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Nubians

2025-11-04T06:53:33Z

2A01:E0A:319:5D10:0:0:A967:D6B6:

{{Short description|Ethnolinguistic group native to northern Sudan and southern Egypt}}
{{About|the ethno-linguistic group|the people in Uganda|Nubians (Uganda)|indigenous ethnic groups who inhabit the Nuba Mountains of South Kordofan state in Sudan|Nuba peoples}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Nubians
| image = Nubians at Aswan.jpg
| caption = Modern Nubian men in [[Aswan]]
| population = '''1,112,000+'''
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Sudan}}
| pop1 = 167,831 (1956 census)<ref name="Miller 27-04-2017.pdf">{{cite web|title=Language and ethnic statistics in 20th century Sudanese censuses and surveys|url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01544597/document|access-date=13 September 2023}}</ref>
812,000<ref>{{Cite web|last=Project|first=Joshua|title=Mahas Nubian in Sudan|url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/18895/SU |access-date=16 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Project|first=Joshua|title= Dongolawi Nubian in Sudan |url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/11607/SU |access-date=16 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Project|first=Joshua|title=Midobi in Sudan|url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13711/SU |access-date=16 September 2023}}</ref>
| region2 = {{flagcountry|Egypt}}
| pop2 = 99,000 (1960s)<ref>{{cite news|date=2015-10-18|title=تحقيق- نوبيون في مصر لا يرون في مقعدهم البرلماني الوحيد أملا في العودة لأرض الآباء|language=ar|work=Reuters|url=https://ara.reuters.com/article/topNews/idARAKCN0SC0MU20151018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715005317/https://ara.reuters.com/article/topNews/idARAKCN0SC0MU20151018|archive-date=15 July 2020|access-date=2020-07-13}}</ref> 300,000<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-02-01|title=Changing Egypt Offers Hope to Long-Marginalized Nubians|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/140131-egypt-nubia-dams-nile-constitution-culture|access-date=2020-07-13|website=National Geographic News}}</ref>–5 million<ref name=20180715apnews>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/18b7854025aa4573a63cfdb57800dab5/Egypt's-young-Nubians-revive-dream-of-return-to-homeland|title=Egypt's young Nubians revive dream of return to homeland|work=Associated Press|date=15 July 2018}}</ref>
| langs = [[Nubian languages]]{{efn|Nubian languages include [[Nobiin language|Nobiin]], [[Kenzi language|Kenzi]], [[Dongolawi language|Dongolawi]], [[Birgid language|Birgid]], [[Midob language|Midob]] and the [[Hill Nubian languages|Hill Nubian]] [[dialect continuum]]. They are spoken as either sole native languages or alongside a variant of Arabic by majority of Nubians.}} [[Arabic]] ([[Sudanese Arabic]], [[Sa'idi Arabic]], [[Egyptian Arabic]])
| rels = [[Sunni Islam]]
| related = [[Sudanese Arabs]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hale|first1=Sondra|title=Nubians: A Study in Ethnic Identity|date=1973|publisher=Institute of African and Asian Studies, University of Khartoum|page=24|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VrEKAQAAIAAJ|access-date=14 November 2017}}</ref> [[Beja people|Beja]], [[Egyptians]], [[Cushitic speaking peoples|Cushites]], [[Nilotic peoples]]
| native_name = Nobī {{lang|ar|النوبيون}}
}}

'''Nubians''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|uː|b|i|ən|z|,_|ˈ|n|j|uː|-}}) ([[Nobiin language|Nobiin]]: ''Nobī'';<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reinisch |first=Leo |title=Die Nuba-Sprache |publisher=Wilhelm Braumüller |year=1879 |location=Wien}}</ref> {{Langx|ar|النوبيون}}) are a [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] speaking [[ethnic group]] indigenous to the region which is now northern [[Sudan]] and [[southern Egypt]]. They originate from the early inhabitants of the central [[Nile]] valley, believed to be one of the earliest [[cradle of civilization|cradles of civilization]].<ref>Charles Keith Maisels (1993). The Near East: Archaeology in the "Cradle of Civilization. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-04742-0}}.</ref> In the southern valley of Egypt, Nubians differ culturally and ethnically from [[Egyptians]], although they intermarried with them and other ethnic groups, especially [[Arabs]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt – People {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/People |access-date=2022-09-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> They speak [[Nubian languages]] as a mother tongue, part of the [[Northern Eastern Sudanic languages]], and [[Arabic]] as a second language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sudan {{!}} History, Map, Area, Population, Religion, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sudan |access-date=2022-09-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Neolithic]] settlements have been found in the central Nubian region dating back to 7000 BC, with [[Wadi Halfa]] believed to be the oldest settlement in the central Nile valley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancientsudan.org/burials_01_prehistory.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906231922/http://www.ancientsudan.org/burials_01_prehistory.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-date=6 September 2008|title=Ancient Sudan~ Nubia: Burials: Prehistory|website=ancientsudan.org}}</ref> Parts of Nubia, particularly [[Lower Nubia]], were at times a part of ancient Pharaonic Egypt and at other times a rival state representing parts of [[Meroë]] or the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. By the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty]] (744 BC–656 BC), all of Egypt was united with Nubia, extending down to what is now [[Khartoum]].<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nubia|title=Nubia – ancient region, Africa|date=16 June 2023 }}</ref> However, in 656 BC, the native [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-sixth Dynasty]] regained control of Egypt. As warriors, the ancient Nubians were famous for their skill and precision with the [[bow and arrow]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brier|first1=Bob|author-link1=Bob Brier|last2=Hobbs|first2=A. Hoyt |title=Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1LsCh68d7kC&pg=PA249|year=2008|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-35306-2|page=249}}</ref> In the [[Middle Ages]], the Nubians converted to [[Christianity]] and established three kingdoms: [[Nobatia]] in the north, [[Makuria]] in the center, and [[Alodia]] in the south. They then converted to [[Islam]] during the [[Islamization of the Sudan region]].

Today, Nubians in Egypt primarily live in [[southern Egypt]], especially in [[Kom Ombo]] and Nasr al-Nuba ({{Langx|ar|نصر النوبة}}) north of [[Aswan]],<ref name=20161025egypttoday>{{cite web|title=52 Years After Displacement, Scars Of Loss Remain For Nubians|url=http://www.egypttoday.com/Article/10/3182/52-Years-After-Displacement-Scars-Of-Loss-Remain-For-Nubians|access-date=2020-07-18|website=Egypt Today|date=25 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=2015-11-17|title=For Egypt's Nubians, years of patience wear thin and anger rises|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-election-nubians-idUSKCN0T61HT20151117|access-date=2020-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=جماعات النوبة.. اعتزال الآخر وانصهار مع الذات|url=https://www.aljazeera.net/knowledgegate/2017/12/1/جماعات-النوبة-اعتزال-الآخر-وانصهار-مع|access-date=2020-07-18|website=aljazeera.net|language=ar}}</ref> and large cities such as [[Cairo]], while Sudanese Nubians live in northern Sudan, particularly in the region between the city of [[Wadi Halfa]] on the [[Egypt–Sudan border]] and [[al Dabbah, Sudan|al Dabbah]]. Some Nubians were forcibly moved to [[Khashm el Girba]] and [[New Halfa]] upon the construction of the High Dam in Egypt which flooded their ancestral lands. Additionally, a group known as the [[Midob people|Midob]] live in northern [[Darfur]], a group named Birgid in Central Darfur and several groups known as the [[Hill Nubians]] who live in Northern Kordofan in [[Haraza language|Haraza]] and a few villages in the northern [[Nuba Mountains]] in [[South Kordofan]] state.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U88_xV5wOHoC&pg=PA26|title=I Am a Nuba|last1=Sesana|first1=Renato Kizito|last2=Borruso|first2=Silvano|date=2006|publisher=Paulines Publications Africa|isbn=978-9966-081-79-7|page=26|language=en}}</ref>

The main Nile Nubian groups from north to south are the Kenzi ([[Kenzi language|Kenzi/Mattokki-speaking]]), Faddicca ([[Nobiin language|Nobiin-speaking]]), Halfawi ([[Nobiin language|Nobiin-speaking]]), Sukkot ([[Nobiin language|Nobiin-speaking]]), Mahas ([[Nobiin language|Nobiin-speaking]]), and [[Danagla]] ([[Dongolawi language|Andaandi-speaking]]).<ref name="Lobban">{{cite book |last1=Lobban Jr. |first1=Richard A. |author-link1=Richard Lobban |title=Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia |date=2003 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6578-5 |page=214 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jF2jq5JrkS4C&q=.+Historical+Dictionary+of+Ancient+and+Medieval+Nubia}}</ref>

==Etymology==
Throughout history various parts of [[Nubia]] were known by different names, including {{langx|egy|tꜣ stj}} "Land of the Bow", ''tꜣ nḥsj'', ''jꜣm'' "[[Kerma Culture|Kerma]]", ''jrṯt'', ''sṯjw'', ''wꜣwꜣt'', [[Meroitic language|Meroitic]]: ''akin(e)'' "Lower "Nubia", and [[Greek Language|Greek]] ''[[Aethiopia]]''.<ref name="oi.uchicago.edu"/> The origin of the names ''Nubia'' and ''Nubian'' is contested. Based on cultural traits, some scholars believe Nubia is derived from the {{langx|egy|nbw}} "gold",<ref name="Bianchi">{{cite book|last=Bianchi|first=Robert Steven|title=Daily Life Of The Nubians|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian|url-access=limited|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32501-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian/page/n24 2], 5}}</ref> although there is no such usage of the term as an ethnonym or toponym that can be found in known Egyptian texts; the Egyptians referred to people from this area as the ''nḥsj.w''. The [[Roman Empire]] used the term "Nubia" to describe the area of [[Upper Egypt]] and northern [[Sudan]].<ref name="oi.uchicago.edu">{{cite web|url=https://oi.uchicago.edu/museum-exhibits/history-ancient-nubia|title=The History of Ancient Nubia – The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago|website=oi.uchicago.edu}}</ref>

==History==
{{further|Nubia}}
[[File:Senkamanisken_statue,_Kerma_Museum.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|left|Kushite king [[Senkamanisken]] c. 643–623 BC. [[Kerma Museum]]]]
[[File:Epoca tolemaica, stata d'uomo con fascetta e capelli ricci, 120-100 ac ca..JPG|thumb|upright|Marble portrait of a Nubia denizen c. 120–100 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Head of a Man with Tight, Curly Hair|url=https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/en-GB/objects/3790|access-date=2025-07-02|website=www.brooklynmuseum.org}}</ref>]]

The prehistory of Nubia dates to the [[Paleolithic]] around 300,000 years ago. By about 6000 BC, peoples in the region had developed an agricultural economy. In their history,{{When|date=March 2024}} they adopted the Egyptian hieroglyphic system. Ancient history in Nubia is categorized according to the following periods:<ref>{{cite book|last=Bianchi|first=Robert Steven|title=Daily Life Of The Nubians|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian|url-access=limited|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32501-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian/page/n24 2]–3}}</ref> [[A-Group culture]] (3700–2800 BC), [[C-Group culture]] (2300–1600 BC), [[Kerma culture]] (2500–1500 BC), Nubian contemporaries of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (1550–1069 BC), the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty]] (1000–653 BC), [[Napata]] (1000–275 BC), [[Meroë]] (275 BC–300/350 AD), [[Makuria]] (340–1317 AD), [[Nobatia]] (350–650 AD), and [[Alodia]] (600s–1504 AD).

Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late [[Pleistocene]] era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gatto |first1=Maria C. |title=The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological Record |url=https://www.academia.edu/545582}}</ref>

Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilisation derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wengrow |first1=David |last2=Dee |first2=Michael |last3=Foster |first3=Sarah |last4=Stevenson |first4=Alice |last5=Ramsey |first5=Christopher Bronk |title=Cultural convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: a prehistoric perspective on Egypt's place in Africa |journal=Antiquity |date=March 2014 |volume=88 |issue=339 |pages=95–111 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00050249 |s2cid=49229774 |language=en |issn=0003-598X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Various [[Biological anthropology|biological anthropological]] studies have shown close, biological affinities between the predynastic southern, Egyptian and the early Nubian populations.<ref>"When Mahalanobis
D2 was used,the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita,1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma". {{cite journal |last1=Zakrzewski |first1=Sonia R. |title=Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=April 2007 |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=501–509 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.20569 |pmid=17295300 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.20569 |language=en|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keita |first1=S. O. Y. |title=Early Nile Valley Farmers From El-Badari: Aboriginals or "European" Agro-Nostratic Immigrants? Craniometric Affinities Considered With Other Data |journal=Journal of Black Studies |date=2005 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=191–208 |doi=10.1177/0021934704265912 |jstor=40034328 |s2cid=144482802 |issn=0021-9347}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Godde |first1=Kanya |title=A biological perspective of the relationship between Egypt, Nubia, and the Near East during the Predynastic period |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337001806 |access-date=20 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=So |first1=Keita |last2=Aj |first2=Boyce |title=Temporal variation in phenetic affinity of early Upper Egyptian male cranial series |journal=Human Biology |date=2008 |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=141–159 |doi=10.3378/1534-6617(2008)80[141:TVIPAO]2.0.CO;2 |pmid=18720900 |s2cid=25207756 |language=en |issn=0018-7143}}</ref><ref>"Keita (1992), using craniometrics, discovered that the Badarian series is distinctly different from the later Egyptian series, a conclusion that is mostly confirmed here. In the current analysis, the Badari sample more closely clusters with the Naqada sample and the Kerma sample". {{cite journal |last1=Godde |first1=K. |title=An examination of Nubian and Egyptian biological distances: support for biological diffusion or in situ development? |journal=Homo: Internationale Zeitschrift für die Vergleichende Forschung am Menschen |date=2009 |volume=60 |issue=5 |pages=389–404 |doi=10.1016/j.jchb.2009.08.003 |pmid=19766993 |issn=1618-1301}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |pages=84–85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+africa:+a+global+history,+to+300+ce+christopher+ehret |language=en}}</ref>

[[Frank Yurco]] (1996) remarked that depictions of pharonic iconography such as the royal crowns, Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in the [[Upper Egypt]]ian [[Naqada culture]] and [[A-Group culture|A-Group Lower Nubia]]. He further elaborated that "Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan Upper Egypt and A-Group Lower Nubia, and not in the Delta cultures, where the direct [[Western Asia]]n contact was made, [which] further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frank J.Yurco |title="The Origin and Development of Ancient Nile Valley Writing," in Egypt in Africa, Theodore Celenko (ed). |date=1996 |publisher=Indianapolis Museum of Art |location=Indianapolis, Ind. |isbn=0-936260-64-5 |pages=34–35}}</ref>

In 2023, [[Christopher Ehret]] reported that the existing [[archaeological]], [[linguistic]], [[physical anthropology|biological anthropological]] and [[Genetics|genetic]] evidence had determined the founding populations of Ancient Egyptian areas such as [[Naqada culture|Naqada]] and [[Badarian culture|El-Badari]] to be the descendants of longtime inhabitants in [[Northeast Africa|Northeastern Africa]] which included Egypt, Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |pages=83–86, 97, 167–169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+africa:+a+global+history,+to+300+ce+christopher+ehret |language=en |access-date=20 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322125442/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+africa:+a+global+history,+to+300+ce+christopher+ehret |url-status=live }}</ref>

The linguistic affinities of early Nubian cultures are uncertain. Some research has suggested that the early inhabitants of the Nubia region, during the C-Group and Kerma cultures, were speakers of languages belonging to the [[Berber languages|Berber]] and [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branches, respectively, of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic family]]. More recent research instead suggests that the people of the Kerma culture spoke [[Nilo-Saharan]] languages of the [[Eastern Sudanic]] branch and that the peoples of the C-Group culture to their north spoke Cushitic languages.<ref name="Rilly2010">{{cite web | vauthors = Rilly C | title = Recent Research on Meroitic, the Ancient Language of Sudan |year = 2010 |url=http://www.ityopis.org/Issues-1_files/ITYOPIS-I-Rilly.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Rilly200162">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rilly C | title = The Wadi Howar Diaspora and its role in the spread of East Sudanic languages from the fourth to the first millenia BCE | journal = Faits de Langues | volume = 47 | pages = 151–163 | date = January 2016 | doi = 10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000010| s2cid = 134352296 }}</ref><ref name="Rilly2008">{{cite book |doi=10.31338/uw.9788323533269.pp.211-226 |chapter=Enemy brothers. Kinship and relationship between Meroites and Nubians (Noba) |title=Between the Cataracts. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference for Nubian Studies Warsaw University 27 August-2 September 2006. Part 1. Main Papers |year=2008 |last1=Rilly |first1=Claude |isbn=978-83-235-3326-9 }}</ref><ref name="Cooper">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cooper J |title=Toponymic Strata in Ancient Nubia until the Common Era |journal=Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies |volume=4 |year=2017 |doi=10.5070/d64110028 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They were succeeded by the first Nubian language speakers, whose tongues belonged to another branch of Eastern Sudanic languages within the Nilo-Saharan phylum.<ref name="Bechhaus-Gerst"/><ref name="Lbant"/> A 4th-century AD victory [[stele|stela]] commemorative of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Axumite]] king [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] contains inscriptions describing two distinct population groups dwelling in ancient Nubia: a "red" population and a "black" population.<ref name="Ezanastel">{{cite book|title=Asiatic Society Monograph Series, Volume 15|date=1968|publisher=Asiatic Society|page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czlRAQAAIAAJ|access-date=10 October 2017}}</ref>

Although Egypt and Nubia have a shared pre-dynastic and pharaonic history, the two histories diverge with the fall of Ancient Egypt and the conquest of Egypt by [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 BC.<ref name="britannica.com"/> At this point, the area of land between the 1st and the 6th cataract of the [[Nile]] became known as Nubia.

[[File:View of Nubians, 1683 (cropped).jpg|thumb|View of Nubians, 1683 (cropped)]]
[[File:Group of Nubians with weapons, Egypt. Coloured lithograph by Wellcome V0049326.jpg|thumb|Group of Nubians with weapons, Egypt, 1849]]
Egypt was conquered first by the [[Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)|Persians]] and named the [[Satrap]]y (Province) of Mudriya, and two centuries later by the Greeks and then the Romans. During the latter period, however, the [[Kushites]] formed the kingdom of [[Meroë]], which was ruled by a series of [[kandake|Candaces]] or Queens. The Candace of Meroë was able to intimidate Alexander the Great into retreat with a great army of elephants, while historical documents suggest that the Nubians defeated the Roman Emperor [[Augustus Caesar]], resulting in a favorable peace treaty for Meroë.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Meroe/|encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|title=Meroe}}</ref> The kingdom of Meroë also defeated the Persians, and later Christian Nubia defeated the invading Arab armies on three different occasions resulting in the 600 year peace treaty of ''[[Baqt]]'', the longest lasting treaty in history.<ref>Jakobielski, S. 1992. Chapter 8: "Christian Nubia at the Height of its Civilization." UNESCO General History of Africa, Volume III. University of California Press</ref> The fall of the kingdom of Christian Nubia occurred in the early 1500s resulting in full Islamization and reunification with Egypt under the Ottoman Empire, the Muhammad Ali dynasty, and British colonial rule. After the 1956 independence of Sudan from Egypt, Nubia and the Nubian people became divided between Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan.

Modern Nubians speak [[Nubian languages]], [[Eastern Sudanic languages]] that is part of the [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan family]]. The [[Old Nubian language]] is attested from the 8th century AD, and may be the oldest well-recorded [[languages of Africa|language of Africa]] outside of the Afroasiatic family, depending on the classification of [[Meroitic language|Meroitic]] and the language of the [[Garamantes]].

Nubia consisted of four regions with varied agriculture and landscapes. The Nile river and its valley were found in the north and central parts of Nubia, allowing farming using irrigation. The western Sudan had a mixture of peasant agriculture and nomadism. Eastern Sudan had primarily nomadism, with a few areas of irrigation and agriculture. Finally, there was the fertile pastoral region of the south, where Nubia's larger agricultural communities were located.<ref name="Lobban 2004 liii">{{cite book|last=Lobban|first=Richard|title=Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-4784-2|page=liii}}</ref>

Nubia was dominated by kings from clans that controlled the gold mines. Trade in exotic goods from other parts of Africa (ivory, animal skins) passed to Egypt through Nubia.

