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Chepstow Castle

2025-11-04T03:13:29Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: /* Gallery */Added hyphen

{{Short description|Castle in Chepstow, Monmouthshire, Wales}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox military installation
|name=Chepstow Castle
|partof=
|location=[[Chepstow]], Monmouthshire, Wales
|coordinates = {{coord|51.6439|-2.6757|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
|image=[[File:Chepstow_Castle_(4197).jpg|300px]]
|caption=Chepstow Castle, with Marten's Tower to the left and the current gatehouse on the right
|map_type = Wales
|map_size = 160
|map_alt =
|map_caption = Chepstow Castle shown within [[Wales]]
|type=[[Castle]]
|code=
|built=1066–1300
|builder=[[William fitzOsbern]] [[William Marshal]] and his sons [[Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk|Roger Bigod]]
|materials=Various forms of [[limestone]] and [[sandstone]]
|height=
|used=1067–1685
|demolished=
|condition=Mostly Intact
|ownership=[[Cadw]]
|open_to_public=Yes
|controlledby=
|garrison=
|current_commander=
|commanders=
|occupants=
|battles=
|events=
}}
'''Chepstow Castle''' ({{langx|cy|Castell Cas-gwent}}) at [[Chepstow]], Monmouthshire, Wales, is the oldest surviving post-Roman stone fortification in Britain. Located above cliffs on the [[River Wye]], construction began in 1067 under the instruction of the [[Normans|Norman]] Lord [[William FitzOsbern]]. Originally known as [[Striguil]], it was the southernmost of a chain of castles built in the [[Welsh Marches]], and with its attached [[Lordship of Striguil]] took the name of the adjoining market town in about the 14th century.

In the 12th century the castle was used in the conquest of [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]], the first independent Welsh kingdom to be [[Norman invasion of Wales|conquered by the Normans]]. It was subsequently held by two of the most powerful Anglo-Norman magnates of medieval England, [[William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke|William Marshal]] and [[Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Richard de Clare]]. However, by the 16th century its military importance had waned and parts of its structure were converted into domestic ranges. Although re-garrisoned during and after the [[English Civil War]], by the 1700s it had fallen into decay. With the later growth of tourism, the castle became a popular visitor destination.

The ruins were [[Grade I]] listed on 6 December 1950.

== Building of the castle ==
[[File:Chepstow Castle from North bank.jpg|thumb|400px|Chepstow Castle, seen from the north bank of the River Wye]]
Chepstow Castle is situated on a narrow ridge between the limestone river cliff and a valley, known locally as the Dell, on its landward side. Its full extent is best appreciated from the opposite bank of the River Wye. The castle has four [[Motte-and-bailey|bailey]]s, added in turn through its history. Despite this, it is not a defensively strong castle, having neither a strong [[keep]] nor a [[concentric castle|concentric]] layout. The multiple baileys instead show its construction history, which is generally considered in four major phases.<ref name="Cadw, 1986" >{{harvnb|Cadw|1986}}</ref> The first serious architectural study of Chepstow began in 1904<ref name="St John Hope, 1904" >{{Cite journal
|journal=[[Archaeological Journal]]
|title=Proceedings at Meetings on the Royal Archaeological Institute, Annual Meeting at Bristol, July 19-26, 1904. Friday, 22nd July
|volume=LXI
|last=St John Hope |first=William
|author-link=William St John Hope
|year=1904
|page=212
|url=https://archive.org/stream/archaeologicaljo61brit#page/212/mode/1up
}}</ref> and the canonical description was long considered to be by Perks in 1955.<ref name="Perks, 1955" >{{harvnb|Perks|1955}}</ref> Recent studies<ref name="Cadw, 2010" >{{harvnb|Cadw|2010}}</ref> have revised the details of these phases, but still maintain the same broad structure.

=== Foundation, 1067–1188 ===
[[File:Chepstow Castle (Wales).JPG|thumb|The Great Tower]]
The speed with which [[William the Conqueror]] committed to the creation of a [[castle]] at Chepstow is testament to its strategic importance. There is no evidence for a settlement there of any size before the [[Norman invasion of Wales]], although it is possible that the castle site itself may have previously been a prehistoric or early medieval stronghold.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/historic_landscape/wye_valley/english/wyevalley_003.htm |title=Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust Historic Landscape Characterisation: Chepstow |access-date=1 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924022205/http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/historic_landscape/wye_valley/english/wyevalley_003.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The site overlooked an important crossing point on the [[River Wye]], a major artery of communications inland to [[Monmouth]] and [[Hereford]]. At the time, the Welsh kingdoms in the area were independent of the English Crown and the castle in Chepstow would also have helped suppress the [[Welsh people|Welsh]] from attacking [[Gloucestershire]] along the Severn shore towards [[Gloucester]]. However, recent analysis suggests that the rulers of [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]], who had recently fought against [[Harold Godwinson|King Harold]], may initially have been on good terms with the Normans.<ref name=gch >Miranda Aldhouse-Green and Ray Howell (eds.), ''Gwent In Prehistory and Early History: The Gwent County History Vol.1'', 2004, {{ISBN|0-7083-1826-6}}</ref>

The precipitous limestone cliffs beside the river afforded an excellent defensive location. Building work started under William FitzOsbern in 1067 or shortly afterwards. The Great Tower was probably completed by about 1090, possibly intended as a show of strength by King William in dealing with the Welsh king [[Rhys ap Tewdwr]].<ref name=castle>Rick Turner and Andy Johnson (eds.), ''Chepstow Castle – its history and buildings'', 2006, {{ISBN|1-904396-52-6}} {{harvnb|Turner|Johnson|2006}}</ref> It was constructed in stone from the first (as opposed to wood, like most others built at this time), marking its importance as a stronghold on the border between [[England]] and [[Wales]]. Although much of the stone seems to have been quarried locally, there is also evidence that some of the blocks were re-used from the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ruins at [[Caerwent]].<ref name=castle/>

The castle originally had the Norman name of [[Striguil]], derived from the Welsh word ''ystraigl'' meaning "river bend". FitzOsbern also founded a [[priory]] nearby, and the associated market town and port of Chepstow developed over the next few centuries. The castle and the associated [[Marcher lord]]ship were generally known as Striguil until the late 14th century, and as Chepstow thereafter.<ref name="castle"/>

===Expansion by William Marshal and Roger Bigod, 1189–1300===
[[File:Chepstow Castle 1825 plan.png|thumb|350px|Plan of Chepstow Castle from 1825]]
Further fortifications were added by [[William Marshal]], [[Earl of Pembroke]], starting in the 1190s. The wood in the doors of the gatehouse has been dated by [[dendrochronology]] to the period 1159–89.<ref name=castle/> Marshal extended and modernised the castle, drawing on his knowledge of warfare gained in France and [[the Crusades]]. He built the present main gatehouse, strengthened the defences of the Middle [[Motte-and-bailey|Bailey]] with round towers, and, before his death in 1219, may also have rebuilt the Upper Bailey defences. Further work to expand the Great Tower was undertaken for William Marshal's sons [[William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|William]], [[Richard Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke|Richard]], [[Gilbert Marshal, 4th Earl of Pembroke|Gilbert]] and [[Walter Marshal, 5th Earl of Pembroke|Walter]], in the period to 1245.<ref name="castle" />

In 1270, the castle was inherited by Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk, who was a grandson of William Marshal's eldest daughter, [[Maud Marshal|Maud]]. He constructed a new range of buildings in the Lower Bailey, as accommodation for himself and his family. Bigod was also responsible for building Chepstow's town wall, the "[[Chepstow Port Wall|Port Wall]]", around 1274–78. The castle was visited by King [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] in 1284, at the end of his triumphal tour through Wales. Soon afterwards, Bigod had built a new tower (later known as "Marten's Tower"), which now dominates the landward approach to the castle, and also remodelled the Great Tower.<ref name="castle" />

==Later history==
===Decline in defensive merit, 1300–1403===
[[File:Loz chepstow side.png|thumb|The external walls]]
From the 14th century, and in particular the end of the wars between England and Wales in the early 15th century, its defensive merit declined. In 1312 it passed into the control of [[Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk|Thomas de Brotherton, Earl of Norfolk]], and later his daughter [[Margaret, Duchess of Norfolk|Margaret]]. It was garrisoned in response to the rebellion of [[Owain Glyndŵr]] in 1403 with twenty men-at-arms and sixty archers but its great size, limited strategic merit, geographical location and the size of its garrison all probably contributed to Glyndŵr's forces avoiding attacking it, although they did successfully attack [[Newport Castle]].

===The 15th to 17th centuries ===
In 1468, the castle was part of the estates granted by the Earl of Norfolk to [[William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke (1468 creation)|William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke]] in exchange for lands in the east of England. In 1508, it passed to [[Charles Somerset, 1st Earl of Worcester|Sir Charles Somerset]], later the Earl of Worcester, who remodelled the buildings extensively as private accommodation. From the 16th century, after the abolition of the Marcher lords' autonomous powers by [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] through the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|Laws in Wales Acts of 1535 and 1542]], and Chepstow's incorporation as part of the new county of [[Monmouthshire (historic)|Monmouthshire]], the castle became more designed for occupation as a great house.<ref name="castle" />

===The Civil War and its aftermath===
The castle saw action again during the [[English Civil War]], when it was in the front line between [[Cavalier|Royalist]] [[Monmouthshire (historic)|Monmouthshire]] and [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] [[Gloucestershire]]. It was held by the Royalists and [[siege|besiege]]d in both 1645 and in 1648, eventually falling to the Parliamentarian forces on 25 May 1648. A memorial to Sir [[Nicholas Kemeys]], who led the Royalist defence during the [[Second English Civil War|Second Civil war]] and was killed in combat after refusing to surrender after the castle's fall, lies within the keep.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/206177|title = Geograph:: Chepstow Castle - Sir Nicholas Kemeys... © Roy Parkhouse}}</ref>

After the war, the castle was garrisoned and maintained as an artillery fort and barracks. It was also used as a political prison. Its occupants included Bishop [[Jeremy Taylor]], and – after the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of the monarchy – [[Henry Marten (regicide)|Henry Marten]], one of the Commissioners who signed the death warrant of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], who was imprisoned here before his own death in 1680.

===Decay of the building, and the start of tourism===
[[File:Chaepstow Castle from bridge.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Chepstow Castle showing the Great Tower, seen from the 1816 Wye Bridge]]
In 1682, the castle came into the ownership of the [[Henry Somerset, 1st Duke of Beaufort|Duke of Beaufort]]. The garrison was disbanded in 1685, and the buildings were partly dismantled, leased to tenants and left to decay. Various parts of the castle were used as a farmyard and a glass factory. By the late 18th century, its ruins became, with other sites in the [[Wye Valley|Wye valley]], a "[[Picturesque]]" feature on the "[[Wye tour]]", pleasure boat trips down the river from [[Ross-on-Wye]] via [[Monmouth]]. The first guidebook to the castle and town was written by [[Charles Heath (Monmouth)|Charles Heath]] of [[Monmouth]] and was published in 1793.<ref name="castle" />

In 1794, [[J. M. W. Turner]] did a painting of the castle, overlooking the river Wye. The painting was sold at auction to [[Chepstow Museum]] on 28 March 2023.<ref>{{cite news|title=JMW Turner painting of Chepstow Castle sold at auction for more than £90,000|url=https://nation.cymru/news/jmw-turner-painting-of-chepstow-castle-sold-at-auction-for-more-than-90000/|publisher=Nation Cymru|date=28 March 2023|access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref>

===The 19th and 20th centuries===
By the 1840s, tourism was continuing to grow, particularly with day trips on [[steam ships]] from [[Bristol]]. At the same time, the courtyard of the castle began to be used for local horticultural shows, fêtes, and, increasingly from the 1880s, historical [[Procession|pageants]] sanctioned by the Duke of Beaufort. Although he tried to sell the castle in 1899, no buyer could be found.

In 1910/11, the castle and adjoining river bed were the site of well-publicised excavations by Dr. [[Orville Ward Owen]], who was attempting to find secret documents to prove that [[Shakespeare]]'s plays had in fact been written by [[Francis Bacon]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Rainsbury|first=Anne|title=Chepstow and the River Wye|publisher=The History Press|date=2009|edition=2nd|series=Britain in Old Photographs|pages=138–139|isbn=978-0-7524-5019-3}}</ref> In 1913, the movie ''[[Ivanhoe (1913 U.S. film)|Ivanhoe]]'', starring [[King Baggot]], was made in the grounds. The following year, the castle was bought by businessman [[John Lysaght (company)|William Royse Lysaght]], of [[Tutshill]], and conservation work began.<ref name=castle/>

In 1953, the Lysaght family put the castle into the care of the [[Ministry of Works (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Works]]. In 1977 [[Terry Gilliam]] shot some of his film adaptation of [[Lewis Carroll]]'s "[[Jabberwocky (film)|Jabberwocky]]" at the castle. During 1984–1986, it was used as one of the locations for [[ITV Wales & West|HTV]]'s ''[[Robin Of Sherwood]]'' starring [[Michael Praed]].<ref>[https://www.robinofsherwood.org/SA/ros_locations.html ''Robin of Sherwood'': Locations guide]. Retrieved 23 March 2022</ref> Brazilian heavy metal band [[Sepultura]] recorded part of their fifth album ''[[Chaos A.D.]]'' in the castle, in 1993.<ref>[http://teamrock.com/feature/2004-02-25/sepultura-spreading-chaos "Sepultura: Spreading Chaos", ''TeamRock.com'', 25 February 2004]</ref>

== The castle today ==
Chepstow Castle is open to the public, and since 1984 has been in the care of [[Cadw]], the [[Welsh Assembly Government|Welsh government]] body with the responsibility for protecting, conserving and promoting the built heritage of Wales. There are special events held often in the castle and visitors are now able to walk along the battlements and into Marten's Tower. The castle was used for the filming some scenes for the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' 50th anniversary broadcast.<ref>[http://www.southwalesargus.co.uk/news/10367245.Dr_Who_past_and_present_film_at_Chepstow_Castle/ South Wales Argus, ''Dr Who past and present, Matt Smith and David Tennant, film at Chepstow Castle'', 19 April 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310095905/http://www.southwalesargus.co.uk/news/10367245.Dr_Who_past_and_present_film_at_Chepstow_Castle/ |date=10 March 2014 }}. Retrieved 2 May 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Places to Visit |url=https://www.chestnutlodges.co.uk/places-to-visit/ |work=chestnutlodges.co.uk}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:The Prison, Chepstow Castle.jpeg|The 'Prison'{{sic}}, Chepstow Castle, 1860. This room was likely used as a wine cellar.
File:Great Tower, Chepstow Castle, from Welsh St car park.jpg|The Great Tower, viewed from the south
File:Chepstow castle - geograph.org.uk - 1480761.jpg|The castle pictured from the footpath through the Dell, part of the Wye Valley Walk
File:Latticework door, Chepstow castle.jpg|Twelfth-century wooden door of the gatehouse
Image:Chepstow Castle and Bridge from Tutshill.jpg|The castle and [[Old Wye Bridge, Chepstow|1816 road bridge]] across the [[River Wye]], seen from [[Tutshill]]
A view of Chepstow Castle in Monmouthshire (3374919).jpg|Castles & palaces Wales Chepstow 1800-1810
Chepstow (3375184).jpg|Sailboats on the River Wye next to Chepstow Castle; 1815
Chepstow Castle, Monmouthshire. (3375668).jpg|A view of the bridge over the River Wye, and the ruins of the Castle at Chepstow; 1812 print
Chepstow castle (3374915).jpg|R. Taylor, {{circa|1850}}.
File:Hendrik Frans de Cort - Chepstow Castle - Google Art Project.jpg|Chepstow Castle, {{circa|1795}}, by [[Hendrik Frans de Cort]]
File:Loz chepstow 2.png|{{circa|2015}}
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[List of Cadw properties]]
*[[Striguil]]

==References==
{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Works cited ===
* {{Cite book
|title=Chepstow Castle
|last=Perks |first=John Clifford
|year=1955
|publisher=[[HMSO]]
}}
* {{Cite book
|title=Chepstow Castle
|last=Knight |first=Jeremy K.
|year=1986
|publisher=[[Cadw]]
|isbn=0-948329-04-1
|ref=CITEREFCadw1986
}}
* {{Cite book
|title=Chepstow Castle
|last=Turner |first=Rick
|year=2002
|edition=rev. 2010
|publisher=[[Cadw]]
|isbn=978-1-85760-285-2
|ref=CITEREFCadw2010
}}
* {{Cite book
|title=Chepstow Castle – its history and buildings
|last1=Turner |first1=Rick
|last2=Johnson |first2=Andy
|year=2006
|publisher=Logaston Press
|isbn=1-904396-52-6
}}

==External links ==
{{Commons category|Chepstow Castle}}
*[https://cadw.gov.wales/visit/places-to-visit/chepstow-castle Cadw - Chepstow Castle]
*[https://www.worldhistory.org/Chepstow_Castle/ World History Encyclopedia - Chepstow Castle]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Castle ruins in Wales]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles in Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Chepstow]]
[[Category:Cadw]]

Hippolyte Taine

2025-11-04T03:06:06Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: /* Assessment */Removed link

{{Short description|French critic, historian, and philosopher (1828–1893)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox academic
| name = Hippolyte Taine
| image = Hippolyte taine.jpg
| alt =
| birth_name = Hippolyte Adolphe Taine
| birth_date = {{birth date|1828|4|21|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Vouziers]], France
| death_date = {{death date and age|1893|3|5|1828|4|21|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Paris]], France
| resting_place =
| nationality = French
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| alma_mater = [[École Normale Supérieure]]
| occupation =
| notable_ideas =
| school_tradition = [[Conservatism]] [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]] [[Positivism]]
| signature = Signature of Hippolyte Taine.jpg
| main_interests = [[Philosophy of art]] [[History of France]] [[Political philosophy]]
}}

'''Hippolyte Adolphe Taine'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|t|eɪ|n}};<ref>{{Cite Dictionary.com|Taine}}</ref> {{IPA|fr|ipɔlit adɔlf tɛn|lang}}}} (21 April 1828 – 5 March 1893) was a French historian, critic and philosopher. He was the chief theoretical influence on [[Naturalism (literature)|French naturalism]], a major proponent of [[sociological positivism]] and one of the first practitioners of [[historicist]] criticism. Literary historicism as a critical movement has been said to originate with him.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kelly |first=R. Gordon |date=1974|title=Literature and the Historian |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2712232 |journal=American Quarterly |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=141–159 |doi=10.2307/2712232|jstor=2712232 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Taine is also remembered for his attempts to provide a scientific account of literature.

Taine had a profound effect on [[French literature]]; [[Maurice Baring]] wrote in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']] that "the tone which pervades the works of [[Émile Zola|Zola]], [[Paul Bourget|Bourget]] and [[Guy de Maupassant|Maupassant]] can be immediately attributed to the influence we call Taine's."<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe |volume= 26 |last= Baring |first= Maurice |author-link= Maurice Baring | pages = 360–363 }}</ref> Out of the trauma of 1871, Taine has been said by one scholar to have "forged the architectural structure of modern French right-wing historiography."<ref>Susanna Barrows. ''Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-century France.'' New Haven: Yale U, 1981, p.83</ref>

==Early years==

Taine was born in [[Vouziers]]<ref>Duclaux, Mary (1903). [https://archive.org/stream/livingage236livirich#page/544/mode/2up "The Youth of Taine,"] ''The Living Age,'' Vol. 236, pp. 545–560.</ref> into a fairly prosperous Ardennes family. His father, a lawyer, his uncle, and his grandfather encouraged him to read eclectically and offered him art and music lessons.

In 1841, Taine, then aged 13, lost his father<ref name="EB1911"/> and was sent to a boarding school in [[Paris]], in the Institution Mathé, whose classes were conducted in the [[Collège Bourbon]], located in the Batignolles district. He excelled in his studies and in 1847 obtained two [[Baccalauréat]] degrees (Science and Philosophy) and received the honorary prize of the concours. He was awarded a first in the entrance examination of the letters section of the [[École Normale Supérieure]], to which he was admitted in November 1848.<ref name="EB1911"/> Among the 24 students in the letters section, he is the classmate of [[Francisque Sarcey]] (who, in his ''Souvenirs de jeunesse'' ("Memories of Youth") painted a portrait of young Hippolyte at the Rue d'Ulm campus) and [[Edmond François Valentin About|Edmond About]]. But his attitude—he had a reputation for stubbornness—and his intellectual independence from then fashionable ideas— embodied by [[Victor Cousin]]—caused him to fail the examination for the national [[Agrégation|Concours d'Agrégation]] in philosophy in 1851.<ref>Lombardo, Patrizia (1990). [https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2930150?uid=3737664&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21101512789341 "Hippolyte Taine Between Art and Science"], ''Yale French Studies'', Vol. 77, p. 119.</ref> After his essay on [[sense|sensation]] was rejected, he abandoned the social sciences and turned to literature.<ref>Wolfenstein, Martha (1944). [https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2707354?uid=3737664&uid=2134&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21101512789341 "The Social Background of Taine's Philosophy of Art"], ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 5, No. 3, p. 335.</ref> Having relocated outside Paris, he took up teaching positions in Nevers and Poitiers, during which time he continued his intellectual development. In 1853, he obtained a doctorate at the Sorbonne. His thesis, ''Essai sur les fables de [[Jean de La Fontaine|La Fontaine]]'', would later be published in revised form in 1861. His subsequent "Essay on Livy" won a prize from the [[Académie Française]] in 1854.<ref>Bosky.</ref>

Taine adopted the positivist and scientist ideas that emerged around this time.

After defending his doctorate, he was automatically transferred to [[Besançon]], but he refused this assignment. He settled first in Paris, where he enrolled in the medical school. From there, he went on a medical cure in the [[Pyrenees|Pyrénées]] in 1855, after which he wrote his famous ''Voyage aux Pyrénées'', and began contributing numerous philosophical, literary, and historical articles to the ''[[Revue des deux Mondes]]'' and the ''[[Journal des débats]]'', two major newspapers at the time.

He then took leave and travelled to England, where he spent six weeks. In 1863 he published his ''History of English Literature'' in five volumes. Bishop [[Félix Dupanloup]], who had made it his career to oppose the election of agnostic intellectuals to the Académie Française, opposed the latter's awarding Taine a prize for this work.<ref name="ReferenceA">Hippolyte Taine | Académie française » [archive], sur academie-francaise.fr</ref>
In 1868, he married Thérèse Denuelle, daughter of [[Alexandre-Dominique Denuelle]]. They had two children: Geneviève, wife of Louis Paul-Dubois, and Émile.

The immense success of his work allowed him, not only to live by his pen, but also to be named professor of the History of Art and Aesthetics at the [[Ecole des Beaux Arts]] and professor of history and German at the [[École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr]].<ref name="EB">{{cite web |title=Hippolyte Adolphe Taine |url=https://theodora.com/encyclopedia/t/hippolyte_adolphe_taine.html |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |publisher=ITA |access-date=15 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> He also taught at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] (1871), where he was a Doctor in Law. In 1878, he was elected member of the Académie Française by 20 out of the 26 voters.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Taine was interested in many subjects, including art, literature, but especially history. Deeply shaken by the [[Franco-Prussian War|defeat of 1870]], as well as by the insurrection (and violent repression) of the [[Paris Commune]], Taine became fully devoted to his major historical work, ''The Origins of Contemporary France'' (1875–1893), on which he worked until his death, and which had a significant impact. Conceived by Taine with the aim of understanding the France of his day, the six-volume work analysed the causes of the French Revolution from an original, long-term perspective. In particular, Taine denounced the artificiality of the revolution's political constructions (the excessively abstract and rational ideas of [[Robespierre]], for example), which, in his mind, violently contradicted the natural and slow growth of the institutions of a State.

In 1885, while visiting the [[Hôpital de la Salpêtrière|Hospital de la Salpêtrière]], Taine and [[Joseph Delboeuf]] attended a session of hypnotism in which [[Jean-Martin Charcot]] induced vesications (blistering) by suggestion.

Taine died on 5 March 1893. He was buried in the [[Roc de Chère National Nature Reserve]], [[Talloires]], on the shores of [[Lake Annecy]].<ref>Maison d'Hippolyte Taine » [archive], Fédération des Maisons d'écrivains et des patrimoines littéraires.</ref> Taine had bought the Boringes property in [[Menthon-Saint-Bernard]] (in Haute-Savoie), in order to work there every summer, and had served as councillor of the commune.

