castles in Normandy which offered resistance to [[Henry V of England]] in 1419, after the capitulation of Rouen and much of the rest of the Duchy. Château Gaillard was besieged for a year before it was surrendered to the English in December 1419;<ref>{{harvnb|Allmand|1997|p=130.}}</ref> all the resisting castles except Mont Saint-Michel eventually fell, and Normandy was temporarily returned to English control.<ref>{{harvnb|Burne|1976|pp=133–134.}}</ref> [[La Hire|Étienne de Vignolles]], a mercenary (''[[routiers|routier]]'') known as La Hire, then recaptured Château Gaillard for the French in 1430.<ref>{{harvnb|Allmand|1988|p=76.}}</ref> However, the English were revived by the capture and execution of [[Joan of Arc]], and although by then the war was turning against them, a month later they captured Château Gaillard again.<ref>{{harvnb|Burne|1976|p=272.}}</ref> When the French gained ascendancy again between 1449 and 1453, the English were forced out of the region,<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|2003|p=96.}}</ref> and in 1449 the castle was taken by the French for the last time.<ref name="tourism office">{{citation |url=http://office-tourisme.ville-andelys.fr/upload/Images/Plaquette_GB_21-04-09.pdf |title=Château Gaillard |publisher=Tourism office of Ville Andelys |access-date=2009-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617083124/http://office-tourisme.ville-andelys.fr/upload/Images/Plaquette_GB_21-04-09.pdf |archive-date=17 June 2011 }}</ref>

By 1573, Château Gaillard was uninhabited and in a ruinous state, but it was still believed that the castle posed a threat to the local population if it was repaired. Therefore, at the request of the [[French States-General]], King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] ordered the [[slighting|demolition]] of Château Gaillard in 1599.<ref name="tourism office"/><ref name="adlfi">{{citation |url=http://www.adlfi.fr/SiteAdfi/document?base=base_notices&id=N2004-NH-0002&q=sdx_q0&recherche=listDoc&req=Ch%C3%82teau%20Gaillard&typ=notices |language=fr |title=Andelys (Les): Château Gaillard |publisher=adlfi.fr |access-date=2009-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720203408/http://www.adlfi.fr/SiteAdfi/document?base=base_notices&id=N2004-NH-0002&q=sdx_q0&recherche=listDoc&req=Ch%C3%82teau%20Gaillard&typ=notices |archive-date=20 July 2011 }}</ref> Some of the building material was reused by [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin monks]] who were granted permission to use the stone for maintaining their monasteries. In 1611, the demolition of Château Gaillard came to an end. The site was left as a ruin, and in 1862 was classified as a ''[[monument historique]]''.<ref name="tourism office"/> In 1962, a conference on the contributions of the [[Normans]] to medieval military architecture was held at Les Andelys. Allen Brown attended the conference and remarked that the castle was "in satisfying receipt of skilful care and attention". The journal ''Château Gaillard: Études de Castellogie Médiévale'', which was published as a result of the conference, has since run to 23 volumes, based on international conferences on the subject of castles.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|1962–63|p=304.}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://www.castlestudiesgroup.org.uk/page16.html |title=The Castle Studies Group – New Publications: New Books on Castles to be published during 2008-9 |publisher=The Castle Studies Group |access-date=2009-12-21}}</ref> In the 1990s, [[archaeology|archaeological]] [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavations]] were carried out at Château Gaillard. The excavations investigated the north of the fortress, searching for an entrance postulated by architect [[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]], but no such entrance was found. However, the excavation did reveal was that there was an addition to the north of the castle to enable the use of guns. Typologically, the structure has been dated to the 16th century. The conclusion of the excavations was that the site had "enormous archaeological potential", but that there were still unanswered questions about the castle. After Philip II took Chateau Gaillard, he repaired the collapsed tower of the outer bailey that had been used to gain access to the castle. The archaeological investigation examined the tower generally thought to be the one collapsed by Philip, and although it did not recover any dating evidence, the consensus is that he completely rebuilt the tower. In conjunction with the archaeological work, efforts were made to preserve the remaining structures.<ref name="adlfi"/> Today, Château Gaillard's inner bailey is open to the public from March to November, while the outer baileys are open all year round.<ref name="tourism office"/>

{{wide image|Château-Gaillard in black and white.jpg|900px|alt=The grassy outer bailey of Château Gaillard; the land slopes away to a ditch, separating the outer bailey from the middle bailey. Parts of the wall surrounding the middle bailey still stand. To the right is part of the wall of the outer bailey. In the background the keep rises above the walls of the inner bailey.|The ruins of Château Gaillard from within the outer bailey, looking northwest. In the background is the keep and wall around the inner bailey; the other ruins are part of the walls of the middle and outer baileys.}}

{{wide image|Chateau_Gaillard.jpg|900px|alt=The ruins of a castle in grey limestone dominating the landscape. The River Seine is in the background. The castle's keep protrudes above the walls of the inner bailey on the right, with a bridge leading up to the bailey's entrance. To are ruins of the wall enclosing the outer bailey; a tower stands taller than the ruined walls.|The ruins of Château Gaillard from the east. The keep is on the far right and the ruins of the outer bailey, including remains of some of the towers, are on the left.}}

==Layout and innovations==
[[File:Plan.Chateau.Gaillard.png|right|thumb|alt=The outer bailey, at the top of the plan, is pentagon shaped and there are five towers spaced along the wall, three of which are at corners. The outer bailey leads to the middle bailey which is an irregular polygon; like the outer bailey, the walls of the middle bailey are studded with five towers. Within the middle bailey is the inner bailey at the bottom of the plan, which in turn contains the keep.|A plan of Château Gaillard by Eugene Viollet-le-Duc, with north pointing to the bottom-left-hand corner. The inner bailey and keep is at the bottom of the plan and the outer bailey is at the top. But there is at least one mistake, the tower supposed to contain the latrines on the right of the keep, was not round but square.]]

Château Gaillard consists of three baileys—an inner, a middle, and an outer with the main entrance to the castle—and a [[keep]], also called a donjon, in the inner bailey. The baileys, which were separated by rock-cut ditches,<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/> housed the castle's stables, workshops, and storage facilities.<ref>{{harvnb|Friar|2003|p=22.}}</ref> It is common for extant castles to be the result of several phases of construction, and were adapted and added to over the period of their use; however Château Gaillard essentially is the result of one period of building.<ref name="Gillingham 2002 303"/> The division into three wards bears similarities with the design of [[Château de Chinon]], built by Henry II in the mid-12th century on a promontory overlooking a town.<ref>{{harvnb|Stokstad|2005|pp=37–38}}</ref>