==Language==
Modern Nubians speak [[Nubian languages]]. They belong to the [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic branch]] of the [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan phylum]]. But there is some uncertainty regarding the classification of the languages spoken in Nubia in antiquity. There is some evidence that [[Cushitic languages]] were spoken in parts of Lower (northern) [[Nubia]], an ancient region which straddles present-day Southern [[Egypt]] and Northern [[Sudan]], and that Eastern Sudanic languages were spoken in Upper and Central Nubia, before the spread of Eastern Sudanic languages even further north into Lower Nubia.<ref name="Cooper" />

[[Peter Behrens]] (1981) and Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst (2000) suggest that the ancient peoples of the [[C-Group culture|C-Group]] and [[Kerma culture|Kerma]] civilizations spoke [[Afroasiatic]] languages of the [[Berber languages|Berber]] and [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branches, respectively.<ref name="Bechhaus-Gerst">{{cite book |last1=Bechhaus-Gerst |first1=Marianne |chapter=Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan |pages=469–481 |doi=10.4324/9780203984239-37 |editor1-last=Blench |editor1-first=Roger |editor2-last=MacDonald |editor2-first=Kevin |title=The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography |date=27 January 2006 |publisher=Routledge |doi-broken-date=12 July 2025 |isbn=978-1-135-43416-8 }}</ref><ref name="Lbant">{{cite book|last1=Behrens|first1=Peter|title=Libya Antiqua: Report and Papers of the Symposium Organized by Unesco in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984 - "Language and migrations of the early Saharan cattle herders: the formation of the Berber branch"|date=1986|publisher=Unesco|isbn=92-3-102376-4|page=30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_hwAAAAMAAJ|access-date=14 September 2014}}</ref> They propose that the Nilo-Saharan [[Nobiin language]] today contains a number of key pastoralism related [[loanword]]s that are of Berber or proto-Highland East Cushitic origin, including the terms for sheep/goatskin, hen/cock, livestock enclosure, butter and milk. This in turn, is interpreted to suggest that the C-Group and Kerma populations, who inhabited the Nile Valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers, spoke Afroasiatic languages.<ref name="Bechhaus-Gerst"/>

Claude Rilly (2010, 2016) and Julien Cooper (2017) on the other hand, suggest that the Kerma peoples (of Upper Nubia) spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudanic branch, possibly ancestral to the later [[Meroitic language]], which Rilly also suggests was Nilo-Saharan.<ref name="Rilly2010" /><ref name="Rilly200162"/> Rilly also considers evidence of significant early Afro-Asiatic influence, especially Berber, on Nobiin to be weak (and where present, more likely due to borrowed loanwords than substrata), and considers evidence of substratal influence on Nobiin from an earlier now extinct Eastern Sudanic language to be stronger.<ref name="Rilly2008"/>
Julien Cooper (2017) suggests that Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudan branch were spoken by the people of Kerma, those further south along the Nile, to the west, and those of [[Saï (island)|Saï]] (an island to the north of Kerma), but that Afro-Asiatic (most likely Cushitic) languages were spoken by other peoples in Lower Nubia (such as the [[Medjay]] and the C-Group culture) living in Nubian regions north of Saï toward Egypt and those southeast of the Nile in [[Land of Punt|Punt]] in the Eastern dessert. Based partly on an analysis of the phonology of place names and personal names from the relevant regions preserved in ancient texts, he argues that the terms from "Kush" and "Irem" (ancient names for Kerma and the region south of it respectively) in Egyptian texts display traits typical of Eastern Sudanic languages, while those from further north (in Lower Nubia) and east are more typical of the Afro-Asiatic family, noting: "The Irem-list also provides a similar inventory to Kush, placing this firmly in an Eastern Sudanic zone. These Irem/Kush-lists are distinctive from the Wawat-, Medjay-, Punt-, and Wetenet-lists, which provide sounds typical to Afroasiatic languages."<ref name="Cooper" />

It is also uncertain to which language family the ancient Meroitic language is related. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the [[Egyptian language]], belongs to the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] family. She bases this on its sound inventory and [[phonotactics]], which, she argues, are similar to those of the Afroasiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages.<ref>Rowan, Kirsty (2011). "Meroitic Consonant and Vowel Patterning". ''Lingua Aegytia'', 19.</ref><ref>Rowan, Kirsty (2006), [http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf "Meroitic – An Afroasiatic Language?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227133051/http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf |date=27 December 2015 }} ''{{abbr|SOAS|School of Oriental and African Studies}} Working Papers in Linguistics'' 14:169–206.</ref> Claude Rilly proposes, based on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary, that Meroitic, like the Nobiin language, belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Rilly, Claude |author2=de Voogt, Alex | year = 2012 | title = The Meroitic Language and Writing System | location = Cambridge, UK | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-1-107-00866-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Rilly, Claude | year = 2004 |url=http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf | title = The Linguistic Position of Meroitic | journal = Sudan Electronic Journal of Archaeology and Anthropology | access-date = 2017-10-10 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213222/http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf | archive-date = 2015-09-23 }}</ref>

==Nubian Greeks==
{{further|African Greeks|Axumite Empire}}

=== The [[Noba]] conquest of Kush and the Axumite capture of Meroe===
[[File:Magi, Faras.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A Nubian Greek fresco in [[Faras]]]]
The Kingdom of Kush persisted as a major regional power until the fourth century AD, when it weakened and disintegrated amid worsening climatic conditions, internal rebellions, and foreign invasions— notably by the [[Noba]] people, who introduced the Nubian languages and gave their name to Nubia itself. While the Kushites were occupied by war with the Noba and the [[Blemmyes]], the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumites]] took the opportunity to capture Meroë and loot its gold. [[Negus]] [[Ezana]] then took on the title of "[[King of Ethiopia]],"<ref>Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 0748601066</ref> a practice which would last into the modern period and was recorded in inscriptions found in both Axum and Meroe. Although the Aksumite presence was likely short-lived, it prompted the dissolution of the Kushite kingdom into the three polities of [[Nobatia]], [[Makuria]] and [[Alodia]]. The Kingdom of Alodia subsequently gained control of the southern territory of the former Meroitic empire, including parts of Eritrea.<ref>Derek Welsby (2014): "The Kingdom of Alwa" in "The Fourth Cataract and Beyond". Peeters.</ref>
The [[Axumite Empire]] of [[Ethiopia]] engaged in a series of invasions that culminated in the capture of the Nubian capital of Meroë in the middle of the 4th century AD, signaling the end of independent Nubian Pagan kingdoms. The Axumites then sent missionaries to Nubia to establish similar Syrian-based Christianity like in Ethiopia, but were competing with Egyptian-based Christianity, who eventually established the authority of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Church]] in the area, and founded new Nubian Christian kingdoms, such as [[Nobatia]], [[Alodia]], and [[Makuria]].<ref name="mohammadali">{{cite book |title=Ethnicity, Politics, and Society in Northeast Africa Conflict and Social Change|author=Mohammad Ali|publisher=University Press of America|year=1996|page=119}}</ref><ref name="mhonegger">{{cite book |title=Nubian Archaeology in the XXIst Century Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference for Nubian Studies, Neuchatel, 1st–6th September 2014|author=M Honegger|publisher=Peeters Publishers|year=2018|page=586}}</ref><ref name="christianityaswannubia">{{cite book |title=Christianity and Monasticism in Aswan and Nubia|author=Gawdat Gabra|author2=Hany Takla|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|year=2013|page=352}}</ref><ref name="garthfowden">{{cite book |title=Empire to Commonwealth Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity|author=Garth Fowden|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|year=2020|page=116}}</ref>

Tribal nomads like the [[Blemmyes|Beja]], [[Afar people|Afar]], and [[Saho people|Saho]] managed to remain autonomous due to their uncentralized nomadic nature. These tribal peoples would sporadically inflict attacks and raids on Axumite communities. The Beja nomads eventually [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] and integrated into the Nubian Greek society that had already been present in [[Lower Nubia]] for three centuries.<ref name="mohammadali" /><ref name="mhonegger" /><ref name="christianityaswannubia" />

===Nubian Greek society===
[[File:Nubian Greek King of Makuria Moses George.jpg|thumb|right|upright|King [[Moses Georgios of Makuria]]]]
Nubian Greek culture followed the pattern of [[Egyptian Greeks|Egyptian Greek]] and [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantine Greek]] civilization, expressed in Nubian Greek art and Nubian Greek literature. The earliest attestations of Nubian Greek literature come from the [[5th century]]; the Nubian Greek language resembles Egyptian and [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine Greek]]; it served as a ''lingua franca'' throughout the Nubian Kingdoms, and had a [[Pidgin|creolized]] form for trade among the different peoples in Nubia.<ref name="ghrhorsley">{{cite book |title=Linguistic essays|author=G. H. R. Horsley|publisher=Ancient History Documentary Research Centre|others=Macquarie University|year=1989|pages=10, 11}}</ref>

Nubian Greek was unique in that it adopted many words from both [[Coptic language|Coptic Egyptian]] and [[old Nubian|Nubian]]; Nubian Greek's syntax also evolved to establish a fixed word order.<ref name="oxfordancientnubia">{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia|author=Geoff Emberling|author2=Bruce Williams|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|page=801}}</ref>

The following is an example of Nubian Greek language:

{{blockquote|'''ⲟⲩⲧⲟⲥ ⲉⲥⲧⲓⲛ ⲁⲇⲁⲩⲉⲗ ⲃⲁⲥⲓⲗⲉⲩ ⲙⲱⲥⲉⲥ ⲅⲉⲱⲣⲅⲓⲟⲩ, ⲃⲁⲥⲓⲗⲉⲩ ⲛⲟⲩⲃⲇⲏⲥ, ⲁⲣⲟⲩⲁ, ⲙⲁⲕⲣⲟ'''}}
{{blockquote|Οὗτός ἐστιν ἀδαύελ Βασιλεύ Μώσες Γεωργίου, Βασιλεύ Νουβδῆς, Ἀρουά, Μακρό}}
{{blockquote|This is the great King Moses Georgios, the King of Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria<ref name="jacquesvandervliet">{{cite book |title=The Christian Epigraphy of Egypt and Nubia|author=Jacques van der Vliet|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2018|page=464}}</ref>}}

A plethora of frescoes created between 800–1200{{nbsp}}AD in Nubian cities such as [[Faras]] depicted religious life in the courts of the Nubian Kingdoms; they were made in [[Byzantine art]] style.<ref name="whcfrend">{{cite book |title=The Rise of Christianity|author=W.H.C Frend|year=1984|page=847}}</ref>

Nubian Greek titles and government styles in Nubian Kingdoms were based on Byzantine models; even with Islamic encroachments and influence into Nubian territory, the Nubian Greeks saw [[Constantinople]] as their spiritual home.<ref name="whcfrend" /> Nubian Greek culture disappeared after the Muslim conquest of Nubia around 1450{{nbsp}}AD.<ref name="whcfrend" />

==Modern Nubians==
[[File:Egypt-Nubian wedding.jpg|thumb|Nubian wedding near [[Aswan]]|220x220px]]

The descendants of the ancient Nubians still inhabit the general area of what was ancient [[Nubia]]. They currently live in what is called Old Nubia, mainly located in modern Egypt and Sudan. Nubians have been resettled in large numbers (an estimated 50,000 people) away from [[Wadi Halfa]] North Sudan in to [[Khashm el Girba]] – [[Sudan]] and some moved to Southern Egypt since the 1960s, when the [[Aswan High Dam]] was built on the Nile, flooding ancestral lands.<ref name="Fernea 2005 ix-xi">{{cite book|last=Fernea|first=Robert A.|title=Nubian Ceremonial Life: Studies in Islamic Syncretism And Cultural Change|year=2005|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-424-955-6|pages=ix–xi}}</ref> Most Nubians nowadays work in Egyptian and Sudanese cities. Whereas Arabic was once only learned by Nubian men who travelled for work, it is increasingly being learned by Nubian women who have access to school, radio and television. Nubian women are working outside the home in increasing numbers.<ref name="Fernea 2005 ix-xi"/>

During the [[Yom Kippur War]] of 1973, Egypt employed Nubian people as [[Code talker]]s.<ref name=20140201nationalgeographic>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140131-egypt-nubia-dams-nile-constitution-culture/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201131349/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140131-egypt-nubia-dams-nile-constitution-culture/|archive-date=1 February 2014|title=Changing Egypt Offers Hope to Long-Marginalized Nubians|date=1 February 2014|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/39595/Egypt/Politics-/Remembering-Nubia-the-Land-of-Gold.aspx|title=Remembering Nubia: the Land of Gold – Politics – Egypt – Ahram Online|access-date=9 August 2016|archive-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203122544/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/39595/Egypt/Politics-/Remembering-Nubia-the-Land-of-Gold.aspx}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cairowestmag.com/el-nuba/|title=El Nuba – Cairo West Magazine|first=Cairo|last=West|access-date=9 August 2016|date=2014-04-02|archive-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203095911/http://www.cairowestmag.com/el-nuba/}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:Old Nubian manuscript.jpg|thumbnail|Old Nubian manuscript]]

Nubians have developed a common identity, which has been celebrated in poetry, novels, music, and storytelling.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kemp, Graham |author2=Douglas P. Fry |name-list-style=amp |title=Keeping the Peace: Conflict Resolution and Peaceful Societies Around the World|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-94762-6|page=99}}</ref>

Nubians in modern Sudan include the [[Danagla]] around Dongola Reach, the Mahas from the Third Cataract to Wadi Halfa, and the Sikurta around Aswan. These Nubians write using their own script. They also practice [[scarification]]: Mahas men and women have three scars on each cheek, while the Danaqla wear these scars on their temples. Younger generations appear to be abandoning this custom.<ref name="Clammer 2010 138">{{cite book|last=Clammer|first=Paul|title=Sudan: the Bradt travel guide|year=2010|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-84162-206-4|page=138}}</ref>

Nubia's ancient cultural development was influenced by its geography. It is sometimes divided into Upper Nubia and Lower Nubia. Upper Nubia was where the ancient Kingdom of Napata (the Kush) was located. Lower Nubia has been called [https://www.scribd.com/doc/125867355/Adams-w-The-Nubian-Kingdom-of-Kerma-Nubia-Corridor-to-Africa "the corridor to Africa"], where there was contact and cultural exchange between Nubians, Egyptians, Greeks, Assyrians, Romans, and Arabs. Lower Nubia was also where the [[Meroë|Kingdom of Meroe]] flourished.<ref name="Lobban 2004 liii"/> The languages spoken by modern Nubians are based on ancient Sudanic dialects. From north to south, they are: Kenuz, Fadicha (Matoki), Sukkot, Mahas, Danagla.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lobban|first=Richard|title=Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-4784-2|page=liv}}</ref>

Kerma, Nepata, and Meroe were Nubia's largest population centres. The rich agricultural lands of Nubia supported these cities. Ancient Egyptian rulers sought control of Nubia's wealth, including gold, and the important trade routes within its territories.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bulliet, Richard W., and Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Lyman L. Johnson, Steven W. Hirsch|title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History to 1550|year=2007|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-618-77150-9|page=82}}</ref> Nubia's trade links with Egypt led to Egypt's domination over Nubia during the New Kingdom period. The emergence of the Kingdom of Meroe in the 8th century BC led to Egypt being under the control of Nubian rulers for a century, although they preserved many Egyptian cultural traditions.<ref name="Bulliet, Richard W., and Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Lyman L. Johnson, Steven W. Hirsch 2007 83">{{cite book|last=Bulliet, Richard W., and Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Lyman L. Johnson, Steven W. Hirsch|title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History to 1550|year=2007|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-618-77150-9|page=83}}</ref> Nubian kings were considered pious scholars and patrons of the arts, copying ancient Egyptian texts and even restoring some Egyptian cultural practices.<ref name="Remier 2010 135">{{cite book|last=Remier|first=Pat|title=Egyptian Mythology, A to Z|year=2010|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-3180-1|page=135}}</ref> After this, Egypt's influence declined greatly. Meroe became the centre of power for Nubia and cultural links with other parts of Africa gained greater influence.<ref name="Bulliet, Richard W., and Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Lyman L. Johnson, Steven W. Hirsch 2007 83"/>

===Religion===
{{Main|Kushite religion}}

Today, Nubians practice [[Islam]]. To a certain degree, Nubian religious practices involve a [[syncretism]] of Islam and [[traditional]] folk beliefs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fernea|first=Robert A.|title=Nubian Ceremonial Life: Studies in Islamic Syncretism And Cultural Change|year=2005|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-424-955-6|pages=iv–ix}}</ref> In ancient times, Nubians practiced a mixture of traditional religion and Egyptian religion. Prior to the spread of Islam, many Nubians practiced Christianity.<ref name="Clammer 2010 138"/>

Beginning in the eighth century, Islam arrived in Nubia. Though Christians and Muslims (primarily Arab merchants at this period) may have lived peacefully together, Arab armies often invaded Christian Nubian kingdoms. An example of this being Makuria, where in 651 an Arab army invaded, but was repulsed, and a treaty known as the ''[[Baqt]]'' was signed, preventing further Arab invasions in exchange for 360 slaves each year. Notably, the Baqt required Nubians to maintain a mosque for Muslim visitors and residents. This, and with the following Ottoman occupation of Lower Nubia in the 1560s, led to the kingdom and Christian Nubian society to disappear. The former Makurian territories south of the 3rd cataract, including the former capital Dongola, had been annexed by the Islamic [[Funj Sultanate]] by the early 16th century.<ref>Manning, P. (1990). Slavery and African life: occidental, oriental, and African slave trades. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 28-29</ref> Over time, the Nubians gradually converted to Islam, beginning with the Nubian elite. Islam was mainly spread via Sufi preachers that settled in Nubia in the late 14th century onwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Werner|first=Roland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uNCGon1Z7JoC|title=Das Christentum in Nubien: Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|year=2013|isbn=978-3-643-12196-7|pages=155–156|language=de}}</ref> By the sixteenth century, most of the Nubians were Muslim.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=1-57958-468-3|editor-last=Skutsch|editor-first=Carl|location=New York|page=306}}</ref>

Ancient Nepata was an important religious centre in Nubia. It was the location of [[Gebel Barkal]], a massive sandstone hill resembling a rearing cobra in the eyes of the ancient inhabitants. Egyptian priests declared it to be the home of the ancient deity [[Amun]], further enhancing Nepata as an ancient religious site. This was the case for both Egyptians and Nubians. Egyptian and Nubian deities alike were worshipped in Nubia for 2,500 years, even while Nubia was under the control of the New Kingdom of Egypt.<ref name="Remier 2010 135"/> Nubian kings and queens were buried near Gebel Barkal, in pyramids as the Egyptian pharaohs were. [[Nubian pyramids]] were built at Gebel Barkal, at Nuri (across the Nile from Gebel Barkal), at El Kerru, and at [[Meroe]], south of Gebel Barkal.<ref name="Remier 2010 135"/>

==Architecture==
{{main|Nubian architecture}}
[[File:ModernNubianArchitecture.jpg|thumb|Ornately decorated Nubian gate]]

Modern Nubian architecture in Sudan is distinctive, and typically features a large courtyard surrounded by a high wall. A large, ornately decorated gate, preferably facing the Nile, dominates the property. Brightly colored stucco is often decorated with symbols connected with the family inside, or popular motifs such as geometric patterns, palm trees, or the evil eye that wards away bad luck.<ref name="Clammer 2010 138"/>

Nubians invented the [[Nubian vault]], a type of curved surface forming a [[Vault (architecture)|vaulted]] structure.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nubian Vault – a historical masterpiece|url=https://dreamivill.com/web/index.php/news-events/70-nubianvualt|website=dreamivill.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2020-05-29|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727034415/https://dreamivill.com/web/index.php/news-events/70-nubianvualt}}</ref>