==Assessment==
{{Conservatism in France|Intellectuals}}
Taine's writing on the Revolution has remained popular in France. While admired by liberals like [[Anatole France]], it has served to inform the conservative view of the Revolution, since Taine rejected its principles<ref>McElrone, Hugh P. (1887). [https://archive.org/stream/catholicworldvo04fathgoog#page/n393/mode/2up "Taine's Estimate of Napoleon Bonaparte,"] ''The Catholic World,'' Vol. 45, pp. 384–397.</ref><ref>Soltau, Roger Henry (1959). [https://archive.org/stream/frenchpoliticalt00solt#page/230/mode/2up "Hippolyte Taine."] In: ''French Political Thought in the 19th Century.'' New York: Russell & Russell, pp. 230–250.</ref> as well as the [[French Constitution of 1793]], on account of their being dishonestly presented to the people.<ref>Gay, 665.</ref> He argued that the [[Jacobin]]s had responded to the centralisation of the ancien régime with even greater centralisation and favoured the individualism of his concepts of regionalism and nation. Taine's alternative to [[rationalism|rationalist]] [[liberalism]] influenced the social policies of the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]].<ref>Pitt, Alan (1998). [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5447 "The Irrationalist Liberalism of Hippolyte Taine"], ''The Historical Journal'', Vol. 41, No. 4, p. 1051.</ref>

On the other hand, Taine has likewise received criticism from across the political spectrum, his politics being [[idiosyncratic]], complex, and difficult to define. Among others, attacks came from the Marxist historian [[George Rudé]], a specialist in the French Revolution and in '[[People's history|history from below]]', on account of Taine's view of the crowd;<ref>George Rudé, "Interpretations of the French Revolution", Historical Association Pamphlet, General Series, no. 47 (London, 1961)</ref> and from the Freudian [[Peter Gay]] who described Taine's reaction to the Jacobins as stigmatisation.<ref>Gay, Peter (1961). [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171020030326/https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/66/3/664/280190/Rhetoric-and-Politics-in-the-French-Revolution?redirectedFrom=PDF "Rhetoric and Politics in the French Revolution"], ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 66, No. 3, p. 665.</ref> Yet, [[Alfred Cobban]], who advocated a revisionist view of the French Revolution in opposition to the orthodox Marxist school, considered Taine's account of the French Revolution "a brilliant polemic".<ref>Aulard, F.A. (1907). [https://archive.org/stream/tainehistoriend00aulagoog ''Taine – Historien de la Révolution Française'']. Paris: Librairie Armand Colant.</ref> Taine's vision of the Revolution stands in contrast to the Marxist interpretations that gained prominence in the 20th century, as in the works of [[Albert Mathiez]], [[Georges Lefebvre]], and [[Albert Soboul]], before the revisionist accounts of [[Alfred Cobban]] and [[François Furet]].

Notwithstanding academic politics, when [[Alphonse Aulard]], a historian of the French Revolution, analysed Taine's text, he showed that the numerous facts and examples presented by Taine to support his account proved substantially correct; few errors were found by Aulard—fewer than in his own texts, as reported by [[Augustin Cochin (historian)|Augustin Cochin]].

In his other writings Taine is known for his attempt to provide a scientific account of literature, a project that has linked him to sociological positivists, although there were important differences. In his view, the work of literature was the product of the author's environment, and an analysis of that environment could yield a perfect understanding of that work; this stands in contrast with the view that the work of literature is the spontaneous creation of genius. Taine based his analysis on categories such as "nation", "environment" or "situation", and "time".<ref>Terrier, Jean (2011). ''Visions of the Social: Society as a Political Project in France, 1750–1950.'' BrillL, pp. 25–26.</ref><ref>Hauser, Arnold (2012). "Art as a Product of Society." In: ''The Sociology of Art.'' Routledge, pp. 96–97.</ref> Armin Koller has written that in this Taine drew heavily from the philosopher [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], although this has been insufficiently recognised,<ref>"Taine's indebtedness to Herder has not yet fully been recognized. Every element of Taine's theory is contained in Herder's writings." – Koller, Armin H. (1912). "Johann Gottfried Herder and Hippolyte Taine: Their Theories of Milieu," ''PMLA'', Vol. 27, p. xxxix.</ref> while the Spanish writer [[Emilia Pardo Bazán]] has suggested that a crucial predecessor to Taine's idea was [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|Germaine de Staël]]'s work on the relationship between art and society.<ref name=":0">DuPont, Denise (2003). [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/comparative_literature_studies/v040/40.4dupont.html "Masculinity, Femininity, Solidarity: Emilia Pardo Bazan's Construction of Madame de Stael and George Sand".] In: ''Comparative Literature Studies'', Vol. 40, No. 4, 372–393.</ref> Nationalist literary movements and post-modern critics alike have made use of Taine's concepts, the former to argue for their unique and distinct place in literature<ref>Jones, R.A. (1933). [https://archive.org/stream/socialpoliticvictor00hear#page/222/mode/2up "Taine and the Nationalists."] In: ''The Social and Political Ideas of Some Representative Thinkers of the Victorian Age.'' New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., pp. 222–249.</ref> and the latter to deconstruct the texts with regards to the relationship between literature and social history.

Taine was criticised, including by Émile Zola who owed a great deal to him, for not taking sufficiently into account the individuality of the artist. Zola argued that an artist's temperament could lead him to make unique artistic choices distinct from the environment that shaped him, and gave [[Édouard Manet]] as a principal example. [[Gustave Lanson]] argued that Taine's environmental determinism could not account for his genius.<ref>Wolff, Mark (2001). "Individuality and l'Esprit Français: On Gustave Lanson's Pedagogy", ''MLQ: Modern Language Quarterly'', Vol. 62, No. 3, pp. 239–257.</ref>

==Influence==

Taine's influence on French intellectual culture and literature was significant. He had a special relationship, in particular, with [[Émile Zola]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Butler |first=Ronnie |date=1974 |title=Zola between Taine and Sainte-Beuve, 1863–1869 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3724574 |journal=The Modern Language Review |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=279–289|doi=10.2307/3724574 |jstor=3724574 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> As critic Philip Walker says of Zola, "In page after page, including many of his most memorable writings, we are presented with what amounts to a [[mimesis]] of the interplay between sensation and [[imagination]] which Taine studied at great length and out of which, he believed, emerges the world of the mind."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Philip |date=1969 |title=The Mirror, The Window, and The Eye in Zola's Fiction |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2929506 |journal=Yale French Studies |issue=42, Zola |page=60 |doi=10.2307/2929506 |jstor=2929506 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Spanish philosopher [[Miguel de Unamuno]] was fascinated with both Zola and Taine early on (although he eventually concluded that Taine's influence on literature had been negative).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Basdekis |first=Demetrios |date=1973 |title=Unamuno and Zola: Notes on the Novel |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2907522 |journal=Modern Language Notes |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=368|doi=10.2307/2907522 |jstor=2907522 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
French fiction writers [[Paul Bourget]] and [[Guy de Maupassant]] were also heavily influenced by Taine.<ref name="EB1911" />

Taine shared a correspondence with the philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], who later referred to him in ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' as "the first of living historians".<ref>Nietzsche, Friedrich (1907). [https://archive.org/stream/beyondgoodevilpr00nie#page/n5/mode/2up ''Beyond Good and Evil'']. New York: The Macmillan Company, p. 214.</ref> He was also the subject of [[Stefan Zweig]]'s doctoral thesis, "The Philosophy of Hippolyte Taine."<ref>Vanwesenbeeck, Birger & Mark H. Gelber (2014). ''Stefan Zweig and World Literature: Twenty-First-Century Perspectives.'' New York: Camden House, p. 102.</ref> Taine was also read by [[Peter Kropotkin]], who described him as truly understanding the French Revolution, because he "studied the movements preceding the revolution of July 14," or as he quoted Taine himself, "I know of three hundred outbreaks before July 14."<ref>{{cite web
| title=Kropotkin to Nettlau, March 5, 1902 : On Individualism and the Anarchist Movement in France
| url=http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=458
| author=Peter Kropotkin
| website=revoltlib.com
| date=March 5, 1902
}}</ref>

==Works==
{{Div col|small=yes}}
* ''De Personis Platonicis'' (1853).
* ''La Fontaine et ses Fables'' (1853–1861, Taine's doctoral thesis).
* ''Voyage aux Pyrénées'' (1855–1860).
* ''Essai sur Tite-Live'' (1856).<ref>Lombardo, Patrizia (1990). "Hippolyte Taine between Art and Science," ''Yale French Studies,'' No. 77, pp. 117–133.</ref>
* ''Les Philosophes Classiques du XIXe Siècle en France'' (1857–1868).
* ''Essais de Critique et d'Histoire'' (1858–1882).
* ''Vie et Opinions Politiques d'un Chat'' (1858).
* ''Histoire de la Littérature Anglaise'' (1864).<ref>Rae, W. Fraser (1864). [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.c077077674;view=1up;seq=493 "Taine's History of English Literature,"] ''The Westminster Review,'' Vol. 81, pp. 473–511.</ref>
* ''Philosophie de l'Art'' (1865–1882).
* ''Nouveaux Essais de Critique et d'Histoire'' (1865–1901).
* ''Voyage en Italie'' (1866).
* ''Notes sur Paris. Vie et Opinions de M. Frédéric-Thomas Graindorge'' (1867).
* ''De l'Intelligence'' (1870).<ref>Mill, John Stuart (1870). [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000093208837;view=1up;seq=131 "On Taine's De l'Intelligence,"] ''The Fortnightly Review,'' Vol. XIV, pp. 121–124.</ref>
* ''Du Suffrage Universel et de la Manière de Voter'' (1872).
* ''Notes sur l'Angleterre'' (1872).
* ''Les Origines de la France Contemporaine'':
** [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2577 ''L'Ancien Régime''] (1875).
** [http://www.mediterranee-antique.fr/Fichiers_PdF/TUV/Taine/OCF_2P1.pdf ''La Révolution: I – l'Anarchie''] (1878).
** [http://www.mediterranee-antique.fr/Fichiers_PdF/TUV/Taine/OCF_2P2.pdf ''La Révolution: II – La Conquête Jacobine''] (1881).
** [http://www.mediterranee-antique.fr/Fichiers_PdF/TUV/Taine/OCF_2P3.pdf ''La Révolution: III – Le Gouvernement Révolutionnaire''] (1883).
** ''Le Régime Moderne'' (1890–1893).
* ''Derniers Essais de Critique et d'Histoire'' (1894).
* ''Carnets de Voyage: Notes sur la Province'' (1863–1897).
* ''Étienne Mayran'' (1910).
* ''H. Taine, sa Vie et sa Correspondance'' (1903–1907).

'''Works in English translation'''
* ''The Philosophy of Art'' (1865).<ref>Rae, W. Fraser (1866). [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951002476457o;view=1up;seq=232 "H. Taine on Art and Italy,"] ''The Westminster Review,'' Vol. LXXXV, pp. 224–237.</ref>
* ''Italy, Rome and Naples'' (1868).
* ''Art in Greece'' (1871).
* ''Art in the Netherlands'' (1871).
* ''English Positivism: A Study on John Stuart Mill'' (1870).
* ''On Intelligence'' (1871, translated by T.D. Haye).
* ''History of English Literature'' (1872, translated by Henry Van Laun, and revised 1906–07).<ref>Stephen, Leslie (1873). [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951002150405y;view=1up;seq=703 "Taine's History of English Literature,"] ''The Fortnightly Review,'' Vol. XX, pp. 693–714.</ref><ref>Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin (1890). [https://archive.org/stream/essayssaintebeuv00sainiala#page/228/mode/2up "Taine's 'History of English Literature'."] In: ''Essays.'' London: Walter Scott. Ltd., pp. 228–265.</ref><ref>Schérer, Edmond (1891). [https://archive.org/stream/essaysonenglishl00scheuoft#page/62/mode/2up "Taine's History of English Literature."] In: ''Essays on English Literature.'' London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, pp. 62–84.</ref>
* ''Notes on England'' (1872, translated by William Fraser Rae; [[Edward Hyams]], 1957).
* ''The Ideal in Art'' (1874, translated by John Durand).
* ''A Tour Through the Pyrenees'' (1874, translated by [[John Safford Fiske]]).
* ''Lectures on Art'' (1875).
* ''The Origins of Contemporary France'' (1876, translated by John Durand).<ref>Morley, John (1876). [https://archive.org/stream/fortnightly00unkngoog#page/n378/mode/2up "M. Taine's New Work,"] ''The Fortnightly Review,'' Vol. XXV, pp. 370–384.</ref><ref>Gasquet, J.R. (1904). [https://archive.org/stream/studiescontribut00gasquoft#page/n23/mode/2up "Taine's French Revolution."] In: ''Studies Contributed to the "Dublin Review".'' Westminster: Art and Book Company, pp. 1–33.</ref>
* ''Notes on Paris'' (1879, translated by John Austin Stevens).
* ''Journeys Through France'' (1896).
* ''Life and Letters of H. Taine'' (1902, translated by R.L. Devonshire).<ref>Payne, William Morton (1904). [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044092645357;view=1up;seq=218 "Letters of H.H. Taine"], ''The International Quarterly,'' Vol. X, pp. 196–200.</ref>

'''Selected articles'''
* [https://archive.org/stream/contemporaryrev11unkngoog#page/n522/mode/2up "Socialism as Government,"] ''The Contemporary Review,'' Vol. XLVI, October 1884.
* "Napoleon's Views of Religion," ''The North American Review,'' Vol. 152, No. 414, 1891.
* "On Style," ''Scribner's Magazine,'' Vol. 334, No. 4329, 1928.

{{div col end}}

==See also==
* [[Thomas Carlyle]] and his ''[[The French Revolution: A History]]'' (1837)
* [[Jacques Bainville]]
* [[Ernest Renan]]
* [[Bolesław Prus#Fiction|Bolesław Prus]]
* [[Piotr Chmielowski#Life|Piotr Chmielowski]]
* [[Thomas Blackwell (scholar)#Comparison with Hippolyte Taine|Thomas Blackwell]]
* [[Bertrand de Jouvenel]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==

===History===
* [[Hilaire Belloc|Belloc, Hilaire]] (1906). [https://archive.org/stream/internationalqu00unkngoog#page/n264/mode/2up "Ten Pages of Taine,"] ''The International Quarterly,'' Vol. 12, pp, 255–272.
* Cobban, Alfred (1968). "Hippolyte Taine, Historian of the French Revolution," ''History'', Vol. 53, No. 179, pp. 331–341.
* DiVanna, Isabel (2010). ''Writing History in the Third Republic''. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. [https://www.amazon.com/Writing-History-Republic-Isabel-Noronha-Divanna/dp/1443819344/ excerpt and text search]
* Evans, Colin (1978). "Taine and his Fate," ''Nineteenth-century French Studies,'' Vol. 6, pp. 118–128.
* Furet, François, and Mona Ozouf, eds. (1989). ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution''. Harvard University Press, pp. 1011–20.
* [[Albert Léon Guérard|Guérard, Albert Léon]] (1913). [https://archive.org/stream/frenchprophetsof00gu#page/200/mode/2up "Critics and Historians: Sainte-Beuve, Taine."] In: ''French Prophets of Yesterday.'' New York: D. Appleton and Company, pp. 201–223.
* Weinstein, Leo (1972). ''Hippolyte Taine.'' New York: Twayne Publishers.
* Wilson, H. Schütz (1894). [https://archive.org/stream/gentlemansmagaz43unkngoog#page/n333/mode/2up "Carlyle and Taine on the French Revolution,"] ''The Gentleman's Magazine,'' Vol. CCLXXVII, pp. 341–359.

===Language and literature===
* [[Irving Babbitt|Babbitt, Irving]] (1912). [https://archive.org/stream/mastersofmodernf00babb#page/n241/mode/2up "Taine."] In: ''The Masters of Modern French Criticism.'' New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, pp. 218–256.
* Eustis, Alvin A. (1951). [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106009533883;view=1up;seq=13 ''Hippolyte Taine and the Classical Genius.''] Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.
* [[Alfred Jules Émile Fouillée|Fouillée, Alfred]] (1902). [https://archive.org/stream/internationalqu02unkngoog#page/n268/mode/2up "The Philosophy of Taine and Renan,"] ''The International Quarterly,'' Vol. 6, pp. 260–280.
* Kamuf, Peggy (1997). "The Analogy of Science: Taine." In: ''The Division of Literature: Or the University in Deconstruction.'' University of Chicago Press, pp. 85–92.
* [[Jules Lemaître|Lemaître, Jules]] (1921). [https://archive.org/stream/literaryimpressi00lemaiala#page/218/mode/2up "Hippolyte Taine."] In: ''Literary Impressions.'' London: Daniel O'Connor, pp. 219–225.
* Brown, Marshall (1997). "Why Style Matters: The Lessons of Taine's 'History of English Literature'." In: ''Turning Points''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 33–87.
* Gates, Lewis E. (1900). [https://archive.org/stream/studiesappreciat00gate#page/192/mode/2up "Taine's Influence as a Critic."] In: ''Studies and Appreciations.'' New York: The Macmillan Company, pp. 192–204.
* Morawski, Stefan (1963). "The Problem of Value and Criteria in Taine's Aesthetics," ''The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,'' Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 407–421.
* Nias, Hilary (1999). ''The Artificial Self: The Psychology of Hippolyte Taine.'' Oxford: Legenda.
* Nitze, William & Dargan, E. Preston (1922). [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924027184955#page/n679/mode/2up "The Philosophers: Comte, Taine, Renan."] In: ''A History of French Literature.'' New York: Henry Holt & Company, pp. 645–656.
* [[William Fraser Rae|Rae, W. Fraser]] (1861). [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b000945703;view=1up;seq=69 "The Critical Theory and Writings of H. Taine,"] ''The Westminster Review,'' Vol. 76, pp. 55–90.
* Rawlinson, G.C. (1917). [https://archive.org/stream/recentfrenchtend11rawl#page/18/mode/2up "Hippolyte Taine."] In: ''Recent French Tendencies.'' London: Robert Scott, pp. 19–24.
* Roe, F.C. (1949). "A Note on Taine's Conception of the English Mind." In: ''Studies in French Language, Literature and History.'' Cambridge University Press, pp. 189–192.
* Sullivan, Jeremiah J. (1973). "Henry James and Hippolyte Taine: The Historical and Scientific Method in Literature," ''Comparative Literature Studies,'' Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 25–50.
* Thieme, Hugo P. (1902). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2917638?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents "The Development of Taine Criticism since 1893,"] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2917842?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Part II], ''Modern Language Notes,'' Vol. 17, No. 2/3, pp. 36–41, 70–77.
* [[René Wellek|Wellek, René]] (1959). "Hippolyte Taine's Literary Theory and Criticism," ''Criticism,'' Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1–18.
* White, John S. (1943). "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40981941 Taine on Race and Genius]", ''Social Research,'' Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 76–99.

==External links==
{{wikisource|works=or}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=969| name=Hippolyte Taine}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Hippolyte Adolphe Taine}}
* {{Librivox author |id=2722}}
* [http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Search/Home?lookfor=%22Taine,%20Hippolyte,%201828-1893.%22&type=author&inst= Works by Hippolyte Taine], at [[Hathi Trust]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030120165006/http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/hippolyte_taine.html Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory (Article on Taine)]
* [https://archive.org/stream/eminentpersonsbi06timeiala#page/n21/mode/2up Obituary (from ''The Times'')]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Taine, Hippolyte}}
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Jim Elliot

2025-11-04T02:54:15Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: /* Early life */Added date

{{Short description|American Christian missionary}}
{{other uses}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jim Elliot
| image = Jim Elliot.JPG
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1927|10|8|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Portland, Oregon]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|1956|1|8|1927|10|8}}
| death_place = [[Curaray River]], Ecuador
| education = [[Benson Polytechnic High School|Benson Polytechnic H.S.]] (1941–45) [[Wheaton College (Illinois)|Wheaton College]] (1945–49)
| occupation =
| module = {{Infobox religious person|child=yes
| religion= [[Christianity]]
| church = [[Plymouth Brethren]]<ref name=WheatonGraham>{{cite web|url= http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/277.htm#3 |title=Papers of Philip James Elliot – Collection 277 |work= Billy Graham Center Archives|access-date=21 February 2010}}</ref>
| ordained =
| writings =
| congregations =
| offices_held =
| title =
}}
| spouse = [[Elisabeth Elliot]]
| parents = Fred Elliot Clara Elliot
| children = Valerie Elliot
}}
'''Philip James Elliot''' (October 8, 1927 – January 8, 1956) was an American [[Christians|Christian]] [[missionary]] and one of five people killed during [[Operation Auca]], an attempt to [[evangelize]] the [[Huaorani people]] of [[Ecuador]].

==Early life ==
Elliot was born in [[Portland, Oregon]], to Fred and Clara Elliot. Fred was of [[Scottish people|Scottish]] heritage; his grandparents were the first of his family to settle in North America. Clara's parents moved near the turn of the 20th century from Switzerland to eastern Washington, where they operated a large ranch. They met in Portland, where Clara was studying to be a [[chiropractor]] and Fred, having devoted himself to Christian ministry, was working as a traveling preacher with the [[Plymouth Brethren]] movement.<ref name= "google">{{cite book |title=Jim Elliot: Missionary Martyr| last =Miller | first = S.M.| year =2013|publisher=Barbour |isbn = 978-1-62416076-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bfvyoCkF7-cC&pg=PT3|access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref> Robert, their first child, was born in 1921 while they were living in [[Seattle]], and he was followed by Herbert, Jim, and Jane, all three of whom were born after the family moved to Portland.{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | pp = 23–25}} Elliot's parents had firm Christian beliefs, and they raised their children accordingly, taking them to church and reading the [[Bible]] regularly. Elliot professed faith in [[Jesus]] at the age of six and grew up in a home where obedience and honesty were enforced. The Elliot parents encouraged their children to be adventurous, and encouraged them to "live for Christ".{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | pp = 25–26}}

In 1941, Elliot entered [[Benson Polytechnic High School]], studying [[architecture|architectural]] drawing. There he participated in numerous activities, including the school newspaper, the wrestling team, school plays, and the public-speaking club. His acting ability led some of the teachers in the school to suggest that he pursue acting as a career, and his oratorical skills were similarly lauded—after Elliot prepared and delivered a speech in honor of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] hours after his death in 1945, a faculty member praised it.{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | p = 28}}

Elliot used his speaking ability regularly. A classmate recounts how Elliot quoted the Bible to the president of the student body as an explanation for his refusal to attend a school party. Another time, Elliot risked expulsion from the public-speaking club by refusing to give a political speech, believing that Christians were not to involve themselves in politics. A [[pacifist]], he rejected the idea of using force to eliminate [[slavery in Africa]], and he was prepared to stand as a [[conscientious objector]] had he been [[conscription|drafted]] to serve in [[World War II]].{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | pp = 31–33}}

==Leaving for Ecuador==
In the summer of 1950, while at Camp Wycliffe ([[Cameron Townsend|Cameron Townsend's]] linguistics training camp in Oklahoma), Elliot practiced the skills necessary for writing down a language for the first time by working with a former missionary to the [[Quechua people]]. The missionary told him of the [[Huaorani]] – also called the "Auca", the [[Quichua]] word for "savage" – a group of Ecuadorian indigenous people considered violent and dangerous to outsiders. Elliot remained unsure about whether to go to Ecuador or India until July. His parents and friends wondered if he might instead be more effective in youth ministry in the United States, but considering the home church "well-fed", he felt that international missions should take precedence.{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | pp = 128–32}}

After the completion of his linguistic studies, Elliot applied for a passport and began to make plans with his friend Bill Cathers to leave for Ecuador. However, two months later Cathers informed him that he planned to marry, making it impossible for him to accompany Elliot as they had planned.{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | pp = 134–36}} Instead, Elliot spent the winter and spring of 1951 working with his friend [[Ed McCully]] in [[Chester, Illinois]], running a radio program, preaching in prisons, holding evangelistic rallies, and teaching Sunday school.{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | pp = 140–145, 147}}

McCully married later that summer, forcing Elliot to look elsewhere for an unmarried man with whom he could begin working in Ecuador. That man turned out to be [[Pete Fleming]], a graduate of the [[University of Washington]] with a degree in philosophy. He corresponded frequently with Elliot, and by September he was convinced of his calling to Ecuador.{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | pp = 20–23}} In the meantime, Elliot visited friends on the east coast, including his future wife, Elisabeth. In his journal he expressed hope that they would be able to be married, but at the same time felt that he was called to go to Ecuador without her. Elliot returned to Portland in November and began to prepare to leave the country.{{Sfn | Elliot | 1989 | pp = 149, 151–152, 154}}

==Ecuador==
Elliot and Fleming arrived in Ecuador on February 21, 1952, with the purpose of evangelizing Ecuador's Quechua people. They first stayed in [[Quito]], and then moved to the jungle. They took up residence at the [[Shandia]] [[Mission (station)|mission station]]. On October 8, 1953, he married fellow [[Wheaton College (Illinois)|Wheaton]] [[alumna]] and missionary [[Elisabeth Elliot|Elisabeth Howard]]. The wedding was a simple civil ceremony held in Quito. Ed and Marilou McCully were the witnesses. The couple then took a brief honeymoon to Panama and Costa Rica, then returned to Ecuador. Their only child, Valerie, was born February 27, 1955. While working with the Quechua, Elliot began preparing to reach the Huaorani.{{Citation needed |date=September 2015}}

Elliot and his group ([[Ed McCully]], [[Roger Youderian]], [[Pete Fleming]], and their pilot, [[Nate Saint]]) made contact from their [[Piper PA-14 Family Cruiser|Piper PA-14 airplane]] with the Huaorani using a loudspeaker and a basket to pass down gifts. After several months, the men decided to build a base a short distance from the Amerindian village, along the [[Curaray River]]. There they were approached one time by a small group of Huaorani and even gave an airplane ride to one curious Huaorani whom they called "George" (his real name was Naenkiwi). Encouraged by these friendly encounters, they began plans to visit the Huaorani. Their plans were preempted by the arrival of a larger group of about 10 Huaorani warriors, who killed Elliot and his four companions on January 8, 1956. Jim Elliot was the first of the five missionaries killed when he and Peter Fleming were greeting two of those attackers. Elliot's body was found downstream, along with those of the other men. Ed McCully's body was found even farther downstream.<ref>{{cite news |last=Taylor |first=Justin |date=2016-01-16 |title=They Were No Fools: The Martyrdom of Jim Elliot and Four Other Missionaries |url=https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/justin-taylor/they-were-no-fools-60-years-ago-today-the-martyrdom-of-jim-elliot-and-four-other-missionaries/ |access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref>

==Legacy==
[[Image:Jimandedplaque.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Wheaton College commemorating Elliot and [[Ed McCully]]]]
''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine published a ten-page article on Elliot's and his friends' mission and deaths.<ref>{{cite news |date=1956-01-30 |title='Go Ye and Preach the Gospel': Five Do and Die. Life Magazine. 10-19.}}</ref> After his death, his wife [[Elisabeth Elliot]] and other missionaries began working among the Huaorani, where they continued evangelistic work. She later published two books, ''Shadow of the Almighty: The Life and Testament of Jim Elliot'' and ''[[Through Gates of Splendor]]'', which describe the life and death of her husband. In 1991, the Jim Elliot Christian School was created in [[Denver, Colorado]]. In 1997, the Jim Elliot Christian High School was founded in [[Lodi, California]].<ref name="jechs">{{cite web|url=http://www.jechs.com |title=Jim Elliot Christian High School |publisher=jechs.com|access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref>

In 2002, a documentary based on the story was released, entitled ''[[Beyond the Gates of Splendor]]''. In 2003, a musical based on the story of Jim and Elisabeth Elliot, entitled ''Love Above All'', was staged at the [[Victoria Concert Hall]] in [[Singapore]] by Mount Carmel Bible-Presbyterian Church. This musical was staged a second time in 2007 at the NUS University Cultural Centre. In 2006, a theatrical movie was released, entitled ''[[End of the Spear]]'', based on the story of the pilot, Nate Saint, and the return trip of Saint's son, Steve Saint, attempting to reach the natives of Ecuador.