The outer bailey is the southernmost feature of the castle; it is pentagon shaped and there are five towers spaced along the wall, three of which are at corners. North of the outer bailey is the middle bailey which is an irregular polygon; like the outer bailey, the wall of the middle bailey is studded with towers. The towers allowed the garrison to provide [[Enfilade and defilade|enfilading fire]]. In the fashion of the time, most of the towers in the curtain walls of the middle and outer baileys were cylindrical.<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/> Château Gaillard was one of the first castles in Europe to use [[machicolations]]—stone projections on top of a wall with openings that allowed objects to be dropped on an enemy at the base of the wall.<ref>{{harvnb|Friar|2003|p=32.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Creswell|1953|p=3.}}</ref> Machicolations were introduced to Western architecture as a result of the Crusades. Until the 13th century, the tops of towers in European castles had usually been surrounded by [[Hoarding (castles)|wooden galleries]], which served the same purpose as machicolations. An Eastern innovation, they may have originated in the first half of the 8th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Cathcart King|1988|pp=84–87.}}</ref>

Within the middle bailey was the inner bailey. The [[gatehouse]] from the middle of the inner bailey was one of the earliest examples of towers flanking the entrance to remove the blind spot immediately in front of the gate.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|2004|pp=62, 64.}}</ref> This was part of a wider trend from around the late 12th or 13th century onwards for castle gateways to be strongly defended.<ref>{{harvnb|Cathcart King|1988|pp=77–78.}}</ref>

The design of the inner bailey, with its wall studded with semicircular projections, is unparalleled.<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/> This innovation had two advantages: firstly, the rounded wall absorbed the damage from [[siege engine]]s much better as it did not provide a perfect angle to aim at; secondly, the [[arrowslit]]s in the curved wall allowed arrows to be fired at all angles.<ref name="Oman 33">{{harvnb|Oman|1991|p=33.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Friar|2003|pp=124–125.}}</ref> The inner bailey, which contained the main residential buildings, used the principles of [[concentric castle|concentric defence]].<ref name="Friar 77">{{harvnb|Friar|2003|p=77.}}</ref> This and the unusual design of the inner bailey's curtain wall meant that castle was advanced for its age, since it was built before concentric fortification was fully developed in Crusader castles such as [[Krak des Chevaliers]].<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/><ref name="Friar 77"/> Concentric castles were widely copied across Europe; for instance, when [[Edward I of England]]—who had himself been on Crusade—built castles in Wales in the late 13th century, four of the eight he founded were concentric.<ref name="Friar 77"/><ref>{{harvnb|Cathcart King|1988|p=83.}}</ref>

The keep was inside the inner bailey and contained the king's accommodation.<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/> It had two rooms: an antechamber and an audience room. While Allen Brown interpreted the audience room as the king's chamber, historian Liddiard believes it is probably a throne room. A throne room emphasises the political importance of the castle.<ref name="Liddiard 54">{{harvnb|Liddiard|2005|p=54.}}</ref> In England there is nothing similar to Château Gaillard's keep, but there are buildings with a similar design in France in the 12th and 13th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen Brown|2004|p=54.}}</ref>

Allen Brown described Château Gaillard as "one of the finest castles in Europe"<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/> and the military historian Sir [[Charles Oman]] wrote that:
{{Quote|Château Gaillard, as we have already had occasion to mention, was considered the masterpiece of its time. The reputation of its builder, Coeur de Lion, as a great military engineer might stand firm on this single structure. He was no mere copyist of the models he had seen in the East, but introduced many original details of his own invention into the stronghold.|Oman 1924<ref name="Oman 33"/>}}

Despite Château Gaillard's reputation as a great fortress, Liddiard highlights the absence of a well in the keep as a peculiar weakness, and the castle was built on soft chalk, which would have allowed the walls to be [[Mining (military)|undermined]].<ref name="Liddiard 54"/> But other sources evoke the presence of three wells in the three different baileys and the soft chalk does not really weaken the very thick walls. Its weakness is more the result of its location (higher hill behind), its extension (more than {{convert|200|m}}) on a long narrow ridge and the difficulties in linking up the different baileys to allow a good communication and to secure an efficient defence without a large garrison.<ref>Joseph Decaëns, "Le château Gaillard" in ''L'architecture normande'', Tome II, p. 285, editions Charles Corlet / Presses universitaire de Caen, Condé-sur-Noireau, 1997.</ref>

Château Gaillard was important not solely as a military structure, but as a salient symbol of the power of Richard the Lionheart. It was a statement of dominance by Richard, having reconquered the lands Philip II had taken.<ref name="Liddiard 54"/> Castles such as Château Gaillard in France, and [[Dover Castle]] in England, were amongst the most advanced of their age, but were surpassed in both sophistication and cost by the works of [[Edward I of England]] in the latter half of the 13th century.<ref name="Allen Brown 113"/>