==Genetics==
[[Autosome|Autosomal]] DNA has been extensively studied in recent years, and some of the findings are as follows:
* Babiker, H. M., Schlebusch, C. M., Hassan, H. Y., et al. (2011) revealed that individuals from northern Sudan clustered with those from Egypt, while individuals from [[South Sudan]] clustered with those from Karamoja (Uganda). They conclude that "the similarity of the Nubian and Egyptian populations suggest that migration, potentially bidirectional, occurred along the Nile river Valley, which is consistent with the historical evidence for long-term interactions between Egypt and Nubia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Babiker |first1=Hiba MA |last2=Schlebusch |first2=Carina M. |last3=Hassan |first3=Hisham Y. |last4=Jakobsson |first4=Mattias |date=2011-05-04 |title=Genetic variation and population structure of Sudanese populations as indicated by 15 Identifiler sequence-tagged repeat (STR) loci |journal=Investigative Genetics |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=12 |doi=10.1186/2041-2223-2-12 |issn=2041-2223 |pmc=3118356 |pmid=21542921 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Dobon et al. (2015) identified an ancestral autosomal component of [[Genetic history of Europe|West Eurasian]] origin that is common to many Sudanese Arabs, Nubians and Afroasiatic-speaking populations in the region. Nubians were found to be genetically modelled similar to their Cushitic and Semitic (Afro-Asiatic) neighbors (such as the [[Beja people|Beja]], [[Sudanese Arabs]], and Ethiopians) rather than to other [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] speakers who lack this Middle Eastern/North African influence. The study showed that these populations formed a "North-East cluster", which included Northern Sudanese. This may be explained by the aforementioned groups being a mixture of a population similar to Modern Coptic Egyptians, and an ancestral Southern African one.<ref name="Dobon2015">{{cite journal|author=Begoña Dobon |display-authors=etal|title=The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|journal=Scientific Reports|date=28 May 2015|volume=5|doi=10.1038/srep09996|article-number=9996|pmid=26017457|pmc=4446898|bibcode=2015NatSR...5.9996D}}</ref>
* Sirak et al. (2015) analysed the DNA of a Christian-period inhabitant of [[Kulubnarti]] in northern Nubia near the Egyptian border. They found that this individual was most closely related to Middle Eastern populations.<ref name=researchgate275031861>{{cite web|title=Optimizing ancient DNA yield from Saharan African samples|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275031861|publisher=Sirak et al.|access-date=10 April 2016}}</ref> Further excavations of two Early Christian period (AD 550–800) cemeteries at Kulubnarti, one located on the mainland and the other on an island, revealed the existence of two ancestrally and socioeconomically distinct local populations. Preliminary results, including mitochondrial haplogroup analysis, suggests there may be substantial differences in the genetic composition between the two communities, with 70% of individuals from the island cemetery demonstrating African-based haplogroups (L2, L1, and L5), compared to only 36.4% of mainlanders, who instead show an increased prevalence of European and Near Eastern haplogroups (including K1, H, I5, and U1).<ref name="Sirak2016">{{cite journal|author1=Sirak, Kendra |author2=Frenandes, Daniel |author3=Novak, Mario |author4=Van Gerven, Dennis |author5=Pinhasi, Ron |title=Abstract Book of the IUAES Inter-Congress 2016 – A community divided? Revealing the community genome(s) of Medieval Kulubnarti using next- generation sequencing|journal=Abstract Book of the Iuaes Inter-Congress 2016 |year=2016|pages=115–116 |publisher=IUAES|url=https://bib.irb.hr/prikazi-rad?&lang=EN&rad=824672}}</ref>
[[File:Nubisches Paar im Sudan (cropped).jpg|thumb|Nubians in Sudan]]
* Hollfelder et al. (2017) analysed various populations in Sudan and observed close autosomal affinities between their Nubian and Sudanese Arab samples. The authors concluded that the "Nubians can be seen as a group with substantial genetic material relating to Nilotes that later received much gene-flow from Eurasians and East Africans. The strongest admixture came from Eurasian populations and was likely quite extensive: 39.41%–47.73%." The study also showed "almost no [[West Africa]]n component or, at a higher K, [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] component".<ref name="Hollfelder">{{Cite journal|last1=Hollfelder|first1=Nina|last2=Schlebusch|first2=Carina M.|last3=Günther|first3=Torsten|last4=Babiker|first4=Hiba|last5=Hassan|first5=Hisham Y.|last6=Jakobsson|first6=Mattias|date=2017-08-24|title=Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations|journal=PLOS Genetics|volume=13|issue=8|article-number=e1006976|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976|pmid=28837655|issn=1553-7404|pmc=5587336 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* In 2018, [[Carina M. Schlebusch]] and Mattias Jakobsson in the Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, found that Nilotic populations from South Sudan (e.g. Dinka, Nuer and Shilluk) remained isolated and received little to no geneflow from Eurasians, West African Bantu-speaking farmers, and other surrounding groups. In contrast, Nubians and Arabs in the north showed admixture from Western Eurasian populations. The population structure analysis and inferred ancestry showed that "the Nubian, Arab, and Beja populations of northeastern Africa roughly display equal admixture fractions from a local northeastern African gene pool (similar to the Nilotic component) and an incoming Eurasian migrant component."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=Carina M. |last2=Jakobsson |first2=Mattias |date=2018-08-31 |title=Tales of Human Migration, Admixture, and Selection in Africa |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=405–428 |doi=10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021759 |pmid=29727585 |s2cid=19155657 |issn=1527-8204|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Bird, Nancy et al. (2023) discovered that, in contrast to other African groups which saw strong correlation between genetics, ethnicity and geography, the genetic patterns of variation among Sudanese Arabs, Nubians, and Beja, showed no correspondence with ethnicity. All these communities had individuals who fell into two main clusters: ''Sudan Nile 1'' and ''Sudan Nile 2'', with the first showing a maximum of 12% inferred Arabian-related ancestry, and the second upwards of 48%. The main difference between the pooled clusters was the proportion of the component related to Saudi Arabia, with less of such ancestry more commonly seen in the Nubians and Beja on average.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=Nancy |last2=Ormond |first2=Louise |last3=Awah |first3=Paschal |last4=Caldwell |first4=Elizabeth F. |last5=Connell |first5=Bruce |last6=Elamin |first6=Mohamed |last7=Fadlelmola |first7=Faisal M. |last8=Matthew Fomine |first8=Forka Leypey |last9=López |first9=Saioa |last10=MacEachern |first10=Scott |last11=Moñino |first11=Yves |last12=Morris |first12=Sam |last13=Näsänen-Gilmore |first13=Pieta |last14=Nketsia V |first14=Nana Kobina |last15=Veeramah |first15=Krishna |date=2023-03-31 |title=Dense sampling of ethnic groups within African countries reveals fine-scale genetic structure and extensive historical admixture |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=9 |issue=13 |article-number=eabq2616 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abq2616 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=10058250 |pmid=36989356|bibcode=2023SciA....9.2616B }}</ref>

===Y-DNA===
A 2003 study by Lucotte and Mercier<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucotte |first1=G. |last2=Mercier |first2=G. |date=21 February 2003 |title=Brief communication: Y-chromosome haplotypes in Egypt |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Brief-communication%3A-Y-chromosome-haplotypes-in-Lucotte-Mercier/160324a2fb35504d6f595f3988362402f49428af |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=63–66 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.10190 |issn=0002-9483 |pmid=12687584}}</ref> analyzed Y-chromosome haplogroups among 274 unrelated males in Egypt. Included in the study were Lower Nubian populations from Abu Simbel, with the individuals originating from this locality self-identified as Nubians. The research focused on using the p49a,f/TaqI haplotype polymorphisms, which can be linked to modern phylogenetic classifications. Samples from these 46 Nubians revealed the following Y-Chromosome Haplogroups (genetic composition):

* E1b1b (E-M35): 86.9% of the population, represented by three haplotypes: - Haplotype IV: 39.1% - Haplotype V: 17.4% - Haplotype XI: 30.4%
* J1 (Haplotype VII): 2.2%
* J2 (Haplotype VII): 2.2%
* Other lineages were XIII at 2.2%, III at 4.3% and XVI at 2.2%
In 2008 results of an analysis by Hisham Y. Hassan of modern Sudanese entitled ''Chromosome Variation Among Sudanese: Restricted Gene Flow, Concordance With Language, Geography, and History''<ref name="Hassan 2008">Hassan, Hisham Y. et al. 2008 {{Citation|year=2008|title=Y-Chromosome Variation Among Sudanese: Restricted Gene Flow, Concordance With Language, Geography, and History | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5233268}}</ref> included 39 Nubians found to be of the following Y Chromosome Haplogroups:

* J1 41%
* J2 2%
* E3b1 (E-M78) 15.3%
* E3 (E-M215) 7.6%
* R1b 10.3%
* B-M60 7.7%
* F 10.2%
* I 5.1%

===Christian-Era DNA===
Sirak et al. (2021) obtained and analyzed the whole genomes of 66 individuals from the site of [[Kulubnarti]] situated between the 2nd and 3rd cataract and dated to the Christian period between 650 and 1000 CE. The samples were obtained from two cemeteries, R and S. Grave materials between the two cemeteries did not differ, but physical analyses of the remains found differences in morbidity and mortality indicating that the R cemetery individuals were of a higher social class than the cemetery S individuals. The study analyzed the data they obtained along with other published ancient and modern samples from Africa and West Eurasia. The genetic profile of the sampled Christian-era Nubians was found to be a mixture between West Eurasian and Sub Saharan [[Dinka people|Dinka]]-related ancestries. The samples were estimated to have approximately 60% West Eurasian related ancestry that likely came from ancient Egyptians but ultimately resembles that found in Bronze or Iron Age Levantines. They also carried approximately 40% Dinka-related ancestry. The study commented that the results reflect deep biological connections among the populations of the Nile Valley and further confirm the presence of West Eurasian ancestry in the Nile valley prior to Arab migrations.

The two cemeteries showed minimal differences in their West Eurasian/Dinka ancestry proportions, formed a genetic clade with each other in relation to other populations, and had a small FST value of 0.0013 reflecting a small genetic distance. These findings in addition to multiple cross cemetery relatives that the analyses have revealed indicate that people of both the R and S cemeteries were part of the same population despite the archaeological and anthropological differences between the two burials showing social stratification.

The study found some difference in Y haplogroups profiles between the two cemeteries with the S cemetery having more west Asian clades. the difference was found to be insignificant, and the study viewed it as likely to be a statistical fluctuation and not evidence of heterogeneity among males from the two cemeteries.

Regarding modern Nubians in Sudan, despite their superficial resemblance to the Kulubnarti Nubians on the PCA, they were not found to be descended directly from Kulubnarti Nubians without additional admixture following the Christian period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sirak |first1=Kendra A. |last2=Fernandes |first2=Daniel M. |last3=Lipson |first3=Mark |last4=Mallick |first4=Swapan |last5=Mah |first5=Matthew |last6=Olalde |first6=Iñigo |last7=Ringbauer |first7=Harald |last8=Rohland |first8=Nadin |last9=Hadden |first9=Carla S. |last10=Harney |first10=Éadaoin |last11=Adamski |first11=Nicole |last12=Bernardos |first12=Rebecca |last13=Broomandkhoshbacht |first13=Nasreen |last14=Callan |first14=Kimberly |last15=Ferry |first15=Matthew |last16=Lawson |first16=Ann Marie |last17=Michel |first17=Megan |last18=Oppenheimer |first18=Jonas |last19=Stewardson |first19=Kristin |last20=Zalzala |first20=Fatma |last21=Patterson |first21=Nick |last22=Pinhasi |first22=Ron |last23=Thompson |first23=Jessica C. |last24=Van Gerven |first24=Dennis |last25=Reich |first25=David |title=Social stratification without genetic differentiation at the site of Kulubnarti in Christian Period Nubia |journal=Nature Communications |date=14 December 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=7283 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-27356-8 |pmid=34907168 |pmc=8671435 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.7283S }}</ref>

==Notable Nubians==
{{see also|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|List of monarchs of Kush|List of rulers of Makuria}}

* [[Luqman]], Ancient wise man in Islamic tradition
* [[Alara of Kush]], founder of the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt]]
* [[Montuhotep II|Mentuhotep II]] (possibly), the sixth ruler of the [[Eleventh Dynasty]]. United Egypt and established the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]]
* [[Amenemhat I]], founder of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]]. Many scholars in recent years have argued that his mother was of Nubian descent.
* [[Taharqa]], Pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty.
* [[Amanitore]], [[Kandake]] (queen) of the [[Kingdom of Kush]] centered on [[Meroë]]
* [[Silko of Nobadia|Silko]], 6th-century king of the Noubades and all of the Ethiopians, associated with the [[Christianization]] of [[Nubia]]
* [[Qalidurut]], 7th-century king of [[Makuria]], defeated the Arab Muslim invasion at the [[First Battle of Dongola]] and [[Second Battle of Dongola]], signed the [[Baqt]]
* [[Merkurios of Makuria|Merkourios]], 8th-century king of [[Dotawo]], unifier of [[Nobatia]] and [[Makuria]], referred to as the New Constantine by [[John the Deacon (Egyptian chronicler)|John the Deacon]]
* [[Kyriakos of Makuria]], 8th-century king of [[Makuria]]. Invaded Egypt to rescue [[Pope Michael I of Alexandria]]
* [[Rafael of Makuria]], 10th-century Nubian king of [[Makuria]]. Built the famous " Red Palace" at Dongola
* [[Salomo of Makuria]], 11th-century king of [[Dotawo]]. United the kingdom of [[Dongola]] and [[Soba (city)|Soba]]
* [[Moses Georgios of Makuria]], 12th-century "king of [[Alodia]], [[Makuria]], [[Nobadia]], Dalmatia[g] and Axioma", mostly known for his conflict with Ayyubids
* [[Georgios I of Makuria]], king of [[Makuria]], son of [[Zacharias III]] Renegotiated the [[Baqt]] with the [[Abassids]]
* [[Jaafar Nimeiry|Jaafar an-Nimeiry]], former Sudanese president
* [[Khalil Farah]], 20th-century Sudanese Nubian musician.
* [[Mohamed Mounir]], Egyptian Nubian Singer, known as "The King"
* [[Mohammed Wardi]], Sudanese Nubian singer
* [[Mo Ibrahim]], Sudanese-British mobile communications entrepreneur and billionaire
* [[Hamza El Din]], singer and musicologist
* [[Khalil Kalfat]], literary critic, political and economic thinker and writer
* [[Abdallah Khalil]], ex-Sudanese prime minister, co-founder of the [[White Flag League]], co-founder and ex-general secretary of the [[National Umma Party Sudan|Umma Party]]
* [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi Soliman]], Egyptian Field Marshal and statesman, commander-in-chief of the [[Egyptian Armed Forces]], [[de facto]] head of state of [[Egypt]]
* [[Muhammad Ahmad]], 19th-century [[Sufism|Sufi]] [[sheikh]] and revolutionary leader of the [[Ansar (Sudan)|Ansar]]
* [[Jamal Mohammed Ahmed]], Sudanese writer, historian, and diplomat
* [[Osama Abdul Latif]], a Sudanese businessman, chairman of [[DAL Group]]
* [[Idris Ali (writer)|Idris Ali]], Egyptian novelist and short story writer
* [[Fathi Hassan]], painter
* [[Ali Ghazal]], Egyptian footballer
* [[Ali Hassan Kuban]], singer
* [[Taha Abdelmagid]]
* [[Abdel Raouf]]
* [[Amjad Ismail]]
* [[Haitham Mustafa]]
* [[Mazin Mohamedein]]
* [[Musab Ahmed]]
* [[Homos (footballer)|Mohamed Homos]]

==See also==
* [[Barabra]] is an old ethnographical term for the Nubian peoples of Sudan and southern Egypt.
* [[Nubian wig]] worn by the affluent society of ancient Egypt
* [[Aethiopia]] is an ancient Greek geographical term which referred to the regions of Sudan and areas south of the Sahara desert.

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===General references===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last=Rouchdy | first=Aleya | title=Nubians and the Nubian Language in Contemporary Egypt: A Case of Cultural and Linguistic Contact | location=Leiden | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1991 | isbn=90-04-09197-1}}
*{{cite journal |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |year=2006 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=39 |issue=3 |title=Pastoralism, Slavery, Commerce, Culture and the Fate of the Nubians of Northern and Central Kordofan Under Dar Fur Rule, ca. 1750-ca. 1850 |publisher=Boston University African Studies Center |issn=0361-7882 }}
* {{cite book | last=Valbelle | first=Dominique |author2=Charles Bonnet | title=The Nubian Pharaohs: Black Kings on the Nile | location=Cairo | publisher=American University in Cairo Press | year=2007 | isbn=978-977-416-010-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Warnock Fernea | first=Elizabeth |author2=Robert A. Fernea | title=Nubian Ethnographies | location=Chicago | publisher=Waveland Press Inc. | year=1990 | isbn=0-88133-480-4}}
* Black Pharaohs - National Geographic Feb 2008
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Nubia}}
* {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20051027005838/http://www.ancientsudan.org/ AncientSudan.org]}}
* [http://www.africanholocaust.net/peopleofafrica.htm#nubia Nubian people history]
* Johanna Granville [https://www.scribd.com/doc/13716966/Nubians-of-Egypt-and-Sudan-Past-and-Present "Nubians of Egypt and Sudan Past and Present"]
* [http://lexicorient.com/e.o/nubians.htm Nubians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929133329/http://lexicorient.com/e.o/nubians.htm |date=29 September 2008 }} by [https://web.archive.org/web/20060321035130/http://lexicorient.com/abubakr.htm Abubakr Sidahmed]
* [http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article16354 Nubians Use Hip-hop to Preserve Culture] – [http://www.sudantribune.com Sudan Tribune] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206164237/http://www.sudantribune.com/ |date=6 December 2019 }}
* [http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/egyptsource/the-forgotten-minorities-egypt-s-nubians-and-amazigh-in-the-amended-constitution "The Forgotten Minorities: Egypt's Nubians and Amazigh in the Amended Constitution"]

{{Demographics of Sudan}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Nubia]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of East Africa]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North Africa]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Sudan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Africa]]
[[Category:Muslim communities in Africa]]

North Darfur

2025-11-04T06:52:23Z

2A01:E0A:319:5D10:0:0:A967:D6B6:

{{Short description|State of Sudan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = North Darfur State
| native_name = {{lang|ar|ولاية شمال دارفور}}
| other_name = Shamal Darfor
| nickname =
| motto =
| settlement_type = [[States of Sudan|State]]
| image_skyline = Farmer irrigates crops.jpg
| imagesize =
| image_caption = Farmer irrigating crops in North Darfur
| image_flag = Flag of North Darfur State.png
| image_seal = Seal of North Darfur State.png
| image_shield =
| image_map = North Darfur in Sudan (Kafia Kingi disputed).svg
| mapsize = 299px
| map_caption = Location in Sudan.
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Sudan}}
| subdivision_type1 = Region
| subdivision_name1 = [[Darfur]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Counties of Sudan|No. of counties]]:
| subdivision_name2 =
| seat_type = Capital
| seat = [[Al-Fashir]]
| government_type =
| leader_title = [[List of The Sudan's state governors|Governor]]
| leader_name = Al-Hafiz Bakhit (acting)<ref>{{cite web |title=North Darfur governor accuses RSF of killing 28 civilians in El Fasher attack |url=https://sudantribune.com/article289382/ |website=Sudan Tribune |date=12 August 2024}}</ref>
| established_title =
| established_date =
| area_magnitude =
| area_total_km2 = 296420
| population_as_of = 2018
| population_note =
| population_total = 2,304,950<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cbs.gov.sd/files/Pop._Proj._by_satates137.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312172126/http://cbs.gov.sd/files/Pop._Proj._by_satates137.pdf |archive-date=2017-03-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = 5.34
| timezone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset = +2
| coordinates = {{Coord|16|4|N|25|28|E|region:SD-DN_type:adm1st|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_m =
| elevation_ft =
| postal_code_type =
| postal_code =
| area_code =
| iso_code = SD-DN
| blank_name_sec2 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2017)
| blank_info_sec2 = 0.491<ref name="GlobalDataLab">{{Cite web|url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/|title=Sub-national HDI - Area Database - Global Data Lab|website=hdi.globaldatalab.org|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref> {{color|#900|low}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''North Darfur State''' ({{langx|ar|ولاية شمال دارفور}} Wilāyat Šamāl Dārfūr; ''Shamal Darfor'') is one of the [[States of Sudan|wilayat]] or states of [[Sudan]]. It is one of the five states composing the [[Darfur|Darfur region]]. It has an area of 296,420 km2 and an estimated population of approximately 2,304,950 in 2018. [[Al-Fashir]] is the capital of the state. Other significant towns include Ailliet,<ref>In Arabic كتم</ref><ref>[http://www.maplandia.com/sudan/darfur/ailliet/ "Ailliet, Sudan"] Maplandia.com</ref> [[Kabkabiya District|Kebkabiya]],<ref>In Arabic كبكابية</ref><ref name="SD">[http://www.sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=88:2008-07-22-22-07-20&catid=43:2008-06-06-15-24-59&Itemid=71 "ولاية شمال دارفور (The state of North Darfur)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907165642/http://www.sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=88%3A2008-07-22-22-07-20&catid=43%3A2008-06-06-15-24-59&Itemid=71 |date=7 September 2013 }} Sudanese Government site, in Arabic, accessed 9 September 2010</ref> [[Kutum]], [[Mellit District|Mellit]] (Malit),<ref name="SD" /><ref>In Arabic مليط</ref> [[Tawila]],<ref>[http://www.maplandia.com/sudan/darfur/tawilah/ "Tawilah, Sudan"] Maplandia.com</ref> [[Saraf Omra]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-11-15 |title=Report on Airstrike by Sudanese Armed Forces in Saraf Omra, North Darfur State – El Fasher |url=https://alsudania.news/report-on-airstrike-by-sudanese-armed-forces-in-saraf-omra-north-darfur-state-el-fasher/ |access-date=2025-11-02 |website=alsudania news السودانية نيوز |language=ar}}</ref> and [[Umm Keddada]] (Umm Kadadah).<ref name="SD" /><ref>In Arabic أم كدادة،</ref>

==History==
North Darfur shares much of the [[history of Darfur]]. It was the center of the [[Sultanate of Darfur]] and contained both its capital al-Fashir and its biggest trading city [[Kobbei]].