Susan Martins Miller in her book Jim Elliot: Missionary to Ecuador<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martins Miller |first=Susan |title=Jim Elliot: Missionary to Ecuador |date=1997 |publisher=[[Authentic Books]] |isbn=978-81-73622557 |location=Andhra Pradesh}}</ref> gives a quote from Jim Elliot which he wrote during his years at Wheaton College. "He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain what he cannot lose". The actual quote is “He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain that which he cannot lose.”<ref>https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Jim%27s_Journal.jpg {{Bare URL image|date=July 2025}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist |32em}}

==References==
* {{cite book | first = Elisabeth | last = Elliot | author-link = Elisabeth Elliot | year = 1981 | title = [[Through Gates of Splendor]] | publisher = Tyndale | location = Wheaton, IL| isbn = 978-0-8423-7151-3 }}
* {{cite book | first = Elisabeth | last = Elliot | author-link = Elisabeth Elliot | year = 1989 | title = Shadow of the Almighty | publisher = HarperCollins | location = San Francisco | isbn = 978-0-06-062213-8 | author-mask = 3 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/shadowofalmighty00elli }}
* {{cite book | first = Matthew | last = Henry | author-link = Matthew Henry | year = 1839 | title = The Life of the Rev. Philip Henry, A.M. | publisher = W. Ball| url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BUfCH_MaUS8C }}
* {{cite book | first = E. Michael | last = Rusten | year = 2003 | title = The One Year Book of Christian History | publisher = Tyndale House| location = Carol Stream, IL| isbn = 978-0-8423-5507-0 }}
* {{cite book | first = Ruth | last = Tucker | year = 1983 | title = From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya: A Biographical History of Christian Missions | publisher = Zondervan | location = Grand Rapids, MI| isbn = 978-0-310-23937-6 }}

==Videography==
* {{Citation | title = Beyond Gates of Splendor | year = 2004 | type = feature film}}.
* ''Torchlighters: The Jim Elliot Story'' (2005 animation)
* ''End of the Spear'' (2006 feature film)
* ''Steve Saint: The Jungle Missionary'' (2007 documentary)

==External links==
* [https://archon.wheaton.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&id=1509 Jim Elliot Papers], Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton College.

===Sermons===
* {{Citation|url=http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/docs/cn277t2.mp3 |title=Feeding of the Five Thousand |publisher=Wheaton |format=[[MP3]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928115714/http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/docs/cn277t2.mp3 |archive-date=2007-09-28 }} (33 minutes)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928115835/http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/docs/cn277t4.mp3 Resurrection] (41 minutes)

{{Operation Auca}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Elliot, Jim}}
[[Category:1927 births]]
[[Category:1956 deaths]]
[[Category:People murdered in 1956]]
[[Category:20th-century evangelicals]]
[[Category:20th-century American translators]]
[[Category:American Christian pacifists]]
[[Category:American evangelicals]]
[[Category:American missionaries in Ecuador]]
[[Category:American people murdered abroad]]
[[Category:American people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Swiss descent]]
[[Category:American Plymouth Brethren]]
[[Category:Benson Polytechnic High School alumni]]
[[Category:Evangelical missionaries]]
[[Category:American missionary linguists]]
[[Category:Operation Auca]]
[[Category:People from Portland, Oregon]]
[[Category:People murdered in Ecuador]]
[[Category:Protestant missionaries in Ecuador]]
[[Category:Translators of the Bible into indigenous languages of the Americas]]
[[Category:Wheaton College (Illinois) alumni]]

Cheapside

2025-11-04T02:32:40Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: Improved caption

{{Short description|Street in the City of London}}
{{About|the street in London||Cheapside (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2017}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Cheapside 1909.jpg
| width1 = 205
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Cheapside.jpg
| width2 = 190
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Cheapside in 1909, looking west at left and looking east at right. The church in the background of each is [[St Mary-le-Bow]], designed by [[Sir Christopher Wren]].
}}

'''Cheapside''' is a street in the [[City of London]], the historic and modern financial centre of [[London]], England, which forms part of the [[A40 road|A40 London to Fishguard road]]. It links [[St Martin's Le Grand]] with [[Poultry, London|Poultry]]. Near its eastern end at [[Bank Junction]], where it becomes Poultry, is [[Mansion House, London|Mansion House]], the [[Bank of England]], and [[Bank–Monument station|Bank station]]. To the west is [[St Paul's Cathedral]], [[St Paul's tube station]] and square.

In the [[Middle Ages]], it was known as Westcheap, as opposed to [[Eastcheap]], another street in the City, near [[London Bridge]]. The boundaries of the [[Wards of the City of London|wards]] of [[Cheap (ward)|Cheap]], [[Cordwainer (ward)|Cordwainer]] and [[Bread Street]] run along Cheapside and Poultry; prior to boundary changes in 2003 the road was divided amongst [[Farringdon Within]] and [[Cripplegate]] wards<ref>'Cripplegate, one of the 26 Wards of the City of London' [[Sir John Baddeley, 1st Baronet|Baddesley, J.J.]] p. 50: London: Blades, East & Blades; 1921</ref> in addition to the current three.

The contemporary Cheapside is the location of a range of retail and food outlets and offices, as well as the City's only major shopping centre, [[One New Change]].

==Etymology and usage==
[[File:ONL (1887) 1.313 - Cheapside Cross, as it appeared in 1547.jpg|thumb|The 1547 coronation procession of [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] passing the [[Eleanor cross]] in Cheapside (West Cheap)]]

''Cheapside'' is a common English street name, meaning "market place", from [[Old English]] ''ceapan'', "to buy" (cf. German ''kaufen'', Dutch ''kopen'', Danish ''købe'', Norwegian ''kjøpe'', Swedish ''köpa''), whence also ''[[chapmen|chapman]]'' and ''[[chapbook]].''<ref>William Toone, ''A Glossary and Etymological Dictionary: Of Obsolete and Uncommon Words'' (Bennett: London, 1834)</ref> There was originally no connection to the modern meaning of ''cheap'' ("low-priced" or "low-quality", a shortening of ''good ceap'', "good buy"), though by the 18th century this association may have begun to be inferred.

Other cities and towns in England that have a Cheapside include [[Ambleside]], [[Ascot, Berkshire|Ascot]], [[Barnsley]], [[Birmingham]], [[Blackpool]], [[Bradford]], [[Brighton]], [[Bristol]], [[Derby]], [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]], [[Hanley, Staffordshire|Hanley]], [[Knaresborough]], [[Lancaster, Lancashire|Lancaster]], [[Leicester]], [[Liverpool]], [[Luton]], [[Manchester]], [[Nottingham]], [[Preston, Lancashire|Preston]], [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Settle, North Yorkshire|Settle]], [[Wakefield]] and [[Wolverhampton]]. There is also a Cheapside in [[Bridgetown]], Barbados; [[Lexington, Kentucky]], US; [[Greenfield, Massachusetts]], US; [[Saint Helier]], Jersey; and [[London, Ontario]], Canada.

==History==
[[File:Cheapside in 1823. Engraved by T.M. Baynes from a drawing by W. Duryer.JPG|thumb|Cheapside in 1823, looking west towards [[St Paul's Cathedral]]]]
[[File:Cheapside and Bow Church engraved by W.Albutt after T.H.Shepherd publ 1837 edited.jpg|thumb|A view of Cheapside published in 1837]]
[[File:Cheapside photochrom2.jpg|thumb|[[Photochrom]] of Cheapside, c. 1890–1900]]

Cheapside is the former site of one of the principal [[farmers' market|produce markets]] in London, ''cheap'' broadly meaning "market" in medieval English. Many of the streets feeding into the main thoroughfare are named after the produce that was once sold in those areas of the market, including Honey Lane, Milk Street, [[Bread Street]] and [[Poultry, London|Poultry]].

In medieval times, the royal processional route from the [[Tower of London]] to the [[Palace of Westminster]] would include Cheapside. During state occasions such as the first entry of [[Margaret of France, Queen of England|Margaret of France]] (second wife of [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]), into London in September 1299, the conduits of Cheapside customarily flowed with wine.<ref>Williamson, D. (1986), ''Kings and Queens of Britain'', p. 75, Salem House, {{ISBN|0-88162-213-3}}.</ref>

During the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] in the 14th century, tournaments were held in adjacent fields. The dangers were, however, not limited to the participants: a wooden stand built to accommodate [[Philippa of Hainault|Queen Philippa]] and her companions collapsed during a tournament to celebrate the birth of the [[Edward, the Black Prince|Black Prince]] in 1330. No one died, but the King was greatly displeased, and the stand's builders would have been put to death but for the Queen's intercession.

In the early 1300s one of the armourers working in the area was [[Alice la Haubergere]], who owned an armour shop and made her role within the occupation part of her identity, which was unusual for the period.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-10 |title=The Women who Forged Medieval England {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/women-who-forged-medieval-england |access-date=2024-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910134319/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/women-who-forged-medieval-england |archive-date=10 September 2024 }}</ref>

On the day preceding her coronation, in January 1559, [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] passed through a number of London streets in a pre-coronation procession and was entertained by a number of pageants, including one in Cheapside.

Meat was brought in to Cheapside from [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield market]], just outside [[Newgate]]. After the great [[St Michael-le-Querne|Church of St Michael-le-Querne]], the top end of the street broadened into a [[dual carriageway]] known as [[the Shambles]] (referring to an open-air [[slaughterhouse]] and meat market), with butcher shops on both sides and a dividing central area also containing butchers. Further down, on the right, was Goldsmiths Row, an area of [[commodity]] [[merchant|dealer]]s. From the 14th century to the [[Great Fire of London|Great Fire]], the eastern end of Cheapside was the location of the [[Great Conduit]].

==Literary connections==

Cheapside was the birthplace of both [[John Milton]] and [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]]. It was for a long time one of the most important streets in London. It is also the site of the 'Bow Bells', the [[St Mary-le-Bow|church of St Mary-le-Bow]], which has played a part in London's [[Cockney]] heritage and the tale of [[Dick Whittington]]. [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] grew up around Cheapside and there are a scattering of references to the thoroughfare and its environs throughout his work. The first chapter of [[Peter Ackroyd]]'s ''Brief Lives'' series on Chaucer also colourfully describes the street at that time.<ref>[http://www.randomhouse.com/nanatalese/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780385507974&view=excerpt Ackroyd, Peter (2005). ''Chaucer'' (biography), chapter 1] at Random House.com</ref>

[[William Shakespeare]] used Cheapside as the setting for several bawdy scenes in ''[[Henry IV, Part I]]''. A reference to it is also made in ''[[Henry VI, Part II]]'', in a speech by the rebel [[Jack Cade]]: "all the realm shall be in common; and in Cheapside shall my palfrey go to grass".

[[Thomas Middleton]]'s play ''[[A Chaste Maid in Cheapside]]'' (1613) both satirises and celebrates the citizens of the neighbourhood during the Renaissance, when the street hosted the city's goldsmiths.

[[William Wordsworth]], in his 1797 poem ''The Reverie of Poor Susan'', imagines a naturalistic Cheapside of past:

{{Quote
|
And a river flows on through the vale of Cheapside.
}}

[[Jane Austen]], in her 1813 novel ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'', characterises Cheapside as a London neighbourhood frowned upon by the landed elite:<ref>[http://www.pemberley.com/etext/PandP/chapter8.htm Austen, Jane (1813). ''Pride and Prejudice'', chapter 8] at Pemberley.com</ref>

{{Quote
|
"I think I have heard you say that their uncle is an attorney in Meryton."

"Yes; and they have another, who lives somewhere near Cheapside."

"That is capital," added her sister, and they both laughed heartily.

"If they had uncles enough to fill all Cheapside," cried Bingley, "it would not make them one jot less agreeable."

"But it must very materially lessen their chance of marrying men of any consideration in the world," replied Darcy.
|sign=|source=}}

[[Charles Dickens Jr.]] wrote in his 1879 book ''[[Charles Dickens Jr.#Dickens's Dictionary of London|Dickens's Dictionary of London]]'':

<blockquote>Cheapside remains now what it was five centuries ago, the greatest thoroughfare in the City of London. Other localities have had their day, have risen, become fashionable, and have sunk into obscurity and neglect, but Cheapside has maintained its place, and may boast of being the busiest thoroughfare in the world, with the sole exception perhaps of [[London Bridge|London-bridge]].<ref>
{{Cite web
| author = Dickens, Charles Jr.
| year = 1879
| title = Cheapside
| work = [[Dickens's Dictionary of London]]
| url = http://www.victorianlondon.org/dickens/dickens-chr.htm
| access-date = 2007-08-22
| author-link = Charles Dickens Jr.
}}
</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Cheapside and St. Mary-Le-Bow church, City of London - geograph.org.uk - 517805.jpg|thumb|Cheapside in 1979]]

[[Hugh Lofting]]'s book ''[[Doctor Dolittle]]'', published in 1951, names a quarrelsome London sparrow with a Cockney accent Cheapside. He lives most of the year in St Edmund's left ear in St Paul's Cathedral and is invited to the African country of Fantippo to deliver mail to cities because the other birds are not able to navigate city streets.

Cheapside is also depicted in [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]'s 1951 children's historical novel ''[[The Armourer's House]]'', along with other parts of [[Tudor London]].

In a more contemporary treatment, the Cheapside of the Middle Ages was referenced in a derogatory sense in the 2001 movie ''[[A Knight's Tale (film)|A Knight's Tale]]'' as being the poor, unhealthy and low-class birthplace and home of the unlikely hero.

Nineteenth century Cheapside is presented as the home of Mary "Jacky" Faber in ''[[Bloody Jack (novel)|Bloody Jack]]'' by [[L. A. Meyer]].

Additionally, Cheapside is depicted as a major setting in the bestselling novel by [[Maria McCann]], ''As Meat Loves Salt'', a historical feature set against the English Civil War.<ref>{{cite book|last=McCann|first=Maria|title=As Meat Loves Salt|year=2001|publisher=Flamingo/Harcourt|location=United Kingdom/Florida|isbn=978-0-15-601226-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/asmeatlovessalt00mcca_0/page/565 565]|url=https://archive.org/details/asmeatlovessalt00mcca_0/page/565|df=dmy-all|url-access=registration}}</ref>

[[William Gibson]]'s mystery novel ''[[The Peripheral]]'' depicts a 22nd-century Cheapside converted to a Victorian-era [[cosplay]] zone where only 19th century costume is allowed.

==Contemporary Cheapside==
[[File:Cheapside, London.JPG|thumb|Cheapside in 2012]]

Cheapside today is a street of offices and developments of retail outlets. It can no longer be described as "the busiest thoroughfare in the world" (as in Charles Dickens, Jr.'s day) and is instead simply one of many routes connecting the [[East End of London|East End]] and the City of London with the [[West End of London|West End]].

Cheapside was extensively damaged during [[The Blitz]] in late 1940 and particularly during the [[Second Great Fire of London]]. Much of the rebuilding following these raids occurred during the 1950s and 1960s and included a number of unsympathetic contemporary attempts at recreating the centuries-old architecture that had been destroyed. In recent years many of these buildings have themselves been demolished as a programme of regeneration takes place along Cheapside from [[Paternoster Square]] to [[Poultry, London|Poultry]].

The draft Core Strategy of the City's [[Local Development Frameworks]] outlines the vision and policies for the Cheapside area, aiming to increase the amount of retail space along and near the street, and make the area a good environment for visitors and shoppers. The plan is to re-establish the street as the City's "High Street", including as a weekend shopping destination (until recently many retail units in the City were closed on Saturday and Sunday).<ref>[http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/114DE61F-E5C0-4ABE-982E-7CF262D6A907/0/CoreStrategyAppendicesPDF.pdf City of London Corporation] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210149/http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/114DE61F-E5C0-4ABE-982E-7CF262D6A907/0/CoreStrategyAppendicesPDF.pdf |date=12 June 2011 }} draft Core Strategy, accessed July 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/LGNL_Services/Environment_and_planning/Urban_design/Street_scene_challenge/Projects_in_the_pipeline/Cheapside+Area.htm City of London Corporation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613135838/http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/LGNL_Services/Environment_and_planning/Urban_design/Street_scene_challenge/Projects_in_the_pipeline/Cheapside%2BArea.htm |date=13 June 2010 }} Cheapside area improvements</ref> A major retail and office development at the heart of the scheme, [[One New Change]], opened 28 October 2010.<ref name="FT">{{cite news|last=Thomas|first=Daniel|title=Retail centre gambles on Square Mile|url=https://www.ft.com/content/fa51f4be-e1f1-11df-a064-00144feabdc0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/fa51f4be-e1f1-11df-a064-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=29 October 2010|newspaper=Financial Times|date=27 October 2010}}</ref> It is sited on Cheapside at the intersection with New Change, immediately to the east of St Paul's Cathedral.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onenewchange.com/|title=One new change|website=www.onenewchange.com}}</ref><ref>[http://www.incheapside.com/default.aspx?CATID=360 InCheapside] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713024233/http://www.incheapside.com/default.aspx?CATID=360 |date=13 July 2011 }} One New Change</ref>

To address the anticipated rise in the number of shoppers as a result of the regeneration, the street itself has undergone reconstruction works to make the area more sympathetic to pedestrian traffic; the works are expected to make Cheapside the main shopping area in the City of London.

Cheapside formed part of the [[2012 Olympic Marathon Course|marathon course]] of the [[2012 Summer Olympics|2012 Olympic]] and [[2012 Summer Paralympics|Paralympic]] Games. The women's Olympic marathon took place on 5 August and the men's Olympic marathon took place on 12 August. The four Paralympic marathons were held on 9 September.<ref>[http://www.london2012.com/athletics/event/men-marathon/coursemap/ 2012 London Olympics Men's Marathon: course map] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430135742/http://www.london2012.com/athletics/event/men-marathon/coursemap/ |date=30 April 2013 }} and [http://www.london2012.com/athletics/event/women-marathon/coursemap/ Women's Marathon: course map] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502180801/http://www.london2012.com/athletics/event/women-marathon/coursemap/ |date=2 May 2013 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Eleanor cross]]

==References==


'''Sources''' 

* ''A Glossary and Etymological Dictionary: Of Obsolete and Uncommon Words'' William Toone (Bennett: London, 1834)
* ''Kings and Queens of Britain'', Williamson, D. (1986), Salem House, {{ISBN|0-88162-213-3}}.

'''Endnotes'''

{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Cheapside, London}}
* [http://www.shakespeares-sonnets.com/Archive/cheapsd.htm View, looking eastwards, of Cheapside in early Stuart times, showing the Cheapside Cross and the Standard]
* [http://www.incheapside.com The Cheapside Initiative official website]

{{Coord|51.5141|-0.0937|dim:200_region:GB|display=title}}
{{London landmarks}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Streets in the City of London]]
[[Category:History of the City of London]]

Eleanor of Provence

2025-11-02T04:18:33Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: /* Responsibilities */Added link

{{Short description|Queen of England from 1236 to 1272}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2010}}
{{Infobox royalty
| consort =yes
| caption=Detail of Eleanor from the ''[[Chronica Majora]]'' by [[Matthew Paris]]
| image =Eleonor Provence.jpg
| succession =[[Queen consort of England]]
| reign =14 January 1236 – 16 November 1272
| coronation =20 January 1236
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Henry III of England]]|14 January 1236|16 November 1272|end=d}}
| issue ={{plainlist|
*[[Edward I, King of England]]
*[[Margaret of England|Margaret, Queen of Scots]]
*[[Beatrice of England|Beatrice, Duchess of Brittany]]
*[[Edmund Crouchback|Edmund, Earl of Lancaster]]
*[[Katherine of England]]}}
| house =[[House of Barcelona|Barcelona]]
| father =[[Ramon Berenguer V, Count of Provence]]
| mother =[[Beatrice of Savoy]]
| birth_date = {{circa}} 1223
| birth_place =[[Aix-en-Provence]], [[County of Provence]]
| death_date = 24/25 June 1291 (aged 67–68)
| death_place =[[Amesbury]], Wiltshire, England
| burial_date =
| burial_place =[[Amesbury Priory]]
}}

'''Eleanor of Provence''' ({{circa}} 1223 – 24/25 June 1291) was a [[Provence|Provençal]] noblewoman who became [[List of English royal consorts|Queen of England]] as the wife of King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] from 1236 until his death in 1272. She served as regent of England during the absence of her spouse in France in 1253.

Although Eleanor was completely devoted to her husband and staunchly defended him against the rebel [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]], she was very unpopular among the Londoners. This was because she had brought many relatives with her to England in her retinue; these were known as "the Savoyards" (her mother was from [[Savoy]]), and, as Londoners saw it, these foreigners were given influential positions in the government and realm to lord over them. On one occasion, Eleanor's barge was attacked by angry Londoners who pelted her with stones, mud, pieces of paving, rotten eggs and vegetables.

Eleanor had five children, including the future King [[Edward I of England]]. She also was renowned for her cleverness, skill at writing poetry, and as a leader of fashion.

==Early life and family==
Born in the city of [[Aix-en-Provence]] in southern France, she was the second daughter of [[Ramon Berenguer V, Count of Provence]] (1198–1245) and [[Beatrice of Savoy]] (1198–1267), the second of four daughters of [[Thomas I of Savoy]] and his wife [[Margaret of Geneva]].{{sfn|Howell|2004}} Two sons were born before the daughters, but they died very young.{{sfn|Howell|2004}} Eleanor was probably born latest in 1223; [[Matthew Paris]] describes her as being "''jamque duodennem''" (already twelve) when she arrived in the [[Kingdom of England]] for her marriage.

She was well educated as a child and developed a strong love of reading, partly due to the influence of her tutor [[Romée de Villeneuve]]. Her three sisters also married kings.{{sfn|Cox|1974|p=463}} Like her mother, grandmother, and sisters, Eleanor was renowned for her beauty. She was a dark-haired brunette with fine eyes.{{sfn|Costain|1959|pp=125–126}} [[Piers Langtoft]] speaks of her as "The erle's daughter, the fairest may of life".{{sfn|Costain|1959|p=140}}

Her elder sister [[Margaret of Provence|Margaret]] married [[Louis IX of France|Louis]], King of France, and of her younger sisters [[Sanchia of Provence|Sanchia]] was to marry [[Richard of Cornwall]], Henry's brother who was to become [[King of the Romans]], and [[Beatrice of Provence|Beatrice]] was to marry Louis' brother [[Charles I of Anjou|Charles of Anjou]], the [[King of Sicily]].{{sfn|Howell|2004}} She was especially close to Margaret, to whom she was close in age, and with whom she sustained friendly relationships until they grew old.{{sfn|Howell|2001|p=3}}

==Marriage negotiations==

Henry investigated a range of potential marriage partners in his youth, but they all proved unsuitable for reasons of European and domestic politics.<ref name=Weiler1999P173>{{Harvnb|Weiler|1999|p=173}}</ref>{{Efn|An early option was one of the daughters of [[Leopold VI, Duke of Austria]]. In the early 1220s, Henry considered marrying Marjorie, the sister of [[Alexander II of Scotland]], but this was dropped to leave open the possibility of Henry marrying Duke [[Peter I of Brittany]]'s daughter, [[Yolande of Brittany|Yolande]]. Another option that came close to fruition was [[Joan, Countess of Ponthieu|Joan]], the daughter of [[Simon, Count of Ponthieu]], but Blanche, the mother of Louis IX of France, intervened and prevailed upon the Pope to prevent the marriage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weiler|1999|p=173}}; {{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=10–11}}; {{Harvnb|Ridgeway|2004}}</ref>}}

After her elder sister [[Margaret of Provence|Margaret]] married [[Louis IX of France]], their uncle [[William of Savoy|William]] corresponded with [[Henry III of England]] to persuade him to marry Eleanor. Henry sought a dowry of up to twenty thousand silver marks to help offset the dowry he had just paid for his sister [[Isabella of England|Isabella]], but Eleanor's father was able to negotiate this down to no dowry, just a promise to leave her ten thousand marks when he died.