==See also==
*[[List of castles in France]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|20em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{Citation |last=Allen Brown |first=R |year=1955 |title=Royal Castle-Building in England, 1154–1216 |journal=The English Historical Review |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=70 |number=276 |pages=353–398 |doi=10.1093/ehr/lxx.cclxxvi.353}}
*{{Citation |last=Allen Brown |first=R |year=1962–63 |title=Conference on castles at Les Andelys, 1962 |journal=Medieval Archaeology |volume=6–7 |page=304}}
*{{Citation |last=Allen Brown |first=R |year=2004 |orig-date=1954 |title=Allen Brown's English Castles |publisher=The Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |isbn=1-84383-069-8 |doi=10.1017/9781846152429}}
*{{Citation |last=Allmand |first=C |title=The Hundred Years' War: England and France at War, c. 1300–c. 1450 |year=1988 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-31923-2}}
*{{Citation |last=Allmand |first=C |title=Henry V |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-300-07370-6}}
*{{Citation |last=Baldwin |first=John |author-link=John W. Baldwin |title=Philip Augustus and the Norman Church |year=1969 |journal=French Historical Studies |publisher=Duke University Press |volume=6 |number=1 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.2307/286242|jstor=286242 }}
*{{Citation |last=Burne |first=Alfred Higgins Burne |title=The Agincourt War: A Military History of the Latter Part of the Hundred Years' War, from 1369 to 1453 |year=1976 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-8371-8300-8}}
*{{Citation |last=Cathcart King |first=David James |title=The Castle in England and Wales: an Interpretative History |publisher=Croom Helm |location=London |year=1988 |isbn=0-918400-08-2}}
*{{Citation |last=Caviness |first=Madeline |title=Patron or Matron? A Capetian Bride and a Vade Mecum for Her Marriage Bed |journal=Speculum |publisher=Medieval Academy of America |volume=68 |number=2 |year=1993 |pages=333–362 |doi=10.2307/2864556|jstor=2864556 |s2cid=163691203 }}
*{{Citation |last=Cothren |first=Michael |title=The Seven Sleepers and the Seven Kneelers: Prolegomena to a Study of the "Belles Verrières" of the Cathedral of Rouen |journal=Gesta |publisher=International Center of Medieval Art|year=1986 |volume=25 |number=2 |pages=203–226 |doi=10.2307/766982|jstor=766982 |s2cid=190644110 |url=https://works.swarthmore.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=fac-art |url-access=subscription }}
*{{Citation |last=Creswell |first=K |title=Problems in Islamic Architecture |journal=The Art Bulletin |publisher=College Art Association |year=1953 |volume=35 |number=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.2307/3047455|jstor=3047455 }}
*{{Citation |last=Curry |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Curry |title=The Hundred Years' War |year=2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-0816-2}}
*{{Citation|author-link=Jean Flori |last=Flori |first=Jean |translator=Jean Birrell |title=Richard the Lionheart: Knight and King |year=1999 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-2047-0}}
*{{Citation |last=Friar |first=Stephen |year=2003 |title=The Sutton Companion to Castles |publisher=Sutton Publishing |location=Stroud |isbn=978-0-7509-3994-2}}
*{{Citation |last=Gillingham |first=John |author-link=John Gillingham |year=2002 |orig-date=1999 |title=Richard I |location=London |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-09404-3}}
*{{Cite ODNB |last=Gillingham |first=John |title=Richard I [called Richard Coeur de Lion, Richard the Lionheart] |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/23498}}
*{{Citation |last=Holbach |first=Maude |title=In the Footsteps of Richard Coeur de Lion |year=1912 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yMjCFqgbRboC&q=%22Grand+Andelys%22|isbn=9781417924301 }}
*{{Citation |last=Liddiard |first=Robert |year=2005 |title=Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500 |publisher=Windgather Press Ltd |location=Macclesfield |isbn=0-9545575-2-2}}
*{{Citation |last=McGlynn |first=Sean |date=1 June 1998|title=Useless Mouths |publisher=[[History Today]] |volume=48}}
*{{cite book|last=McLynn|first=Frank |title=Lionheart and Lackland: King Richard, King John and the Wars of Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lyiNj3Z6J0C|date=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4464-4925-7}}
*{{Citation |last=McNeill |first=Tom |year=1992 |title=English Heritage Book of Castles |location=London |publisher=English Heritage and B. T. Batsford |isbn=0-7134-7025-9}}
*{{Citation |last=Oman |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Oman |title=A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, Volume Two: 1278–1485 AD |publisher=Greenhill Books |year=1991 |orig-date=1924}}
*{{Citation |last=Packard |first=Sydney |title=King John and the Norman Church |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=15 |number=1 |year=1922 |pages=15–40 |doi=10.1017/s0017816000001383|s2cid=160036290 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1428616 }}
*{{Citation |last=Powicke |first=Maurice |author-link=F. M. Powicke |title=Loss of Normandy, 1198–1204 |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1999 |orig-date=1913 |isbn=978-0-7190-5740-3}}
*{{Citation |last=Previté-Orton |author-link=Charles William Previté-Orton |first=Charles William |title=The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History |year=1975 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09977-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53I5AAAAIAAJ&q=Rouen+Normandy+%2224+June%22+1204+Philip}}
*{{Citation |last=Stokstad |first=Marilyn |author-link=Marilyn Stokstad |title=Medieval Castles |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-32525-0}}
*{{Citation |last=Turner |first=Ralph |title=King John's military reputation reconsidered |date= September 1993|journal=Journal of Medieval History |volume=19 |number=3 |pages=171–200 |doi=10.1016/0304-4181(93)90013-3}}
*{{Citation |last=Turner |first=Ralph |title=Richard Lionheart and English Episcopal Elections |journal=Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies |publisher=The North American Conference on British Studies |year=1997 |volume=29 |number=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.2307/4051592|jstor=4051592 }}
*{{Cite ODNB |last=Webster |first=Bruce |title=David II |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/3726}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Château-Gaillard|Château Gaillard}}
*[http://www.normandythenandnow.com/the-sad-secret-of-chateau-gaillard/ The sad secret of Château Gaillard - more on the tragic short lives of Blanche and Margaret, locked up here by the King of France. Plus pics]
*[http://www.lebrelblanco.com/anexos/a0158.htm Medieval History of Navarre.- Château Gaillard and the Queen of Navarre]
* French Ministry of Culture database entries for Château Gaillard:
** {{Base Mérimée|PA00099304|The castle}}, {{Base Mérimée|IA00017482|Inventory notice}}
** {{Base Mérimée|IA00017478|Ensemble fortifié}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090130130048/http://montjoye.net/chateau_gaillard_les_andelys Château Gaillard, history and pictures] {{in lang|fr}}
* [http://www.virtuhall.com/chateau%20gaillard.html Château Gaillard, 3D reconstitution] {{in lang|fr}} with a link to the english page

{{Authority control}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaillard, Chateau}}
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 12th century]]
[[Category:Castles in Eure]]
[[Category:Monuments historiques of Eure]]
[[Category:Landmarks in France]]
[[Category:14th century in Scotland]]

John Atherton

2025-09-21T20:52:24Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* Early life and education */Added county

{{short description|Anglican Bishop}}
{{other people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| name = John Atherton
| image = Atherton, John (1598-1640) & Childe, John (16 -1640) - 1641 (cropped).jpg
| caption = John Atherton, Bishop of Waterford and Lismore, was hanged for sodomy under a law that he had helped to institute; his proctor [[John Childe]] was also hanged. Anonymous pamphlet, 1641
| church = [[Church of Ireland]]
| diocese = [[Church of Ireland Diocese of Waterford and Lismore]]
| birth_date = 1598
| birth_place = [[Somerset]], [[England]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1640|12|05|1598}}
| death_place = [[Stephen's Green]], [[Dublin]], Ireland
| alma_mater = [[University of Oxford]]
| consecration = 28 May 1636
| consecrated_by = [[Lancelot Bulkeley]]
}}

'''John Atherton''' (1598 – 5 December 1640) was the [[Anglican]] [[Bishop of Waterford and Lismore]] in the [[Church of Ireland]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dib.ie/biography/atherton-john-a0259|title=Dictionary of Irish Biography|editor=Clarke, Aidan}}</ref> He and John Childe (his steward and tithe proctor) were both tried and executed for [[buggery]] in 1640.<ref name='Norris1'>{{cite web |url=http://www.senatordavidnorris.ie/ChangingAttitudesArticle.htm |title=Changing Attitudes |access-date=2009-11-29 |last=Norris |first=David |date=17 May 2009 |work=Public Address at the service to mark international day against homophobia in Christ Church Cathedral |publisher=[[David Norris (politician)|David Norris]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606062927/http://www.senatordavidnorris.ie/ChangingAttitudesArticle.htm |archive-date=6 June 2009 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLWTqBmifh0C&q=%22Killaban+and+Ballintubride%22+john+atherton&pg=PA37|title=Who's who in Gay and Lesbian History: From Antiquity to World War II|last1=Aldrich|first1=Robert|last2=Wotherspoon|first2=Garry|date=2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780415159838|language=en}}</ref>