Former lieutenant general, Armed Forces Chief of Staff, and defense minister Ibrahim Suleiman Hassan served as governor of North Darfur from 2001 to 2003, until being dismissed by [[Omar al-Bashir|al-Bashir]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

North Darfur has been a major flashpoint during the [[Sudanese civil war (2023–present)|ongoing civil war]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nashed |first=Mat |title=Darfur on edge as violence spreads amid Sudan power struggle |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/18/darfur-on-edge-as-violence-spreads-amid-sudan-power-struggle |access-date=2023-04-19 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Geography==
North Darfur occupies more than half of the territory of the Darfur region, and includes part of the [[Marrah Mountains|Marrah Mountains (''Jebel Marra'')]]. The northern part is entirely desert. To the south there is slightly more rainfall with the eastern side being plains with low sandy hills, while the volcanic Marrah Mountains occupy most of the western side of the south. In the southern portion the most important crops are [[millet]], maize and peanuts.<ref name="SD" />

North Darfur is bounded on the northwest by [[Libya]], on the north by [[Northern (state)|Northern State]], on the east by Northern State and [[North Kurdufan]], on the southeast by [[South Kurdufan]], on the south by [[South Darfur]], and on the west by [[West Darfur]] and the [[Chad|Republic of Chad]]. Most of North Darfur's population follow [[Sunni]] [[Islam]].

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120307073528/http://www.sudan.gov.sd/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=80:2008-07-22-21-57-13&catid=43:2008-06-06-15-24-59&Itemid=71 State profile]
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/6752203.stm "Fresh hopes for North Darfur"] by Julie Flint, ''[[BBC News]]'' From Our Correspondent, 14 June 2007

{{States of Sudan}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:North Darfur| ]]
[[Category:States of Sudan]]
[[Category:Darfur]]

Tularosa, New Mexico

2025-10-29T11:35:24Z

2A01:E0A:319:5D10:0:0:A967:D6B6:

{{More citations needed|date=March 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Tularosa
|settlement_type = [[Village (United States)|Village]]
|nickname =
|motto = "City of Roses"

|image_skyline = Tularosa New Mexico Village Hall.JPG
|imagesize =
|image_caption = Tularosa Village Hall
|image_flag =
|image_seal =

|image_map = Otero_County_New_Mexico_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Tularosa_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of Tularosa, New Mexico
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =

|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = United States
|subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[New Mexico]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in New Mexico|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Otero County, New Mexico|Otero]]
|pushpin_map = New Mexico#USA
|pushpin_relief = yes
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in New Mexico##Location in the United States

|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = Ray Cordova
|leader_title1 =
|leader_name1 =
|established_title = Founded
|established_date = 1863

|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2020">{{cite web|title=2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_35.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=July 24, 2022}}</ref>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 7.30
|area_land_km2 = 7.30
|area_water_km2 = 0.00
|area_total_sq_mi = 2.82
|area_land_sq_mi = 2.82
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.00

|population_as_of = [[2020 United States census|2020]]
|population_est = 2593
|pop_est_as_of = 2022
|pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="USCensusEst2022"/>
|population_footnotes = <ref name="2020 Census (City)"/>
|population_total = 2553
|population_density_km2 = 355.1
|population_density_sq_mi = 920.0

|timezone = [[Mountain Time Zone|Mountain (MST)]]
|utc_offset = –7
|timezone_DST = MDT
|utc_offset_DST = –6
|elevation_footnotes = <ref name=gnis/>
|elevation_m = 1376
|elevation_ft = 4515
|coordinates = {{coord|33|04|31|N|106|01|03|W|region:US-NM|display=inline,title}}
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 88352
|area_code = [[Area code 575]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 35-79980
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 2413595<ref name=gnis>{{GNIS|2413595}}</ref>
|website = {{URL|https://www.villageoftularosa.com/|villageoftularosa.com}}
|footnotes =
}}

'''Tularosa''' is a village<ref name="town">For census purposes it is called a village, but in New Mexico it is historically called a town. See, for example, Otero, Miguel A. (1903) ''Report of the Governor of New Mexico to the Secretary of the Interior - 1903'' Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., [https://books.google.com/books?id=98lKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA293 page 293]</ref> in [[Otero County, New Mexico|Otero County]], [[New Mexico]], United States. It shares its name with the [[Tularosa Basin]], in which the town is located. To the east, Tularosa is flanked by the western edge of the [[Sacramento Mountains (New Mexico)|Sacramento Mountains]]. The population was 2,553 at the [[2020 United States census|2020 census]].<ref name="2020 Census (City)">{{cite web|title=Explore Census Data |url=https://data.census.gov/profile/Tularosa_village,_New_Mexico?g=160XX00US3579980 |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=January 2, 2024}}</ref> During the 1990s and early 2000s, the town, north of the much larger [[Alamogordo, New Mexico|Alamogordo]], experienced moderate growth and construction as a [[Commuter town|bedroom community]], especially in the housing industry. Tularosa is noted for its abundance of cottonwood shade trees and its efforts to preserve the adobe-style architecture of its past.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tularosa|first=Village of|title=History|url=http://www.villageoftularosa.com/visitors/history.html|work=Village of Tularosa, NM|publisher=Village of Tularosa, NM|access-date=June 29, 2011}}</ref>

==History==
Tularosa gets its name from the Spanish description for the red or rose colored reeds growing along the banks of the Rio Tularosa. The Rio Tularosa, which still exists along the north side of the village, attracted the original settlers as a water source in the desert. Settlers attempted to establish a settlement in 1860 but were unsuccessful due to [[Mescalero|Mescalero Apache]] raids. Two years later, after a battle at nearby Round Mountain, Mexican farmers from the Rio Grande valley succeeded in settling the area. The Mission Church, St Francis de Paula was built to honor a promise made to St Francis that if no one was killed in the battle at Round Mountain, the townspeople would build a church dedicated to him. In 1863, the Town of Tularosa was formally established and was mapped with 49 blocks and water rights distributed and recorded.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

The original acequia (ditch irrigation system) remains virtually unchanged and provides the water for the trees lining the streets, private gardens, and landscaping that give Tularosa its unique character.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

In 1979, the Tularosa Original Townsite District, consisting of the original 49 blocks on {{convert|1400|acre|km2}} including 182 buildings, was declared a historic district and recorded in the National Register of Historic Places.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

In 2008 Tularosa became an affiliate of [[Keep America Beautiful]]. The local branch of the program, Keep Tularosa Beautiful, received a grant in 2008 of $10,000 for beautification projects from [[Waste Management (corporation)|Waste Management]].<ref>{{Cite news|first=Bev |last=Eckman-Onyskow |title=Tularosa keeps itself beautiful |work=Alamogordo Daily News |oclc=10674593 |pages=1A, 6A |date=November 23, 2008}}</ref>

==Geography==

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the village<ref name="town" /> has a total area of {{Convert|2.1|sqmi}}, all land. At the northern side of town is the Tularosa Creek which flows out of Tularosa Canyon, descending from the [[Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation]], and which separates the [[Sacramento Mountains (New Mexico)|Sacramento Mountains]] to the south from [[Sierra Blanca (New Mexico)|Sierra Blanca]] to the north.<ref>Otero, Miguel A. (1903) ''Report of the Governor of New Mexico to the Secretary of the Interior - 1903'' Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., [https://books.google.com/books?id=98lKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA293 page 293]</ref> The Coyote Hills are to the north-east of town, foothills of the Sacramentos.

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1880= 549
|1920= 1096
|1930= 1406
|1940= 1446
|1950= 1642
|1960= 3200
|1970= 2851
|1980= 2536
|1990= 2615
|2000= 2864
|2010= 2842
|2020= 2553
|estyear=2022
|estimate=2593
|estref=<ref name="USCensusEst2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2020s-total-cities-and-towns.html |date=January 2, 2024|title=City and Town Population Totals: 2020-2022|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=January 2, 2024}}</ref>
|align-fn=center
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html|title=Census of Population and Housing|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=June 4, 2015}}</ref> 2020 Census<ref name="2020 Census (City)"/>
}}

===2020 census===
As of the [[census]] of 2020, there were 2,553 people and 622 households residing in the village.

===2000 census===
As of the [[census]] of 2000, there were 2,864 people, 1,134 households, and 765 families residing in the village. The [[population density]] was {{Convert|1,363.2|PD/sqmi}}. There were 1,311 housing units at an average density of {{Convert|624.0|/sqmi}}. The racial makeup of the village was 68.61% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.87% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 4.26% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.66% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 21.51% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 4.05% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 56.08% of the population.

There were 1,134 households, out of which 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.2% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.5% were non-families. 28.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.09.

The population was spread out, with 27.4% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 24.9% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.4 males.

The median income for a household was $27,522, and the median income for a family was $30,313. Males had a median income of $23,654 versus $18,080 for females. The [[per capita income]] in Tularosa was $12,507. About 19.5% of families and 21.4% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.7% of those under age 18 and 17.0% of those age 65 or over.

==Festivals and events==
The Rose Festival is held annually, usually in the first weekend of May. There is an old-timer's picnic, a Rose Queen, arts and crafts - all celebrating the abundance of blossoming flowers. Other celebrations are the Fiesta of St. Francis de Paula.

Luminarias line the church plaza and the highway on Christmas Eve, giving a soft glow of welcome to those driving through on U. S. Highways 70 and 54.
The luminaria display on Christmas Eve is perhaps Tularosa, New Mexico’s best-known treasure. This one-night-only display of light, love and tradition is one of the best parts of the holiday season in the Tularosa Basin.

Thousands of luminarias are displayed throughout the Village on Christmas Eve. A luminaria is a candle carefully set in sand inside of a paper bag and lit to create a warm glow at night.

There are sometimes conflicting opinions about the correct use of the term “luminaria”. Most of us refer to the paper bag lantern in this way, but traditionalists insist the correct term is 'farolitos'. Historically, a true luminaria is a series of small bonfires lining the road. According to tripsavvy.com, luminarias have their roots in the 1800s. Originally, small bonfires were used to guide people to Christmas mass. Often, they are associated with the final night of Las Posadas, which is the symbolic representation of when Mary and Joseph were seeking shelter in Bethlehem, walking from home to home for a place to rest.

For about 20 years, most of the luminarias displayed in Tularosa were supplied through a cooperative effort between the Tularosa Chamber of Commerce and the Village of Tularosa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trytularosa.org/luminarias-in-tularosa1.html|title=Luminarias in Tularosa|website=Tularosa Arts And History Council}}</ref>

==Points of interest==
[[File:Tularosa NM - Saint Francis de Paula church - 15.jpg|thumb|Saint Francis of Paula church]]
The Tularosa Original Townsite District is a listing on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. It includes Saint Francis de Paula church.

==Transportation==
The two major highways are [[U.S. Route 54 in New Mexico|U.S. Route 54]] and [[U.S. Route 70 in New Mexico|U.S. Route 70]]. From the south, both highways are merged as they come into town, but the highways diverge toward the north end of town with Route 54 continuing north, and Route 70 heading east.

In the early 1900s the [[El Paso and Southwestern Railroad]] build a railroad line down from the coal mines at [[Dawson, New Mexico]] through [[Tucumcari, New Mexico|Tucumcari]] and [[Carrizozo, New Mexico|Carrizozo]] to Tularosa and continuing to [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]].<ref>Frost, Max and Walter, Paul A. F. (1906) ''The land of sunshine: a handbook of the resources, products, industries and climate of New Mexico'' New Mexico Bureau of Immigration, New Mexican printing company, Santa Fe, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ipk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117 page 117], {{OCLC|1806416}}</ref> In 1924, that line later became part of the [[Southern Pacific Transportation Company|Southern Pacific Railroad]], which merged with [[Union Pacific Railroad]] in 1996.

There is a privately owned airstrip at Beckett Farm in Tularosa. The nearest commercial airports are the [[Sierra Blanca Regional Airport]] and the [[Alamogordo-White Sands Regional Airport]].

==Education==
[[File:Tularosa Public Library building and ramada.jpg|thumb|right|Tularosa Public Library]]
Tularosa Public Schools is part of the [[Tularosa Municipal Schools]] School District. The school district has two elementary schools, one middle school and one high school. In Tularosa are Tularosa Elementary School, Tularosa Middle School and Tularosa High School.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tularosa.k12.nm.us/ |title=Tularosa Municipals Schools |publisher=Tularosa Municipals Schools |access-date=June 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Notable people==
* [[Jan Clayton]], film and stage actress
* [[Dianna Duran]], former [[New Mexico Secretary of State]]
* [[Steve Ontiveros (pitcher)|Steve Ontiveros]], [[MLB]] pitcher
* [[Katherine D. Ortega]], 38th [[Treasurer of the United States]]
* [[Gary Paulsen]], author
* [[Ace Powell]], painter and sculptor
* [[Tammie Jo Shults]], pilot who safely landed [[Southwest Airlines Flight 1380]]
* [[Kim Stanley]], film and stage actress

==In popular culture==
* Some footage from the 2009 movie ''[[Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen]]'' was shot in and around Tularosa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=This URL has been excluded from the Wayback Machine. |access-date=May 30, 2023 |work=[[El Paso Times]]|url=http://www.elpasotimes.com/living/ci_12656176}}{{dead link|date=May 2023}}</ref>

==USS ''Tularosa''==
{{Main|USS Tularosa (AOG-43)}}
The village had a [[United States Navy]] Mettawee-class gasoline tanker named after it. The USS ''Tularosa'' (AOG-430) was built by [[East Coast Shipyards, Inc.]] and launched on December 17, 1944; sponsored by Miss Patricia Hefferman; acquired by the Navy on January 4, 1945 and commissioned at the New York Navy Yard on January 10, 1945. It saw [[World War II]] service before being decommissioned on April 23, 1946.<ref>{{Cite web|title=USS Tularosa (AOG-43)|website=NavSource|url=http://www.navsource.net/archives/09/20/2043.htm}}</ref>

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
* Sonnichsen, C. L. (1960) ''Tularosa-Last Of The Frontier West''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Tularosa, New Mexico}}
* {{Official website|https://www.villageoftularosa.com/}}

{{Otero County, New Mexico}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Tularosa Basin]]
[[Category:Villages in Otero County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Villages in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1863]]

Pflugerville, Texas

2025-10-29T06:38:10Z

2A01:E0A:319:5D10:0:0:A967:D6B6:

{{redirect|Pflugerville}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Pflugerville, Texas
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| image_skyline = Pflugerville historic district 2012.jpg
| imagesize = 250px
| image_caption = The East Main Street Historic District
| image_flag =
| image_seal =
| etymology = City of plowmen
| named_for = Henry Pfluger Sr.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Pflugerville |url=https://www.pflugervilletx.gov/724/History-of-Pflugerville|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>
| motto = "{{lang|de|Willkommen}}" (English: "Welcome")

| image_map = TXMap-doton-Pflugerville.PNG
| mapsize = 250px
| map_caption = Location of Pflugerville, Texas
| image_map1 = Travis County Pflugerville.svg
| mapsize1 = 250px
| map_caption1 = 
| coordinates = {{coord|30|27|27|N|97|38|24|W|region:US-TX|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Texas|Counties]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Texas]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Travis County, Texas|Travis]], [[Williamson County, Texas|Williamson]]

| established_title = Settled
| established_date = 1849
| established_title2 = Incorporated
| established_date2 = {{Start date and age|1965|7|24}}
| government_footnotes =
| government_type = [[Council-manager government|Council-Manager]]
| leader_title = [[City Council]]
| leader_name = Victor Gonzales <ref>{{cite web |title=City Council & Mayor |url=https://www.pflugervilletx.gov/178/City-Council-Mayor|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>

| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2019">{{cite web|title=2019 U.S. Gazetteer Files|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2019_Gazetteer/2019_gaz_place_48.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=August 7, 2020}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 = 66.23
| area_total_sq_mi = 25.57
| area_land_km2 = 66.19
| area_land_sq_mi = 25.55
| area_water_km2 = 0.04
| area_water_sq_mi = 0.01

| elevation_footnotes = <ref name=gnis/>
| elevation_ft = 686
| population_total = 65191
| population_as_of = [[2020 United States Census|2020]]
| population_footnotes = <ref name="censusgov2020pfluegerville">{{cite web|title=U.S. Census website|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=1600000US4857176|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=June 11, 2021}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi = su
| postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]s
| postal_code = 78660, 78691
| area_code = [[Area code 512|512]] & [[Area code 737|737]]
| website = [http://www.pflugervilletx.gov/ PflugervilleTX.gov]

| footnotes =
| timezone = [[North American Central Time Zone|Central (CST)]]
| utc_offset = -6
| timezone_DST = CDT
| utc_offset_DST = -5
| blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
| blank_info = 48-57176<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=2008-01-31|title=U.S. Census website}}</ref>
| blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
| blank1_info = 2411411<ref name=gnis>{{GNIS|2411411}}</ref>
}}
'''Pflugerville''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|l|uː|ɡ|ər|v|ɪ|l}} {{respell|FLOO|gər|vil}}) is a city in [[Travis County, Texas]], United States, with a small portion in [[Williamson County, Texas|Williamson County]]. The population was 65,191 at the [[United States Census, 2020|2020 census]]. Pflugerville is a suburb of [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] and part of the [[Greater Austin|Austin–Round Rock– Metropolitan Statistical Area]]. It was named after the original [[German Americans|German settlers]] who farmed the area starting in 1849. The city was first incorporated in July 1965. The vast majority of the city lies within [[Travis County, Texas|Travis County]], but small parts of it extend into [[Williamson County, Texas|Williamson County]].