On 22 June 1235, the marriage contract was confirmed;<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=14}}</ref> Eleanor was betrothed to King Henry III (1207–1272).

==Queen consort==
===Wedding and coronation===
[[File:Marriage_of_Henry_III.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.1|The wedding of Eleanor and Henry III depicted by [[Matthew Paris]] in the 1250s, showing their age gap; he was 28, she was 12 or 13.]]
Eleanor was married to King Henry III of England on 14 January 1236.{{sfn|Sadler|2008|p=32}} At the time, she was either 12 or 13 years old, while he was 28. She had never seen Henry prior to the wedding at [[Canterbury Cathedral]] and had never set foot in his kingdom.{{sfn|Howell|1997|p=1}} [[Edmund Rich]], Archbishop of Canterbury, officiated.{{sfn|Howell|1997|p=1}} She was dressed in a shimmering golden dress that fitted tightly at the waist and flared out to wide pleats at her feet. The sleeves were long and lined with ermine.{{sfn|Costain|1959|p=129}} After riding to London the same day where a procession of citizens greeted the bridal pair, Eleanor was crowned queen consort of England in a ceremony at [[Westminster Abbey]] planned by Henry<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=15–17}}</ref> which was followed by a magnificent banquet with the entire nobility in full attendance.{{sfn|Costain|1959|pp=129–130}} Her love for her husband grew significantly from 1236 onward.

Through her marriage with Henry she acquired at her coronation the titles of [[Queen of England]], [[Lady of Ireland]] and [[Duchess of Aquitaine]].{{sfn|Howell|2004}} She also acquired the titles of [[Duchess of Normandy]] and [[Countess of Anjou]] although these already symbolic claims were dropped as part of the 1259 [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris]].{{sfn|Howell|2004}}

Despite the substantial age gap the historian Margaret Howell observes that the King "was generous and warm-hearted and prepared to lavish care and affection on his wife".<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=15}}</ref> Henry gave Eleanor extensive gifts and paid personal attention to establishing and equipping her household.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=23–24}}</ref> He also brought her fully into his religious life, including involving her in his devotion to Edward the Confessor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=24}}</ref>

===Responsibilities===

[[File:Henry III and Eleanor returning by sea from Gascony, with Nicholas de Molis is in a small boat alongside.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Eleanor ('Regina') and Henry III ('Rex') returning from [[Gascony]], by [[Matthew Paris]]]]

Though Eleanor and Henry supported different factions at times, she was a loyal and faithful consort and was made regent of England when her husband went to suppress a rebellion in Gascony in 1253,{{sfn|Carpenter|2020|p=570}} although this was after a quarrel about the Gascon revolt that had lasted a year.{{sfn|Ridgeway|2004}} (During this time she exercised the functions of [[Lord Chancellor]], the only woman to do so until [[Liz Truss]] was appointed to the office in 2016.){{sfn|Thomas|2016}}

Eleanor was devoted to her husband's cause. Although originally supportive of the [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] when he was an ally of Henry,{{sfn|Powicke|1953|p=112}} she was a strong opponent when de Montfort led the English Barons against Henry, raising mercenary troops in France for her husband.{{sfn|Jobson|2012|pp=70–71}} Her influence with her sister Margaret, [[Louis IX]]'s wife meant that Henry had some support from France.{{sfn|Hallam|Everard|2001|p=283}}

The primary reason Eleanor was chosen was the chance to create a valuable set of alliances with the rulers of the south and south-east of France<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=4–7, 11–12}}</ref> which meant Eleanor brought in her retinue a large number of often related [[Savoyard faction|Savoyards]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Ridgeway|1988|p=81}}</ref> many of whom become prominent thanks to Henry's patronage which caused friction with the English barons.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|p=8}}</ref> Her uncle [[Peter II, Count of Savoy|Peter]] was particularly influential as her early advisor{{sfn|Howell|2004}} before he inherited the County of Savoy.

The Savoyards would later be opposed to the [[Lusignan]] faction of Henry's [[Poitiers|Poitevin]] half brothers. Many Savoyards, probably including Eleanor, backed a 1258 coup d'état by a coalition of English barons who expelled the Poitevins from England,{{sfn|Jobson|2012|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Howell|2001|p=153}} reforming the royal government through a process called the [[Provisions of Oxford]].

===Religious life===

During her early years as queen, her religious formation was under the guidance of the royal physician and confessor [[Nicholas Farnham]], later [[Bishop of Durham]].{{sfn|Howell|2004}}{{sfn|Franklin|2004}} She was also friendly with the Franciscan [[Adam Marsh]] and the reforming bishops [[Richard of Chichester]] and [[Robert Grosseteste]], [[Bishop of London]].{{sfn|Howell|2004}} Eleanor shared her husband's devotion to faith.

===Attack by Londoners ===

Eleanor stoutly hated the Londoners, who returned her hatred; in revenge for their dislike, Eleanor had demanded from the city all the back payments due on the monetary tribute known as ''queen-gold'', by which she received a tenth of all fines which came to the Crown. In addition to the ''queen-gold'', other such fines were levied on the citizens by the Queen on the thinnest of pretexts.{{sfn|Costain|1959|pp=206–207}}

During the [[Second Barons War]] in 1263, London had risen in revolt. Henry and Eleanor were trapped in the [[Tower of London]]. On 13 July 1263, she attempted to escape by sailing down the [[Thames]] to Edward's army{{sfn|Jobson|2012|pp=92–93}} when her barge was attacked by citizens of London.{{sfn|Costain|1959|pp=253–254}} In fear for her life as she was pelted with stones, loose pieces of paving, dried mud, rotten eggs and vegetables, Eleanor was rescued by [[Thomas Fitzthomas]], the [[Lord Mayor of London|Mayor of London]], and took refuge at the bishop of London's home. This meant that she and her husband were in effect prisoners of De Montfort.{{sfn|Wild|2011|pp=41–42, 48}}

==Queen dowager and death==
===Early widowhood===
In 1272, Henry died, and her son Edward, who was 33 years old, became king of England. She remained in England as [[queen dowager]] and raised several of her grandchildren: two of Edward's children, [[Henry (son of Edward I)|Henry]] and [[Eleanor of England, Countess of Bar|Eleanor]], as well as [[Beatrice of England|Beatrice]]'s son [[John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond|John of Brittany]].

In 1273, after an earlier dispute over its control, Queen Eleanor granted a new charter and additional endowment{{sfn|Howell|2004}} to the [[hospital of St Katharine by the Tower]] in memory of Henry, reserving the foundation's patronage to the queens of England.{{sfn|Knight|1851}}

When her grandson Henry died in her care in 1274, Eleanor went into mourning and gave orders for his heart to be buried at the [[Dominican priory at Guildford]], which she founded in his memory.{{sfn|Howell|2004}} Eleanor's two remaining daughters died in 1275, [[Margaret of England|Margaret]] on 26 February and Beatrice on 24 March.

===Expulsion of the Jews from Dower lands===
Eleanor was noted for her hostility to Jews and Judaism. On 16 January 1275, she received permission from Edward I to [[History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)#Edward I and the Expulsion|expel the Jews]] from all of her lands.<ref>{{harvnb|Hillaby|1990|pp=112–3}}, {{harvnb|Taylor|1999|p=82}}</ref> Jews were expelled from [[Marlborough, Wiltshire|Marlborough]], [[Gloucester]], [[Worcester, England|Worcester]] and [[Cambridge]]. The Jews of Cambridge were instructed to flee to [[Norwich]], and those of Marlborough to [[Devizes]]. The Jews of Gloucester were ordered to move to [[Bristol]], but were worried because of anti-Jewish violence that had occurred there, and instead mostly chose to move to [[Hereford]] along with those forced to leave nearby Worcester.{{sfn|Hillaby|Hillaby|2013|pp=141-43}}

===Amesbury Priory===

She became a nun{{sfn|Kerr|1999|p=110}} and retired in 1286 to [[Amesbury Priory]] in Wiltshire, eight miles north of [[Salisbury]], as [[Henry II of England|Henry II]]'s widow, [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], had taken up residence at the mother abbey, [[Fontevraud Abbey|Fontevraud]]. She was visited there by her son, King Edward. Two of her granddaughters – [[Mary of Woodstock]] (daughter of Edward) and [[Eleanor of Brittany (abbess)|Eleanor of Brittany]] – were already nuns there, each having entered the priory on reaching the age of seven.{{sfn|Pugh|Crittall|1956|pp=242–259}}

Eleanor died on 24/25 June 1291 at the priory and was buried there.{{sfn|Pugh|Crittall|1956|pp=242–259}} The site of her grave is unknown, making her the only English queen without a marked grave. Her heart was taken to London where it was buried at the Franciscan priory of [[Greyfriars, London|Greyfriars]].{{sfn|Howell|2004}}

==Cultural legacy==
Eleanor was renowned for her learning, cleverness, and skill at writing poetry,{{sfn|Costain|1959|p=127}} as well as her beauty and antisemitism; she was also known as a leader of fashion, continually importing clothes from France.{{sfn|Costain|1959|p=140}} She favoured red silk [[damask]] and often wore parti-coloured [[cotte]]s (a type of tunic), gold or silver [[girdle]]s into which a dagger was casually thrust, and decorations of gilt quatrefoil. To cover her dark hair, she wore jaunty pillbox caps. Eleanor introduced a new type of [[wimple]] to England, which was high, "into which the head receded until the face seemed like a flower in an enveloping spathe".{{sfn|Costain|1959|p=140}}

She had developed a love for the songs of the [[troubadour]]s as a child and continued this interest into adulthood. She bought many romantic and historical books that included stories from ancient times to contemporary romances written in the period (13th century).{{efn|Prestwich states she owned romances written in French.{{sfn|Prestwich|1988|p=6}}}}

Eleanor is the protagonist of ''The Queen From Provence'', a historical romance by British novelist [[Jean Plaidy]] which was published in 1979. Eleanor is a main character in the novel ''Four Sisters, All Queens'' by author Sherry Jones, as well as the novels ''The Sister Queens'' by Sophie Perinot, ''Falls The Shadow'' by Sharon Kay Penman, and "My Fair Lady: A Story of Henry III's Lost Queen" by J. P. Reedman. She is also the subject of Norwegian Symphonic metal band Leave's Eyes in their song "Eleonore De Provence" from their album ''Symphonies of the Night''.

==Issue==
Despite initial concerns that the Queen might be barren, Eleanor and Henry had five children together. Eleanor seems to have been especially devoted to her eldest son, Edward; when he was deathly ill in 1246, she stayed with him at the [[Beaulieu Abbey|abbey at Beaulieu]] in [[Hampshire]] for three weeks, long past the time allowed by monastic rules.{{sfn|Prestwich|1988|p=6}} She personally supervised Edward's upbringing and education.{{sfn|Ridgeway|1986|p=91}} It was because of her influence that King Henry granted the duchy of Gascony to Edward in 1249.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} Her youngest child, Katherine, seems to have had a degenerative disease that rendered her deaf. When the little girl died at the age of three, both her royal parents suffered overwhelming grief.{{sfn|Costain|1959|p=167}} Eleanor possibly had four other sons who also died in childhood, but their existence is in doubt as there is no contemporary record of them.{{efn|name=Children|Until the late 20th century, historians also accepted the existence of four other children, Richard (d. 29 August 1250), John (b. 1250 – d. 31 August 1252), William (d. c. 1256) and Henry (b. May 1260 – d. 10 October 1260).<ref name=Howell1992P57>{{harvnb|Howell|1992|p= 57}}</ref> Subsequent historical analysis has shown that it is improbable that these children existed, and historians such as Huw Ridgeway and Margaret Howell conclude that Henry and Eleanor had only five children.{{sfn|Howell|2004|p= 45}} These five—Edward, Margaret, Beatrice, Edmund and Katherine—are well documented in multiple chronicler and financial accounts from Henry's reign.{{sfn|Howell|1992|pp= 58, 65}} The only record for Richard, John, William and Henry is in the ''[[Flores Historiarum]]'' manuscript, but the details appear to have been added to the original 13th document in the next century, albeit possibly in good faith.{{sfn|Howell|1992|pp= 59–60}} It is impossible to completely rule out the possibility that the children existed but that the other evidence of their existence was suppressed, perhaps because they were handicapped, or they were miscarriages or still births.{{sfn|Howell|1992|pp=70–72}}{{sfn|Howell|2004|p= 45}}}}

#[[Edward I]] (1239–1307), married [[Eleanor of Castile]] (1241–1290) in 1254, by whom he had issue, including his heir<ref name=Howell1992P57/> [[Edward II]]. His second wife was [[Margaret of France, Queen of England|Margaret of France]], by whom he had issue.<ref name=Howell1992P57>{{harvnb|Howell|1992|p= 57}}</ref>
#[[Margaret of England|Margaret]] (1240–1275), married King [[Alexander III of Scotland]], by whom she had issue.<ref name=Howell1992P57/>
#[[Beatrice of England|Beatrice]] (1242–1275), married [[John II, Duke of Brittany]], by whom she had issue.<ref name=Howell1992P57/>
#[[Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster]] (1245–1296),{{sfn|Carpenter|2020|p=xxii}} married [[Aveline de Forz]] in 1269, who died four years later without issue; married [[Blanche of Artois]] in 1276, by whom he had issue.
#[[Katherine of England|Katherine]] (25 November 1253 – 3 May 1257)<ref name=Howell1992P57/>

The children spent most of their childhood at Windsor Castle and Henry appears to have been extremely attached to them, rarely spending extended periods of time apart from his family.<ref>{{Harvnb|Howell|2001|pp=32, 102}}; {{Harvnb|Cole|2002|p=230}}</ref>

==Historiography==

Some historians have regarded her as the most unpopular queen in England.{{sfn|Strickland|1902|pp=30}}
Historians Margaret Howell and David Carpenter describe her as being "more combative" and "far tougher and more determined" than her husband.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=341}}; {{Harvnb|Howell|2001|p=168}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{commons category}}
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
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{{refend}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Barcelona]]||c. 1223|24/25 June|1291|[[Bellonids]]}}
{{S-roy|en}}
|-
{{S-vac|last = [[Isabella of Angoulême]]}}
{{S-ttl|title = [[Queen consort of England]]| years = 14 January 1236 – 16 November 1272}}
{{S-vac|next = [[Eleanor of Castile]]}}
{{S-off}}
|-
{{S-bef|before = [[John Lexington|Sir John Lexington]]}}
{{S-ttl|title = [[List of Lord Chancellors and Lord Keepers|Keeper of the Great Seal]]| years = 1253 – 1254}}
{{S-aft|after = [[William of Kilkenny]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{English consort}}
{{House of Plantagenet}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Eleanor of Provence}}
[[Category:1220s births]]
[[Category:1291 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:13th-century queens consort]]
[[Category:13th-century women regents]]
[[Category:13th-century regents]]
[[Category:13th-century duchesses consort]]
[[Category:13th-century English nobility]]
[[Category:13th-century people from the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Women in 13th-century warfare]]
[[Category:13th-century English poets]]
[[Category:13th-century English women writers]]
[[Category:13th-century English royal consorts]]
[[Category:Irish royal consorts]]
[[Category:People from Aix-en-Provence]]
[[Category:Duchesses of Aquitaine]]
[[Category:House of Aragon]]
[[Category:People of the Barons' Wars]]
[[Category:Women in medieval European warfare]]
[[Category:Henry III of England]]
[[Category:Regents of England]]
[[Category:Burials at Amesbury Abbey]]
[[Category:English queen mothers]]
[[Category:Daughters of counts]]
[[Category:People from the County of Provence]]

Dewsbury

2025-11-02T04:13:21Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: /* Early history */Added link

{{short description|Market town in West Yorkshire, England}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox UK place
| country = England
| coordinates = {{coord|53.691|-1.633|display=inline,title}}
| official_name = Dewsbury
| metropolitan_borough = [[Kirklees]]
| metropolitan_county = [[West Yorkshire]]
| region = Yorkshire and the Humber
| constituency_westminster = [[Dewsbury and Batley]]
| post_town = DEWSBURY
| postcode_district = WF12-13
| postcode_area = WF
| dial_code = 01924
| os_grid_reference = SE245225
| london_distance = 188 mi (SE)
| static_image_name = {{multiple images
| image1 = Dewsbury Town Hall, 2018.jpg

| image2 = Dewsbury Market Place (geograph 5686127).jpg
| image3 = Dewsbury Parish.jpg
| image4 = Markazi Masjid - junction of Pentland Street & South Street (geograph 3932877).jpg
| image5 = Lidl, Dewsbury - geograph.org.uk - 4213869.jpg
|align = center |total_width = 300|perrow=1 2
}}
| static_image_caption = Clockwise from top: Dewsbury [[Dewsbury Town Hall|Town Hall]], [[Dewsbury Minster|Minster Church]], Townscape, [[Markazi Masjid]] in [[Savile Town]] and Market Place
| population = 61,035
| population_ref = (Wards, 2021 Census)<ref>{{cite web |title=United Kingdom: Major Cities in England - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/cities/england/?cityid=7146 |website=www.citypopulation.de |access-date=3 April 2024}}</ref>
| parts_type = Areas of the town
| p1 = [[Boothroyd, West Yorkshire|Boothroyd]]
| p2 = [[Chickenley]]
| p3 = Crackenedge
| p4 = [[Dewsbury Moor]]
| p5 = [[Earlsheaton]]
| p6 = Eastborough
| p7 = Flatts
| p8 = [[Hanging Heaton]] (part)
| p9 = [[Overthorpe, West Yorkshire|Overthorpe]]
| p10 = [[Ravensthorpe, West Yorkshire|Ravensthorpe]] (part)
| p11 = [[Savile Town]]
| p12 = [[Thornhill, West Yorkshire|Thornhill]]
| p13 = Thornhill Edge
| p14 = [[Thornhill Lees]]
| p15 = West Town
}}

'''Dewsbury''' is a [[market town]] in the [[Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees]], [[West Yorkshire]], England. It is sited on the [[River Calder, West Yorkshire|River Calder]] and on an arm of the [[Calder and Hebble Navigation]] waterway. It lies to the west of [[Wakefield]], east of [[Huddersfield]] and south of [[Leeds]]. [[Historic counties of England|Historically]] a part of the [[West Riding of Yorkshire]], after undergoing a period of major growth in the 19th century as a [[mill town]], Dewsbury went through a period of decline. It forms part of the [[Heavy Woollen District]], of which it is the largest town. The population of the built-up area was 63,722 at the [[2021 United Kingdom census|2021 Census]].

==History==

===Toponymy===
The [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 records the name as ''Deusberie'', ''Deusberia'', ''Deusbereia'', or ''Deubire'', literally "Dewi's fort", Dewi being an old Welsh name (equivalent to David) and "bury" coming from the old English word "burh", meaning fort.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kepn.nottingham.ac.uk/map/place/Yorkshire+WR/Dewsbury|title=Key to English Place-names|website=kepn.nottingham.ac.uk}}</ref>

Other, less supported, theories exist as to the name's origin. For example, that it means "dew hill", from [[Old English]] ''dēaw'' (genitive ''dēawes''), "[[dew]]", and ''beorg'', "hill" (because Dewsbury is built on a hill). It has been suggested that ''dēaw'' refers to the town's proximity to the water of the [[River Calder, West Yorkshire|River Calder]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yorkshire-england.co.uk/Calderdale.html |title=Calderdale: Halifax to Pontefract |website=Yorkshire |access-date=5 January 2006}}</ref>

In the past other origins were proposed, such as "God's fort", from [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''Duw'', "God". "Antiquarians supposed the name, Dewsbury, to be derived from the original planter of the village, Dui or Dew, who … had fixed his abode and fortified his "Bury". Another conjecture holds, that the original name is Dewsborough, or God's Town" (1837)<ref>{{cite news |date=1837 |title=Dewsbury |url=http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/YKS/WRY/Dewsbury/Dewsbury37.html|newspaper=White's History |access-date=5 January 2006}} "Antiquarians supposed the name, Dewsbury, to be derived from the original planter of the village, Dui or Dew, who … had fixed his abode and fortified his "Bury". Another conjecture holds, that the original name is Dewsborough, or God's Town" (1837).</ref>

===Early history===
In [[Anglo-Saxon]] times, Dewsbury was a centre of considerable importance. The [[ecclesiastical parish]] of Dewsbury encompassed [[Huddersfield]], [[Mirfield]] and [[Bradford]]. Ancient legend records that in 627 [[Paulinus of York|Paulinus]], the [[Bishop of York]], preached here on the banks of the River Calder. Numerous Anglian graves have been found in Dewsbury and [[Thornhill, West Yorkshire|Thornhill]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Pete |last=Piwowarski |url=http://www.huddersfield1.co.uk/huddersfield/tolson/angles_danes/anglian_abbeys.htm |title=Huddersfield One – Tolson Museum Booklets – Angles, Danes and Norse in the District of Huddersfield |publisher=Huddersfield1.co.uk |access-date=22 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622070019/http://www.huddersfield1.co.uk/huddersfield/tolson/angles_danes/anglian_abbeys.htm |archive-date=22 June 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Dewsbury Minster.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Dewsbury Minster]]]]
[[Dewsbury Minster]] lies near the [[River Calder, West Yorkshire|River Calder]], traditionally on the site where [[Paulinus of York|Paulinus]] preached. Some of the visible stonework in the nave is Saxon, and parts of the church also date to the 13th century. The tower houses "Black Tom", a bell which is rung each Christmas Eve, one toll for each year since Christ's birth, known as the "Devil's Knell", a tradition dating from the 15th century. The bell was given by Sir Thomas de Soothill, in penance for murdering a servant boy in a fit of rage. The tradition was commemorated on a [[Royal Mail]] postage stamp in 1986.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bdb.co.za/shackle/articles/bells.htm|title=Eric Shackle's eBook – Bells|access-date=10 September 2016}}</ref>

In the Domesday Book of 1086, Dewsbury was in Morley [[wapentake]], but with a recorded population of only nine households it was a relatively small settlement at that time.<ref>[https://opendomesday.org/place/SE2421/dewsbury/ Open Domesday: Dewsbury]. Accessed February 2021.</ref> The Agbrigg and Morley wapentakes were administratively combined into the [[Agbrigg and Morley]] wapentake in the 13th century. When they were separated for administrative purposes in the mid-19th century, Dewsbury parish had grown to straddle the border between both wapentakes, hence being mainly in the Lower Division of the Wapentake of Agbrigg.<ref>[https://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/YKS/WRY/Dewsbury/Dewsbury37 DEWSBURY: Geographical and Historical information from the year 1837.] GENUKI.org website, accessed February 2021.</ref>

Dewsbury market was established in the 14th century for local clothiers. Occurrences of the [[Bubonic plague|plague]] in 1593 and 1603 closed the market and it reopened in 1741.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dewsbury Kirklees Cousins |url=https://kirkleescousins.co.uk/places/dewsbury/|accessdate=3 May 2022}}</ref>

Throughout the [[Middle Ages]], Dewsbury retained a measure of importance in ecclesiastical terms, collecting tithes from as far away as [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]] in the mid-14th century. [[John Wesley]] visited the area five times in the mid-18th century, and the first [[Methodist]] Society was established in 1746. Centenary Chapel on Daisy Hill commemorates the centenary of this event, and the Methodist tradition remained strong in the town.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nowthen.org/articles/singlearticle.php?targetid=755&rcode=75&bcode=26 |title=Nowthen Dewsbury: Central Methodist Church |access-date=30 December 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930001438/http://www.nowthen.org/articles/singlearticle.php?targetid=755&rcode=75&bcode=26 |archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref>

===Industrial Revolution===
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2016}}
[[File:Dewsbury County Court.jpg|thumb|The Dewsbury County Court]]
In 1770, a short branch of the [[Calder and Hebble Navigation]] was completed, linking Dewsbury to the [[canal]] system giving access to [[Manchester]] and [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://canalrivertrust.org.uk/enjoy-the-waterways/canal-and-river-network/calder-and-hebble-navigation|title=Calder & Hebble Navigation |publisher= Canal & River Trust|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref> By the time of the [[Industrial Revolution]], Dewsbury was a centre for the [[shoddy]] and [[Mungo (fibre)|mungo]] industries which recycled woollen items by mixing them with new [[wool]] and making heavy blankets and uniforms. The town benefited economically from the canal, its location at the heart of the [[Heavy Woollen District]], and its proximity to [[coal mines]]. The railway arrived in 1848 when [[Dewsbury railway station|Dewsbury Wellington Road]] railway station on the [[London and North Western Railway]] opened. This is the only station which remains open.