==Life and death==

=== Early life and education ===
Atherton was born in 1598 in [[Somerset]], England.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw43032/John-Atherton|title=John Atherton|website=National Portrait Gallery, London}}</ref> His father, also named John was a [[parson]] and Rector of [[Bawdrip]]. He studied at the [[University of Oxford]] and joined the ranks of the [[Anglican]] clergy, serving as Rector of [[Huish Champflower]] in [[Somerset]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://rictornorton.co.uk/eighteen/atherton.htm|title=Homosexuality in 18th-cent. England: The Life and Death of John Atherton|website=rictornorton.co.uk|access-date=2019-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OIlDAAAAcAAJ&q=Atherton|title=Biographia Britannica: Or, The Lives of the Most Eminent Persons, Volume 1|year=1747}}</ref>

=== Career in the Anglican clergy ===
In 1630, he became [[prebendary]] of the [[Church of St. John the Evangelist, Dublin|Church of St. John the Evangelist]] in [[Dublin]], in addition, Chancellor of the [[Diocese of Killaloe|Anglican Diocese of Killaloe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jSANAAAAYAAJ&dq=john+atherton+barrister&pg=PA54|title=The Church of S. John the Evangelist, Dublin|author=Hughes, Reverend Samuel Carlyle|year=1889}}</ref> In 1634, chancellor of [[Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin|Christ Church Cathedral]] and [[Rector (ecclesiastical)|rector]] of Killaban and Ballintubride in 1635.<ref name=":1" />

In 1636, under the patronage of the [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford]], he became [[Bishop of Waterford and Lismore]] in the [[Church of Ireland]] under the protests of the [[Roman Catholic]] majority in his see.<ref name=":1" />

After the [[Buggery Act 1533]] was found in 1631, during the [[Mervyn Tuchet, 2nd Earl of Castlehaven]] case, to not apply to Ireland, Atherton pushed for the enactment of "An Act for the Punishment for the Vice of Buggery" in 1634.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESlHAAAAMAAJ&q=%E2%80%9CAn+Act+for+the+Punishment+for+the+Vice+Of+Buggery%E2%80%9D+atherton|title=The Third Pink Book: A Global View of Lesbian and Gay Liberation and Oppression|last1=Hendriks|first1=Aart|last2=Tielman|first2=Rob|last3=Veen|first3=Evert van der|date=1993|publisher=Prometheus Books|isbn=9780879758318|pages=151–152|language=en}}</ref>

=== Downfall ===
In 1640 Atherton was accused of [[buggery]] with a man, John Childe, his steward and [[tithe]] [[proctor]]. Even though his fellow clerics attempted to prevent his trial to save the reputation of his Church, they were the first to have been tried under the law that Atherton himself had helped to institute.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

They were found guilty and both condemned to death, to the applause of the crowd, with Atherton being nearly lynched on his way to prison at Cork.

[[Nicholas Bernard]], [[Dean of Elphin and Ardagh]], acted as his spiritual counselor and wrote an account of Atherton's final days. Atherton was executed by hanging on [[Oxmantown]] Green, [[Dublin]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atherton, John {{!}} Dictionary of Irish Biography |url=https://www.dib.ie/biography/atherton-john-a0259 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=www.dib.ie |language=en}}</ref> after reading the morning service for his cellmates. Reportedly, he confessed about the crime to the priest ministering him immediately before his execution, although he had proclaimed his innocence before that and kept doing so during the execution.<ref name=":0" />

== Legacy ==

=== Character assassination and conspiracy ===
Since [[1710 in Ireland|1710]], some historical evidence has been developed that shows Atherton might have been a victim of a [[Conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] to discredit him and his patrons. This was attributable to Atherton's status as an astute lawyer, who sought to recover lost land for the relatively weak Protestant Church of Ireland during the 1630s. Unfortunately for Atherton, this alienated him from large landowners, who then allegedly used his sexuality to discredit him. The conspiracy has been alleged to have been led by a lawyer named Butler, over land in Killoges, near Waterfeld. Butler became insane after the execution, claiming to see Atherton at all time.<ref name=":0" />

English [[Puritan]], [[Congregationalist]] and [[Independent (religion)|Independent]] activists, as well as English and Scottish Presbyterian activists, contemporaneously campaigned to abolish Episcopacy (bishops) within the embattled [[Church of England]], [[Church of Scotland]] and [[Church of Ireland]]; notionally expediting the political interest in Atherton's downfall.<ref>Bray, Alan (1982) ''Homosexuality in Renaissance England'' London: Gay Men's Press</ref>

Posthumous accusations of sexual wrongdoing also include allegations of "[[incest]]" with his sister-in-law, and [[infanticide]] of the resultant child, as well as [[zoophilia]] with cattle. However, these allegations began to be circulated several months after his death in an anonymous pamphlet,<ref name=":1" /> and may have been intended to further discredit the bishop's campaign to restore the finances of the Church of Ireland.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Marshall, Peter|title=Sex, Scandal and the Supernatural|magazine=History Today|date=February 2007|pages=70–71}}</ref>

=== Legends ===
A legend had him linked to the Old Mother Leakey, a [[Somerset]] ghost accused of [[shipwrecking]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/how_whistling_somerset/|title=How whistling Somerset ghost accused Bishop of infanticide, incest & sodomy & started shipwrecking|website=warwick.ac.uk|access-date=2019-04-07}}</ref>

Another legend describes the house of Butler, the lawyer who allegedly led the conspiracy against Atherton, as being haunted by the ghost of the bishop.<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Christianity}}
* [[List of people executed for homosexuality]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HdbAAAAQAAJ&q=%22john+atherton%22|title=The Case of John Atherton, Bishop of Waterford in Ireland: Fairly Represented: Against a Late Partial Edition of Dr. Barnard's Relation, and Sermon at His Funeral. ...|last=King|first=John|date=1710|publisher=Luke Stokoe, and sold|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lHOk2jQIE4wC&q=%22john+atherton%22&pg=PA4|title=Some Memorials of the Life and Penitent Death of Dr. John Atherton ... To which is added, an account of the most amazing apparition ever heard of, foretelling the Bishop's untimely end ... Also a true copy of his last speech at the place of execution. (Bishop Atherton's Case Discuss'd, etc.).|last=Ardagh.)|first=Nicholas BERNARD (Dean of|date=1711|publisher=E. Curll|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7jhYAAAAcAAJ&q=%22john+atherton%22&pg=PT15|title=The Life and Death of John Atherton, Etc. [A Type-facsimile of the Edition of 1641.]|last=Norton|first=Rictor|date=1641|publisher=J. Barker|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQx28fuW-ooC&q=%22john+atherton%22+bishop&pg=PT295|title=Mother Leakey and the Bishop: A Ghost Story|last=Marshall|first=Peter|date=2008-10-09|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=9780191579929|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/homosexualityinr00alan|url-access=registration|quote=Homosexuality in Renaissance England.|title=Homosexuality in Renaissance England|last=Bray|first=Alan|date=1982|publisher=Gay Men's Press|isbn=9780907040163|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/greatunfrocked00matt|url-access=registration|quote=The Great Unfrocked: two thousand years of church scandal.|title=The Great Unfrocked: Two Thousand Years of Church Scandal|last=Parris|first=Matthew|date=1999|publisher=Robson Books|isbn=9781861052636|pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatunfrocked00matt/page/157 157]–162|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/politicalballanc00barnuoft|title=The political ballance, for 1754. The mock-patriot, for 1753. To which is added, the case of John Atherton, Bishop of Waterford in Ireland, who was convicted of bestiality with a cow and other creatures, for which he was hang'd at Dublin; with a full account of his behaviour after condemnation, and the letters he left before his execution: By N. Barnard, Dean of Ardagh, at the command of the Primate of Ireland|last=Barnard|first=N.|date=1754|publisher=Dublin : Printed; London : Reprinted, for Roger Lapis ...|others=W. D. Jordan Special Collections and Music Library Queen's University Library}}