==History==
===Pfluger homestead===
The area was initially settled by [[Germans|German]] immigrant Henry Pfluger Sr. (1803–1867) and members of his family from late 1849 into early 1850. Pfluger had been a wealthy farmer in Germany, but lost all of his property during the [[revolutions of 1848]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=History of Pflugerville |url=https://www.pflugervilletx.gov/for-visitors/history-of-pflugerville |website=www.pflugervilletx.gov}}</ref> He arrived in the country with $1,600 and purchased {{convert|160|acre|km2}} of land {{convert|2|mi|km|spell=in}} east of Austin from John Liese, a brother-in-law who had immigrated before him. In 1853, Pfluger paid Liese $960 for a {{convert|960|acre|km2|adj=on}} tract of land in an area known as Brushy Knob.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://pflugervillegenealogy.pbworks.com/f/Pfluger+Cemetery.pdf | title=Pflugerville Cemetery | publisher=Nathan O'Brien | access-date=2009-08-16}}</ref> There, the family lived in a five-room log cabin and raised corn, wheat, rye, beans, sweet potatoes, and sugar cane.<ref name="Community Profile">{{cite web | url=http://tx-pflugerville2.civicplus.com/DocumentView.asp?DID=847 | title=Pflugerville Community Library: Strategic Plan 2005 | publisher=Pflugerville Community Library | access-date=2009-08-16}}</ref> The Pfluger family also owned several slaves, some of whom were fluent in [[German language|German]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Voices from slavery: The Travis County narratives | url=http://www.statesman.com/news/news/opinion/voices-from-slavery-the-travis-county-narratives/nWFt9/ | date=2013-04-11 | archiveurl=https://archive.today/20130411210437/http://www.statesman.com/news/news/opinion/voices-from-slavery-the-travis-county-narratives/nWFt9/ | archivedate=2013-04-11 | access-date=2013-02-09 | url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Community development===
The beginnings of the community did not develop until after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].

During the 1870s, a school and Lutheran church were established at the settlement. The first commercial business in the community was a general store built by Louis Bohls in 1890. Two local organizations, the German-American Mutual Assistance Foundation, to insure residents against natural disasters; and "Pflugerville Schützen und Kegel Verein," a shooting and bowling club, were started. Pflugerville's post office opened in 1893, with Louis Bohls serving as its first postmaster.<ref name="Texas Handbook">{{cite web | url = https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hlp25 | title = Pflugerville, Texas | publisher = [[The Handbook of Texas]] online | access-date = 2009-08-16}}</ref>

The population reached approximately 250 during the mid-1890s, and a small downtown developed, although most residents did their banking and shipping in Round Rock, {{convert|8|mi|km|spell=in}} to the northwest.<ref name="Texas Handbook"/>

Wooden buildings were erected on Main Street and Pecan Street, many by Conrad Pfluger, one of Henry Pfluger Sr.'s eight sons.

In 1904, the [[Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad]] (MKT) completed its track between [[Georgetown, Texas|Georgetown]] and Austin, passing just outside Pflugerville. Its close proximity to the line caused the community to grow rapidly.<ref name="Texas Handbook"/>

On February 19, 1904, the town site of Pflugerville was platted by George Pfluger and his son, Albert, dedicating streets and alleys for the town from the Alexander Walter and C. S. Parrish Surveys in Travis County. The plat consisted of sixteen blocks, rights-of-way, and the depot grounds to the MKT. The first addition to the town was the six-block Wuthrich Addition, platted on November 22, 1904. The first cotton gin was built by Otto Pfluger in 1904. It was destroyed by fire in 1931 and a new one was built at the same location.

On June 8, 1906, the Farmers State Bank of Pflugerville opened with William Pfluger as its president and A.W. Pfluger as cashier.

The first issues of the ''Pflugerville Press'', a weekly newspaper, began publishing on August 7, 1907, and operated through October 29, 1942.

In 1910, black workers who worked in the Pflugerville cotton industry were not allowed to move into the town. Farmer La Rue Norton, who owned {{convert|1200|acre|km2}} of land west of Pflugerville, set aside an acre and sold lots to the workers at $50 each. County records listed the settlement as Pflugerville's Colored Addition in April 1910.<ref name=":0" />

The first German Day celebration in Pflugerville took place on May 29, 1910.

In 1913, H.S. Pfluger built the Sky Dome Theater, which showed motion pictures to the accompaniment of a player piano on Friday and Saturday nights. It closed in 1928.

In the early 1920s, Pflugerville was home to an estimated 500 residents.

During that period, several area school districts consolidated with [[Pflugerville High School]].<ref name="Texas Handbook"/>

===1930 to 1964===
Around 580 people lived in the community in 1930. The arrival of the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]] halted what had been a lengthy period of growth in Pflugerville.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cityofaustin.org/library/ahc/outside/pfluger.htm | title = Pflugerville | work = Just Outside Austin: Rural Travis County Communities | publisher = Austin History Center | access-date = 2009-08-16}}</ref> The population fell slightly to 500 in 1940. In the years immediately after [[World War II]], the community lost around a quarter of its population as citizens moved to Austin and other larger cities with greater employment opportunities.<ref name="Texas Escapes"/> Despite the challenges of population loss and limited economic development, Pflugerville managed to survive.

The community gained national attention when the Pflugerville Panthers won 55 consecutive football games from 1958 to 1962.<ref>{{cite web |title=PFISD History |url=https://www.pfisd.net/about-us/about-pfisd/pfisd-history|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>

===Incorporation and growth===
Efforts to incorporate Pflugerville culminated in an election on July 24, 1965. A total of 102 votes were cast, with 60 (58.8%) supporting the proposition and 42 (41.2%) opposed. The town was incorporated under a commission form of government. On April 4, 1970, an election was held that changed the form of government from commissioner to aldermanic, providing for an elected mayor and five aldermen.

Pflugerville's population began to rebound after its incorporation, and by the 1970 census, it stood at 549. That figure had risen to 745 by 1980.

A weekly newspaper, the ''Pflugerville Pflag,'' began publication in 1980.

During most of the 1980s, new development made Pflugerville one of the fastest-growing cities in Texas. Estimates from the late 1980s were as high as 3,900.<ref name="Community Profile"/><ref name="Texas Handbook"/> Although a statewide recession slowed the boom, Pflugerville's population grew to 4,444 in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Pflugerville |url=https://www.pflugervilletx.gov/724/History-of-Pflugerville#:~:text=After%20a%20slight%20slowdown%20during,population%20in%202023%20is%2079%2C668.|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>

===1990 to 2000s===
Throughout the 1990s, the city of Austin experienced a rapid rise in its population. This was also the case in suburban areas surrounding the city. Pflugerville more than doubled in size by the next census in 2000. Since then, Pflugerville has grown by approximately 20,000, with the total number of residents approaching 40,000 as of 2008.<ref name="Census Bureau Estimate">{{cite web | url = https://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2008-04-48.csv | title = Table 4: Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places in Texas, Listed Alphabetically: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008 | format = [[comma-separated values|CSV]] | publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]], Population Division | date = 2009-07-01 | access-date = 2009-08-16 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100327140612/http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2008-04-48.csv | archive-date = March 27, 2010 }}</ref> The 2010 Census placed Pflugerville's population at 46,936, but with annexations since the 2010 census, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates it to be 59,245 as of July 1, 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Pflugerville city, Texas|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/pflugervillecitytexas/PST045216|website=U.S. Census Bureau|access-date=6 April 2018}}</ref> According to data from 2000, 2010, and 2017 population estimates compiled by the U.S. Census Bureau, Pflugerville has the largest percentage black population out of all suburban cities in the Austin metro.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Pflugerville city, Texas|date=August 18, 2019 |url=https://communityimpact.com/data-reference/2019/08/18/pflugerville-boasts-highest-percentage-black-population-austin-metro/}}</ref>

Pflugerville elected its first Hispanic Mayor, Victor Gonzales, in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spectrumlocalnews.com/tx/austin/news/2016/11/29/pflugerville-elects-first-hispanic-mayor|title=Pflugerville Elects First Hispanic Mayor|last=GARCIA|first=CARLOS|date=November 29, 2019|website=spectrumlocalnews.com|language=en|access-date=2020-01-14}}</ref>

===2000 to 2023===
As of 2021, the population of Pflugerville continues to grow rapidly, reaching a total of 66,884.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pflugerville city, Texas |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/pflugervillecitytexas/PST045222 |website=www.census.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pflugerville - Place Explorer - Data Commons |url=https://datacommons.org/place/geoId/4857176/?mprop=count&popt=Person&hl=en |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=datacommons.org}}</ref>

==Geography==
Pflugerville is {{convert|14|mi|km}} northeast of downtown [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] along [[Farm to Market Road 1825|FM 1825]] (Pecan Street) in northern Travis County.<ref name="Texas Escapes">{{cite web | url = http://www.texasescapes.com/TexasHillCountryTowns/Pflugerville-Texas.htm | title = Pflugerville, Texas | publisher = Texas Escapes Online Magazine | access-date = 2009-08-16}}</ref> It is {{convert|15|mi|km}} northeast of the [[Colorado River (Texas)|Colorado River]].

According to the 2010 [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total land area of 22.32 square miles.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pflugerville QuickFacts|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/4857176.html|website=United States Census Bureau|access-date=22 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824083356/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/4857176.html|archive-date=24 August 2014}}</ref> It has 40.39 square miles in the extraterritorial jurisdiction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Extra-Terratorial Jurisdiction (ETJ)|url=http://www.pflugervilletx.gov/index.aspx?nid=1389|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014003322/http://pflugervilletx.gov/index.aspx?NID=1389|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 October 2012|website=City of Pflugerville|access-date=22 August 2014}}</ref> The city has one body of water, [[Lake Pflugerville]], created in 2005 to serve as a water reservoir and recreation area, and two creeks, Gilleland Creek and Wilbarger Creek. A local school group, Wilbarger Water Watchers, in association with the [[Lower Colorado River Authority|LCRA]], monitors the waters of Wilbarger Creek to ensure it meets the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]'s national standard.

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1970= 549
|1980= 745
|1990= 4444
|2000= 16335
|2010= 46936
|estyear=2021
|estimate=66884
|estref=<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/pflugervillecitytexas/PST045221|title=QuickFacts: Pflugerville city, Texas|website=United States Census Bureau|access-date=August 12, 2022}}</ref>
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref name="censusgov2020pfluegerville" />
|2020=65191}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Pflugerville racial composition as of 2020'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explore Census Data |url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=1600000US4857176&tid=DECENNIALPL2020.P2 |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=data.census.gov}}</ref> (NH = Non-Hispanic){{efn|Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.<ref>https://www.census.gov/ {{nonspecific|date=August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About the Hispanic Population and its Origin |url=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/hispanic-origin/about.html |website=www.census.gov |access-date=18 May 2022}}</ref>}}
!Race
!Number
!Percentage
|-
|[[Non-Hispanic or Latino whites|White]] (NH)
|26,151
|40.11%
|-
|[[Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans|Black or African American]] (NH)
|9,624
|14.76%
|-
|[[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] or [[Alaska Native]] (NH)
|149
|0.23%
|-
|[[Asian Americans|Asian]] (NH)
|5,437
|8.34%
|-
|[[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander]] (NH)
|103
|0.16%
|-
|Some Other Race (NH)
|422
|0.65%
|-
|[[Multiracial Americans|Mixed/Multi-Racial]] (NH)
|2,982
|4.57%
|-
|[[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]]
|20,323
|31.17%
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''65,191'''
|
|}
As of the [[2020 United States census]], there were 65,191 people, 22,210 households, and 16,615 families residing in the city.

===2010 Census===

As of the [[census]] of 2010,<ref name="GR2" /> there were 46,936 people, 15,789 households, and 12,260 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert|2,102.8|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. There were 16,418 housing units at an average density of {{convert|736.2|/sqmi|/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 64.1% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 15.5% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.6% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 7.4% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.1% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 8.6% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 3.6% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] people of any race were 27.7% of the population.

There were 15,789 households, out of which 45.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.4% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.4% were non-families. Of all households 17.0% were made up of individuals, and 4.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.96 and the average family size was 3.35.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 30.6% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 32.4% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 6.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.2 males.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau's 2008-2012 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, the median income for a household in the city was $75,119, and the median income for a family was $84,449. Males had a median income of $53,670 versus $46,451 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $29,995. About 6.6% of families and 9.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 12.5% of those under age 18 and 3.5% of those age 65 or over.

===2000 Census===
By comparison, the census<ref name="GR2" /> of 2000 reported 16,335 people, 5,146 households, and 4,425 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert|1,440.6|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. There were 5,239 housing units at an average density of {{convert|462.0|/sqmi|/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 77.18% White, 9.46% African American, 0.24% Native American, 4.31% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 5.99% from other races, and 2.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 16.69% of the population.

There were 5,146 households, out of which 56.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 72.4% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 14.0% were non-families. Of all households 10.1% were made up of individuals, and 1.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.15 and the average family size was 3.39.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 34.6% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 38.8% from 25 to 44, 16.9% from 45 to 64, and 3.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $71,985, and the median income for a family was $73,629. Males had a median income of $49,989 versus $32,188 for females. The per capita income for the city was $26,226. About 1.7% of families and 1.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.1% of those under age 18 and 1.3% of those age 65 or over.

==Economy and transportation==
[[File:Mokan Corridor.jpg|alt=Mokan Corridor, from Austin to Georgetown, Texas|thumb|Mokan Corridor, from Austin to Georgetown, Texas]]

In response to a recent influx of higher sales tax revenue, the City Council lowered the property tax rate annually from 2003 to 2014. In 2015 an increase in the property tax rate was announced for the first time in more than a decade, to pay for $53 million in transportation and park bond projects approved by voters in a 2014 bond election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pflugerville raises tax rate|url=http://communityimpact.com/2015/10/01/pflugerville-raises-tax-rate/|publisher=Community Impact Newspaper|access-date=12 December 2015|date=1 October 2015}}</ref>

While a mile-long stretch of [[Interstate 35 (Texas)|Interstate 35]] is often said by local media and residents to be in Pflugerville, the city of [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] actually controls this land, either as part of the city or through its [[extraterritorial jurisdiction]]. In November 2006, the first parts of a central Texas tollway system opened, including [[State Highway 130 (Texas)|State Highway 130]] and [[State Highway 45 (Texas)|State Highway 45]], increasing accessibility to Pflugerville. Approximately three miles of 130 run through Pflugerville, including the intersection of 45 and 130.

One such development, Stone Hill Town Center, has opened, and includes retailers, a movie theater and a St. David's HealthCare 24-hour emergency care facility.<ref name="Stone Hill">[http://www.impactnews.com/round-rock-pflugerville/local-news/2963-2009-annual-regional-report 2009 Annual Regional Report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131205715/http://impactnews.com/round-rock-pflugerville/local-news/2963-2009-annual-regional-report |date=2009-01-31 }}, accessed January 25, 2009</ref><ref name="Stone Hill2">[http://www.newquest.com/PDFs/News/fall2009Newsletter.pdf NewQuest Properties Property Lines, Fall 2009] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714173032/http://www.newquest.com/PDFs/News/fall2009Newsletter.pdf |date=2011-07-14 }}, accessed November 2, 2009</ref><ref name="theater">[http://www.statesman.com/business/9-screen-cinemark-theater-joins-pflugervilles-growing-stone-1441570.html 9-screen Cinemark theater joins Pflugerville's growing Stone Hill Town Center, April 28, 2011], accessed June 9, 2011</ref><ref name="clinic1">[http://www.stdavids.com/connect-learn-interact/news/St-David-s-HealthCare-To-Open-Freestanding-Emergency-Department-in-Pflugerville.aspx St. David's HealthCare To Open Freestanding Emergency Department in Pflugerville, September 8, 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720183533/http://www.stdavids.com/connect-learn-interact/news/St-David-s-HealthCare-To-Open-Freestanding-Emergency-Department-in-Pflugerville.aspx |date=July 20, 2011 }}, accessed June 9, 2011</ref> With its close proximity to the [[Austin Executive Airport]] and SH 130, the connectivity of the area is attracting businesses and bringing jobs to Pflugerville.

Before the Stone Hill development and the nearby Pfluger Crossing (a development that includes a [[Walmart|Walmart Supercenter]]) opened their first stores in 2007, the city's two largest retailers were an [[Albertsons]] grocery store (which operated from 1996 to 2006) near Pflugerville High School and an [[H-E-B]] grocery store (operating since 2000) east of downtown.

===Pflugerville Community Development Corporation===
The Pflugerville Community Development Corporation (PCDC) has overseen economic development for the city since late 2009 as a Texas 4B Economic Development Corporation that collects a one-half cent sales tax on taxable goods purchased in the City of Pflugerville for the purpose of promoting economic development. The PCDC is a separate entity that reports to City Council.

In 2010, RRE Austin Solar broke ground on what will be one of the nation's largest solar farms, the 60 [[Megawatt|MW]] [[Pflugerville Solar Farm]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Center|url=http://www.rresolar.com/press_center.html|website=RRE Power|access-date=12 December 2015}}</ref> but as of July 2013 no significant construction had begun.

PCDC has helped to develop the 130 Commerce Center, at the corner of State Highway 130 and Pecan (FM 1825), an office park with [[FedEx]], [[TrackingPoint]], [[Community Impact Newspaper]], and D-bats, as well as two hotels and a conference center anticipated in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=Construction to begin at 130 Commerce Center|url=http://www.pfdevelopment.com/2012/10/construction-begin-130-commerce-center/|website=Pflugerville Community Development Corporation|access-date=13 December 2015|date=23 October 2012}}</ref> EOS and Medway Plastics are planned tenants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Industrial 3D-Printing Technology Leader to Establish North American Headquarters In Pflugerville|url=http://www.pfdevelopment.com/2015/10/industrial-3d-printing-technology-leader-to-establish-north-american-headquarters-in-pflugerville/|website=Pflugerville Community Development Corporation|access-date=12 December 2015|date=27 October 2015}}</ref>

On August 6, 2013, the city agreed on a development deal with Harvest Family Entertainment to build the sixth and largest [[Hawaiian Falls]] water park just south of the intersection of State Highway 130 and State Highway 45 across from Stone Hill Town Center. The proposed $21 million endeavor would consist of a 15-acre water park along with a 5-acre adventure park that would become the largest water park in the company.<ref name="Impact">{{cite web|url=http://impactnews.com/austin-metro/round-rock-pflugerville-hutto/pflugerville-inks-deal-to-build-water-park-by-may-2014/|title=Pflugerville inks deal to build water park by May 2014|author=JP Eichmiller|work=Community Impact|date=August 6, 2013|access-date=August 6, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825014703/http://impactnews.com/austin-metro/round-rock-pflugerville-hutto/pflugerville-inks-deal-to-build-water-park-by-may-2014/|archive-date=August 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="Austin">{{cite web|url=http://www.statesman.com/news/business/waterpark-adventure-park-planned-for-pflugerville/nZGcR/|title=Waterpark, adventure park planned for Pflugerville|author=Gary Dinges|work=Statesmen.com|date=August 6, 2013|access-date=August 6, 2013}}</ref> Hawaiian Falls Pflugerville opened in June 2014. The operator of Hawaiian Falls water and adventure parks defaulted on the October 2015 payment for Hawaiian Falls Pflugerville, and requested a deferment.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hawaiian Falls parent company misses lease payment|url=http://communityimpact.com/2015/11/11/hawaiian-falls-parent-company-misses-loan-payment/|publisher=Community Impact Newspaper|access-date=12 December 2015|date=11 November 2015}}</ref> The operator caught up with payments by December 18, 2015,<ref>{{cite web|title=Hawaiian Falls clears 2015 debt to city|url=http://www.statesman.com/news/news/local/hawaiian-falls-clears-2015-debt-to-city/np27b/|publisher=Austin American-Statesman|access-date=12 January 2016|date=11 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hawaiian Falls no longer in default|url=http://communityimpact.com/2016/01/05/hawaiian-falls-no-longer-in-default/|publisher=Community Impact Newspaper|access-date=5 January 2016|date=5 January 2016}}</ref> but again defaulted on lease payments beginning in September 2016.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Barrios|first1=Nicole|title=Pflugerville official: Hawaiian Falls owes nearly $400,000|url=http://www.statesman.com/news/local/pflugerville-official-hawaiian-falls-owes-nearly-400-000/QCwv4FiRyVzXXa3hfS8VoM/|publisher=Austin American-Statesman|access-date=31 December 2016|date=13 December 2016}}</ref> The city began negotiations with [[Typhoon Texas]] to take over the water park lease.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Herrera|first1=Sebastian|title=Typhoon Texas to operate water park in Pflugerville|url=http://www.chron.com/neighborhood/katy/news/article/Typhoon-Texas-to-operate-water-park-in-10819447.php|publisher=Houston Chronicle|access-date=31 December 2016|date=27 December 2016}}</ref>