Other stations were Dewsbury Central on the [[Great Northern Railway (Great Britain)|Great Northern Railway]] which closed in 1964 and Dewsbury Market Place on the [[Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway]] which closed in 1930. A fourth goods-only railway station was built in the early 20th century at Savile Town by the [[Midland Railway]]. In 1985 a bypass road was built on the site of Central Station and its adjacent viaduct, and nothing remains of Market Place railway station. The 19th century saw a great increase in population, rising from 4,566 in 1801 to around 30,000 by 1890.

[[File:Steam engine, Providence Mills - geograph.org.uk - 688602.jpg|thumb|250px|Steam engine, Providence Mills, Dewsbury]]
[[File:Shoddy and Mungo Mill, Dewsbury, Yorks.jpg|thumb|Machell's Shoddy and Mungo Mill in Dewsbury town centre]]
The town's rapid expansion and commitment to industrialisation resulted in social instability. In the early 19th century, Dewsbury was a centre of [[Luddite]] opposition to mechanisation in which workers retaliated against the mill owners who installed textile machinery and smashed the machines which threatened their way of life. In the 1830s, Dewsbury was a centre of [[Chartism|Chartist]] agitation. In August 1838, after a speech by Chartist leader [[Feargus O'Connor]], a mob of between five and seven thousand people besieged the Dewsbury [[Poor Law]] Guardians in the town's Royal Hotel. The mob was dispersed by troops.

Trouble flared in 1840 when radical agitators seized control of the town, and troops were stationed to maintain order. This radical tradition left a legacy in the town's political life: its first elected [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP) in 1867 was [[John Simon (MP for Dewsbury)|John Simon]], a [[Jew]]ish lawyer from [[Jamaica]] and a [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]]. The tradition of firing the "Ten o'Clock" gun dates from 1815 and was a hangover from the Luddite problems. It was fired from Wormald and Walker's Mill to reassure that all was well, and could be heard all over the area. Eventually the actual gun was replaced with a specially made firework, but the tradition was discontinued in 1983 with the closure of the mill.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.batleynews.co.uk/news/nostalgia-days-when-the-dewsbury-ten-o-clock-gun-was-fired-every-night-1-9018110|title=Nostalgia: Days when the Dewsbury ten o'clock gun was fired every night|work=Batley News|access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref>

The mills were family businesses and continued manufacturing after the wool crisis in 1950–51, which saw Australian [[sheep farmers]] begin to charge higher prices. The recovery of the late 1960s was reversed by the [[1973 oil crisis]], and the textile industry in Dewsbury declined, with only bed manufacturing remaining a large scale employer.

===Recent history===
Significant immigration from the 1960s onwards left a huge demographic impact on the town, which continues today. Asian British and Muslims now make up roughly 45 percent of the population, and the percentage is expected to grow in the coming years.

After 2005, following negative press reports, Dewsbury was labelled a troubled town<ref>{{cite news |last=Wainwright |first=Martin |title=The name's Dewsbury |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/may/29/communities.pressandpublishing |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=29 May 2008 |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref> and became "the town that dare not speak its name"<ref>{{cite news |last=Norfolk |first=Andrew |title=Dewsbury: Kidnap, lynching and a suicide |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article4016574.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012204834/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article4016574.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 October 2008 |work=The Times |location=London |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref> after high-profile crimes brought it into the media spotlight. In June 2005, a girl of 12 was charged with [[grievous bodily harm]] after attempting to hang a five-year-old boy from [[Chickenley]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Hanging case girl spared custody |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/bradford/4305188.stm |website=[[BBC News]] |date=3 October 2005 |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref> [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]], ringleader of the group responsible for the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], lived in Lees Holm, Dewsbury.

On 19 February 2008, [[Shannon Matthews]], a nine-year-old girl from the Moorside Estate, was reported missing. After a 24-day hunt which attracted huge media and public attention nationally, she was found hidden in a flat in the [[Batley Carr]] area on 14 March 2008. Her mother Karen Matthews, along with Michael Donovan, the uncle of her stepfather Craig Meehan, were later found guilty of abduction and false imprisonment, as part of a plot to claim the reward money for her safe return by pretending to have solved her disappearance; both were jailed for eight years.

In October 2010, the Dewsbury Revival Centre opened, in the refurbished former St Mark's Church on Halifax Road, the church attended by [[Wallace Hartley]], bandmaster of the ''[[Titanic]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dewsburygospelchurch.org.uk/drc.html|title=The Building|publisher=Dewsbury Revival Centre|access-date=10 September 2016|archive-date=23 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123040819/http://www.dewsburygospelchurch.org.uk/drc.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In July 2014, Kirklees Council enforced a media ban covering the visit of [[Princess Anne]], who was due to deliver a speech on the importance of restorative justice. Kirklees Council later responded that the highly unusual media ban had been insisted upon by the Royal Household. [[Buckingham Palace]], however, was mystified over the ban, with a Royal spokesman stating: "This visit has been openly listed in the future engagements section on the Royal website for the last eight weeks. There are no restrictions on reporting on the event from the Royal Household."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.examinerlive.co.uk/news/west-yorkshire-news/princess-royal-dewsbury---media-7374552|title=Princess Royal in Dewsbury – but media banned from reporting visit until she left|first=Martin|last=Shaw|date=5 July 2014|work=Huddersfield Daily Examiner|access-date=10 September 2016}}</ref>

==Governance==
Dewsbury was incorporated as a [[municipal borough]] in 1862.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp;jsessionid=D4692AD76A185BBEC973EA1EF7130B8A?u_id=10108792&c_id=10001043|title=Dewsbury MB/CB through time – Census tables with data for the Local Government District|access-date=10 September 2016}}</ref> Its first mayor was Dr George Fearnley. The [[Reform Act]] of 1868 constituted Dewsbury a [[parliamentary borough]], and Liberal candidate [[John Simon (MP for Dewsbury)|John Simon]], serjeant-at-law, was returned as the borough's first MP. The [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] [[Dewsbury Town Hall|town hall]] standing in front of the old marketplace dates from 1886 to 1889. {{Citation needed|date=June 2016}} Dewsbury's boundaries were expanded to include the [[Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)|urban district]]s of Ravensthorpe, Thornhill, and Soothill Nether, and part of Soothill Upper, in 1910, and in 1913 it was elevated to [[county borough]] status. "Soothill Nether" refers to the current east end of the town, although at that time Chickenley and Chidswell were hamlets, and Earlsheaton contained the bulk of the area's population. {{Citation needed|date=August 2016}}

In 1974, responsibility for local government passed to [[Kirklees|Kirklees Metropolitan Council]], its headquarters being in [[Huddersfield]]. The population of Dewsbury has remained broadly static over the past century: the 1911 census recorded 53,351 people,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit_page.jsp?u_id=10108792&c_id=10001043|title=Dewsbury MB/CB through time – Census tables with data for the Local Government District|access-date=10 September 2016}}</ref> and the 1971 census 51,326 people, making it the fourth-least populous county borough in England (after [[Canterbury]], [[Burton upon Trent]] and [[Great Yarmouth]]).

The current [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP) for [[Dewsbury and Batley]] is [[Iqbal Mohamed]], who has represented the constituency since the [[2024 United Kingdom general election|2024 general election]]. Mohamed was one of four independent candidates who won seats in heavily Muslim areas largely due to Labour's stance on the [[Gaza war]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kiran |first1=Stacey |title=Senior Labour figures admit stance on Gaza cost party seats |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/jul/05/labour-loses-three-seats-to-pro-palestinian-candidates |access-date=18 July 2024 |work=The Guardian |date=5 July 2024}}</ref>

==Geography==
Dewsbury is situated between [[Leeds]] and [[Bradford]] {{convert|8|mi|km|0}} to the north, [[Huddersfield]] a similar distance to the south west, and Wakefield {{convert|6|mi|km|0|abbr=on}} east. Its proximity to these major urban centres, the [[M1 motorway|M1]] and [[M62 motorway|M62]] motorways and its position on the [[Huddersfield Line]], served by the [[TransPennine Express]], have contributed to its growth.
[[File:Junction of Northgate and Halifax Road, Dewsbury - geograph.org.uk - 230734.jpg|thumb|Junction of Northgate and Halifax Road]]
Dewsbury is part of the [[West Yorkshire Urban Area]], although its natural boundaries are not well-defined, with built up areas of the town running into [[Batley]], [[Heckmondwike]] and [[Ossett]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

Geologically, the town is situated on rocks of the [[Carboniferous Period]], consisting of [[coal measure]]s and [[gritstone]]s. [[Quaternary Period]] rock, [[glacial deposits]] and [[gravel]]s exist in the [[Calder Valley]]. Coal, sandstone and gravel have been exploited commercially. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Average rainfall]] is 100 cm per annum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.destination-dewsbury.co.uk/geog.htm|title=Destination Dewsbury : Geographical Data|date=20 February 2004|access-date=10 September 2016|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040220103939/http://www.destination-dewsbury.co.uk/geog.htm|archive-date=20 February 2004}}</ref>
The town is dominated by hills, notably Earlsheaton, Dewsbury Moor, Staincliffe and Thornhill. The town centre is between {{convert|130|and|180|ft|m|abbr=off}} above sea level, rising to {{convert|360|ft|m|abbr=on}} at Earlsheaton and Batley Carr, and {{convert|755|ft|m|abbr=on}} at Grange Moor. The approach from Earlsheaton through the Wakefield Road cutting, constructed in 1830 {{citation needed|date=April 2016}}, is dramatic with the view of the town centre in the Calder Valley opening up.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

===Divisions and suburbs===
Dewsbury has a number of districts with different geographical and socio-economic patterns, they are, Chickenley, Crackenedge, [[Dewsbury Moor]], Earlsheaton, Eastborough, Eightlands, Flatts, [[Ravensthorpe, Dewsbury|Ravensthorpe]], [[Savile Town]], Shaw Cross, Scout Hill, [[Thornhill Lees]], Westborough, Westtown. [[Batley Carr]], [[Hanging Heaton]] and [[Staincliffe]] have areas which lie in both Dewsbury and neighbouring Batley. [[Thornhill, West Yorkshire|Thornhill]], [[Briestfield]] and [[Whitley Lower]] are part of Dewsbury [[unparished area]]. Thornhill was annexed in 1910.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

{{NSEW|[[Batley]]|[[Flockton]]|[[Ossett]]||[[Heckmondwike]]||[[Mirfield]]||}}

==Demography and economy==
[[File:Dewsbury market.jpg|thumb|right|Dewsbury Market]]

The Westtown area has the large and imposing Our Lady and St. Paulinus [[Roman Catholic]] Church and its school, once run by the nuns of the area. The Irish National Club also is home to [[Dewsbury Celtic]] amateur [[rugby league]] club.{{cn|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Markazi Masjid - junction of Pentland Street & South Street (geograph 3932877).jpg|thumb|Markazi Masjid, Savile Town]]
The town has a large Muslim community. [[Savile Town]] and [[Ravensthorpe, Dewsbury|Ravensthorpe]] are populated mainly by [[Muslims]] of [[British Indian|Indian]] and [[British Pakistani|Pakistani]] origin. In recent years, there has also been an immigration of Iraqi [[British Kurds|Kurds]] and [[Hungarians in the United Kingdom|Hungarians]] into the town.<ref>Hungarians referred to in these articles http://www.thepressnewspaper.co.uk/NewsDetails.asp?id=1169 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304022025/http://www.thepressnewspaper.co.uk/NewsDetails.asp?id=1169 |date=4 March 2009 }} https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/bradford/7261208.stm Kurds referred to in this article http://www.dewsburyreporter.co.uk/news?articleid=2737475</ref> Dewsbury has been accused of having a controversial Shariah arbitration court.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dewsburyreporter.co.uk/news/Muslims-accused-of-running-Islamic.2852441.jp |title=Muslims accused of running Islamic court – More Local News |work=Dewsbury Reporter |date= 1 May 2007|access-date=22 April 2013}}</ref> [[Dewsbury Moor]], Ravensthorpe and Chickenley are classed among the 10% most deprived areas in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kirklees.gov.uk/community/statistics/ward-profiles/wards2004/DewsburyEast.pdf#top |title=Archived copy |access-date=11 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414024653/http://www.kirklees.gov.uk/community/statistics/ward-profiles/wards2004/DewsburyEast.pdf#top |archive-date=14 April 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In contrast to some British towns and cities, the east side of the town is generally more affluent. The majority of houses in the town are in the cheapest band for council tax, for house prices are amongst the lowest in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirklees.gov.uk/community/statistics/census-by-town/DewsbyCB.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=20 February 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220071711/http://www.kirklees.gov.uk/community/statistics/census-by-town/DewsbyCB.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2006 }}</ref>
[[File:Kingsway, Dewsbury (Taken by Flickr user 15th February 2015).jpg|thumb|175px|left|Kingsway Shopping Arcade]]
The local market once consisted of 400 stalls and was one of the busiest {{citation needed|date=April 2016}} in Yorkshire and in years gone by drew large numbers of visitors to the town. Wednesdays and Saturdays are the normal market days with the popular [[flea market]] on Fridays. The town's mills were located just south of the [[River Calder, West Yorkshire|River Calder]] in the town centre. As the mills closed this area became a large [[brownfield site]]. However, many of the units have been reoccupied and the town's largest employer, [[Carlton Cards]], is based in this area.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

=== Ethnic groups ===
As of 2021, Dewsbury's population was enumerated at 63,722, and its ethnic makeup was 50.8% [[White people in the United Kingdom|White]], 44.4% [[British Asians|Asian]], 2.3% [[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Mixed]], 0.8% [[Black British people|Black]], and 1.4% Other.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dewsbury (West Yorkshire, Yorkshire and the Humber, United Kingdom) - Population Statistics, Charts, Map, Location, Weather and Web Information |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/yorkshireandthehumber/west_yorkshire/E63000970__dewsbury/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=www.citypopulation.de}}</ref>

=== Religions ===
As of the 2021 census, Dewsbury's religious makeup was 46.4% [[Islam in the United Kingdom|Muslim]], 28.9% [[Christianity in the United Kingdom|Christian]], 23.7% [[Not religious|no religion]], and the town has small [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|Hindu]] and [[Sikhism in the United Kingdom|Sikh]] communities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dewsbury (West Yorkshire, Yorkshire and the Humber, United Kingdom) - Population Statistics, Charts, Map, Location, Weather and Web Information |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/yorkshireandthehumber/west_yorkshire/E63000970__dewsbury/ |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=www.citypopulation.de}}</ref>

==Transport==
[[File:Dewsbury Bus Station - geograph.org.uk - 411829.jpg|thumb|Dewsbury bus station]]

Dewsbury bus station is managed by [[West Yorkshire Metro]]; it was rebuilt in 1994 with a main passenger concourse and 19 bus stands. Services are operated primarily by [[Arriva Yorkshire]]. Routes connect the town with Bradford, Huddersfield, Leeds, Morley and Wakefield.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dewsbury coach and bus services |website=Bustimes.org |access-date=29 October 2025 |url=https://bustimes.org/localities/dewsbury}}</ref>

[[Dewsbury railway station]] is a stop on the [[Huddersfield line]]. It is served by two [[train operating companies]]:
* [[Northern Trains]] operates services to {{rws|Bradford Interchange}}, {{rws|Halifax|West Yorkshire}}, {{rws|Leeds}}, {{rws|Manchester Victoria}} and {{rws|Wigan Wallgate}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.northernrailway.co.uk/travel/timetables |title=Train Timetables |website=Northernrailway.co.uk |date=18 May 2025 |access-date=29 October 2025}}</ref>
* [[TransPennine Express]] provides direct services to {{rws|Huddersfield}}, Leeds, Manchester Victoria, {{rws|Manchester Piccadilly}}, {{rws|Manchester Airport}}, {{rws|Redcar Central}}, {{rws|Scarborough}} and {{rws|York}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tpexpress.co.uk/travel-updates/timetables |title=Timetables |website=Tpexpress.co.uk |date=18 May 2025 |access-date=29 October 2025}}</ref>

==Sport==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Tetley stadium.jpg|thumb|right|[[Crown Flatt|Crown Flatt stadium]], also known as ''Tetley's Stadium'' for sponsorship purposes]]

[[Dewsbury Rams]], formerly Dewsbury R.L.F.C., plays in [[rugby league]]'s [[Betfred League One]]; it is based at [[Crown Flatt]]. Shaw Cross Sharks is an amateur Rugby League club, founded in 1947; it has produced several players into the professional game, including [[Mike Stephenson]], [[Nigel Stephenson]] and [[David Ward (rugby league)|David Ward]]. It operates from Shaw Cross Club for Young People and play their home fixtures at the adjacent Paul Lee Hinchcliffe Memorial Playing Fields.

The open age first team is the National Conference League. [[Dewsbury Celtic]] play in [[North Premier|National League 3]]; their ground is on the west side of the town, in Crow Nest Park. The club's headquarters are at the Dewsbury Irish National Club on Park Parade. Dewsbury is also the home of Dewsbury Rangers Football Club. With over 300 members from the ages of six through to the old boys' teams, it is one of the largest in the area.

==Culture==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Dewsbury Museum 2004 3.jpg|thumb|right|Dewsbury Museum, in Crow Nest Park]]
Dewsbury Museum was located within the mansion house in [[Crow Nest Park]], before it closed to the public in November 2016. Nearby attractions include the [[National Coal Mining Museum for England]], located in [[Overton, Wakefield]].

Dewsbury Town Hall contains a 700-seater concert hall and regularly hosts concerts, exhibitions, live music, cabaret evenings and weddings.

The town also has an annual event called Spirit, a street theatre show every winter which takes place in the town centre.

The comedy film ''[[Destination: Dewsbury]]'' was filmed and partly set in the town. The production was shot in 2016 and premiered at the 2018 [[Beverly Hills Film Festival]].

==Local media==
Local news and television programmes are provided by [[BBC Yorkshire]] and [[ITV Yorkshire]]. Television signals are received from the [[Emley Moor]] TV transmitter.<ref> {{cite web|url=https://ukfree.tv/transmitters/tv/Emley_Moor|title=Emley Moor (Kirklees, England) Full Freeview transmitter|date=1 May 2004|website=UK Free TV|accessdate=22 September 2023}}</ref>

Dewsbury's local radio stations are [[BBC Radio Leeds]] on 92.4 FM, [[Heart Yorkshire]] on 106.2 FM, [[Capital Yorkshire]] on 105.6 FM, [[Greatest Hits Radio Yorkshire]] on 96.3 FM, [[Hits Radio West Yorkshire]] on 102.5 FM, and [[Branch FM|Branch Radio]], a community based radio station that broadcast from the town on 101.8 FM.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.branchfm.com/|title=Christian Radio Station - Dewsbury West Yorkshire UK - Branch FM|website=www.branchfm.com|accessdate=22 September 2023}}</ref>

The ''[[Dewsbury Reporter]]'' is the town's local weekly newspaper.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishpapers.co.uk/england-yorks/dewsbury-reporter/|title=Dewsbury Reporter | British Newspapers Online|first=The Theme|last=Foundry|date=17 May 2014|accessdate=22 September 2023}}</ref>

==Education==
[[File:Dewsbury Baptist Church - Manor Street - geograph.org.uk - 691185.jpg|thumb|Dewsbury Baptist Church]]
[[File:Dewsbury and District Technical School of Art and Science - Halifax Road - geograph.org.uk - 707276.jpg|thumb|Dewsbury and District Technical School of Art and Science]]

Dewsbury had two [[grammar school]]s: [[Kirklees College|Wheelwright Grammar School for Boys]] and [[Wheelwright Grammar School for Girls]] further up the hill. The 1970s education reforms converted these two establishments to high schools and they were renamed [[Dewsbury College]] and [[Birkdale High School]]. Dewsbury College was merged with [[Huddersfield Technical College]] to become part of [[Kirklees College]] in 2008, and is now known by that name.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://creativekirklees.com/kirklees-college-1/ |title=Creative Kirklees / Directory / Kirklees College / Huddersfield and Dewsbury|last=Ltd|first=Website designed by Assembly Studios and developed by Assembly Studios and Hexydec|website=Creativekirklees.com|access-date=8 March 2016}}</ref>

Birkdale High School closed in July 2011. In the 2005 School League Tables, Dewsbury's Eastborough Junior, Infants and Nursery schools were reported to have the most consistently improved results over the past four years. However, the headteacher of the school, Nicola Roth, has been highly critical of School League Tables in the UK, and has been reported to have said, "It would be better if league tables did not exist".<ref>{{cite news |title=The best and worst results |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4489858.stm |website=BBC News |date=19 December 2005 |access-date=27 March 2010}}</ref>

[[Batley]] College of [[Art and Design]], which is part of Kirklees College (Dewsbury Centre), has a strong reputation {{citation needed|date=November 2016}} for print and textile-based art work, whilst [[St John Fisher Catholic Voluntary Academy]] is a specialist Sports College and is one of the few schools in the area with a Sixth Form.

==Notable people==
:''Due to the placement of Dewsbury and District Hospital, many notable people have been born in the town. For a fuller list, see [[:Category:People from Dewsbury]]''
The following people are or were from Dewsbury:


*Sir [[Thomas Clifford Allbutt]] (1836–1925), physician; inventor of the [[medical thermometer]].
*[[Betty Boothroyd, Baroness Boothroyd]] (1929–2023), politician; first female [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker of the House of Commons]] between 1992 and 2000.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tominey |first=Camilla |title=Betty Boothroyd, first female Speaker, dies aged 93 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2023/02/27/betty-boothroyd-dies-93-speaker-house-commons/ |accessdate=27 February 2023 |work=The Telegraph |date=27 February 2023}}</ref>
*[[Roger Burnley]] (born 1966), businessman, CEO of Asda<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/born-and-bred-yorkshireman-gets-top-job-at-asda-1-8831804|title="Born and bred Yorkshireman" gets top job at Asda |work=The Yorkshire Post|date=30 October 2017 |access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref>
*[[Tim Fountain]] (born 1967), playwright and author.
*[[Joel Graham]] (born 1977), bassist for [[thrash metal]] band [[Evile]].
*[[Brendon Grimshaw]], (1925–2012), managing editor, the Standard, Dar es salaam, Tanzania.
*[[Robert Hardy (bassist)|Bob Hardy]] (born 1980), bassist for popular Scottish [[post-punk revival]] band, [[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]].
*[[Philip Hinchcliffe]] (born 1944), retired television producer, screenwriter and script editor.
*[[Tom Kilburn]] (1921–2001), computer engineer; co-inventor of the first [[stored-program computer]].
*[[Betty Lockwood, Baroness Lockwood]] (1924–2019), politician and activist for women's rights.
*[[Andrew Morton (writer)|Andrew Morton]] (born 1953), writer, journalist and biographer of [[British Royal Family|royalty]] and celebrities.
*[[Hafiz Patel]] (1926–2016), Muslim religious leader who founded the [[Markazi Masjid]]
*[[Kazia Pelka]] (born 1960), actress famous for roles in soap-operas.
*[[Valentine Pelka]] (born 1956) is an English actor who has starred in film and on television
*Sir [[Owen Willans Richardson]] (1879–1959), [[physicist]], won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1928 for his work of [[thermionic emission]].
*[[Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi]] of Dewsbury (born 1971), Conservative politician.


===Sportspeople ===
*[[Caitlin Beevers]] (born 2001), [[rugby league]] footballer for [[Leeds Rhinos Women]].
*[[Leigh Bromby]] (born 1980), [[Association football|footballer]] for [[Leeds United]].
*[[Alistair Brownlee]] (born 1988), [[triathlete]], having won the gold medals at the 2012 London Olympics, the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics and the 2014 Commonwealth Games.
*[[George Burgess (rugby league)|George Burgess]] (born 1992), professional [[rugby league]] player for [[South Sydney Rabbitohs]] of the [[National Rugby League]] and for [[England national rugby league team|England]]
*[[Luke Burgess (rugby league)|Luke Burgess]] (born 1987), former professional rugby league footballer
*[[Sam Burgess]] (born 1988), professional [[rugby union|rugby league]] player for [[South Sydney Rabbitohs]] of the [[Aviva Premiership|National Rugby League]] and for [[England national rugby union team|England]], he is a [[dual-code rugby international]].
*[[Tom Burgess (rugby league)|Tom Burgess]] (born 1992), professional [[rugby league]] player for [[South Sydney Rabbitohs]] of the [[National Rugby League]] and for [[England national rugby league team|England]]
*[[Francis Cummins]] (born 1976), professional [[rugby league]] coach and former player. He played for [[Leeds Rhinos]] and represented [[Great Britain national rugby league team|Great Britain]], [[England national rugby league team|England]] and [[Ireland national rugby league team|Ireland]] at international level.
*[[Matt Diskin]] (born 1982), rugby league footballer for [[Bradford Bulls|Bradford]]; his career began at the amateur [[Dewsbury Moor]] ARLFC.
*[[Andrew Gale]] (born 1983), [[cricketer]] and captain for [[Yorkshire County Cricket Club|Yorkshire]].
*[[Keith Mason (rugby league)|Keith Mason]] (born 1982), actor and former rugby league footballer. He represented [[England national rugby league team|England]] (Under-21) and [[Wales national rugby league team|Wales]] at international level.
*[[John Pitt (cricketer)|John Pitt]] (born 1939), first-class cricketer
*[[Mike Stephenson|Mike "Stevo" Stephenson]] (born 1947), [[Sky Sports]] commentator and former rugby league footballer.
*[[Tymal Mills]] (born 1992), [[cricketer]] for [[Sussex County Cricket Club|Sussex]].
*[[Gary Sykes]] (born 1984), former [[super featherweight]] boxing champion.
*[[Richard Tracey (footballer)|Richard Tracey]] (born 1979), footballer.
*[[Eddie Waring]] (1910–1986), [[rugby league]] coach, commentator and television presenter.
* [[Tommy Weston (jockey)|Tommy Weston]] (1902–1981), jockey who rode eleven English Classic winners and was Champion Jockey in 1926.