{{Anglican bishops of Waterford and Lismore}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Atherton, John}}
[[Category:1598 births]]
[[Category:1640 deaths]]
[[Category:17th-century English LGBTQ people]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Bishops of Waterford and Lismore (Church of Ireland)]]
[[Category:Executed people from Somerset]]
[[Category:LGBTQ Anglican clergy]]
[[Category:People executed by the Kingdom of Ireland by hanging]]
[[Category:People executed for sodomy]]
[[Category:Executed people from County Waterford]]

Hexham Old Gaol

2025-09-21T18:12:24Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* History */

{{short description|Municipal building in Hexham, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Old Gaol, Hexham
| native_name =
| image = Hexham Old Gaol.jpg
| caption= Old Gaol, Hexham
| locmapin =Northumberland
| map_caption =Shown in Northumberland
| coordinates ={{coord| 54.9713|-2.0999|type:landmark_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
| location = Hallgate, [[Hexham]]
| area =
| built =c.1332
| architect =
| architecture = [[Medieval architecture|Medieval style]]
| designation1 =Grade I Listed Building
| designation1_offname = The Manor Office
| designation1_date =2 October 1951
| designation1_number = 1281526
| website=
}}
The '''Old Gaol''', also known as the '''Manor Office''', is a custodial building in Hallgate in [[Hexham]], [[Northumberland]], England. The building, which now operates as a museum, is a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref name=listed>{{NHLE|desc=The Manor Office|num=1281526|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref>

==History==
The gaol was commissioned by the [[Archbishop of York]], [[William Melton]]. It was designed in the [[Medieval architecture|Medieval style]], built in [[rubble masonry]] and was completed in January 1332.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gatehouse-gazetteer.info/English%20sites/2641.html |title=Hexham Moot Hall and Old Gaol |publisher=Gatehouse Gazetteer | access-date=8 April 2023}}</ref>

The design involved a three-storey rectangular building facing onto Hallgate. On the ground floor, there was originally a doorway on the left: this was subsequently replaced by a bi-partite [[mullion]]ed window with cusped heads, and a new arched doorway with an [[architrave]] was inserted in the centre. The upper floors were originally largely blind: new fenestration was later added to these floors: on the first floor, additions included two pairs of [[lancet window]]s on the right and a single lancet window on the left, while on the second floor, additions included a bi-partite mullioned window with cusped heads on the right and two small single windows on the left. The building was surmounted by heavily [[corbel]]led [[eaves]]. Internally, the principal rooms were the two vaulted cells in the basement. The spaces on the other floors were largely for the administration of the prison.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tynedaleheritage.org/Resources/GaolCrosSec.htm |title=Cross Section|publisher=Tynedale Heritage|access-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124234608/http://tynedaleheritage.org/Resources/GaolCrosSec.htm|archive-date=24 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The building held prisoners from [[Hexhamshire]] and, in the 16th century, also from the English [[Scottish Marches|Middle March]]: the prisoners were held in the gaol on a temporary basis awaiting their trial in the courtroom in the nearby [[Moot Hall, Hexham|Moot Hall]].<ref>{{NHLE|num= 1042577|desc=The Moot Hall|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref> The building remains one of the oldest purpose-built prisons in England.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.culture24.org.uk/ne000062 |title = Hexham Old Gaol |publisher= Culture24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022085142/http://www.culture24.org.uk/ne000062 |archive-date=22 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3uc-tvxodUC&pg=PA212 |title= Warriors and Churchmen in the High Middle Ages Essays Presented to Karl Leyser |first= Timothy|last= Reuter|year=1992 |page=212|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0826426758 }}</ref>

During the Hexham Riot in 1761, when a crowd protesting about changes in the criteria for serving in the [[Militia (Great Britain)|militia]], rioters were fired upon by troops from the North Yorkshire Militia in the Market Place. Some 45 protesters were killed, and many others were incarcerated in the gaol.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hexham Riot |url=http://www.ndfhs.org.uk/Articles/HexhamRiot.html |access-date=2008-11-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021052058/http://www.ndfhs.org.uk/Articles/HexhamRiot.html |archive-date=21 October 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://museumsnorthumberland.org.uk/hexham-old-gaol/about-us/our-history/ |title=Hexham Old Gaol|publisher=Museums Northumberland|access-date=8 April 2023}}</ref> After the prisoners had been transferred to [[Morpeth Court|Morpeth Gaol]], the prison closed in 1820.<ref name=tynedale>{{cite web|url=http://tynedaleheritage.org/Resources/GaolHist.htm |title=The Old Gaol: outline history|publisher=Tynedale Heritage|access-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124031610/http://tynedaleheritage.org/Resources/GaolHist.htm|archive-date=24 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It was then converted for use as a bank and a solicitor's office.<ref name=tynedale/>

The old gaol became the home of the 2nd Northumberland Rifle Volunteers when it was formed in 1860 and remained in use as such until [[Dare Wilson Barracks|Hencotes drill hall]] was completed in 1891.<ref name=tynedale/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F7y__ACbNigC&pg=PA192 | title= Tracing the Rifle Volunteers: A Guide for Military and Family Historians |first= Ray |last=Westlake|publisher=Pen and Sword Books|year= 2010 |page=192|isbn=978-1848842113}}</ref> During the [[World War II|Second World War]], it served as a [[fire lookout tower]].<ref name=tynedale/> The building reopened as a museum in 1980. Topics covered include archaeology, archives, costume and textiles, law and order, music, photography, social history, weapons and war. The collections include 15th and 16th-century arms and armour, and objects of local historical interest.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.visitnorthumberland.com/explore/things-to-do/culture/museums/hexham-old-gaol |title = Hexham Old Gaol |publisher=Visit Northumberland|access-date=8 April 2023}}</ref> The Border Library holds the "Butler Collection", which is a series of books, recordings and music relating to the culture of [[Scottish Borders|the Borders]], assembled by the former Chairman of the Northumbria Tourist Board, William Butler.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/c/F72629|title=Butler, William, (fl 1960-1981), Director of Northumbria Tourist Board|publisher=National Archives|access-date=8 April 2023}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Grade I listed buildings in Northumberland]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.prisonhistory.org/prison/hexham-gaol/ Prison History: Hexham Gaol]