In 2020, [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]] began construction on a distribution center in Pflugerville.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Thompson |first1=Kelsey |title=Pflugerville City Council approves Amazon economic agreement July 14 |url=https://communityimpact.com/austin/round-rock-pflugerville-hutto/development/2020/07/14/updated-pflugerville-city-council-approves-amazon-economic-agreement-july-14/ |access-date=20 November 2020 |work=Community Impact Newspaper |date=July 14, 2020}}</ref> The distribution center has been reported to bring 1,000 full-time jobs and be one of the largest distribution centers in the state.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pflugerville City Council Approves PCDC Agreement with Amazon to Invest $250MM and Create 1,000 Full-Time Jobs |url=https://www.pfdevelopment.com/news/p/item/28358/pflugerville-city-council-approves-pcdc-agreement-with-amazon-to-invest-250mm-and-create-1000-fulltime-jobs |publisher=Pflugerville Community Development Corporation |access-date=20 November 2020 |date=July 15, 2020}}</ref> In partnership, the City Council signed an agreement in which Amazon agrees to invest $250M and create 1,000 fulltime jobs and the Pflugerville Community Development Corporation will use money earmarked for economic development to make additional roadway and intersection improvements along [[FM 1825|FM 1825/Pecan St]] to support the project.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sechler |first1=Bob |title=Amazon confirms 1,000-worker Pflugerville facility, to get $3.8M incentive deal |url=https://www.statesman.com/business/20200715/amazon-confirms-1000-worker-pflugerville-facility-to-get-38m-incentive-deal |access-date=20 November 2020 |work=Austin American-Statesman |date=July 15, 2020}}</ref>

[[Curative (company)|Curative, Inc.]] opened a lab in Pflugerville in 2020 bringing hundreds of jobs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Curative Inc to Bring Hundreds of Jobs to Pflugerville |url=https://www.pfdevelopment.com/news/p/item/29270/curative-inc-to-bring-hundreds-of-jobs-to-pflugerville |publisher=Pflugerville Community Development Corporation |access-date=20 November 2020 |date=September 8, 2020}}</ref> The company processes COVID-19 testing results.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Buchanan |first1=Taylor |title=Coronavirus testing lab Curative Inc. to open in Pflugerville, hire 300 employees |url=https://communityimpact.com/austin/round-rock-pflugerville-hutto/business/2020/09/08/coronavirus-testing-lab-curative-inc-to-open-in-pflugerville-hire-300-employees/ |access-date=20 November 2020 |work=Community Impact Newspaper |date=September 8, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Asch |first1=Sarah |title=Curative lab brings jobs, coronavirus testing capacity to Pflugerville |url=https://www.statesman.com/news/20200914/curative-lab-brings-jobs-coronavirus-testing-capacity-to-pflugerville |access-date=20 November 2020 |work=Austin American-Statesman |date=September 14, 2020}}</ref>

==Parks and recreation==
[[File:Gilleland Creek.JPG|thumb|Gilleland Creek]]

There are 28 developed parks, over {{convert|40|miles}} of trails, {{convert|500|acres}} of parks and 528 acres of open space within Pflugerville's city limits. Many of the parks offer a full range of amenities from pavilions, gazebos and playgrounds to pools and picnic areas.

Pfluger Park is along Gilleland Creek and is the site of the city's annual German festival, the Deutschen Pfest, held the third weekend in October. The park includes the Fallen Warrior Memorial, trails, a grove, playground, volleyball courts, basketball court, picnic areas and large shade trees. Pfluger Park is also used for music events and festivals.

Lake Pflugerville is a {{convert|180|acre|ha|adj=mid}} reservoir built to provide the citizens of Pflugerville with drinking water. It is open for fishing, swimming, jogging, canoes, kayaks and wind surfing. Lake Pflugerville Park includes a three-mile walking/jogging trail, playground, boat launch, pavilion and beach area.

The Northeast Metro Skate/BMX Park opened on September 18, 2012, near Pflugerville.<ref>{{cite web |title=Northeast Metropolitan Park |url=https://parks.traviscountytx.gov/parks/northeast-metro |website=Travis County Parks |publisher=Travis County |access-date=20 November 2020}}</ref> The {{convert|349|acre|ha|adj=mid}} Northeast Metropolitan Park is a multiple-use recreational area with soccer fields, multi-use fields, baseball fields, a cricket field, basketball court, tennis court, and a skate park. Amenities include restrooms, playgrounds, group shelters, picnic tables with grills, concession building for rent, and a water play area.

[[Hawaiian Falls]] opened a [[water park]] and adventure park in Pflugerville on Memorial Day weekend, 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Waterpark, adventure park planned for Pflugerville|url=http://hfalls.com/wp/waterpark-adventure-park-planned-for-pflugerville/|website=Hawaiian Falls Waterparks|access-date=22 August 2014|date=August 7, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815050050/http://hfalls.com/wp/waterpark-adventure-park-planned-for-pflugerville/|archive-date=15 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> The water park is now known as Typhoon Texas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://kxan.com/2016/12/15/hawaiian-falls-to-get-facelift-new-name-and-operator/|title=Pflugerville waterpark will reopen under new name, operator|last=Andy Jechow|date=2016-12-16|website=KXAN.com|access-date=2017-04-04}}</ref> Typhoon Texas has celebrated more than 3 seasons in Pflugerville and recently opened a new restaurant, The Patio entertainment venue.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Thompson |first1=Kelsey |title=Typhoon Texas opens The Patio entertainment venue and 3 other Round Rock-Pflugerville-Hutto business updates |url=https://communityimpact.com/austin/round-rock-pflugerville-hutto/impacts/2020/09/16/typhoon-texas-opens-the-patio-entertainment-venue-and-3-other-round-rock-pflugerville-hutto-business-updates |access-date=20 November 2020 |work=Community Impact Newspaper |date=September 16, 2020}}</ref>

In 2015, the city purchased a {{convert|237|acre|ha|adj=mid}} tract of land for a community park with a new sports complex and nature areas for $4.276 million. The first phase opened of 1849 Park with soccer fields for local league play and soccer fields.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Pflugerville Texas Official Website - 1849 Park |url=http://pflugervilletx.gov/index.aspx?nid=2222 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220102208/http://pflugervilletx.gov/index.aspx?nid=2222 |archive-date=2016-12-20 |access-date= |website=pflugervilletx.gov}}</ref>

In 2023, the city announced itself as the Trail Capital of Texas and is working toward the official designation. Based on the Parks and Open Space Master Plan, the emerged theme was trails as a true amenity in the city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parks & Recreation |url=http://www.pflugervilletx.gov/parks |website=www.pflugervilletx.gov}}</ref>

==Education==

Public education in Pflugerville in the vast majority of the city is provided by the [[Pflugerville Independent School District]] (PfISD).<ref name=CensusSDMap2020>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st48_tx/schooldistrict_maps/c48453_travis/DC20SD_C48453.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st48_tx/schooldistrict_maps/c48453_travis/DC20SD_C48453.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live|title=2020 CENSUS - SCHOOL DISTRICT REFERENCE MAP: Travis County, TX|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2024-09-13}} - [https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st48_tx/schooldistrict_maps/c48453_travis/DC20SD_C48453_SD2MS.txt List]</ref> The district encompasses all or part of six municipalities, including Pflugerville, Austin, Coupland, Hutto, Manor and Round Rock.<ref>{{cite web|title=About the District|url=http://www.pflugervilleisd.net/domain/100|website=Pflugerville Independent School District|access-date=22 August 2014}}</ref>

As of the 2017–2018 school year, PfISD has an enrollment of approximately 25,300 students<ref>{{cite web | url = http://pfisd.net/domain/238 | title = About Pflugerville Independent School District| publisher = Pflugerville Independent School District | access-date = 2017-12-29}}</ref> and operates four high schools ([[Pflugerville High School|Pflugerville]], [[John B. Connally High School|Connally]], [[Hendrickson High School|Hendrickson]], and Weiss), six middle schools, 20 elementary schools, and two alternative campuses.

Small parts of Pflugerville lie within the [[Round Rock Independent School District]] and the [[Manor Independent School District]].<ref name=CensusSDMap2020/>

==Notable people==

* [[Dylan Gandy]], a former American Football player who won a Super Bowl with the [[Indianapolis Colts]] in 2007, attended Pflugerville High School where he lettered in football and track & field.
* [[Michael Johnson (safety)|Michael Johnson]], a former American football safety who won a Super Bowl with the [[New York Giants]] in 2008, attended Pflugerville High School where he played both football and basketball
* [[Alex Okafor]], an American football player for the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] of the National Football League, attended Pflugerville High School and in November 2020 announced a sponsorship with the PfISD education program<ref>{{cite news |last1=Livengood |first1=Paul |title=Former Texas Longhorn, Kansas City Chiefs DE Alex Okafor sponsoring Pflugerville school with educational program |url=https://www.kvue.com/article/sports/pflugerville-isd-kansas-city-chiefs-kingdom-united-program/269-70d555ea-dd9c-4b0b-8fcb-44e7a2d8bdcd |access-date=20 November 2020 |work=Austin American-Statesman |date=November 16, 2020}}</ref>
* [[Samaje Perine]], an American football running back for the Cincinnati Bengals of the National Football League (NFL), attended Hendrickson High School in Pflugerville
* [[Eugene Lee Yang]], Korean-American filmmaker, actor, and [[internet celebrity]], best known for his work with [[BuzzFeed]] (2013–2018) and [[The Try Guys]] (2018–2024)

==In popular culture==
* ''[[Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation]]'' was filmed at an abandoned farmhouse in Pflugerville.<ref name="fang">{{Cite journal|journal=[[Fangoria]]|title=Return of the Texas Chainsaw Massacre Cuts Deep|date=September 1994|author=Wooley, John|issue=136}}</ref>
*[[Transformers: Age of Extinction]] had scenes filmed in one of Pflugerville's 100-year-old houses in 2013<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statesman.com/article/20130623/NEWS/306239788|title=Central Texas towns are backdrop for 'Transformers 4'|last=Robards-Forbes|first=Esther|website=Austin American-Statesman|language=en|access-date=2020-02-29}}</ref>
*The BBQ scene in the comedy film [[Office Space]] was shot at a house in Pflugerville <ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0151804/locations/ |title=Office Space (1999) - Filming & production - IMDb |language=en-US |access-date=2024-11-14 |via=www.imdb.com}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{notelist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.cityofpflugerville.com/ City of Pflugerville home page]
* [http://www.pfchamber.com Greater Pflugerville Chamber of Commerce (GPCC)]
* {{Handbook of Texas|id=hlp25|name=Pflugerville}}

{{Travis County, Texas}}
{{Williamson County, Texas}}
{{Greater Austin}}
{{Texas}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Pflugerville, Texas| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Greater Austin]]
[[Category:Cities in Texas]]
[[Category:Cities in Travis County, Texas]]
[[Category:Cities in Williamson County, Texas]]

Sergei Starostin

2025-10-19T08:18:38Z

2A01:E0A:319:5D10:0:0:A967:D6B6:

{{Short description|Russian linguist (1953–2005)}}
{{Promotional|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox scholar
| name = Sergei Starostin
| image = Сергей Анатольевич Старостин.jpg
| caption = Starostin in 2004
| birth_name = Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin
| birth_date = {{birth date|1953|03|24}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|2005|09|30|1953|03|24}}
| birth_place = [[Moscow]], Soviet Union
| death_place = Moscow, Russia
| children = [[Georgiy Starostin]]
| school_tradition = [[Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics|Moscow school]], [[historical linguistics]]
| main_interests = Long-range language reconstruction (especially [[Nostratic languages|Nostratic]] and [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené–Caucasian]]), [[glottochronology]], accentology (especially [[Proto-Indo-European accent|Indo-European]])
| notable_ideas = [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené–Caucasian hypothesis]], reconstruction of [[Altaic languages|Proto-Altaic]], [[North Caucasian languages|Proto-North-Caucasian]], [[Yeniseian languages|Proto-Yeniseian]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Proto-Tibeto-Burman]], [[Proto-Kiranti language|Proto-Kiranti]], reconstruction of [[Old Chinese]] and [[Proto-Japanese]], advancement of "recalibrated glottochronology"
| influences = [[Aharon Dolgopolsky]], [[Vladislav Illich-Svitych]], [[Andrey Zaliznyak]], [[Vladimir Dybo]], [[Sergei Yakhontov]]
| influenced = [[Merritt Ruhlen]], [[John Bengtson]]
}}
'''Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin''' ({{langx|ru|Серге́й Анато́льевич Ста́ростин}}; March 24, 1953 – September 30, 2005)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/ |title=The Tower of Babel |publisher=Starling.rinet.ru |date=2005-09-30 |access-date=2012-08-07}}</ref> was a Russian [[historical linguistics|historical linguist]] and [[philology|philologist]], perhaps best known for his reconstructions of hypothetical [[proto-language]]s, including his work on the controversial [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] theory, the formulation of the [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené–Caucasian]] hypothesis, and the proposal of a [[Borean languages|Borean]] language of still earlier date. None of his proposed [[Macrofamily|macrofamilies]] have seen wide-scale acceptance in the linguistic community (and are mostly seen as implausible).

== Theories ==

In 1986, Starostin and [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] suggested that the [[Hurro-Urartian languages]] belong to the [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] language family. Starostin also helped with reconstructions [[Proto-Kiranti]], [[Tibeto-Burman|Proto-Tibeto-Burman]], [[Yeniseian languages|Proto-Yeniseian]], [[North Caucasian languages|Proto-North-Caucasian]], and [[Proto-Altaic language|Proto-Altaic]]. He also expanded the hypothesis that [[Classification of Japonic|Japanese]] is related to the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] languages through an "[[Altaic languages|Altaic]]" family.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}}

The [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené–Caucasian]] hypothesis proposes that [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]], [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]], [[Yeniseian languages|Yeniseian]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], and [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dené]] form a single, higher-order language family. According to Starostin, the Dené–Caucasian and [[Austric languages|Austric]] macrofamilies, together with the [[Nostratic languages|Nostratic]] macrofamily, can further be linked at an earlier stage, which Starostin called the [[Borean languages|Borean]] (i.e. 'Northern') languages.

== Evolution of Human Languages project ==
{{main|Evolution of Human Languages}}
Since 1985, Starostin had been developing STARLING,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/program.php?lan=en |title=The Tower of Babel |publisher=Starling.rinet.ru |access-date=2012-08-07}}</ref> a [[database management system]] designed for his {{ill|Tower of Babel (website)|lt=Tower of Babel|ru|Вавилонская башня (сайт)}} website. He was assisted in his work<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=ru&q=%22Sergei+Starostin+and+I+established+the+Evolution+of+Human+Languages+project%22 |title="Sergei Starostin and I established the Evolution of Human Languages project" - Поиск в Google |access-date=2012-08-07}}</ref> by [[Murray Gell-Mann]], a [[Nobel Prize]]-winning physicist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ehl.santafe.edu/part.htm |title=Evolution of Human Languages |publisher=Ehl.santafe.edu |access-date=2012-11-27}}</ref> At the time of his death, he was a [[professor]] at the [[Russian State University for the Humanities]], a visiting professor at the [[Santa Fe Institute]], and a frequent guest lecturer at [[Leiden University]] in the [[Netherlands]], where he was awarded the degree of [[Honorary degree|doctor honoris causa]] in June 2005.

Starostin died of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] on September 30, 2005, in [[Moscow]] after a lecture at the [[Russian State University for the Humanities]]. His son, [[Georgiy Starostin]], is also a linguist.

==Selected works==
* 1986. Co-authored with [[Igor M. Diakonoff]]. ''Hurro-Urartian as an Eastern Caucasian Language.'' Munich: R. Kitzinger.
* 1989. ''Реконструкция древнекитайской фонологической системы'' [Reconstruction of Old Chinese Phonological System]. Moscow: Nauka.
* 1991. ''Алтайская проблема и происхождение японского языка'' [The Altaic Problem and the Origin of the Japanese Language]. Moscow: Nauka.
* 1994. Co-authored with [[Sergei Nikolaev (linguist)|Sergei Nikolaev]]. ''A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary''. Moscow: Asterisk Publishers.
* 1995. "The historical position of Bai".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/bai.pdf |title=The Historical Position of Bai |publisher=Starling.rinet.ru |access-date=2012-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012094149/http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/bai.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-12 }}</ref> ''Московский лингвистический журнал'' 1, 174-190. Moscow.
* 2003. Co-authored with [[Anna V. Dybo]] and Oleg A. Mudrak. ''[[Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages]]'', 3 volumes. Leiden: Brill. {{ISBN|9004131531}}.
* 2005. Co-authored with [[Svetlana Burlak]]. ''Сравнительно-историческое языкознание'' [Comparative-Historical Linguistics]. Moscow: Academia. {{ISBN|5-7695-1445-0}}.

==See also==
*[[Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==References==
*{{cite journal|first=William H.|last=Baxter|author-link=William H. Baxter|year=2006|title=Eulogy: Sergej Anatol′evič Starostin|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/memorial/baxter.pdf|journal=[[Journal of Chinese Linguistics]]|volume=34|issue=1|pages=164–166|jstor=23754153}}
*{{cite journal|first1=John D.|last1=Bengtson|author-link1=John Bengtson|first2=Václav|last2=Blažek|author-link2=Václav Blažek|date=2005|title=Obituary: Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin|url=http://jdbengt.net/06Starostin.pdf|journal=[[Journal of Indo-European Studies]]|volume=33|issue=3/4|pages=307–314}}
*{{cite journal|first=Richard B.|last=Woodward|author-link=Richard B. Woodward|year=2006|title=The Man Who Loved Languages|url=https://pdfhost.io/v/7eArCNScE_The_Man_Who_Loved_Languages.pdf|journal=[[The American Scholar (magazine)|The American Scholar]]|volume=75|issue=4|pages=44–57|jstor=41222651}}

== External links ==
* [http://starlingdb.org/babel.php?lan=en The Tower of Babel], a large linguistics database built largely by Sergei and George Starostin

{{Long-range comparative linguistics}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Starostin, Sergei}}
[[Category:1953 births]]
[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Historical linguists]]
[[Category:Linguists from Russia]]
[[Category:Linguists from the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Linguists of Altaic languages]]
[[Category:Linguists of Borean languages]]
[[Category:Linguists of Caucasian languages]]
[[Category:Linguists of Dené–Caucasian languages]]
[[Category:Linguists of Etruscan]]
[[Category:Linguists of Hurro-Urartian languages]]
[[Category:Linguists of Na-Dene languages]]
[[Category:Linguists of North Caucasian languages]]
[[Category:Linguists of Nostratic languages]]
[[Category:Linguists of Sino-Tibetan languages]]
[[Category:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics]]
[[Category:Moscow State University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Santa Fe, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Russian State University for the Humanities]]
[[Category:Santa Fe Institute people]]
[[Category:Russian scientists]]

Our Moldova Alliance

2025-09-11T17:54:05Z

2A01:E0A:319:5D10:0:0:A967:D6B6:

{{Infobox political party
|country = Moldova
|colorcode = {{party color|Party Alliance Our Moldova}}
| name = Our Moldova Alliance
|native_name = {{lang|ro|Alianță Moldova Noastră}}
|logo = Amn-logo.png
|president = [[Serafim Urechean]]
|foundation = 19 July 2003
|dissolution = 9 April 2011
|merged = [[Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova]] (PLDM)
|ideology = [[Social liberalism]]<ref name="Culeac2007">{{cite book|author=Petru Culeac|title=Contradictory Electoral Behavior and the Post-Soviet Party-system in Republic of Moldova|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwjDuoxzNlwC&pg=PA80|year=2007|isbn=978-0-549-26388-3|page=80}}</ref>
|headquarters = [[Chișinău]]
|international = [[Liberal International]] (observer)
|european = [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party|European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]]
|colours = [[Yellow]]
|website =
}}

The '''Our Moldova Alliance''' ({{langx|ro|Partidul Alianță Moldova Noastră}}, {{langx|en|Party Alliance Our Moldova}}, AMN) was a [[Social liberalism|social-liberal]]<ref name="Chodakiewicz2012">{{cite book|author=Marek Jan Chodakiewicz|title=Intermarium: The Land between the Black and Baltic Seas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4zSGR3fBfUcC&pg=PA331|date=6 November 2012|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-4786-5|page=331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parties.e-democracy.md/en/parties/pamn/|title = ADEPT : Political parties of RM : Parties' List : "Moldova Noastra (Our Moldova)" Alliance}}</ref> [[List of political parties in Moldova|political party in Moldova]] led by [[Serafim Urechean]], former mayor of [[Chișinău]]. It merged into the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova]] (PLDM) during April 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.e-democracy.md/en/elections/local/2011/electoral-news/20110409|title = Election News from April 9, 2011 / Elections 2011}}</ref>

==History==
The Our Moldova Alliance was established as a party in 2003 from the merger of:

*the '''[[Social Democratic Alliance of Moldova]]''' or the [[Braghiș Alliance]], successor of the social-political Movement "Civic Alliance for Reforms" and the Party of Social Democracy "Furnica" (Ant), was a social-democratic party established in 1997 and adopted this name in 2001. It was led by [[Dumitru Braghiș]] and absorbed the Socio-political Movement "Plai Natal" in 2002.
*the '''Liberal Party''', a [[Liberalism|liberal]] party created as a merger of the [[Party of Rebirth and Conciliation of Moldova]] (1995), National Peasant Christian Democratic Party (1993) and the Social Liberal Union "Force of Moldova", the latter was being a merger of the National Liberal Party (1993) and the Social-Political Movement "For Order and Justice" (2000). Among its leaders was former [[president of Moldova|president]] [[Mircea Snegur]]. The last party leader was Veaceslav Untila.
*the '''[[Independents' Alliance of Moldova]]''', a party founded in 2001 by [[Serafim Urechean]], mayor of [[Chișinău]].
*the '''[[Popular Democratic Party of Moldova]]''', a party established in 1997.