==In popular culture==
Dewsbury is referenced in [[the Beatles]]' 1967 film ''[[Magical Mystery Tour (film)|Magical Mystery Tour]]''. A line of dialogue in the film has one of the magicians (all portrayed by the Beatles themselves) – who are keeping an eye on the whereabouts of the bus that is taking its passengers on the journey of the film's title – exclaim: "The bus is {{convert|10|mi|km|0|disp=sqbr}} north on the Dewsbury road and they're having a lovely time!"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beatles.rain-shine.net/mmt.htm|title=Über unsere Welt|access-date=10 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929141538/http://beatles.rain-shine.net/mmt.htm|archive-date=29 September 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dewsbury is also referenced in the 1991 single "[[It's Grim Up North]]" by the [[Justified Ancients of Mu Mu]] (also known as [[the KLF]]).

The 1960 book ''[[A Kind of Loving (novel)|A Kind of Loving]]'' is set in a fictional city named "Cressley", but its description was based upon Dewsbury. The author, [[Stan Barstow]], was born in [[Horbury]] and grew up in Ossett – both of which are just to the east of Dewsbury.

More recently, the phrase "Dewsbury noir" has been used to describe the violent novels of [[David Peace]], who was born in Dewsbury but lives in neighbouring Ossett.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/feb/22/fiction-david-peace-the-damned-utd|title=Tim Adams interviews David Peace, author of The Damned Utd|date=22 February 2009|website=The Guardian}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Listed buildings in Dewsbury]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle= Dewsbury |volume= VII |page=146 |short=1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060220071711/http://www.kirklees.gov.uk/community/statistics/census-by-town/DewsbyCB.pdf Area profile and statistics]

{{West Yorkshire}}
{{Portal bar |United Kingdom |Yorkshire}}
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[[Category:Dewsbury| ]]
[[Category:Towns in West Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Market towns in West Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Unparished areas in West Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Heavy Woollen District]]
[[Category:Geography of Kirklees]]
[[Category:Former civil parishes in West Yorkshire]]

Julian of Norwich

2025-11-01T21:46:57Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: /* St Julian's Church */Added detail

{{Short description|English anchoress and mystic (1343 – after 1416)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2021}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox theologian
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Julian of Norwich
| image = Statue of Dame Julian crop.jpg
| alt = Statue of Julian of Norwich
| caption = David Holgate's statue of Julian, outside [[Norwich Cathedral]], completed in 2000<ref name="racns">{{cite web |title=St Benedict and Mother Julian |url=http://www.racns.co.uk/sculptures.asp?action=getsurvey&id=13 |website=Recording Archive for Public Sculpture in Norfolk & Suffolk |access-date=23 November 2021 |date=2006 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123121003/http://www.racns.co.uk/sculptures.asp?action=getsurvey&id=13 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{c.|1343}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = after 1416
| death_place = [[Norwich]], England
| occupation = {{cslist|Theologian|[[anchoress]]|[[Mysticism|mystic]]}}
| period =
| notable_works = ''[[Revelations of Divine Love]]''
| language = [[Middle English]]
}}
{{Christian mysticism}}

'''Julian of Norwich''' ({{c.|1343}}{{refn|1=Sources do not all agree on the year that Julian of Norwich was born; Windeatt gives late 1342; Ramirez states she was born "around 1343".{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xiv}}{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=5}}|group=note}} – after 1416), also known as '''Juliana of Norwich''', '''the Lady Julian''', '''Dame Julian'''<ref>{{cite web |title="All shall be well, and all shall be well, and all manner of thing shall be well" The Optimism of Mother Julian of Norwich |url=https://www.centreforoptimism.com/all-shall-be-well-and-all-shall-be-well-and-all-manner-of-thing-shall-be-well |publisher=The Centre for Optimism |access-date=6 October 2023 |date=2022 |quote=This is why, in her lifetime, Julian was called “Dame Julian”, as is engraved on the funeral monument that contains her remains. She had become a mother to many.}}</ref> or '''Mother Julian''', was an English [[anchorite|anchoress]] of the [[Middle Ages]]. Her writings, now known as ''[[Revelations of Divine Love]]'', are the earliest surviving English-language works attributed to a woman. They are also the only surviving English-language works by an anchoress.

Julian lived in the English city of [[Norwich#Middle Ages|Norwich]] in [[Norfolk]], an important centre for commerce that also had a vibrant religious life. During her lifetime, the city suffered the devastating effects of the [[Black Death]] of 1348{{ndash}}1350, the [[Peasants' Revolt]] (which affected large parts of England in 1381), and the suppression of the [[Lollardy|Lollards]]. In 1373, aged 30 and so seriously ill she thought she was on her deathbed, Julian received a series of [[vision (spirituality)|vision]]s or [[wikt:shewing|shewing]]s of the [[Passion of Christ]]. She recovered from her illness and wrote two versions of her experiences, the earlier one being completed soon after her recovery—a much longer version, today known as the ''Long Text'', was written many years later.

Julian lived in permanent [[seclusion]] as an anchoress in her [[Monastic cell|cell]], which was attached to [[St Julian's Church, Norwich]]. Four [[Will and testament|wills]] are known in which sums were bequeathed to a Norwich anchoress named Julian, and an account by the celebrated mystic [[Margery Kempe]] exists which provides evidence of counsel Kempe was given by the anchoress.

Details of Julian's family, education, or of her life before becoming an anchoress are not known; it is unclear whether her actual name was Julian. Preferring to write anonymously, and seeking isolation from the world, she was nevertheless influential in her lifetime. While her writings were carefully preserved, the [[Reformation]] prevented their publication in print. The ''Long Text'' was first published in 1670 by the [[Benedictines|Benedictine]] monk [[Serenus de Cressy]], reissued by George Hargreaves Parker in 1843, and published in a modernised version in 1864. Julian's writings emerged from obscurity in 1901 when a manuscript in the [[British Museum]] was transcribed and published with notes by [[Grace Warrack]]; many translations have been made since. Julian is today considered to be an important Christian mystic and theologian.

== Background ==
[[File:Map of Norwich (c.1300) by Woodward.jpg|thumb | upright=1.5 |alt=map of 14th century Norwich |Map of Norwich ({{circa|1300}}) by [[Samuel Woodward]] (1847); [[St Julian's Church, Norwich|St Julian's Church]], towards the bottom of the map, is labelled with a '7'.]]
The [[Kingdom of England|English]] city of [[Norwich]], where Julian probably lived all her life, was second in importance to [[London during the 13th and 14th centuries]], and the centre of the country's primary region for agriculture and trade.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=17}}{{refn|1=A lack of data about Norwich's population during this period in its history means that it is not known for certain that the city ranked as second in size after London, although Norwich was recorded as having 130 individual trades at the end of the 13th century, in comparison with 175 for London, and more than any other regional centre in England.{{sfn|Rawcliffe|Wilson|2004|p=158}}|group=note}} During her lifetime, the [[Black Death]] reached Norwich; the disease may have killed over half the population of the city, and returned in [[Second plague pandemic|subsequent outbreaks]] up to 1387.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=24}} Julian was alive during the [[Peasants' Revolt]] of 1381, when the city was overwhelmed by rebel forces led by Geoffrey Litster. [[Henry le Despenser]], the [[Bishop of Norwich]], executed Litster after the peasant army was defeated at the [[Battle of North Walsham]].{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|pp=25{{ndash}}26}} Despenser zealously opposed the [[Lollardy|Lollards]], who advocated reform of the Church, and some of them were [[Death by burning#Medieval Inquisition and the burning of heretics|burnt at the stake]] at [[Lollards Pit]], just outside the city.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=17}}

Norwich may have been one of the most religious cities in Europe at that time, with [[Norwich Cathedral|its cathedral]], [[Priory|friaries]], churches and recluses' cells dominating both the landscape and the lives of its citizens. On the eastern side of the city was the cathedral priory (founded in 1096), the Benedictine [[History of hospitals#Medieval European hospitals|Hospital]] of St Paul, the [[Carmelite]] monastery, [[Great Hospital|St Giles's Hospital]], and the [[Order of Friars Minor|Franciscan]] friary, known as Greyfriars. To the south stood a [[Benedictine]] [[priory]] of [[nun]]s known as [[Carrow Abbey]], which was located just beyond the city walls.{{sfn|Rawcliffe|Wilson|2004|p=88}} Its income was mainly generated from "[[Benefice|livings]]" acquired from the renting of its assets, which included the Norwich churches of [[St Julian's Church, Norwich|St Julian]], All Saints Timberhill, St Edward Conisford and St Catherine Newgate, all now lost apart from St Julian's. The churches with [[anchorite]] cells enhanced the reputation of the priory, as they attracted [[Financial endowment|endowments]] from across society.{{sfn|Rawcliffe|Wilson|2004|p=89}}

== Life ==
=== Sources for Julian's life ===
Little of Julian's life is known. The few scant comments she provided about herself are contained in her writings, later published in a book commonly known as ''[[Revelations of Divine Love]]'', a title first used in 1670.{{sfn|Baker|1993|p=148}}{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=lii}} The earliest surviving copy of a manuscript of Julian's, made by a [[scribe]] in the 1470s, acknowledges her as the author of the work.{{sfn|Baker|1993|p=148}}

The earliest known references to Julian come from four [[Will and testament|wills]], in which she is described as being an [[anchoress]].{{sfn|Baker|1993|p=148}} The wills were all made by individuals who lived in [[Norwich]]. Roger Reed, the rector of [[St Michael Coslany, Norwich]], whose will of 20{{nbsp}}March 1394 provides the earliest record of Julian's existence, made a [[bequest]] of 12{{nbsp}}[[Shilling#Kingdom of England|shillings]] to be paid to "Julian anakorite".{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xiv}} Thomas Edmund, a [[Chantry]] priest from [[Aylsham]], stipulated in his will of 19{{nbsp}}May 1404 that 12{{nbsp}}[[Penny#England|pennies]] be given to "Julian, anchoress of the church of St Julian, Conisford" and 8 pennies to "Sarah, living with her".{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xiv}}{{refn|1=It has been assumed by the historian [[Janina Ramirez]] that Sarah was Julian's maid, and her link to the outside world. According to Ramirez, she probably had access to Julian by means of a smaller adjoining room.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=18}}|group=note}} John Plumpton from Norwich gave 40 pennies to "the anchoress in the church of St Julian's, Conisford, and a shilling each to her maid and her former maid Alice" in his will dated 24{{nbsp}}November 1415.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xiv}} The fourth person to mention Julian was Isabelle, Countess of Suffolk (the second wife of [[William de Ufford, 2nd Earl of Suffolk]]), who made a bequest of 20{{nbsp}}shillings to "{{lang|fr|Julian reclus a Norwich}}" in her will dated 26 September 1416.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xiv}} As a bequest to an unnamed anchorite at St Julian's was made in 1429, there is a possibility Julian was alive at this time.{{sfn|Crampton|1994|p=11}}

[[File:The Book of Margery Kempe, Chapter 18 (excerpt).png|thumb|alt=manuscript of page of Kempe's book|Part of the manuscript ({{circa|1440}}) dictated by the mystic [[Margery Kempe]] to a [[scribe]], in which she mentions visiting "dame jelyan" ([[British Library]])]]
Julian was known as a [[Spirituality|spiritual authority]] within her community, where she also served as an adviser.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xiii}} In around 1414, when she was in her seventies, she was visited by the English [[Mysticism|mystic]] [[Margery Kempe]]. ''[[The Book of Margery Kempe]]'', which is possibly the first autobiography to be written in English,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/20/margery-kempe-first-autobiographer-digitised-british-library |title=Margery Kempe, the first English autobiographer, goes online |last=Flood |first=Alison |date=21 March 2014 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=4 February 2019 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015724/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/20/margery-kempe-first-autobiographer-digitised-british-library |url-status=live}}</ref> mentions that Kempe travelled to Norwich to obtain spiritual advice from Julian,{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=viii}} saying she was "bidden by Our Lord" to go to "Dame Jelyan{{nbsp}}[...] for the anchoress was expert in" divine revelations, "and good counsel could give".{{sfn|Butler-Bowden|Chambers|1954|p=54}} Kempe never referred to Julian as an author, although she was familiar with the works of other spiritual writers, and mentioned them.{{sfn|Crampton|1994|p=11}}

=== Visions ===
Julian wrote in ''Revelations of Divine Love'' that she became seriously ill at the age of 30. She could have been an anchoress when she fell ill, although it is possible she was a [[Laity|lay person]] living at home,<ref name="ABC">{{Cite ODNB |id=15163 |title=Julian of Norwich (1342–c.1416) |last=Bhattacharji |first=Santha |date=2014}}</ref> as she was visited by her mother and other people, and the [[enclosed religious orders|rules of enclosure]] for an anchoress would not normally have allowed outsiders such access.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|pp=x, xv}} On 8{{nbsp}}May 1373 a [[curate]] administered the [[last rites]] of the church to her, in anticipation of her death. As he held a [[crucifix]] above the foot of her bed, she began to lose her sight and feel physically numb, but gazing on the crucifix she saw the figure of Jesus begin to bleed. Over the next several hours, she had a series of 15 visions of Jesus, and a 16th the following night.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=ix}}{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=37}}

Julian completely recovered from her illness on 13 May;<ref>{{Britannica | id=307843| title=Julian of Norwich| author=}}</ref> there is general agreement that she wrote about her "[[wikt:Special:Search/shew|shewings]]" shortly after she experienced them.{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=219}} Her original manuscript no longer exists, but a copy, now known as the ''Short Text'', survived.{{sfn|McGinn|2012|p=425}} Decades later, perhaps in the early 1390s, she began a [[theological]] exploration of the meaning of her visions, and produced writings now known as ''The Long Text''. This second work seems to have gone through many revisions before it was finished, perhaps in the 1410s or 1420s.{{sfn|McGinn|2012|p=425}} Julian's [[revelation]]s seem to be the first important example of a vision by an Englishwoman for 200 years, in contrast with the Continent, where "a golden age of women's mysticism"<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nicholas Watson |title=The Composition of Julian of Norwich's ''Revelation of Love'' |journal=Speculum |volume=68 |number=3 |date=July 1993 |pages=637–683 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2864969 |doi=10.2307/2864969|jstor=2864969 |url-access=subscription }} Quoted in {{harvnb|Leyser|2002|p=219}}</ref> occurred during the 13th and 14th centuries.{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=219}}

=== Personal life ===
[[File:Revelations of Divine Love (Add MS 37790) f. 97r.png|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=15th century manuscript of Julian's Short Text |The beginning of the 15th-century ''Short Text''. "Here es a vision schewed be the goodenes of god to a devoute woman and hir name es Julyan that is recluse atte Norwyche and ȝitt ys on lyfe {{lang|la|anno domini millesimo}} ccccxiii". ([[British Library|BL]], Add MS 37790)]]

The few autobiographical details Julian included in the ''Short Text'', including her gender, were suppressed when she wrote her longer text later in life.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xiii}} Historians are not even sure of her actual name. It is generally thought to be taken from the church in Norwich to which her cell was attached, but ''Julian'' was also used in its own right as a girl's name in the Middle Ages, and so could have been her [[Christian name]].{{sfn|Groves|2010|p=74}}

Julian's writings indicate that she was born in 1343 or late 1342, and died after 1416.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xiv}}{{sfn|Beer|1992|p=130}} She was six when the [[Black Death in England|Black Death arrived]] in Norwich.{{sfn|Upjohn|Groves|2018|p=13}} It has been speculated that she was educated as a young girl by the Benedictine [[nun]]s of [[Carrow Abbey]], as a school for girls existed there during her childhood.{{sfn|Beer|1992|p=130}}{{sfn|Watson|Jenkins|2006|p=4}} There is no written evidence that she was ever a nun at Carrow.<ref name=ABC />

According to several commentators, including Santha Bhattacharji in the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Julian's discussion of the maternal nature of God suggests that she knew of motherhood from her own experience of bringing up children.<ref name="ABC" /> As plague epidemics were rampant during the 14th century, it has been suggested that Julian may have lost her own family as a result.{{sfn|Obbard|2008|p=16}} By becoming an anchoress she would have been kept in [[quarantine]] away from the rest of the population of Norwich.{{sfn|Beer|1992|p=130}} However, nothing in Julian's writings provides any indication of the plagues, religious conflict, or civil insurrection that occurred in the city during her lifetime.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=31}} [[Kenneth Leech]] and Sister [[Benedicta Ward]], the joint authors of ''Julian Reconsidered'' (1988), concluded that she was a young widowed mother and never a nun. They based their opinion on a dearth of references about her occupation in life and a lack of evidence to connect her with Carrow Abbey, which would have honoured her and buried her in the grounds had she been strongly connected with the priory.{{sfn|Leech|Ward|1995|p=21}}

=== Life as an anchoress ===
[[File:CCCC MS 79 fol72r 300px.jpg|thumb|alt=illustration of a medieval bishop blessing an anchoress|A bishop blessing an anchoress, from MS 079: Pontifical ({{circa|1400|1410}}), [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]]]]
Julian was an anchoress from at least the 1390s.{{sfn|Baker|1993|p=148}} Living in her cell, she would have played an important part within her community, devoting herself to a life of prayer to complement the [[clergy]] in their primary function as protectors of souls.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=11}} Her solitary life would have begun after the completion of an onerous selection process.{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=206}} An important church ceremony would have taken place at St Julian's Church, in the presence of the [[bishop]].{{sfn|Rolf|2018|p=50}} During the ceremony, [[psalms]] from the [[Office of the Dead]] would have been sung for Julian (as if it were her funeral), and at some point she would have been led to her cell door and into the room beyond.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=13}} The door would afterwards have been sealed up, and she would have remained in her cell for the rest of her life.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|pp=5, 13}}

Once her life of seclusion had begun, Julian would have had to follow the strict rules laid down for anchoresses. Two important sources of information about the life of such women have survived. {{lang|la|De institutione inclusarum}} was written in [[Latin]] by [[Aelred of Rievaulx|Ælred of Rieveaulx]] in around 1162, and the {{lang|enm|[[Ancrene Wisse|Ancrene Riwle]]}} was written in [[Middle English]] in around 1200.{{sfn|Leyser|2002|pp=210, 212}}{{sfn|Fugelso|2020|p=127}}{{refn|1=Apart from {{lang|enm|The Ancrene Riwle}} and {{lang|la|De institutione inclusarum}}, the most important of the 13 surviving texts are [[Richard Rolle]]'s ''Form of Living'' ({{circa|1348}}) and ''The Scale of Perfection'' (written by Walter Hilton in 1386 and later, prior to his death in 1396).{{sfn|Baker|1993|p=148}}|group=note}} Originally made for three sisters, the {{lang|enm|Ancrene Riwle}} became in time a manual for all female recluses.{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=211}} The work regained its former popularity during the mystical movement of the 14th century. It may have been available to Julian to read and become familiar with—being a book written in a language she could read.{{sfn|Baker|1993|p=149}} The book stipulated that anchoresses should live in confined isolation, in [[vow of poverty|poverty]], and under a [[vow of chastity]].{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=11}} The popular image of Julian living with her cat for company stems from the regulations set out in the {{lang|enm|Ancrene Riwle}}.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|pp=11{{ndash}}13}}

As an anchoress living in the heart of an urban environment, Julian would not have been entirely secluded. She would have enjoyed the financial support of the more prosperous members of the local community, as well as the general affection of the population. She would have in turn provided prayers and given advice to visitors, serving as an example of devout holiness.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|pp=xii{{ndash}}xiii}} According to one edition of the ''[[Cambridge Medieval History]]'', it is possible that she met the English mystic [[Walter Hilton]], who died when Julian was in her fifties, and who may have influenced her writings in a small way.{{sfn|Tanner|Previté-Orton|Brooke|1932|p=807}}

== ''Revelations of Divine Love'' ==
{{Main|Revelations of Divine Love}}
[[File:XVI Revelations of Divine Love (title page, 1670 edition).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=frontispiece of 1670 edition of Revelations of Divine Love |First edition of ''[[Revelations of Divine Love|XVI Revelations of Divine Love]]'' (1670)]]
Both the ''Long Text'' and ''Short Text'' of Julian's ''Revelations of Divine Love'' contain an account of each of her revelations.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=lii}} Her writings are unique, as they are the earliest surviving English language works by a woman, although it is possible that some anonymous works may have had female authors. They are also the only surviving writings by an English anchoress.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=ix}}{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=208}} The ''Long Text'' consists of 86 chapters and about 63,500 words, and is about six times longer than the ''Short Text''.{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=219}}{{sfn|Jantzen|2011|pp=4{{ndash}}5}}

In 14th century England, when women were generally barred from high status positions, their knowledge of Latin would have been limited, and it is more likely that they read and wrote in English.{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=211}} The historian [[Janina Ramirez]] has suggested that by choosing to write in her [[vernacular]] language, a precedent set by other medieval writers, Julian was "attempting to express the inexpressible" in the best way possible.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=7}} Nothing written by Julian was ever mentioned in any bequests, nor written for a specific readership, or influenced other medieval authors,{{sfn|Rolf|2013|p=8}} and almost no references were made to her writings from the time they were written until the beginning of the 20th century.{{sfn|Leech|Ward|1995|p=12}}

Julian's writings were largely unknown until 1670, when they were published under the title ''XVI Revelations of Divine Love, shewed to a devout servant of Our Lord, called Mother Juliana, an Anchorete of Norwich: Who lived in the Dayes of King Edward the Third'' by [[Serenus de Cressy]], a [[Confession (religion)|confessor]] for the English nuns at [[Cambrai]].{{sfn|Crampton|1994|p=11}}<ref name="BL1">{{cite archive |author=Julian of Norwich |item=Julian of Norwich, Revelations of Divine Love |item-url=https://searcharchives.bl.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?vid=IAMS_VU2&search_scope=default_scope&docId=IAMS040-001952820&fn=permalink |type=book |item-id=Stowe MS 42 |date={{circa}}1675 |page= |pages= |fonds= |series= |file= |box= |collection=Western Manuscripts |collection-url= |repository= |institution=[[British Library]] |location=London |oclc= |access-date=9 December 2021 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209134503/https://searcharchives.bl.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?vid=IAMS_VU2&search_scope=default_scope&docId=IAMS040-001952820&fn=permalink|}}</ref> Cressy based his book on the ''Long Text'',{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=78}} probably written by Julian in the 1410s or 1420s.{{sfn|McGinn|2012|p=425}} Three manuscript copies of the ''Long Text'' have survived.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|p=xx}} One copy of the complete ''Long Text'', known as the Paris Manuscript, resides in the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] in Paris, and two other manuscripts are now in the [[British Library]] in London.{{sfn|Crampton|1994|pp=20{{ndash}}21}} One of the manuscripts was perhaps copied out by Dame Clementina Cary, who founded the English Benedictine monastery in Paris.{{sfn|Leech|Ward|1995|p=12}} Cressy's edition was reprinted in 1843 and 1864, and again in 1902.{{sfn|Crampton|1994|p=18}}

A new version of the book was produced by Henry Collins in 1877. It became still better known after the publication of [[Grace Harriet Warrack|Grace Warrack]]'s 1901 edition, which included modernised language, as well as, according to the author Georgia Ronan Crampton, a "sympathetic informed introduction". The book introduced most early 20th century readers to Julian's writings;{{sfn|Crampton|1994|p=18}} according to the historian [[Henrietta Leyser]], Julian was "beloved in the 20th century by theologians and poets alike".{{sfn|Leyser|2002|pp=218{{ndash}}219}}

Julian's shorter work, now known as the ''Short Text'', was probably written not long after her visions in May 1373.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|pp=xx{{ndash}}xxi}} As with the ''Long Text'', the original manuscript was lost, but not before at least one copy was made by a scribe.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|pp=74{{ndash}}75}} It was in the possession of an English Catholic family at one point.{{sfn|Leech|Ward|1995|p=12}} The copy was seen and described by the [[antiquarian]] [[Francis Blomefield]] in 1745.{{sfn|Rolf|2013|p=9}}{{sfn|Blomefield|Parkin|1805|p=81}} After disappearing from view for 150 years, it was found in 1910, in a collection of contemplative medieval texts bought by the [[British Museum]],{{sfn|Rolf|2013|p=6}} and was published by the Reverend Dundas Harford in 1911.{{sfn|Rolf|2013|p=9}} Now part of British Library Add MS 37790, the manuscript—with Julian's ''Short Text'' of 33 pages ([[folios]] 97[[Recto and verso|r]] to 115r)—is held in the British Library.{{sfn|Windeatt|2015|pp=li{{ndash}}lii}}<ref name="BL37790">{{cite archive |first= |last= |item=A Carthusian anthology of theological works in English (the 'Amherst Manuscript') |item-url=https://searcharchives.bl.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?vid=IAMS_VU2&search_scope=default_scope&docId=IAMS040-002054226&fn=permalink |type=A parchment codex, 238 folios |item-id=Add MS 37790 |date=Middle of the 15th century |page= |pages= |fonds= |series= |file= |box= |collection=Western Manuscripts |collection-url= |repository= |institution=[[British Library]] |location=London |oclc= |accession= |access-date=12 October 2021}}</ref>