{{Prisons in North East England}}

[[Category:Prisons in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Local museums in Northumberland]]
[[Category:1330s establishments in England]]
[[Category:Prison museums in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Defunct prisons in England]]
[[Category:Hexham]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Debtors' prisons]]

Hexham Abbey

2025-09-21T18:06:56Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:98B3:3C48:18AE:6E21: /* History */

{{Use British English|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox church
| name = Hexham Abbey
| other name = Church of the Augustinian Priory of St Andrew, Hexham
| image = Hexham Abbey.jpg
| caption = East end of Hexham Abbey
| founded date = c.674 AD
| dedication = [[Andrew the Apostle]]
| status = Active
| functional status = [[Parish church]]
| heritage designation = [[Listed buildings|Grade I Listed Building]], [[Scheduled Monument]]
| style = [[Romano-Gothic]]
| years built = c.1170–1250
| location = [[Hexham]], {{flag|Northumberland}}
| address = The Priory Church of St Andrews', Market Place
| denomination = [[Church of England]]
| previous denomination = [[Roman Catholic]]
| churchmanship = [[Liberal Anglo-Catholicism|Liberal catholic]]<ref name="PP">{{cite web |title=Appointment of an Associate Priest for the Parish of St Andrew, Hexham: PARISH PROFILE |url=https://pathways.churchofengland.org/storage/uploads/cofe/jobs/2690112/Parish-Profile-Associate-Priest.pdf |website=pathways.churchofengland.org |access-date=8 July 2025 |date=May 2025}}</ref>
| tower quantity = 1
| parish = [[Hexham]]
| diocese = [[Diocese of Newcastle|Newcastle]]
| province = [[Province of York|York]]
| country = England
| rector = The Rev'd Canon David Glover, [[Honorary Chaplain to the King|KHC]]
| curate = Rev'd Abigail Harris
| director = Michael Haynes
| organist = Matthew Kelley
| embedded = {{Infobox designation list
|embed=yes
|designation1=Scheduled Monument
|designation1_offname=Remains of Medieval Priory and Anglo-Saxon Monastery Under and Around Hexham Abbey and Its Precincts
|designation1_number=1006593
|designation1_date=
|designation2=UK Grade I
|designation2_offname=The Priory Church of St Andrews'
|designation2_number=1042576
|designation2_date=2 October 1951
|designation2_type=Grade I}}
| website = {{URL|www.hexhamabbey.org.uk}}
}}

'''Hexham Abbey''' is a Grade I listed church dedicated to [[Saint Andrew|St Andrew]], in the town of [[Hexham]], [[Northumberland]], in the [[North East England|North East]] of England. Originally built in AD 674, the Abbey was built up during the 12th century into its current form, with additions around the turn of the 20th century. Since the [[dissolution of the monasteries]] in 1537, the Abbey has been the [[parish church]] of Hexham. In 2014 the Abbey regained ownership of its former monastic buildings, which had been used as Hexham [[magistrates' court (England and Wales)|magistrates' court]], and subsequently developed them into a permanent exhibition and visitor centre, telling the story of the Abbey's history.

==History==
[[File:Inside Hexham Abbey, Hexham, United Kingdom.jpg|thumb|320px|left|Inside Hexham Abbey]]
There has been a church on the site for over 1300 years since [[Æthelthryth|Etheldreda]], Queen of Northumbria, made a grant of lands to [[Wilfrid|St Wilfrid]], [[Archbishop of York|Bishop of York]], c.674 AD. Of Wilfrid's [[Benedictine]] abbey, which was constructed almost entirely of material salvaged from nearby Roman ruins, the [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] crypt still remains; as does a [[Frithstool|frith stool]], a 7th/8th century [[cathedra]] or throne.<ref name="ba-n060-0801">{{cite web|url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/BA/ba60/feat2.shtml|publisher=British Archaeology|title=Old ruins, new world|access-date=12 January 2007|archive-date=23 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523191948/http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba60/feat2.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> For a little while around that time it was the [[cathedra|seat]] of a [[bishop of Hexham|bishopric]].

In the year 875 [[Halfdan Ragnarsson]] the Dane ravaged the whole of Tyneside, and Hexham Church was plundered and burnt to the ground.<ref name=Graham>{{cite book| last = Graham| first = Frank| title = Hexham and Corbridge: a Short History and Guide| publisher = Butler Publishing| year = 1992| location = Thropton, Rothbury, Northumberland| pages = 2, 4, 5| isbn = 0-946928-19-3}}</ref>

About 1050, one Eilaf was put in charge of Hexham, although as treasurer of Durham, he probably never went there. Eilaf was instructed to rebuild Hexham Church, which then lay in utter ruin. His son Eilaf II completed the work, probably building in the Norman style.<ref name=Graham />

In Norman times, Wilfrid's abbey was replaced by an [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[priory]]. The current church largely dates from c.1170–1250, built in the [[Early English Period|Early English]] style of architecture. The choir, north and south transepts and the cloisters, where canons studied and meditated, date from this period.

The east end was rebuilt in 1858.<ref name="listing">{{National Heritage List for England|num=1042576|desc=The Priory Church of St Andrew|access-date=14 August 2018}}</ref> The Abbey was largely rebuilt during the incumbency of [[Canon Edwin Sidney Savage]], who came to Hexham in 1898 and remained until 1919. This mammoth project involved re-building the nave, whose walls incorporate some of the earlier church, and the [[Victorian restoration|restoration]] of the choir. The nave was re-consecrated on 8 August 1908.

The church was recorded as [[Listed building#Categories of listed building|Grade I listed]] in 1951.<ref name="listing" /> In 1996 an additional chapel was created at the east end of the north choir aisle; named ''St Wilfrid's Chapel'', which offers a place for prayer or quiet reflection. A high-profile wedding in the same year saw West Sussex socialites, Joanna and Richard Britton, married in the Abbey with their first-born son, Joshua, returning a year later for his christening service.

===Stained glass===
Four of the stained glass windows in the Abbey are the work of Jersey-born stained glass artist [[Henry Thomas Bosdet]] who was commissioned by the Abbey. The east window was the first project and was installed about 1907. Two smaller windows followed and the large west window was installed in 1918.<ref name=HexhamCourant20090703>{{cite journal
| last = Dixon
| first = Rebecca
| title = Documentary sheds new light on Abbey windows
| journal = Hexham Courant
| issue = Friday, 3 July 2009
| page = 19}}</ref>

===Crypt===
The crypt is a plain structure of four chambers. Here were exhibited the relics which were a feature of Wilfrid's church. It consists of a chapel with an ante-chapel at the west end, two side passages with enlarged vestibules and three stairways. The chapel and ante-chapel are [[barrel vault|barrel-vaulted]]. All the stones used are of Roman workmanship and many are carved or with inscriptions.<ref name=Graham /> One inscription on a slab, partially erased, is:

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto"
|-
| style="padding:1em" | <poem>
IMP •CAES •L •SEP • • •
PERTINAX •ET •IMPC • •
AVR •ANTONINV • • • •
VS • • • • • • • • •
• • • •HORTE • • •
VEXILLATION • • • • •
FECERVNT SVB • • • • •
</poem>
|}
Translated, this means ''The Emperor Lucius Septimus Severus Pius Pertinax and his sons the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius Augustus and Publius Geta Caesar the cohorts and detachments made this under the command of ….''. The words erased are of great interest: after the Emperor [[Publius Septimius Geta|Geta]] was murdered by his brother [[Caracalla]], an edict was made at Rome ordering that whenever the two names appeared in combination that of Geta was to be erased. This so-called ''[[damnatio memoriae]]'' was carried out, but so poorly that the name can still be read.<ref name=Graham />

==Bishopric of Hexham==
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2019}}
[[File:Rulers of Hexham Abbey Church (674-1945).jpg|thumb|upright|Atkinson memorial with list of clerics]]
The first diocese of Lindisfarne was merged into the Diocese of York in 664. York diocese was then divided in 678 by [[Theodore of Tarsus]], forming a bishopric for the country between the Rivers [[River Aln|Aln]] and [[River Tees|Tees]], with a seat at Hexham and/or Lindisfarne. This gradually and erratically merged back into the [[bishop of Lindisfarne|bishopric of Lindisfarne]]. Eleven bishops of Hexham followed St. Eata, of which six were saints.

No successor was appointed in 821, the condition of the country being too unsettled. A period of disorder followed the Danish devastations, after which '''Hexham monastery''' was reconstituted in 1113 as a priory of [[Austin Canons]], which flourished until its dissolution under Henry VIII. Meantime the bishopric had been merged in that of Lindisfarne, which latter see was removed to Chester-le-Street in 883, and thence to Durham in 995.

===Bishops===
*[[Eata of Hexham|Eata]], 'bishop of [[Bernicia]]', with his seat at Hexham and/or Lindisfarne, died 685, succeeded by John of Beverley ([[Bede]], [[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Ecclesiastical History]] [[Wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 4#12|IV.12]])
*[[Trumbert]], 682, as 'bishop of Hexham', at the same time as [[Trumwine]]'s installation, with Eata continuing as bishop at Lindisfarne
*[[Cuthbert of Lindisfarne]], 685, after Trumbert's deposition, moving his seat to Lindisfarne to become [[bishop of Lindisfarne]] (Bede, [[Wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 4#28|IV.28]])
*St. [[John of Beverley]] (685–705) (Bede, [[Wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 5#2|V.2]]). From then on, the seat was at Hexham, and the bishopric of Lindisfarne continued independently, with [[Eadberht of Lindisfarne|Eadberht]] succeeding Cuthbert
*St. [[Wilfrid]], who, resigning the [[Archbishop of York|See of York]], died as Bishop of Hexham in 709
*St. [[Acca of Hexham|Acca]], Wilfrid's successor, from 709 (Bede, [[Wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 5#20|V.20]])
*[[Frithubeorht]] 734–766
*St. [[Alcmund of Hexham|Eahlmund]] 767–781
*[[Tilbeorht]] 781–789
*[[Æthelberht of Whithorn|Æthelberht]] 789–797 transferred from [[Bishop of Galloway|Whithorn]]
*[[Heardred of Hexham|Heardred]] 797–800
*[[Eanberht of Hexham|Eanbehrt]] 800–813
*[[Tidfrith of Hexham|Tidfrith]], last bishop in this line, who died about 821

==Rectors==
*Canon Barker 1866–18[98?]
*[[Edwin Sidney Savage]] 1898–1918
*James Vaux Cornell Farquhar 1919–1945
*Archibald George Hardie 1945–1962
*Rowland Lemmon 1962–1975
*Bishop [[Anthony Hunter (bishop)|Anthony Hunter]] 1975–1979
*Timothy Withers Green 1979–1984
*Michael Middleton 1985–1992
*Canon Michael Nelson 1992–2004
*Canon [[Graham Usher (bishop)|Graham Usher]] 2004–2014
*Canon Dr [[Dagmar Winter (priest)|Dagmar Winter]] 2015–2019
*Canon David Glover, [[Honorary Chaplain to the King|KHC]] 2020
{{Incomplete list|date=October 2008}}

==Other notable clergy==
*Reverend [[Thomas Henry Sparshott]] 1876, temporary junior curate

==Notable burials==
*[[Ælfwald I of Northumbria]]
*[[Eata of Hexham]]
*[[Frithubeorht]]
*[[Acca of Hexham]]
*[[Alchmund of Hexham]]
*[[Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset]]
*[[Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros]]
*[[Umfraville|Robert Umfraville I]] (d. 1145)
*[[Umfraville#Odinel I (died in or after 1166)|Odinel Umfraville]] I
*[[Gilbert de Umfraville]]
*[[Gilbert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus]]
*[[Matilda, Countess of Angus]]
*[[Robert Ogle (MP)]]
*[[Caleb Rotheram]] D.D. (1694–1752), [[English Dissenters|dissenting minister]] and tutor

==Tombstone of Flavinus, Roman standard-bearer==
[[File:Tombstone of Flavinus, Roman Standard Bearer, Hexham Abbey - geograph.org.uk - 646986.jpg|thumb|180px|Very large carved Tombstone of Flavinus, a Roman standard-bearer]]
The tombstone of Flavinus is one of the most significant [[Roman Britain|Roman]] finds in Britain. It can be found in the Abbey in front of a blocked doorway at the foot of the Night Stair. Flavinus was a Roman cavalry officer who died aged 25 in the first century. The slab is thought to have once stood near the fort of [[Coria (Corbridge)|Coria near Corbridge]] and was brought here as a building stone in the 12th century. The slab was laid face-upward in the foundations of the cloister and was rediscovered in 1881.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Flavius tombstone|url=http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/blogs/news/2015/02/17/3d-scan-GNM-no-3|website=wessexarch.co.uk|access-date=14 December 2017}}</ref>

==Hexham Hoard==
In 1833 a hoard of approximately 8000 [[styca]]s were discovered whilst a grave was being dug in the Campey Hill area close to the north transept.<ref name=":0">Adamson, John (1844). "An Account of the Discovery, at Hexham, in Northumberland, of a Brass Vessel, containing a Number of Anglo-Saxon Coins, called Stycas. Reprinted from the Archaeologia, Vol. XXV". ''Archaeologia Aeliana''. '''3'''.</ref> The [[Hexham Hoard]] was concealed circa 850.<ref>Lyon, C S (1955). "A REAPPRAISAL OF THE SCEATTA AND STYCA COINAGE OF NORTHUMBRIA" (PDF). ''British Numismatic Journal''. '''28''': pp. 227–38.</ref> It was composed of coins from the reigns of [[Eanred of Northumbria|Eanred]], [[Æthelred II of Northumbria|Aethelred II]] and [[Rædwulf of Northumbria|Redwulf]], as well as coins of two archbishops [[Eanbald (floruit 798)|Eanbald]] and [[Wigmund (archbishop of York)|Wigmund]].<ref name=":0" />

==Organ==
[[File:The organ, Hexham Abbey - geograph.org.uk - 733966.jpg|thumb|upright|The organ of 1974]]
In 1865 the Abbey acquired a second-hand organ from [[Carlisle Cathedral]] dating from 1804. It was installed in Hexham by Nicholson of Newcastle and opened on 19 October 1865.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Ecclesiastical Intelligence, Hexham Abbey Church |url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000242/18651020/021/0003 |newspaper=Newcastle Journal |location=Newcastle|date=20 October 1865 |access-date=16 June 2015}}</ref> In 1905 this was rebuilt by [[Norman and Beard]] with Sir [[Frederick Bridge]] of [[Westminster Abbey]] as the consultant.