==Moldovan parliamentary election, 2005==
At the [[2005 Moldovan parliamentary election|2005 parliamentary elections]], on 6 March 2005, the party was part of the [[Electoral Bloc Democratic Moldova|Democratic Moldova Electoral Bloc]] with the [[Democratic Party of Moldova]] (PDM) and [[Social Liberal Party (Moldova)|Social Liberal Party]] (PSL), which won 28.4% of the popular vote and 34 out of 101 seats. After the elections the bloc fell apart in three parliamentary groups of the constituent parties, so the Alliance formed a separate group with 23 deputies until the 2009 elections, when they won fewer seats.

==Moldovan parliamentary election, 2009==
At the [[April 2009 Moldovan parliamentary election|April 2009 parliamentary elections]], the Our Moldova Alliance won 11 seats. With the other opposition parties, it participated in the successful blocking of the election of a presidential candidate from the [[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova]] (PCRM) during the [[Moldovan presidential election, May–June 2009|May–June 2009 presidential election]], which led to new elections. At the [[July 2009 Moldovan parliamentary election|July 2009 parliamentary election]], the Our Moldova Alliance lost 4 seats, receiving a total of 7 seats. However, other opposition parties gained enough seats for a majority and the PCRM was defeated. In August 2009, the party became a political force within the [[Alliance For European Integration]]. The party lost all parliamentary representation in the [[2010 Moldovan parliamentary election|2010 parliamentary election]].

==Notable members==
[[Image:Alianta Moldova Noastra 2009.svg|thumb|right|300px|Votes won by AMN in the [[April 2009 Moldovan parliamentary election|April 2009 elections]] by raion and municipality]]
*[[Vasile Balan]]
*[[Leonid Bujor]]
*[[Valentin Chepteni]]
*[[Mihai Cimpoi]]
*[[Vladimir Ciobanu]]
*[[Ivan Ciontoloi]]
*[[Iurie Colesnic]]
*[[Vasile Colța]]
*[[Valeriu Cosarciuc]]
*[[Nicolai Deatovschi]]
*[[Vasile Grozav]]
*[[Ion Guțu]]
*[[Lidia Guțu]]
*[[Alexandru Oleinic]]
*[[Victor Osipov]]
*[[Vasile Pîntea]]
*[[Veaceslav Platon]]
*[[Ion Pleșca]]
*[[Mihail Silistraru]]
*[[Anatol Țăranu]]
*[[Veaceslav Untilă]]
*[[Serafim Urechean]]

==See also==
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Liberalism worldwide]]
*[[List of liberal parties]]
*[[Liberal democracy]]
*[[Liberalism in Moldova]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090817173350/http://amn.md/ Official website]

{{Moldovan political parties}}
{{ELDR member parties}}
{{Alliance for European Integration}}

[[Category:Defunct political parties in Moldova]]
[[Category:Liberal parties in Moldova]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 2003]]
[[Category:Political parties disestablished in 2011]]
[[Category:Alliance for European Integration]]
[[Category:Defunct liberal political parties]]

Praia da Vitória

2025-06-05T08:16:21Z

2A01:E0A:319:5D10:0:0:A967:D6B6:

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox Portuguese subdivision
| type = municipality
| name = Praia da Vitória
| image_skyline = Vista de Praia da Vitória desde miradouro do Facho, isla de Terceira, Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-24, DD 66.jpg
| image_caption = View of Praia da Vitória from the outlook of Facho.
| image_flag = Pt-vpv3.png
| image_shield = VPV1.png
| region = Azores
| island = [[Terceira Island|Terceira]]
| parishes = [[#Geography|11]]
| image_map = LocalPraiaDaVitoria.png
| map_caption = Location of the municipality of Praia da Vitória in the archipelago of the Azores
| coordinates = {{coord|38|44|0|N|27|3|59|W|display=inline,title}}
| leader_name = Tibério Dinis
| established_date = Settlement: fl. 1400 Municipality: c. 1480
| area_total_km2 = 161.27
| elevation_m = 27
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 21035
| postal_code = 9760-851
| area_code = 292
| patron = [[Christian cross|Santa Cruz]]
| holiday = 11 August
| website = http://www.cmpv.pt

}}

'''Praia da Vitória''' ({{IPA|pt|ˈpɾajɐ ðɐ viˈtɔɾi.ɐ|-|Pt-pt Praia da Vitória FF.ogg}}; translating as "Beach of Victory") is a [[Concelho|municipality]] in the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] archipelago of the [[Azores]]. With a population of 21,035 (in 2011), the second largest administrative authority on the island of [[Terceira]], it covers an area of {{convert|162.29|km2|mi2}}, that extends from the northern coast halfway into the interior.<ref>[http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xlang=en&xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&indOcorrCod=0005889&contexto=pi&selTab=tab0 Instituto Nacional de Estatística]</ref><ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_nomenclature/documents/PT-LAU.xls Eurostat]</ref>

==History==
[[File:Batalha da Praia da Vitória.jpg|thumb|left|235px|Engraving from the ''Batalha da baía da Praia'' (''Battle of the Bay of Praia'')]]
[[File:Quartel praia vitoria (3).JPG|thumb|235px|left|Camponeses transporting sand from the beaches for building purposes]]
[[File:Quartel praia vitoria (1).JPG|thumb|235px|left|A view of the main strip in Praia da Vitória during the middle of the 20th century]]
[[File:Estatua liberdade pr vitoria (1).jpg|150px|thumb|Main square]]
The area of Praia, was one of the first points colonized on the island of Terceira. Praia constituted the seat of the Donatary-Captaincy of Terceira between 1456 and 1474; the island's first Captain, [[Jácome de Bruges]] along with his first lieutenant, [[Diogo de Teive]], established their residency at this site. By 1474, the island was divided into two captaincies (Praia and Angra): the Captaincy of Praia reverted to [[Álvaro Martins|Álvaro Martins Homem]], Bruges' successor. The growth of the [[woad]] industry and export wheat market concentrated along the fertile ''Ramo Grande'' area, allowed Praia to grow rapidly. Consequently, Praia was elevated to the status of ''vila'' (comparable to town) in 1480 (then still within the administration of Álvaro Martins Homem).

By the last quarter of the 16th century, [[Gaspar Frutuoso]] (the celebrated Azorean historian), wrote of Praia in these terms:
{{quote|...and shortly there is the town of Praia, noble and sumptuous and with good buildings, built in a very good style, circled by a good wall, with its forts and bulwarks all around, populated by nobles and older residents, with one of the older settlements of the island, circled by famous and rich farms of nobles and grandiose nobility, with a parish and sumptuous church of three naves, with a vaulted main chapel and porticoes and pillars of well worked marble, all circled by chapels of the grand first-born...its principal invocation is to the Holy Cross...where the house of Mercy and hospital, with two churches, one the hospital of the Holy Spirit and the other to Our Lady, with a nave down the middle...; it's a famous monastery of Saint Francis where there still continue to reside ten or twelve religious, where there are many chapels of the grand first-born similar to the above indicated; three monasteries for nuns, the more principal of the those is to Jesus..., with forty nuns with black veils and two, one of Our Lady of the Light and the other Our Lady of the Stigmata, give obedience and observation to Saint Francis, where there are few religious<ref>Gaspar Frutuoso, p.15</ref>}}

During the [[Iberian Union]], King [[Philip II of Spain]] ordered an armada to Terceira to impose the governorship of Ambrósio de Aguiar Coutinho on his unruly subjects in the Azores and facilitate shipping to the Indies. Under the command of Pedro de Valdez, the fleet arrived in Santa Maria with seven large [[carrack]]s and 1000 troops, took on provisions and sailed for São Miguel in the spring (where Governor Ambrósio de Aguiar Coutinho and his cousin supplied the group). After an initial assault on Angra, Valdez rushed to assault the island, disembarking troops at the Casa da Salga, in the valley of [[Porto Judeu]] (a mile from [[Vila de São Sebastião]]), incensed that King Phillip was sending a larger contingent to capture Terceira. The [[Battle of Salga]] became an important event in the village of [[Vila de São Sebastião|São Sebastião]] (then a parish of Praia) broke out along the coast in 1582.

During the Restoration of Portuguese Independence, the citizenry of Praia acclaimed King [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]], when Francisco Ornelas da Câmara arrived in Terceira.

The settlement was destroyed during the 1614 ''Caída da Praia'' earthquake, with many of the residents along the coast lost to the sea. Along the 17th century, even as the community was being re-constructed, there were several seismic aftershocks.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}

During the [[Liberal Wars]], the harbour was the scene of a naval battle (in 1829) between the Liberals and the Absolutists, competing factions in support of [[Pedro I of Brazil|King Pedro IV]] and [[Miguel of Portugal|King Miguel]], respectively, during the [[Liberal Wars]]. The [[Battle of Praia]] ensued when a squadron of Miguelist troops attempted to disembark at Praia (11 August 1829). As a result of this victory, Queen [[Maria II of Portugal|Maria II]] after being restored to the throne, acted to recognize its residents for their heroism by appending ''"Mui Notável"'' (''Very notable'') and ''"da Vitória"'' (''of the Victoria'') to its name (12 January 1837): it was at this time that Praia became known as ''Praia da Vitória''.

Its importance in the economy of the north continued, even after the second ''Caída da Praia'' earthquake (on 15 June 1841), that partially destroyed the settlement. Its reconstruction, at the end of the 19th century was motivated by councillor José Silvestre Ribeiro. As priest Jerónimo Emiliano de Andrade (who lived in the town at the time), referred to Praia da Vitória:
{{quote|The traveller who leaves [[Cabo da Praia]] is quickly encounters the magnificent and majestic Vila da Praia da Vitória, which is located a short distance, no less than a quarter league ...}}

The town was elevated to city on 20 June 1981, although it continued to be referred to as the ''Vila da Praia da Vitória'' (until 1983). In the second half of the 20th century, a large aerodrome was constructed along the southwestern side of the [[Lajes Field|Portuguese Air Base No.4]]. In addition, the port of Praia was expanded to include a 1400-metre extension. These two projects have supported the municipality's growth, along with its large industrial centre.

==Geography==
[[File:Serra do Cume Praia da Vitória 115.JPG|thumb|235px|A view of the municipality of Praia da Vitória]]
Praia da Vitória occupies the northern and eastern coasts of Terceira, bisecting it from northwest to southeast, through a varied geomorphology.

Administratively, the municipality of Praia da Vitória is divided into the following civil parishes, which handle local distribution of services and support the local residents:
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Agualva (Praia da Vitória)|Agualva]]
* [[Biscoitos]]
* [[Cabo da Praia]]
* [[Fonte do Bastardo]]
* [[Fontinhas]]
* [[Lajes (Praia da Vitória)|Lajes]]
* [[Porto Martins]]
* [[Santa Cruz (Praia da Vitória)|Santa Cruz]]
* [[Quatro Ribeiras]]
* [[São Brás (Praia da Vitória)|São Brás]]
* [[Vila Nova (Praia da Vitória)|Vila Nova]]
{{div col end}}
The urban centre, that includes the parishes of Lajes and Santa Cruz, fronts a ridge known as ''Facho'' that overlooks the airport of Lajes. It was used as a lookout for pirates and invaders, and later as marine military semaphore station and primitive lighthouse (lasting for 400 years). Apart from pasture-lands, the ridge was occupied by marine/naval housing and support buildings for Portuguese Air Base 4. At the far end is a monument dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Mary and lookout.

==Economy==
Praia da Vitória is a services, fishing and agricultural municipality and boasts a large marina, popular with the [[yacht]]ing community, with the only sizeable sand beach on Terceira.

[[Lajes Air Base]], a joint [[United States Air Force|United States]] and [[Military of Portugal|Portuguese]] air force base, lies three kilometers to the north of the town. American servicemen frequent the restaurants and clubs in the town and add considerably to the local economy.

==Architecture==
The town boasts two notable churches, several public squares, and a number of hotels and restaurants.

===Civic===
[[File:Ayuntamiento, Praia da Vitória, isla de Terceira, Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-24, DD 51.jpg|thumb|235px|The heritage and municipal council building constructed during the Captaincy of Praia da Vitória]]
[[File:Ayuntamiento, Praia da Vitória, isla de Terceira, Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-24, DD 52.jpg|150px|thumb|Tower of the municipal council building]]
[[File:PraiaDaVitóriaJardim.jpg|thumb|Public park ''Jardim municipal'']]
[[File:PraiaDaVitóriaImpério.jpg|thumb|''Largo José S. Ribeiro'' square with ''Império dos Marítimos'' chapel]]
[[File:PraiaDaVitóriaRuaJesus.jpg|thumb|Main street ''Rua Jesus'']]
[[File:PraiaDaVitóriaMuralha.jpg|thumb|Old city wall]]

* Cocklestove of Boa Vista (''{{lang|pt|Forno da Telha da Boa Vista}}'')
* Cocklestove of Rua Gervásio Lima (''{{lang|pt|Forno de Telha à Rua Gervásio Lima}}'')
* Customshouse of Praia da Vitória (''{{lang|pt|Casa da Alfândega}}'')
* Fountain of Biscoito Bravo (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Biscoito Bravo}}'')
* Fountain of Caminho Novo (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Caminho Novo}}'')
* Fountain of Cruz do Pico (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz da Cruz do Pico}}'')
* Fountain of Largo Comendador Pamplona (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Largo Comendador Pamplona}}'')
* Fountain of Largo Conde da Praia da Vitória (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Largo Conde da Praia da Vitória}}'')
* Fountain of Largo da Luz (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Largo da Luz}}'')
* Fountain of Ribeira da Areia (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz da Ribeira da Areia}}'')
* Fountain of Pico da Rocha (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Pico da Rocha}}'')
* Fountain of Largo Francisco Maria Brum (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Largo Francisco Maria Brum}}'')
* Fountain of the Amoreiras (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz das Amoreiras}}'')
* Fountain of the Barreiro (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Barreiro}}'')
* Fountain of the Caldeira of Lajes (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz da Caldeira das Lajes}}'')
* Fountain of the Canada da Bezerra (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz da Canada da Bezerra}}'')
* Fountain of the Cruzeiro (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Cruzeiro}}'')
* Fountain of the Cruzeiro of Lajes (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz do Cruzeiro das Lajes}}'')
* Fountain of the Fontinhas (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz das Fontinhas}}'')
* Fountain of the Fundões (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz dos Fundões}}'')
* Fountain of the Ladeira do Cardoso (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz da Ladeira do Cardoso}}'')
* Fountain of the Malícias (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz das Malícias}}'')
* Fountain of the Quatro Canadas (''{{lang|pt|Chafariz das Quatro Canadas}}'')
* Hospital of the Misericórdia (''{{lang|pt|Hospital da Misericórdia}}'')
* Hospital of São Lázaro (''{{lang|pt|Hospital de São Lázaro}}'')
* Municipal Hall of Praia da Vitória (''{{lang|pt|Câmara Municipal da Praia da Vitória}}'')
* Municipal Market of Praia da Vitóra (''{{lang|pt|Mercado Municipal da Praia da Vitória}}'')
* Ramo Grande Auditorium (''{{lang|pt|Auditório do Ramo Grande}}'')
* Residence of [[Vitorino Nemésio]] (''{{lang|pt|Casa de Vitorino Nemésio}}'')
* Residence of Roda (''{{lang|pt|Casa da Roda}}'')
* Watermill of Rua dos Moinhos (''{{lang|pt|Azenha da Rua dos Moinhos}}'')
*[[Watermill of Agualva]] (''{{lang|pt|Azenha da Ribeira da Agualva}}'')
* City wall (''{{lang|pt|Muralha}}''), built of volcanic stones on the beach to protect the city against tsunamis and pirates

===Military===
* Fort of Chagas (''{{lang|pt|Forte das Chagas}}'')
* Fort of São João (''{{lang|pt|Forte de São João}}'')
* Fort of Luz (''{{lang|pt|Forte da Luz}}'')
* Fort of Nossa Senhora da Nazaré (''{{lang|pt|Forte de Nossa Senhora da Nazaré}}'')
* [[Fort of Rua Longa]] (''{{lang|pt|Forte da Rua Longa}}'')
* Fort of São Bento (''{{lang|pt|Forte de São Bento}}'')
* Fort of São Caetano (''{{lang|pt|Forte de São Caetano}}'')
* Fort of Santa Catarina (''{{lang|pt|Forte de Santa Catarina}}'')
* Fort of São Filipe (''{{lang|pt|Forte de São Filipe}}'')
* Fort of Santo Antão (''{{lang|pt|Forte de Santo Antão}}'')
*[[Fort of the Espírito Santo]] (''{{lang|pt|Forte do Espírito Santo}}''), little remains of this 16th century fort situated on the northern edge of the Bay of Praia, which was bombarded and nearly destroyed during the [[Liberal Wars|Liberal]] conflict. Its remnants survived to the 20th century, but were obliterated during the construction and support of the northern pier, even after a Luso-American compromise was established for its recuperation.
* Fort of the Porto (''{{lang|pt|Forte do Porto}}'')
* [[Fort of São Pedro (Biscoitos)|Fort of São Pedro]], Port of Biscoitos (''{{lang|pt|Forte do Porto dos Biscoitos}}'')
* Fort Grande (''{{lang|pt|Forte Grande}}'')
* Post of the Fiscal Guard of Praia da Vitória (''{{lang|pt|Posto Fiscal da Praia da Vitória}}'')

===Religious===
[[File:Iglesia de Santa Cruz, Praia da Vitória, isla de Terceira, Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-24, DD 53.jpg|thumb|235px|The parochial Matriz Church of Santa Cruz]]
* Church of Santa Cruz (''{{lang|pt|Igreja de Santa Cruz}}'')
* Church of Santa Bárbara (''{{lang|pt|Igreja de Santa Bárbara}}'')
* Church of Santa Beatriz (''{{lang|pt|Igreja de Santa Beatriz}}'')
* Church of São José, Santa Luzia e Santa Cruz (''{{lang|pt|Igreja de São José, Santa Luzia, Santa Cruz}}'')
* Church of Senhor Santo Cristo das Misericórdias (''{{lang|pt|Igreja do Senhor Santo Cristo das Misericórdias}}'')
* Hermitage of Nossa Senhora do Loreto (''{{lang|pt|Ermida de Nossa Senhora do Loreto}}'')
* Hermitage of Nossa Senhora dos Remédios (''{{lang|pt|Ermida de Nossa Senhora dos Remédios}}''), located in Santa Cruz, the early 17th century chapel survived the [[1755 Lisbon earthquake]], but it was only in the second half of the 18th century that any efforts were invested in restoring the chapel. Following the earthquake and effects of the tsunami, parishioners marched through the streets in procession for their deliverance;<ref name="SIPA">{{citation|url=http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id=34503 |title=Capela de Nossa Senhora dos Remédios/Igreja de Nossa Senhora dos Remédios (IPA.00034503/PT071905080042) |publisher=SIPA – Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico |editor=SIPA |location=Lisbon, Portugal|language=pt |first=Paula |last=Noé |year=2013 |access-date=29 December 2013}}</ref>
* Hermitage of Santa Catarina (''{{lang|pt|Ermida de Santa Catarina}}'')
* Hermitage of Santa Rita (''{{lang|pt|Ermida de Santa Rita}}'')
* Hermitage of Santo António (''{{lang|pt|Ermida de Santo António}}'')
* Hermitage of São Lázaro (''{{lang|pt|Ermida de São Lázaro}}'')
* Hermitage of São Salvador (''{{lang|pt|Ermida de São Salvador}}'')
* Império of the Holy Spirit of Fonte do Bastardo (''{{lang|pt|Império do Espírito Santo da Fonte do Bastardo}}'')
* Império of the Holy Spirit of Quatro Ribeiras (''{{lang|pt|Império do Espírito Santo das Quatro Ribeiras}}'')
* Império of the Holy Spirit of Santa Cruz (''{{lang|pt|Império do Espírito Santo de Santa Cruz}}'')
* Império of the Holy Spirit of São Pedro (''{{lang|pt|Império do Espírito Santo de São Pedro}}'')
* Império of the Sailors (''{{lang|pt|Império dos Marítimos}}''), built in 1877 by fishermen from the neighbouring island of Pico at ''Largo José Silvestre Ribeiro'' Square

== Parks ==
In the municipal park (''Jardim municipal'') a monument was erected in 1879 in memory of José Silvestre Ribeiro (1807–1891), a Portuguese politician who organized the reconstruction of the city after the earthquake in 1841.