== Theology ==
{{quote box
| width = 40em
| align = right
|salign = right
|author = Julian of Norwich
|source = ''Revelations of Divine Love''{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=220}}
| quote = From the time these things were first revealed I had often wanted to know what was our Lord's meaning. It was more than fifteen years after that I was answered in my spirit's understanding. "You would know our Lord's meaning in this thing? Know it well. Love was His meaning. Who showed it to you? Love. What did He show you? Love. Why did He show it? For love. Hold on to this and you will know and understand love more and more. But you will not know or learn anything else{{snd}}ever."}}

Julian of Norwich is now recognised as one of England's most important mystics;{{sfn|Pelphrey|1989|p=14}} according to Leyser, she was the greatest English anchoress.{{sfn|Leyser|2002|p=218}} For the theologian [[Denys Turner]] the core issue Julian addresses in ''Revelations of Divine Love'' is "the problem of sin". Julian says that sin is [[wikt:behovely|''behovely'']], which is often translated as "necessary", "appropriate", or "fitting".{{sfn|Watson|Jenkins|2006|p=208}}{{sfn|Turner|2011|p=52}}

Julian lived in a time of turmoil, but her theology was optimistic and spoke of God's [[omnibenevolence]] and love in terms of joy and [[compassion]]. ''Revelations of Divine Love'' "contains a message of optimism based on the certainty of being loved by God and of being protected by his Providence".<ref name="Benedict">{{cite speech |author=Pope Benedict XVI |author-link=Pope Benedict XVI |title=Julian of Norwich |date=1 December 2010 |location=Vatican City |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2010/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20101201.html |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164258/http://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2010/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20101201.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

A characteristic element of Julian's mystical theology was her equating divine love with motherly love, a theme found in the Biblical prophets, as in [[Isaiah 49]]:15.<ref name=Benedict /><ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|49:15}}. Oremus Bible Browser. [[New Revised Standard Version]]</ref> According to Julian, God is both our mother and our father. As the [[Medieval studies|medievalist]] [[Caroline Walker Bynum]] shows, this idea was also developed by [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] and others from the 12th{{nbsp}}century onward.{{sfn|Bynum|1984|pp=111{{ndash}}112}} Bynum regards the medieval notion of Jesus as a mother as being a [[metaphor]] rather than a literal belief.{{sfn|Bynum|1984|p=130}} In her fourteenth revelation, Julian writes of the [[Trinity]] in domestic terms, comparing Jesus to a mother who is wise, loving and merciful. Author Frances Beer asserted that Julian believed that the maternal aspect of Christ was literal and not metaphoric: Christ is not like a mother, he is literally the mother.{{sfn|Beer|1992|p=152}} Julian emphasised this by explaining how the bond between mother and child is the only earthly relationship that comes close to the relationship a person can have with Jesus.{{sfn|Beer|1992|p=155}} She used metaphors when writing about Jesus in relation to ideas about conceiving, giving birth, weaning and upbringing.{{sfn|D-Vasilescu|2018|p=13}}

Julian wrote, "For I saw no wrath except on man's side, and He forgives that in us, for wrath is nothing else but a perversity and an opposition to peace and to love."{{sfn|Beer|1998|p=45}} She wrote that God sees us as perfect and waits for the day when human souls mature so that evil and sin will no longer hinder us,{{sfn|Beer|1998|p=50}} and that "God is nearer to us than our own soul". This theme is repeated throughout her work: "Jesus answered with these words, saying: 'All shall be well, and all shall be well, and all manner of thing shall be well.' ... This was said so tenderly, without blame of any kind toward me or anybody else."{{sfn|Skinner|1997|pp=54{{ndash}}55, 124}}

Her status as an anchoress may have prevented contemporary monastic and university authorities from challenging her theology.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|pp=8{{ndash}}9}} A lack of references to her work during her own time may indicate that she kept her writings with her in her cell, so that religious authorities were unaware of them.{{sfn|Ramirez|2016|p=32}} The 14th-century English cardinal [[Adam Easton]]'s ''Defensorium sanctae birgittae'', Alfonso of Jaen's ''Epistola Solitarii'', and the English mystic [[William Flete]]'s ''Remedies against Temptations'', are all referenced in Julian's text.{{sfn|Holloway|2016|pp=97{{ndash}}146}}

== Commemoration ==
{{multiple image|perrow = 3|total_width=350
| image1 = The church of SS Andrew and Mary - St Julian of Norwich - geograph.org.uk - 1547398.jpg|alt1=detail of church rood screen
| image2 = Bauchon Window, Norwich Cathedral (geograph 3857480).jpg |alt2=window of Norwich Cathedral
| image3 = Julian of Norwich (window in Norwich Cathedral).jpg |alt3= window depicting Julian
| image4 = St Andrew's church Holt Norfolk (3017511204).jpg |alt4=Julian depicted in a Holt church
| image5 = Image of Julian of Norwich (St. Julian's Church, Norwich).jpg |alt5=Julian depicted in St Julian's Church Norwich
| footer = Depictions of Julian of Norwich (clockwise, from top left): the [[rood screen]] at St Andrew and St Mary Church, [[Langham, Norfolk|Langham]], Norfolk; as part of the Bauchon Window, [[Norwich Cathedral]]; Norwich Cathedral; [[St Julian's Church, Norwich]]; Church of St Andrew the Apostle, [[Holt, Norfolk|Holt]], Norfolk.
}}
Julian is remembered in the [[Church of England]] with a [[Lesser Festival (Anglicanism)|Lesser Festival]] on 8 May. The [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] and the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|Evangelical Lutheran Church]] in the United States also commemorate her on 8 May.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.episcopalchurch.org/glossary/julian-of-norwich/ |title=Julian of Norwich, Mystic and Theologian, {{circa|1417}} |work=The Liturgical Calendar |publisher=Episcopal Church |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=20 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120212253/https://www.episcopalchurch.org/glossary/julian-of-norwich/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.livinglutheran.org/2014/05/world-cloistered/ |title=Of the world but cloistered |last=Berkey-Abbott |first=Kristin |website=Living Lutheran |publisher=Evangelical Lutheran Church in America |access-date=5 February 2019 |date=9 May 2014 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015535/https://www.livinglutheran.org/2014/05/world-cloistered/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Although not canonised in the [[Catholic Church]] ({{as of|2025|lc=y}}) or listed in the ''[[Roman Martyrology]]'', Julian is quoted in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church – IntraText |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P19.HTM |access-date=25 January 2022 |website=www.vatican.va}}</ref> In 1997, Father Giandomenico Mucci listed Julian among 18 individuals who are considered potential [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]], describing her as a ''[[beatification|beata]]''.<ref name="EWTN">{{cite news |last1=Stagnaro |first1=Angelo |title=36 Doctors For All That Ails You |url=https://www.ncregister.com/blog/36-doctors-for-all-that-ails-you |access-date=9 December 2021 |work=[[National Catholic Register]] |publisher=[[EWTN News]] |date=1 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=A new doctor of the Church. And seventeen more on hold |url=http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/1349083bdc4.html?eng=y |date=21 August 2011 |work=L'espresso |access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref>

[[Pope Benedict XVI]] discussed the life and teaching of Julian at a [[Audience (meeting)|General Audience]] on 1 December 2010, stating: "Julian of Norwich understood the central message for spiritual life: God is love and it is only if one opens oneself to this love, totally and with total trust, and lets it become one's sole guide in life, that all things are transfigured, true peace and true joy found and one is able to radiate it." He concluded: "'And all will be well,' 'all manner of things shall be well': this is the final message that Julian of Norwich transmits to us and that I am also proposing to you today."<ref name="Benedict" /> [[Pope Francis]] also mentions her in his [[encyclical letter]] ''[[Dilexit nos]]'' as one of a number of "holy women" who have "spoken of resting in the [[Sacred Heart|heart of the Lord]] as the source of life and interior peace".<ref>Pope Francis, [https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/20241024-enciclica-dilexit-nos.pdf Dilexit nos], paragraph 110, published on 24 October 2024, accessed on 31 January 2025</ref>

== Legacy ==
The 20th- and 21st-century revival of interest in Julian has been associated with a renewed interest in [[Christian contemplation]] in the English-speaking world. [[The Julian Meetings]], an association of contemplative prayer groups, takes its name from her, but is unaffiliated to any faith doctrine, and is unconnected with Julian's theology, although her writings are sometimes used in meetings.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://thejulianmeetings.wildapricot.org/Julian-Meetings-History/ |title=History |website=The Julian Meetings |access-date=4 September 2019 |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904215736/https://thejulianmeetings.wildapricot.org/Julian-Meetings-History/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://thejulianmeetings.wildapricot.org/About-Meetings/ |title=About Meetings |website=The Julian Meetings |access-date=4 September 2019 |url-status=live |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904215409/https://thejulianmeetings.wildapricot.org/About-Meetings/}}</ref>

=== St Julian's Church ===
There were no hermits or anchorites in Norwich from 1312 until the emergence of Julian in the 1370s.{{sfn|Crampton|1994|p=11}} St Julian's Church, located off King Street in the south of Norwich city centre, holds regular [[Church service|services]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.achurchnearyou.com/church/2635/ |title=Norwich: St Julian |website=A Church Near You |publisher=[[Church of England]] |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=12 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212013207/https://www.achurchnearyou.com/church/2635/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The building, which has a [[round-tower church|round tower]], is one of the 31 parish churches from a total of 58 that once existed in Norwich during the [[England in the Middle Ages|Middle Ages]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://norwichmedievalchurches.org/ |title=Welcome |author= |website=The Medieval Churches of Norwich: City, Community & Architecture |access-date=4 September 2019 |archive-date=7 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807155218/https://norwichmedievalchurches.org/ |url-status=live}}</ref> of which 36 had an anchorite cell.{{sfn|Upjohn|Groves|2018|p=12}}

[[File:Entrance to Mother Julian's cell.jpg|alt=Entrance to Mother Julian's cell|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Romanesque]] entrance to the modern cell]]
The cell did not remain empty after Julian's death. In 1428 Julian(a) Lampett (or Lampit) moved in when [[Edith Wilton]] was the prioress responsible for the church,<ref>{{Cite ODNB |id=107180 |title=Wilton, Edith (d. 1430), prioress of Carrow |last=Marilyn |first=Oliva}}</ref> and remained in the cell until 1478 when [[Margaret Pygot]] was prioress.<ref>{{Cite ODNB |id=105620 |title=Pygot, Margaret (d. in or after 1474), prioress of Carrow |last=Marilyn |first=Oliva}}</ref> The cell continued to be used by anchorites until the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] in the 1530s, when it was demolished and the church stripped of its [[rood screen]] and statues. No [[Rector (ecclesiastical)|rector]] was appointed from then until 1581.{{sfn|Upjohn|Groves|2018|p=15}}

By 1845 St Julian's was in a poor state of repair and the east wall collapsed that year. After an appeal for funds, the church was [[Victorian restoration|restored]].{{sfn|Upjohn|Groves|2018|pp=17{{ndash}}18}}{{refn|1=According to the author Sheila Upjohn and the church historian Nicholas Groves, "The restoration of the church, when [the rector] was finally forced to take action after half a century of neglect, was ruthless to the point of vandalism."{{sfn|Upjohn|Groves|2018|p=18}}|group=note}} The church underwent further restoration during the first half of the 20th century,{{sfn|Upjohn|Groves|2018|p=27}} but was destroyed during the [[Norwich Blitz]] of June 1942 when the tower received a direct hit. After the war, the church was rebuilt. It now appears largely as it was before its destruction, although its tower is much reduced in height and a chapel has been built in place of the long-lost anchorite cell.{{sfn|Upjohn|Groves|2018|pp=28{{ndash}}30}}

=== Literature ===
The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' quotes from ''Revelations of Divine Love'' in its explanation of how God can draw a greater good, even from evil.{{refn|{{CCC|313|21 November 2021|long=on}}|}} The poet [[T. S. Eliot]] incorporated "All shall be well, and all shall be well, and all manner of thing shall be well" three times into his poem "[[Little Gidding (poem)|Little Gidding]]", the fourth of his ''[[Four Quartets]]'' (1943), as well as Julian's "the ground of our beseeching".{{sfn|Newman|2011|p=427}} The poem renewed the English-speaking public's awareness of Julian's texts.{{sfn|Leech|Ward|1995|p=1}}{{refn|1=The medievalist [[Barbara Newman]] notes that Julian's saying within ''Little Gidding'' serves "as a refrain, much as it does in Julian's own ''Revelations of Love''", and that it was included at a late stage in the poem's development, after it had been worked on by Eliot for more than a year.{{sfn|Newman|2011|pp=427{{ndash}}428}}|group=note}}
{{Poem quote
|text=And all shall be well and
All manner of thing shall be well
When the tongues of flames are in-folded
Into the crowned knot of fire
And the fire and the rose are one.
|char=
|sign= T. S. Eliot
|source=''Four Quartets''{{sfn|Eliot|1944|p=44}}
|title=''Little Gidding''
|style=
}}

[[Sydney Carter]]'s song "All Shall Be Well" (sometimes called "The Bells of Norwich"), which uses words by Julian, was published in 1982.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.godsongs.net/2018/10/all-shall-be-well-loud-are-the-bells-of-norwich.html |title=All Shall Be Well – Carter |author= |website=GodSongs.net |access-date=4 September 2019 |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904220956/http://www.godsongs.net/2018/10/all-shall-be-well-loud-are-the-bells-of-norwich.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Julian's writings have been translated into numerous languages.{{sfn|Rolf|2018|p=ix}}

[[Kathryn Davis (writer)|Kathryn Davis]]'s 2006 novel ''The Thin Place'' uses the life and theology of Julian of Norwich to reflect on the book's themes about life and death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=Kathryn |title=The Thin Place |publisher=Little, Brown & Co. |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7394-7377-1 |pages=112-114, 228, 275}}</ref>

In 2023 Julian was the subject of the fictional autobiography ''I, Julian'' by Dr Claire Gilbert, Visiting Fellow at [[Jesus College, Cambridge]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.hachette.co.uk/titles/claire-gilbert/i-julian-the-fictional-autobiography-of-julian-of-norwich/9781399807524/ |title=I, Julian: The fictional autobiography of Julian of Norwich |date=2023 |publisher=hachette.co.uk |isbn=9781399807524 |access-date=8 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jesus.cam.ac.uk/articles/dr-claire-gilbert-her-book-i-julian |title=Dr Claire Gilbert on her book I, Julian |date=17 April 2023 |publisher=jesus.cam.ac.uk|access-date=8 May 2023}}</ref> Gilbert discussed her book on BBC Radio 4's ''[[Woman's Hour]]'' on 8 May 2023.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=8 May 2023|date=8 May 2023|publisher=bbc.co.uk|title=Julian of Norwich and the power of inspirational words in tough times|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m001lqt4}}</ref>

Victoria MacKenzie's ''For Thy Great Pain Have Mercy On My Little Pain'', also published in 2023, concerns both Julian and Margery Kempe.

=== Norfolk and Norwich ===
In 2013 the [[University of East Anglia]] honoured Julian by naming its new study centre the Julian Study Centre.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.uea.ac.uk/mac/comm/media/press/2013/June/julian-study-centre |title=Lord Mayor raises a glass to new UEA building |author= |date=14 June 2013 |publisher=[[University of East Anglia]] |access-date=3 February 2019 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102183023/http://www.uea.ac.uk/mac/comm/media/press/2013/June/julian-study-centre |url-status=dead}}</ref> Norwich's first Julian Week was held in May 2013. The celebration included concerts, talks, and free events held throughout the city, with the stated aim of encouraging people "to learn about Julian and her artistic, historical and theological significance".<ref name="JWeek">{{cite news |last1=Grimmer |first1=Dan |title=Remarkable Norwich woman to be focus of week-long celebration |url=https://www.edp24.co.uk/lifestyle/heritage/remarkable-norwich-woman-to-be-focus-of-week-long-celebration-572848 |access-date=21 November 2021 |work=[[Eastern Daily Press]] |date=11 April 2013 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121074317/https://www.edp24.co.uk/lifestyle/heritage/remarkable-norwich-woman-to-be-focus-of-week-long-celebration-572848 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Lady Julian Bridge, crossing the [[River Wensum]] and linking King Street and the Riverside Walk close to [[Norwich railway station]], was named in honour of the anchoress. An example of a [[swing bridge]], built to allow larger vessels to approach a [[Canal basin|basin]] further upstream, it was designed by the [[Mott MacDonald]] Group and completed in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ice.org.uk/getattachment/c13a2822-e2d1-4883-a95c-3b0f1031210f/attachment.aspx |title=A Walk along the River Wensum in Norwich, looking at the City's Historic Bridges |author= |publisher=[[Institution of Civil Engineers]] |date=June 2019 |access-date=5 February 2019 |format=PDF |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207020110/https://www.ice.org.uk/getattachment/c13a2822-e2d1-4883-a95c-3b0f1031210f/attachment.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref> During 2023, the Friends of Julian of Norwich organized a series of events, centred around 8 May, the 650th anniversary of the occurrence of Julian's revelations.<ref name="Fri">{{cite web |title=Celebrating 650 Years of Julian of Norwich |url=https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0075/6206/8079/files/FOJ_650_BROCHURE_-_web3.pdf?v=1678898494 |publisher=Friends of Julian of Norwich |access-date=8 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508085352/https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0075/6206/8079/files/FOJ_650_BROCHURE_-_web3.pdf?v=1678898494 |archive-date=8 May 2023}}</ref>

== Works: ''Revelations of Divine Love'' ==
=== Manuscripts ===
==== ''Long Text'' ====
* {{cite archive |author=Julian of Norwich |item=MS Fonds Anglais 40 (previously Regius 8297): Liber Revelacionum Julyane, anachorite norwyche, divisé en quatre-vingt-six chapitres |item-url=https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc103201f |collection=Anglais 40 |institution=Bibliothèque nationale de France |ref=none}}
* {{cite archive |author=Julian of Norwich |item=Sloane MS 2499: Juliana, Mother, Anchorite of Norwich: Revelations to, of Divine Love, 1373 |item-url=http://searcharchives.bl.uk/IAMS_VU2:IAMS040-002114866 |collection=Sloane Manuscripts |institution=British Library |ref=none}}
* {{cite archive |author=Julian of Norwich |item=Sloane MS 3705: Visions: Revelations to Mother Juliana in the year 1373 of the love of God in Jesus Christ |item-url=http://searcharchives.bl.uk/IAMS_VU2:IAMS040-002116095 |collection=Sloane Manuscripts |institution=British Library |ref=none}}
* [[Westminster Cathedral]] Treasury MS 4 (W), a late 15th or early 16th century manuscript. It includes extracts from Julian's ''Long Text'', as well as selections from the writings of the English mystic [[Walter Hilton]].{{sfn|Cré|2011|p=1}} The manuscript is on loan to Westminster Abbey's Muniments Room and Library ({{As of|1997|lc=y}}).{{sfn|Kempster|1997|p=178}}

==== ''Short Text'' ====
* {{cite archive |item=Add MS 37790: A Carthusian anthology of theological works in English (the 'Amherst Manuscript') |item-url=http://searcharchives.bl.uk/IAMS_VU2:IAMS040-002054226 |collection=Belonged to William Amhurst Tyssen-Amherst, Baron Amherst of Hackney |institution=British Library |access-date=12 October 2021}}

=== Selected editions ===
* {{cite book |date=1877 |editor1-last=Collins |editor1-first=Henry |title=Revelations of Divine Love, Shewed to a Devout Anchoress, by name Mother Julian of Norwich |series=Mediaeval library of mystical and ascetical works |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=yale.39002005451084;view=2up;seq=8 |location=London |publisher=T. Richardson |ref=none}}
* {{cite archive |last=Cressy |first=Serenus de |author-link=Serenus de Cressy |date=1670 |item=XVI Revelations of Divine Love, Shewed to a Devout Servant of Our Lord, called Mother Juliana, an Anchorete of Norwich: Who lived in the Dayes of King Edward the Third |item-url=http://access.bl.uk/item/viewer/ark:/81055/vdc_100026983797.0x000001#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=5&xywh=-414%2C0%2C3099%2C1872 |type= |item-id=Digital Store Cup.403.a.36 |collection=British Library General Reference Collection |institution=British Library |location=London |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |date=1901 |editor1-last=Warrack |editor1-first=Grace |editor1-link=Grace Harriet Warrack |title=Revelations of Divine Love, Recorded by Julian, Anchoress at Norwich, 1373 |edition=1st |location=London |publisher=Methuen and Company |oclc=560165491 |ref=none}} (The second edition (1907) is available online from the [[Internet Archive]].)
* {{cite book |date=1927 |editor1-last=Hudleston |editor1-first=Roger |title=Revelations of divine love shewed to a devout ankress, by name Julian of Norwich |edition=1st |location=London |publisher=Burns, Oates and Washbourne |series=Orchard books |volume=XI |oclc=5167762 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |date=1997 |editor1-last=Skinner |editor1-first=John |title=Revelation of Love |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=978-0-385-48756-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/revelationoflove00juli}}
* {{cite book |date=1998 |editor1-last=Beer |editor1-first=Frances |title=Revelations of Divine Love, translated from British Library Additional MS 37790: the Motherhood of God : an excerpt, translated from British Library MS Sloane 2477 |location=Rochester, New York |publisher=D.S. Brewer |isbn=978-0-85991-453-6}}
* {{cite book |date=2001 |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor1-first=Anna Maria |name-list-style=amp |editor2=[[Julia Bolton Holloway]] |title=Showing of Love: Extant Texts and Translations |location=Florence |publisher=SISMEL: Edizioni del Galluzzo |isbn=978-88-8450-095-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Starr |first1=Mirabai |year=2013 |title=The Showings of Julian of Norwich: A New Translation |location=Charlottesville, Virginia |publisher=Hampton Roads Publishing Company |isbn=978-1-57174-691-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |date=2015 |editor1-last=Windeatt |editor1-first=Barry |title=Revelations of Divine Love |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoQSBwAAQBAJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-811206-8}}

== See also ==
* [[Order of Julian of Norwich]]
* [[Visions of Jesus and Mary]]


== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=Denise N. |date=September 1993 |title=Julian of Norwich and Anchoritic Literature |journal=Mystics Quarterly |publisher=[[Penn State University Press]] |location=University Park |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=148{{ndash}}161 |jstor=20717181}}
* {{cite book |last=Beer |first=Frances |date=1992 |title=Women and Mystical Experience in the Middle Ages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4JcL8Lm7N0C |location=Woodbridge |publisher=Boydell Press |isbn=978-0-85115-302-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Blomefield |first1=Francis |last2=Parkin |first2=Charles |name-list-style=amp |date=1805 |orig-year=First published 1739{{ndash}}1775 |title=An Essay towards a Topographical History of the County of Norfolk |url=https://archive.org/details/essaytowardstopo04blom/page/81 |volume=4 |location=London |publisher=Printed for W. Miller |oclc=560883605 |author-link1=Francis Blomefield |author-link2=Charles Parkin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Butler-Bowden |first1=William |last2=Chambers |first2=Raymond Wilson |author-link2=Raymond Wilson Chambers |name-list-style=amp |date=1954 |title=The Book Of Margery Kempe |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.186348/page/n79 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London; Toronto |oclc=3633095}}
* {{cite book |last=Bynum |first=Caroline Walker |date=1984 |title=Jesus as Mother: Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05222-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusasmother00caro |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Crampton |editor1-first=Georgia Ronan |title=The Shewings of Julian of Norwich |date=1994 |publisher=Western Michigan University |location=Kalamazoo |isbn=978-1-879288-45-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rmDwDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cré |first1=Marleen |title=London, Westminster Cathedral Treasury, MS 4: An Edition of the Westminster Compilation |journal=Journal of Medieval Religious Cultures |date=2011 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1{{ndash}}59 |pmid= |url-access=registration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jmedirelicult.37.1.0001 |publisher=[[Penn State University Press]] |location=University Park |doi=10.5325/jmedirelicult.37.1.0001 |issn=1947-6566 |jstor=10.5325 |archive-date=16 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116072722/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jmedirelicult.37.1.0001 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=D-Vasilescu |first=Elena Ene |date=2018 |title=Heavenly Sustenance in Patristic Texts and Byzantine Iconography: Nourished by the Word |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8lp0DwAAQBAJ |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=978-3-319-98985-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Eliot |first1=Thomas Stearns |author1-link=T. S. Eliot |title=Four Quartets |date=1944 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=London |isbn=978-0-571-17652-6 |oclc=799627762 |url=https://archive.org/details/fourquartets0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Fugelso |editor1-first=Karl |title=Studies in Medievalism XXIX |date=2020 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |location=Woodbridge, Suffolk |isbn=978-1-84384-556-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Igo7EAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Groves |first=Nicholas |date=2010 |title=The Medieval Churches of the City of Norwich |location=Norwich |publisher=Norwich Heritage Economic and Regeneration Trust (HEART) and East Publishing |isbn=978-0-9560385-2-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Holloway |first=Julia Bolton |date=2016 |title=Julian Among the Books: Julian of Norwich's Theological Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjb5DAAAQBAJ |location=Newcastle-upon-Tyne |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-8894-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Jantzen |first=Grace Marion |date=2011 |title=Julian of Norwich: Mystic and Theologian |location=London |publisher=[[Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge]] |isbn=978-0-281-06424-3 |author-link=Grace Jantzen}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kempster |first1=Hugh |title=Julian of Norwich: The Westminster Text of a Revelation of Love |journal=Mystics Quarterly |publisher=[[Penn State University Press]] |location=University Park |date=December 1997 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=177–246 |jstor=20717317}}
* {{cite book |last1=Leech |first1=Kenneth |last2=Ward |first2=Sister Benedicta |name-list-style=amp |date=1995 |title=Julian Reconsidered |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Community of the Sisters of the Love of God|SLG Press]] |isbn=978-0-7283-0122-1 |author-link2=Benedicta Ward}}
* {{cite book |last=Leyser |first=Henrietta |date=2002 |title=Medieval Women: a Social History of Women in England 450–1500 |location=London |publisher=Phoenix Press |isbn=978-1-84212-621-9 |author-link=Henrietta Leyser |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalwomensoc0000leys_c7p1/ |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=McGinn |first=Bernard |date=2012 |title=The Varieties of Vernacular Mysticism 1350–1550 |location=New York |publisher=Herder & Herder |isbn=978-0-8245-4392-1 |author-link=Bernard McGinn (theologian)}}
* {{cite journal |last=Newman |first=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Newman |title=Eliot's Affirmative Way: Julian of Norwich, Charles Williams, and ''Little Gidding'' |jstor=10.1086/658355 |journal=[[Modern Philology]] |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |year=2011 |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=427{{ndash}}461 |issn=0026-8232 |doi=10.1086/658355 |s2cid=162999145}}
* {{cite book |last=Obbard |first=Elizabeth Ruth |date=2008 |title=Through Julian's Windows: Growing into wholeness with Julian of Norwich |location=Norwich |publisher=Canterbury Press |isbn=978-1-85311-903-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Pelphrey |first=Brant |date=1989 |title=Christ our Mother: Julian of Norwich |url=https://archive.org/details/christourmotherj0000pelp/page/n3/mode/2up |url-access=registration |location=Wilmington, Delaware |publisher=Glazier |isbn=978-0-89453-623-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Ramirez |first=Janina |date=2016 |title=Julian of Norwich: A very brief history |location=London |publisher=[[Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge]] |isbn=978-0-281-07737-3 |author-link=Janina Ramirez}}
* {{cite book |date=2004 |editor1-last=Rawcliffe |editor1-first=Carol |editor2-last=Wilson |editor2-first=Richard |name-list-style=amp |title=Medieval Norwich |location=London & New York |publisher=Hambleton and London |isbn=978-1-85285-449-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Rolf |first=Veronica Mary |date=2013 |title=Julian's Gospel: Illuminating the Life & Revelations of Julian of Norwich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWANAQAAQBAJ |publisher=Orbis Books |location=Maryknoll, New York |isbn=978-1-62698-036-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Rolf |first=Veronica Mary |date=2018 |title=An Explorer's Guide to Julian of Norwich |publisher=InterVarsity Press |location=Downers Grove, Illinois |isbn=978-0-8308-5088-4}}
* {{cite book |date=1932 |editor1-last=Tanner |editor1-first=Joseph Robson |editor1-link=Joseph Robson Tanner |editor2-last=Previté-Orton |editor2-first=Charles William |editor2-link=Charles Previté-Orton |editor3-last=Brooke |editor3-first=Zachary Nugent |editor3-link=Zachary Brooke (historian) |name-list-style=amp |title=Cambridge Medieval History |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.70264/page/n849 |volume=7 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |oclc=1067991653}}
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Denys Alan |date=2011 |title=Julian of Norwich, Theologian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aba9Sx2Ttu4C |url-access= |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Connecticut |isbn=978-0-300-16391-9 |author-link=Denys Turner}}
* {{cite book |last1=Upjohn |first1=Sheila |date=2018 |last2=Groves |first2=Nicholas |name-list-style=amp |title=St Julian's Church Norwich |location=Norwich |publisher=The Friends of Julian of Norwich |isbn=978-0-9541524-6-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Nicholas |author1-link=Nicholas Watson (academic) |last2=Jenkins |first2=Jacqueline |name-list-style=amp |date=2006 |title=The Writings of Julian of Norwich: A Vision Showed to a Devout Woman and A Revelation of Love |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TnMfp2ddSFYC |publisher=[[Penn State University Press]] |location=University Park |isbn=978-0-271-02908-5}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Salih |editor1-first=Sarah |editor2-last=Baker |editor2-first=Denise Nowakowski |title=Julian of Norwich's Legacy: Medieval mysticism and post-medieval reception |date=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=978-0-230-60667-8 |page= |name-list-style=amp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eZ-_AAAAQBAJ |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sheldrake |first1=Philip |author-link=Philip Sheldrake |title=Julian of Norwich "In God's sight": her theology in context |date=2019 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons Ltd. |location=Chichester |isbn=978-1-119-09964-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tanner |first1=Norman P |title=The Church in Late Medieval Norwich, 1370–1532 |date=1984 |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |location=Toronto |isbn=978-0-88844-066-2 |page= |url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/churchinlatemedi0000tann/page/n5/mode/2up |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Richard C. |first1=Taylor |title=Index Monasticus |date=1821 |publisher=Richard & Arthur Taylor |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnxPAAAAcAAJ |oclc=6458843 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=Nicholas |author1-link=Nicholas Watson (academic) |title=The Composition of Julian of Norwich's Revelation of Love |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |date=1993 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=637{{ndash}}683 |doi=10.2307/2864969 |jstor=2864969 |s2cid=162909653 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2864969 |via= |issn=1810-4797 |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=20 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120210421/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2864969 |url-status=live |ref=none|url-access=subscription }}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|commons=yes|n=no|q=yes|s=yes|d=no|wikt=no|v=no|b=no}}
* [https://www.julianshrine.org/ Julian Shrine] website
* [https://julianofnorwich.org/ The Friends of Julian of Norwich] website
* [https://www.umilta.net/julian.html Julian of Norwich: her ''Showing of Love'' and its Context] produced by the Umilta website.
* [https://www.luminarium.org/medlit/julian.htm "Julian of Norwich"] from the ''Luminarium Encyclopedia''.
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p03mbhsh ''Heart and Soul: The Path of Love – Julian of Norwich''] from [[BBC iPlayer|BBC Sounds]], a short radio programme about Julian and her writings. (registration required, may not be available outside the UK)
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Julian of Norwich}}
* {{Librivox author |id=2421}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m001rgs4 Julian of Norwich] episode of [[BBC Radio 4]]'s ''[[In Our Time (radio series)|In Our Time]]'', October 2023

{{Medieval women writers}}
{{History of Catholic theology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1340s births]]
[[Category:14th-century Christian mystics]]
[[Category:14th-century English women writers]]
[[Category:15th-century deaths]]
[[Category:15th-century English women writers]]
[[Category:15th-century English writers]]
[[Category:English Catholic mystics]]
[[Category:English religious writers]]
[[Category:English Roman Catholic writers]]
[[Category:English women religious writers]]
[[Category:Medieval English theologians]]
[[Category:Middle English literature]]
[[Category:Women mystics]]
[[Category:Writers from Norwich]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Year of death unknown]]

Winterborne Zelston

2025-11-01T21:26:12Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: /* The church */Added hyphen

{{Short description|Village and civil parish in Dorset, England}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox UK place
|country = England
|static_image_name = St Mary's Church, Winterborne Zelston, Dorset.JPG
|static_image_caption = St Mary's Church, Winterborne Zelston
|coordinates = {{coord|50.7774|-2.146|display=inline,title}}
|map_type = Dorset
|official_name = Winterborne Zelston
|population = 90
| unitary_england= [[Dorset (district)|Dorset]]
| lieutenancy_england= [[Dorset]]
|post_town = Blandford Forum
|postcode_area = DT
|postcode_district = DT11
|constituency_westminster = [[North Dorset (UK Parliament constituency)|North Dorset]]
|region = South West England
|os_grid_reference = SY898976
}}

'''Winterborne Zelston''' is a village and [[Civil parishes in England|civil parish]] in north [[Dorset]], England.<ref>{{cite web|title=Winterborne Zelston|url=http://www.seleston.co.uk/wzindex.html|access-date=5 October 2011}}</ref> It is situated in a [[winterbourne (stream)|winterbourne]] [[valley]] on the [[A31 road]] {{convert|8|mi|km|0|abbr=off|spell=on}} south of [[Blandford Forum]] and {{convert|10|mi|km|0|abbr=on}} northwest of [[Poole]]. The parish had a population of 141 in 2001.<ref name="census2001">{{cite web|url=http://www1.dorsetcc.gov.uk/LIVING/FACTS/Census2001.nsf/6cadf4da179fc19500256663004afece/4dc79506c4ce1ddb80256ec5004990b5?OpenDocument |title=Winterborne Zelston Parish Profile |publisher=[[Dorset County Council]]/[[Archive.org]] |work=2001 Census |year=2001 |access-date=5 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519130744/http://www1.dorsetcc.gov.uk/LIVING/FACTS/Census2001.nsf/6cadf4da179fc19500256663004afece/4dc79506c4ce1ddb80256ec5004990b5?OpenDocument |archive-date=19 May 2006 }}</ref> In 2013 the estimated population of the civil parish was 90.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dorsetforyou.com/344882 |title=Parish Population Data |publisher=Dorset County Council |access-date=20 February 2015 |date=20 January 2015}}</ref>

The first name of "Winterborne" comes from the [[River Winterborne]], which flows from west to east through the village.<ref name="walks">{{cite web | url=http://www.dorsetaonb.org.uk/assets/downloads/Winterbournes_Wetlands/Winterborne_Leaflet_final_copy.pdf | title=Walking the River Winterborne | publisher=Dorset AONB Partnership, UK | work=Dorset: Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty |year=2011 | access-date=5 October 2011}}</ref> Zelstone is probably from the name of the Zeals family.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of English Place Names, 4th edition |last=Ekwall |year=1960 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=524–525}}</ref>
The river only flows overground during the winter, hence the name. To the west is [[Winterborne Tomson]] and to the north-east is [[Almer]]. The river flows through both these villages as well.<ref>{{cite map|title=Dorchester, Weymouth and surrounding area |work=Landranger 194 |publisher=Ordnance Survey }}</ref>
[[File:Winterborne Zelston, notcieboard and flowers - geograph.org.uk - 975140.jpg|thumb|Village noticeboard at Winterborne Zelston]]

==The church==
The parish church is dedicated to [[St Mary]] and is a Grade II [[listed building]], being inscribed in the register on 14 July 1955.<ref name=BLB/> The tower dates to the fifteenth century but the rest of the building was rebuilt by the architect [[Thomas Henry Wyatt]] in 1866, using some materials from an earlier building. Although the main fabric dates from this rebuild, the building has several older features such as a fourteenth-century doorway in the south vestry wall, and some of the windows in the chancel, which are thirteenth-century. The tower is of rubble stone while the rest of the church is banded with flint and stone and the roofs are slated. The plan consists of nave, chancel, north aisle, south vestry, south porch and west tower. The tower has three stages, the parapet being battlemented and there being a [[gargoyle]] on the west wall. Internally, the nave has an arch-braced collar beam roof, while the chancel has a wagon roof with plaster panels and moulded ribs.<ref name=BLB>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-103615-parish-church-of-st-mary-winterborne-zel#.V8CCr63GD6g |title=Church of St Mary, Winterborne Zelston |publisher=British Listed Buildings |access-date=26 August 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Winterborne Zelston}}
* [http://www.seleston.co.uk/zelston.html Winterborne Zelston – a brief history]

{{North Dorset}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in Dorset]]

Henry Beaufort

2025-11-01T21:21:22Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:E03C:9553:1BFC:934A: Enlarged image

{{Short description|English bishop (1375–1447)}}
{{Redirect|Cardinal Beaufort|the racehorse|Cardinal Beaufort (horse)}}
{{Other people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = Cardinal
| name = Henry Beaufort
| image = Joan of arc interrogation.jpg
| image_size = 220
| caption = 1856 painting by [[Paul Delaroche]] showing Beaufort interrogating [[Joan of Arc]] in prison
| title = [[Cardinal (Catholicism)#Cardinal priests|Cardinal]], [[Bishop of Winchester]]
| province = [[Province of Canterbury|Canterbury]]
| church = [[Roman Catholic Church]]
| term_start = 1404
| diocese = [[Diocese of Winchester|Winchester]]
| term_end = 1447
| predecessor = [[William of Wykeham]]
| successor = [[William Waynflete]]
| other_post = {{Plainlist}}
* [[List of Lord Chancellors and Lord Keepers|Lord Chancellor of England]]
* [[Cardinal (Catholicism)#Cardinal priests|Cardinal Priest]] of [[Sant'Eusebio]]
{{Endplainlist}}
| consecration= 14 July 1398
| consecrated_by =
| cardinal = 24 May 1426
| created_cardinal_by = [[Pope Martin V]]
| rank = Cardinal Priest
| birth_date = [[Wiktionary:circa|c.]] 1375
| birth_place = [[Château de Beaufort]], Anjou, [[Kingdom of France]]
| death_date = 11 April {{death year and age|1447|1375}}
| death_place = [[Wolvesey Castle]], [[Winchester]], [[Kingdom of England]]
| buried = [[Winchester Cathedral]]
| religion = [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]]
| parents = [[John of Gaunt]] and [[Katherine Swynford]]
| previous_post = {{Plainlist}}
* [[Bishop of Lincoln]] (1398–1404)
* [[List of Chancellors of the University of Oxford|Chancellor of Oxford University]] (1397–99)
* [[Dean (Christianity)|Dean]] of [[Wells Cathedral|Wells]] (1397–98)
{{endplainlist}}
| coat_of_arms = Beaufort Arms (France modern).svg
| coat_of_arms_alt = Quarterly: 1st and 4th: azure three fleur-de-lis Or; 2nd and 3rd: gules three leopards Or; overall a bordure compony argent and azure
}}
[[File:Tomb of Cardinal Beaufort.jpg|thumb|upright=1.27|Beaufort's tomb in [[Winchester Cathedral]]]]
'''Henry Beaufort''' (c. 1375 – 11 April 1447) was an English [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] prelate and statesman who held the offices of [[Bishop of Lincoln]] (1398), [[Bishop of Winchester]] (1404) and [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinal]] (1426).<ref name="HolyRoman">{{cite web|last=Miranda|first=Salvador|title=Henry Beaufort|url=https://cardinals.fiu.edu/bios1426.htm#Beaufort|work=The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church|access-date=19 April 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311014056/http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1426.htm|archive-date=11 March 2016}}</ref> He served three times as [[Lord Chancellor]] and played an important role in English politics.

Beaufort was a member of the royal [[House of Plantagenet]],<ref>{{cite journal|first=Joel Thomas|last=Rosenthal|title=The Training of an Elite Group: English Bishops in the Fifteenth Century|journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society|edition=New Series|volume=60|issue=5|year=1970|page=7|doi=10.2307/1005966|jstor=1005966}}</ref> being the second son of the four legitimised children of [[John of Gaunt]] (third son of King [[Edward III]]) by his mistress (later wife) [[Katherine Swynford]].

==Life==
Beaufort is often claimed to have been born at Beaufort, an English domain in France, but England, John of Gaunt specifically, had already lost that land holding, which had come to him through his grandmother Blanche of Artois. He was educated for a career in the Church. After his parents were married in early 1396, Henry, his two brothers and one sister were declared legitimate by [[Pope Boniface IX]] and legitimated by Act of Parliament on 9 February 1397, but they were barred from the succession to the throne.<ref name=CPXII40>Cokayne ''Complete Peerage Volume XII'' pp. 40–41</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The English Cardinals|last1=Schofield|first1=Nicholas|last2=Skinner|first2=Gerald|year=2007|publisher=Family Publications|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-1-871217-65-0|page=60}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=British Royalty|last=Williams|first=David|year=1996|publisher=Cassell|location=London, UK|isbn=0-304-34933-X|pages=240–41}}</ref>

On 27 February 1398, he was nominated [[Bishop of Lincoln]], and on 14 July 1398, he was consecrated.<ref name=Handbook256>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 256</ref> After Henry of Bolingbroke deposed [[Richard II]] and took the throne as Henry IV in 1399, he made Bishop Beaufort [[Lord Chancellor]] of England in 1403,<ref name=Handbook87>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 87</ref> but Beaufort resigned in 1404 when he was appointed [[Bishop of Winchester]] on 19 November.<ref name=Handbook277>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 277</ref>

Between 1411 and 1413, Bishop Beaufort was in political disgrace for siding with his nephew, the [[Prince of Wales]], against the king,<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Beaufort, Henry |volume= 3| pages = 586–587}}</ref> but when King Henry IV died and the prince became King [[Henry V of England|Henry V]], he was made Chancellor once again in 1413, but he resigned the position in 1417.<ref name=Handbook87/> [[Pope Martin V]] offered him the rank of Cardinal, but King Henry V would not permit him to accept the offer.

Henry V died in 1422, two years after he had married [[Catherine of Valois]], daughter of King [[Charles VI of France|Charles VI]], who had disowned his son [[Charles VII of France|Charles]] in favour of Henry in the [[Treaty of Troyes]]. Henry and Catherine's infant son [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], the Bishop's great-nephew, succeeded Henry as King of England, and, in accordance with the Treaty, succeeded Charles as King of France. Bishop Beaufort and the child king's other uncles formed the [[Regency government, 1422–1437|Regency government]],{{sfn|Griffiths|1981|p= 23}} and in 1424, Beaufort became Chancellor once more, but was forced to resign in 1426 because of disputes with the king's other uncles, in particular [[Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester]].<ref name=Handbook87/>

Pope Martin V finally appointed Beaufort as Cardinal in 1426.<ref name=Handbook87/> In 1427, he made him the [[Papal Legate]] for [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] and [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]], and directed him to lead the [[Hussite Wars#Campaigns of 1426 and 1427 (fourth anti-Hussite Crusade)|fourth "crusade" against the Hussites heretics in Bohemia]]. Beaufort's forces were routed by the Hussites at the [[Battle of Tachov]] on 4 August 1427.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Harriss|first=G. L.|author-link=G. L. Harriss|title=Henry Beaufort, 'Cardinal of England'|journal=Proceedings of the 1986 Harlaxton Symposium: England in the Fifteenth Century|pages=123–24|publisher=Paul Watkins Publishing|location=Woodbridge, UK|year=1987}}</ref>

After the capture of [[Joan of Arc]] in 1431, legend has it that Beaufort was present to observe some of the heresy trial sessions presided over by Bishop [[Pierre Cauchon]] of [[Beauvais]]. However, the full record of the trial, which lists all those who took part in her trial on a daily basis shows that he was not there.<ref>''The Trial of Jeanne d'Arc'' translated in full by W. P. Barrett,, George Routledge & Sons,1931</ref> His sole appearance is on the day of her abjuration (26 May 1431). The formal record does not include Beaufort's presence at her execution but legend has it that he wept as he viewed the horrible scene as she was burned at the stake. This legend derives from what is now known as the Rehabilitation Trial of Joan of Arc which culminated in an examination of numerous witnesses in 1455 and 1456 in which one of the 27 Articles of Enquiry was that Joan had died in "such a manner as to draw from all those present, and even from her English enemies, effusions of tears."<ref name="Pernoud1955">{{cite book|last=Pernoud|first= Regine|title=The Retrial of Joan of Arc|translator= J. M. Cohen|publisher= Methuen & Co|date= 1955}}</ref> A number of witnesses at this re-trial inferred or declared his presence including one of the original trial judges, one Andre Marguerie, Canon of Rouen, who asserted that Beaufort had reprimanded his chaplain for complaining that the [[Bishop of Beauvais]]'s sermon was too favourable to Joan. However, it is not clear to which sermon Marguerie was referring.<ref name="Pernoud1955"/>

In a spirit of contrition and reconciliation, in 1922 a statue of Joan of Arc (carved under the supervision of Sir [[Ninian Comper]]) was placed beside the entrance to the Lady Chapel in [[Winchester Cathedral]] diagonally facing Cardinal Beaufort's tomb and chantry chapel.<ref name="BullenCrook2010">{{cite book|last1=Bullen|first1=Michael |last2=Crook|first2=John |last3=Hubbuck|first3=Rodney |first4=Nikolaus|last4= Pevsner|title=Hampshire: Winchester and the North|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsuERQAACAAJ|series=Pevsner Architectural Guides: Buildings of England|year=2010|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-12084-4|page=390}}</ref>

Beaufort continued to be active in English politics for years, fighting with the other powerful advisors to the king.{{citation needed |date=April 2016}} He died on 11 April 1447.<ref name=Handbook277/>

==Affair and daughter==
When Henry was Bishop of Lincoln, he had an illegitimate daughter, Jane Beaufort, with an unknown woman, sometimes thought to be the daughter of [[Alice Cherleton, Baroness Cherleton]]: "Henry fathered an illegitimate daughter, Jane Beaufort, in 1402, who some make Alice's daughter. Both Jane and her husband, Sir Edward Stradling, were named in Cardinal Beaufort's will. Their marriage about 1423 brought Sir Edward into the political orbit of his shrewd and assertive father-in-law, to whom he may have owed his appointment as chamberlain of [[South Wales]] in December 1423, a position he held until March 1437".<ref name="Griffiths1994">{{cite book|last=Griffiths|first=Ralph Alan |title=Conquerors and Conquered in Medieval Wales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7g35AQAACAAJ|year=1994|publisher=Alan Sutton|isbn=978-0-7509-0515-2}}</ref>

==Citations==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{cite book|last=Cokayne |first=George E. |title=The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom, Extant, Extinct, or Dormant|publisher=A. Sutton|volume=XII|location=Gloucester, UK|year=1982|isbn=0-904387-82-8|edition=Microprint|author-link=George Cokayne}}
* {{cite book|last=Fryde |first=E. B.|last2=Greenway |first2= D. E.|last3=Porter |first3=S.|last4=Roy |first4=I.|title=Handbook of British Chronology|edition=Third revised|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|year=1996|isbn=0-521-56350-X}}
*{{cite book |last=Griffiths|first=Ralph A.|author-link=Ralph A. Griffiths|title=The Reign of King Henry VI: The Exercise of Royal Authority, 1422–1461|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frWDmbf_mXEC|year=1981|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04372-5}}

==Further reading==
{{commons category|Henry Beaufort}}
*{{cite ODNB|first=G. L.|last=Harriss|title=Beaufort, Henry (1375?–1447)|id=1859}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Edmund Stafford]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Lord Chancellor]]| years = 1403–1405}}
{{s-aft | after = [[Thomas Langley]] | rows=2}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Thomas Arundel]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Lord Chancellor]]| years =1413–1417}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Thomas Langley]]}}

{{s-ttl | title = [[Lord Chancellor]]| years =1424–1426}}
{{s-aft | after = [[John Kemp]]}}
{{s-rel| ca}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Thomas Thebaud]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Dean of Wells]] | years = 1397–1398}}
{{s-aft | after = [[Nicholas Slake]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef | before = [[John Bokyngham]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Bishop of Lincoln]] | years = 1398–1404}}
{{s-aft | after = [[Philip Repyngdon]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef | before = [[William of Wykeham]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Bishop of Winchester]] | years = 1404–1447}}
{{s-aft | after = [[William Waynflete]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Alemanno Adimari]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Cardinal (Catholicism)#Cardinal priests|Cardinal Priest]] of [[Sant'Eusebio|S. Eusebio]] | years = 1426–1447}}
{{s-aft | after = [[Richard Olivier de Longueil]]}}
{{s-aca}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Philip Repyngdon]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[List of Chancellors of the University of Oxford|Chancellor of the University of Oxford]] | years = 1397–1399}}
{{s-aft | after = [[Thomas Hyndeman]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{House of Lancaster Lord Chancellors}}
{{Deans of Wells}}
{{Bishops of Winchester}}
{{Bishops of Lincoln}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beaufort, Henry}}

[[Category:1370s births]]
[[Category:1447 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Lord chancellors of England]]

[[Category:Bishops of Lincoln]]
[[Category:Bishops of Winchester]]
[[Category:Bishops appointed by Pope Boniface IX]]
[[Category:Bishops appointed by Pope Innocent VII]]
[[Category:15th-century English cardinals]]
[[Category:15th-century regents]]
[[Category:Chancellors of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Beaufort family|Henry Beaufort]]
[[Category:Burials at Winchester Cathedral]]
[[Category:Deans of Wells]]
[[Category:Male Shakespearean characters]]
[[Category:People of the Hussite Wars]]
[[Category:Illegitimate children of English royalty]]