In 1974 a new instrument by Lawrence Phelps of [[Pennsylvania]] was installed. It is a two manual 34-stop mechanical action instrument.<ref name=Wright>{{cite book
| last = Wright
| first = Donald
| title = Hexham Abbey. The Organ
| publisher = Peter Robson Ltd
| location = Hexham}}</ref>

===Organists===
*[[George Agnew Reay]] 1820–????
*William Turner 1826–1865<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hodges |first1=Charles Clement |last2=Gibson |first2=John |title=Hexham and its Abbey |date=1919 |publisher=Gibson and Son |location=Hexham |page=94}}</ref> 1834<ref>1834 Pigot's Directory for Northumberland.</ref>–1855<ref>1855 Whellan's Directory of Northumberland.</ref>–1865
*John Nicholson 1865<ref name=NewcastleCourant18650901>{{cite journal
| journal = The Newcastle Courant
| issue = Friday 1 September 1865
| title = John Nicholson
}}</ref>–1878
*James Price 1878–1882 (afterwards organist of St. Margaret's Church, Ipswich)
*[[Thomas Simpson Camidge]] 1882–1889
*Richard Seaton 1889–1909
*[[Ronald Richardson Potter]] 1909–1911
*[[Newell Smith Wallbank]] 1911–1917 (later organist of [[Wakefield Cathedral]])
*Harry William Tupper 1917–1918 (afterwards Organist of [[Southwell Minster]])
*[[Hubert Henry Norsworthy]] 1918
*[[Newell Smith Wallbank]] 1918–1926 (later organist of [[Wakefield Cathedral]])
*Cecil S. Richards 1926
*[[Reginald Tustin Baker]] 1928–1929 (later organist of Sheffield Cathedral)<ref name="whoswho">{{cite book|title=Who's Who in Music|date=1949|publisher=Shaw Publishing Co. Ltd|location=London (First Post-war Edition)}}</ref>
*[[Thomas Christy]] 1933–1945 (formerly sub-organist of [[Newcastle Cathedral]] 1928–1933)
*[[Alfred Southcott Morrish]] 1945–1948
*Frederick Hudson 1948<ref name=whoswho />–1949
*Dr Reginald Cooper
*Ronald Womersley
*Terence Atkinson 1965–1985
*John Green 1985–2000 (also Director of Music at Dame Allan's Schools, Newcastle, 1967–1990)
*Michael Haynes 2000–2011
*[[Marcus Wibberley]] 2011–2017
*Michael Haynes 2017–present
{{Incomplete list|date=January 2009}}

===Assistant organists===
*Colin Basil Fanshaw 1947–1949<ref name=whoswho />
*Dorothy Alder
*John Green 1961–1968
*Ron Lane 1969–1977
*John Green 1977–1983
*Henry Wallace 1983–1999
*Hugh Morris 2001–2009 (currently director of the [[Royal School of Church Music]])
*Alexander Woodrow 2009–2012 (later director of music at [[Bradford Cathedral]] and currently Organist and Director of Music at Leeds Minster
*Andrew Wyatt 2012–2015 (currently assistant organist at [[Truro Cathedral]])
*Michael Haynes 2015–2017 (formerly director of music 2000–2011, currently director of music 2017–)
*Keith Dale 2017–2025
*Matthew Kelley 2025–present (As Assistant Director of Music)
{{Incomplete list|date=May 2010}}

==Choirs==
[[File:Hexham Abbey Choir.jpg|thumb|The Choir in 2019]]
'''Hexham Abbey Boys' Choir''' consists of boys' and men's voices and sings [[choral evensong]] on Wednesdays during term time in addition to alternating morning and evening services on Sundays with the Girls Choir. The choir has made two CDs in recent years and has toured to Paris (2007), Rome (2009), Hanover (2011), Berlin (2012), Antwerp (2014) and Tallinn (2015) in addition to several tours within Great Britain. Several past members of the choir have gone on to win choral/organ scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge colleges. The choir has appeared on BBC ''[[Songs of Praise]]''.

'''Hexham Abbey Girls' Choir''' consists of girls and men and sings [[choral evensong]] on Thursdays in term time in addition to alternating morning and evening services on Sundays with the Boys Choir. The choir began in September 2001 and is divided into junior & senior choristers aging from 7–18. The choir has toured to Dublin (2007), Paris (2009), Hanover (2011), Berlin (2012) and several other places.

'''Hexham Abbey Chamber Choir''' was entirely made up of adults. They sang evensong on the first Sunday of the month and when the other Abbey Choirs we're unavailable. They appeared live on BBC Radio 4 Sunday Worship. The Choir has been disbanded and no-longer performs services.

==See also==
{{Portal|Christianity}}
*[[Bishop of Hexham]]
*[[List of English abbeys, priories and friaries serving as parish churches]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|first1=Charles Clement |last1=Hodges|first2= John |last2=Gibson |title=Guide to the Priory Church of St Andrew, Hexham|date=1921|place=Hexham|publisher=Gibson & Son|url=https://archive.org/details/HodgesHexhamPriorySecondEditionGibson1921Images}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://www.hexhamabbey.org.uk/ Hexham Abbey official web site]
*[http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=18622 Read a detailed history about Hexham Priory]
*[http://www.peterloud.co.uk/photos/Northumberland/Hexham_Abbey/Hexham_Abbey.html A Panoramic virtual tour of Hexham Abbey]

{{Greater Churches}}
{{Deanery of Hexham churches}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|54.972|-2.103|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monastic houses]]
[[Category:674 establishments]]
[[Category:Churches completed in the 670s]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1250]]
[[Category:Churches completed in the 1250s]]
[[Category:13th-century church buildings in England]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon cathedrals]]
[[Category:Former cathedrals in England]]
[[Category:Benedictine monasteries in England]]
[[Category:Augustinian monasteries in England]]
[[Category:Church of England church buildings in Northumberland|Hexham]]
[[Category:Grade I listed churches in Northumberland|Hexham]]
[[Category:Monasteries in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Christian monasteries established in the 7th century]]
[[Category:7th-century establishments in England]]
[[Category:1537 disestablishments in England]]
[[Category:Hexham]]
[[Category:Monasteries dissolved under the English Reformation]]