==Sport==
It is popular with [[windsurfing|windsurfers]] because of the constant seabreezes. Praia da Vitoria hosts an annual [[triathlon]] and is known for its unique style of [[bullfighting]], ''[[tourada à corda]]''.

==Notable citizens==
* [[Álvaro Martins Homem III]] ({{circa}} 1490 in Praia da Vitória – 1535) a nobleman, 3rd Donatary-Captain of Praia da Vitória
* [[Alberto del Canto]] (1547 in Praia da Vitória – 1611) [[conquistador]] and explorer of the north of Mexico
* [[Alexandre Martins Pamplona Ramos]] (1864 in Santa Cruz – 1933) a physician and politician.
* [[Vitorino Nemésio]] (1901 in Praia da Vitória – 1978) a poet, author and intellectual
* [[Luis Gil Bettencourt]] (born 1956 in Praia da Vitória) a Portuguese-American musician, songwriter and music producer.
* [[Artur Lima]] (born 1963 in Santa Cruz) a dentist and politician
* [[Nuno Bettencourt]] (born 1966 in Praia da Vitória) a Portuguese-American guitarist, singer-songwriter, and record producer; lead guitarist of the Boston rock band [[Extreme (band)|Extreme]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* http://www.ciberacores.com/santacruzpv – Website of the church of Santa Cruz (Praia) (only in Portuguese)
*[https://www.flickr.com/photos/vitor107/sets/72157594234917076/ Photos from Praia da Vitória]

{{Municipalities in the Azores}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Praia da Vitoria}}
[[Category:Praia da Vitória| ]]
[[Category:Municipalities of the Azores]]

Skoczów

2025-05-25T11:59:35Z

2A01:E0A:319:5D10:0:0:A967:D6B6:

{{See also|Skoczów, West Pomeranian Voivodeship}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Skoczów
| image_skyline = Skoczow collage.jpg
| image_caption = Top: Papal Cross on Kaplicówka Hill. Centre left: [[Pegasus]] statue in front of St Peter and Paul's Church. Centre right: Town Hall. Bottom: Main Square
| image_flag = POL Skoczów flag.svg
| image_shield = POL Skoczów COA.svg
| pushpin_map = Poland
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{POL}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Voivodeships of Poland|Voivodeship]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Silesian Voivodeship|Silesian]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Powiat|County]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Cieszyn County|Cieszyn]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Gmina]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Gmina Skoczów|Skoczów]]
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Rajmund Dedio
| established_title = Founded
| established_date = 13th century (?)
| established_title2 = First mentioned
| established_date2 = 1282 (?), 1327
| area_total_km2 = 9.79
| population_as_of = 2019-06-30<ref>{{cite web |title=Population. Size and structure and vital statistics in Poland by territorial division in 2019. As of 30th June|url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/population/population/population-size-and-structure-and-vital-statistics-in-poland-by-territorial-division-in-2019-as-of-30th-june,3,26.html|website=stat.gov.pl|publisher=Statistics Poland|date=2019-10-15|access-date=2020-02-14}}</ref>
| population_total = 14385
| population_density_km2 = auto
| timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset = +1
| timezone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| coordinates = {{coord|49|48|2|N|18|47|18|E|region:PL|display=inline,title}}
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 43-430
| blank_name = [[Polish car number plates|Car plates]]
| blank_info = SCI
| website = {{url|www.um.skoczow.pl}}
| module = {{Infobox mapframe |wikidata=yes |zoom=11 |height=300 |width= | stroke-width=1 |coord={{WikidataCoord|display=i}}}}
}}

'''Skoczów''' (pronounced {{respell|Sko-choof}} {{IPAc-pl|AUD|Skoczow.ogg|'|s|k|o|cz|u|f}}, {{langx|de|Skotschau}}, {{langx|cs|Skočov}}) is a town and the seat of [[Gmina Skoczów]] in [[Cieszyn County]], [[Silesian Voivodeship]], southern [[Poland]] with 14,385 inhabitants (2019). The town lies in the historical region of [[Cieszyn Silesia]].

The name of the town is of possessive origin, derived from personal name ''Skocz''.<ref name="mrozek">{{cite book | last = Mrózek | first = Robert | title = Nazwy miejscowe dawnego Śląska Cieszyńskiego |trans-title=Local names of the former Cieszyn Silesia | publisher = [[University of Silesia in Katowice|Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach]] | year = 1984 | location = Katowice | pages = 160 | language = pl |issn = 0208-6336}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Figura Jonasza i Ratusz w Skoczowie 1.JPG|thumb|left|Town hall built in the 18th century]]

The very first settlement in the nearest neighbourhood had been established by a Slavic tribe called [[Golensizi]] around the 7th century on a naturally defensive hill over the valley of the river Bładnica and [[ravine]] called ''Piekiełko'' about {{convert|2|km|2|abbr=on}} south-east of the town centre within borders of modern [[Międzyświeć]]. The [[Grad (Slavic settlement)|"gord"]] was later surrounded by an earth bank and moat. The settlement was destroyed in the end of the 9th century most probably by [[Great Moravia]]n Prince [[Svatopluk II]] and was not rebuilt again.

Sometimes the oldest mentioning of Skoczów is believed to be from the document allegedly issued in 1232 by Mieszko, ''dux Oppoliensis et dominus Tessinensis et Ratiboriensis'' (implicitly [[Mieszko II the Fat]]) for a knight Przecho from Zabłocie, were among witnesses is a ducal writer, Mikołaj from '''''Coczow'''''<ref>{{cite book | last = Panic | first = Idzi | author-link = Idzi Panic | title = Śląsk Cieszyński w średniowieczu (do 1528) |trans-title=Cieszyn Silesia in Middle Ages (until 1528) | publisher = Starostwo Powiatowe w Cieszynie | year = 2010 | location = Cieszyn | page = 294 | language = pl |isbn = 978-83-926929-3-5 }}</ref> (Skoczów).<ref>I. Panic, 2005, p. 68</ref> Some researchers<ref>Marek Wójcik: ''Dokumenty i kancelarie książąt opolsko-raciborskich'', p. 24-25</ref> consider the document to be a fake. [[Idzi Panic]] takes into consideration that it could be a mistake during rewriting, and that the document could be originally issued in 1282 by [[Mieszko I, Duke of Cieszyn|Mieszko]], who later ruled the [[Duchy of Teschen]] (formed in 1290, where Skoczów also belonged), but back then together with younger brother [[Przemysław of Racibórz|Przemko]] ruled Duchy of Racibórz with castellanies of Cieszyn and Oświęcim, and would more likely use the title ''dux Oppoliensis et dominus Tessinensis et Ratiboriensis'' than Mieszko II the Fat (who never used as complicated title). The rewriter could have omitted the number L in the year MCCLXXXII (1282), making it MCCXXXII (1232).<ref>I. Panic, 2005, p. 84</ref> If the document was indeed a fake, then the first mentioning of Skoczów as '''''oppidum Scocoviense''''' is from 1327 when Duke [[Casimir I, Duke of Cieszyn|Casimir I]] became a vassal of the King of [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]]. The term [[oppidum]] (used also for ''Jamnica'' preceding [[Frýdek, Frýdek-Místek|Frýdek]]) was used in contrary to ''civitates'' ruling themselves under German rights of [[Cieszyn]], [[Bielsko]] and [[Frysztat]]. It probably meant that Skoczów was yet ruled under Polish (ducal) traditional rights.<ref>I. Panic, 2005, p. 90</ref>

In the document from 1327 there is also mentioned a gord, which can be linked with a subsequent wooden castle revealed in later documents. The settlement of Skoczów most probably emerged as its ''podgrodzie'', a small locality serving it, which later evolved into a market settlement with irregular arrangement of buildings centered on main oval square a few hundred meters north of nowadays Market Square, where later (but no earlier than late 1330s) a parish church was built. The location of the town around new Market Square under German rights took place hypothetically roughly at similar time as of [[Frýdek, Frýdek-Místek|Frýdek]], in the late 14th century.<ref>I. Panic, 2005, p. 105</ref> The new town had regular arrangement of buildings stretched towards the parish church in the north. It was surrounded with ramparts from wood and earth with two gates: Upper and Lower. Through the Upper Gate a path led towards Cieszyn in the east, through Lower towards Bielsko in the west. Behind the Upper Gate emerged the Upper Suburb, whereas on the right and eastern bank of Vistula River was located a Lower Suburb. In the beginning Skoczów was a small town, with around 450 citizens in the middle of the 15th century.<ref>I. Panic, 2005, p. 194</ref> It had been mainly an agricultural and craft trade settlement with much lower importance of trade. A local Catholic [[parish]] was first mentioned in the register of [[Peter's Pence]] payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen [[deanery]] as ''Scotczowa''.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Registrum denarii sancti Petri in archidiaconatu Opoliensi sub anno domini MCCCCXLVII per dominum Nicolaum Wolff decretorum doctorem, archidiaconum Opoliensem, ex commissione reverendi in Christo patris ac domini Conradi episcopi Wratislaviensis, sedis apostolice collectoris, collecti|journal= Zeitschrift des Vereins für Geschichte und Alterthum Schlesiens|publisher= H. Markgraf|publication-place=Breslau|volume= 27|year = 1893|pages= 361–372|url = http://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=15085&from=publication| access-date=21 July 2014|language=de}}</ref>

In the late 1469 or early 1470 Skoczów was destroyed by fire, which burnt all chartered privileges and other documents. 26 January 1470 the Duke of Cieszyn renewed and extended all civic privileges. A school and hospital with a chapel are recorded in a document from 1482. During Reformation under [[Wenceslaus III Adam, Duke of Cieszyn|Wenceslaus III Adam]] rule it was dominated by Lutherans, who took over the parish church, and later also hospital's chapel.<ref>I. Panic, 2005, p. 180</ref> At that time [[Jan Sarkander]] was born here. In the years 1573-1577 during the rule of [[Wenceslaus III Adam, Duke of Cieszyn]] the town together with [[Strumień]] and their surrounding villages were sold to Gottard von Logau, and formed a [[state country]].{{efn|Apart from Skoczów and Strumień 11 villages belonged to the state country: [[Brenna, Poland|Brenna]], [[Górki Małe, Silesian Voivodeship|Górki Małe]], [[Kiczyce]], [[Kowale, Cieszyn County|Kowale]], [[Lipowiec, Ustroń|Lipowiec]], [[Łazy, Bielsko County|Łazy]], [[Wieszczęta]], [[Wiślica, Silesian Voivodeship|Wiślica]], [[Zabłocie, Silesian Voivodeship|Zabłocie]], [[Zarzecze, Cieszyn County|Zarzecze]] and [[Zbytków]], and furthermore [[Mnich, Silesian Voivodeship|Mnich]] was established at that time}} It was retrieved by [[Adam Wenceslaus, Duke of Cieszyn|Adam Wenceslaus]] in 1594. In 1610 Adam Wenceslaus switched his faith to Catholicism, and brought a new priest from [[Żywiec]], Wojciech Gagatkowski. However Lutherans dominated the town for decades, the majority of Catholics was reported in 1687.<ref>I. Panic, 2005, p. 183</ref>

Since 1653 the town belonged to the [[Teschener Kammer]]. The 17th century was disastrous for Skoczów as well as for whole region. Because of [[Thirty Years' War]] the population was decreased by about 25-30%.<ref>I. Panic, 2005, p. 149</ref>

After the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire]] a modern [[municipality|municipal division]] was introduced in the re-established [[Austrian Silesia]]. The town became a seat of a [[legal district]] in the [[Districts of Austria|political district]] of [[Bielsko]]. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the town grew from 3113 in 1880 to 3744 in 1910. In 1880 the majority of its inhabitants were native Polish-speakers (69.3%) followed by German-speakers (29.5%) and Czech-speakers (1.2%). In the next years the Polish-speaking population dropped down to 48.4% in 1910, whereas German-speaking citizens grew in number up to 50.3% in 1910, Czech-speaking minority stood at relatively similar level of 1.3%. In terms of religion in 1910 majority were [[Roman Catholics]] (65.3%), followed by [[Protestants]] (27.8%), [[Jews]] (247 or 6.6%) and 12 people were adherents to yet another religion.<ref>{{cite book | last = Piątkowski | first = Kazimierz | title = Stosunki narodowościowe w Księstwie Cieszyńskiem | publisher = Macierz Szkolna Księstwa Cieszyńskiego | year = 1918 | location = Cieszyn | pages = 261, 279 | language = pl |url = http://obc.opole.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=1076 }}</ref><ref>Ludwig Patryn (ed): ''[http://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=11734 Die Ergebnisse der Volkszählung vom 31. Dezember 1910 in Schlesien]'', Troppau 1912.</ref> The town and especially its surroundings were also traditionally inhabited by [[Cieszyn Vlachs]], speaking [[Cieszyn Silesian dialect]]. The growth of German language, then [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestigious language]] of the state, can be partially attributed to various reasons, including [[cultural cringe]] of indigenous Slavic denizens.<ref>{{cite book | author = Janusz Gruchała | author2 = Krzysztof Nowak | title = Śląsk Cieszyński od Wiosny Ludów do I wojny światowej (1848–1918)| publisher = Starostwo Powiatowe w Cieszynie | place = Cieszyn | year = 2013| pages = 20| isbn = 978-83-935147-3-1}}</ref>

After the end of [[World War I]], both of the two newly created independent states of [[Poland]] and [[Czechoslovakia]] claimed the area of Cieszyn Silesia. On 23 January 1919 Czech units led by Colonel [[Josef Šnejdárek]] [[Polish–Czechoslovak War|invaded the area]], and clashed after its swift advance with Polish units commanded by General [[Franciszek Latinik]] near Skoczów where a battle took place on 28–30 January. It was inconclusive, and before the reinforced Czech forces could resume the attack on the town, they were pressed by [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] to stop operations and a [[cease-fire]] was signed on 3 February. On 28 July 1920 by decision of the [[Spa Conference of 1920|Spa Conference]] Skoczów became a part of the [[Second Polish Republic]]. It was then [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany|annexed]] by [[Nazi Germany]] at the beginning of [[World War II]]. After the war it was restored to [[Poland]].

Kaplicówka Hill which overlooks the town is dominated by a chapel built in 1934 and a large cross. [[Pope John Paul II]] visited Skoczów in 1995, holding a mass attended by 200,000 people. The cross on Kaplicówka was erected to commemorate the visit.

From 1975 to 1998 it was located in the [[Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship]], and since 1999 in Silesian Voivodeship.

The town holds a market on Thursdays, situated next to the [[Vistula]] river.

==Geography==
Skoczów lies in the southern part of Poland, approximately {{convert|13|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} north-east of the county seat, [[Cieszyn]], {{convert|18|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} west of [[Bielsko-Biała]], {{convert|55|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} south-west of the regional capital [[Katowice]], and {{convert|14|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of the border with [[Czech Republic|the Czech Republic]].

It lies on the confluence of the river Bładnica into the [[Vistula]], reaching up to roughly {{convert|380|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[above mean sea level|above sea level]] (in the west, on the eastern slopes of the ''Górka Wilamowicka'' hill), down to {{convert|285|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[above mean sea level|above sea level]] (the lowest point of the Vistula valley), in the [[Silesian Foothills]], {{convert|9|km|mi|abbr=on}} north-west of the [[Silesian Beskids]];

{{Geographic location
|width = auto
|Centre = Skoczów
|North = [[Wiślica, Silesian Voivodeship|Wiślica]], [[Kiczyce]]
|Northeast = [[Pierściec]], [[Kowale, Cieszyn County|Kowale]]
|East = [[Pogórze, Silesian Voivodeship|Pogórze]]
|Southeast =
|South = [[Bładnice]], [[Harbutowice, Silesian Voivodeship|Harburtowice]]
|Southwest = [[Międzyświeć]]
|West = [[Wilamowice, Cieszyn County|Wilamowice]]
|Northwest = [[Simoradz]]
}}

==Notable people==
*[[Jan Sarkander|St. Jan Sarkander]] (1576–1620), priest and martyr
*[[Gustaw Morcinek]] (1891–1963), writer commonly associated with [[Silesia]], Member of Parliament of the [[People's Republic of Poland]]

==Twin towns – sister cities==
See [[Gmina Skoczów#Twin towns – sister cities|twin towns of Gmina Skoczów]].

==Gallery==
{{wide image|PanoramaSkoczow.jpg|1000px|Panorama of Skoczów from Kaplicówka Hill}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book
| last = Panic
| first = Idzi
| author-link = Idzi Panic
| title = Studia z dziejów Skoczowa w czasach piastowskich
| publisher = BIBLOS
| year = 2005
| location = Skoczów
| isbn = 83-7332-246-9 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Skoczów}}
*{{in lang|pl}} [http://www.um.skoczow.pl Official gmina website]
*{{in lang|pl|en|cs|de}} [http://www.skoczow.pl Official town website]
* [http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/city/skoczow/ Jewish Community in Skoczów] on Virtual Shtetl

{{Gmina Skoczów}}
{{Cieszyn Silesia}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Skoczow}}
[[Category:Cities and towns in Silesian Voivodeship]]
[[Category:Cieszyn County]]
[[Category:Cieszyn Silesia]]