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Robert Merle

2025-08-18T21:03:58Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{Short description|French novelist}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Robert Merle
| image = Robert Merle (1964).JPG
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = Merle in 1964
| birth_date = {{birth date|1908|8|28|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Tébessa]], [[French Algeria]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2004|3|27|1908|8|28|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Montfort-l'Amaury]], France
| occupation = Novelist
| nationality = French
| period = 1949–2003
| awards = [[Prix Goncourt]]
}}

'''Robert Merle''' ({{IPA|fr|ʁɔbɛʁ mɛʁl|lang}}; 28 August 1908 – 27 March 2004) was a French [[novelist]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-apr-01-me-passings1.4-story.html|title=Robert Merle, 95; Author's Book Inspired 'Day of the Dolphin'|date=2004-04-01|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-27}}</ref>

==Early life==
Merle was born in 1908 in [[Tébessa]], [[French Algeria]]. His father Félix, who was an interpreter "with a perfect knowledge of literary and spoken Arabic", was killed in 1916 in the [[Dardanelles]]. Young Merle and his mother moved to Paris, where he attended three [[lycée]]s and the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]].<ref name="Obit Independent">{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/robert-merle-549687.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808152230/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/robert-merle-549687.html |title=Obituaries: Robert Merle |first=James |last=Kirkup |work=[[The Independent]] |date=2 April 2004 |archivedate=8 August 2011 |url-status=dead |accessdate=3 August 2015}}</ref><ref name="Obit Guardian">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/apr/08/guardianobituaries.booksobituaries |title=Obituary: Robert Merle |work=[[The Guardian]] |first=Douglas |last=Johnson |date=8 April 2004 |accessdate=7 August 2015}}</ref>

==Career==
===Academia and World War II===
Merle was professor of [[English literature|English Literature]] at several universities until the outbreak of the [[World War II|Second World War]] in 1939. During the war, Merle was conscripted into the [[French Army|French army]] and assigned as an interpreter to the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]]. In 1940, he was in the [[Dunkirk evacuation]] on the beach of [[Zuydcoote]] — which he called a "blind and abominable lottery" — and was captured by the Germans. Merle was taken prisoner to [[Stalag]] VID at [[Dortmund]], and escaped, but was recaptured at Belgian customs. He was repatriated in July 1943, and after the war was awarded the [[Combatant's Cross|Croix du Combattant]].<ref name="Obit Independent"/><ref name="Obit Guardian"/>

===Writing===
Merle used his experiences at Dunkirk in his 1949 novel ''[[Week-end at Zuydcoote]]'', which became a "sensational success" and won the [[Prix Goncourt]]. A 1964 feature film adaptation, ''[[Weekend at Dunkirk]]'', was directed by [[Henri Verneuil]] and starred [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]]. It was a box office hit and made both men famous.<ref name="Obit Independent"/><ref name="Obit Guardian"/>

Merle's 1967 novel ''[[The Day of the Dolphin (novel)|Un animal doué de raison]]'' (lit. ''A Sentient Animal''), a stark [[Cold War]] [[satire]] inspired by [[John C. Lilly|John Lilly]]'s studies of [[dolphins]] and the [[Caribbean Crisis]], was translated into English and filmed as ''[[The Day of the Dolphin]]'' (1973) starring [[George C. Scott]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.boston.com/news/globe/obituaries/articles/2004/03/31/robert_merle_95_french_writer/|title=Robert Merle, 95, French writer - The Boston Globe|website=archive.boston.com|language=en|access-date=2019-09-27}}</ref> Merle's [[post-apocalyptic]] novel ''[[Malevil]]'' (1972) was also adapted into [[Malevil (film)|a 1981 film]].<ref name="Obit Independent"/> His 1952 novel ''[[Death Is My Trade|La mort est mon métier]]'' was adapted into [[Death is My Trade (film)|a 1977 film]], his 1962 novel ''L'île'' was filmed as a 1987 [[miniseries]] and ''Le propre de l'homme'' (1989) was adapted into a 1996 TV movie.

Among Merle's other works are the 1950 play ''Flamineo'', based on [[John Webster]]'s ''[[The White Devil]]'', the 1948 biography ''Oscar Wilde'' (extended in 1955 as ''Oscar Wilde, or The Destiny of Homosexuality''), and various translations including [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]''. In 1965 Merle wrote ''Moncada: premier combat de Fidel Castro'' and ''Ahmed Ben Bella'', and around this time translated the diaries of [[Che Guevara]]. Until the invasion of Afghanistan by the [[Red Army]], Merle was a sympathizer of the [[French Communist Party]].<ref name="Obit Independent"/> He said:
{{Blockquote|I was just a minor militant, and my fellow Reds did not approve of what I wrote. As for the student riots of May 1968, I never believed in the reality of that revolution. The only thing of value that came out of it was the liberation of sexual relationships.<ref name="Obit Independent"/>}}

Merle's "major achievement" was his 13-book series of [[historical novel]]s, ''[[Fortune de France]]'' (1977–2003), which recreate 16th and 17th century France through the eyes of a fictitious [[Protestant]] doctor turned spy. A "genuine scholar of language", Merle wrote the novels using many of the appropriate French speech rhythms and idioms of the historical period.<ref name="Obit Independent"/><ref name="Obit Guardian"/><ref name="WSJ">{{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/historical-fiction-maurice-druons-accursed-kings-series-robert-merles-fortune-de-france-saga-1427483928 |title=The Original ''Game of Thrones'' |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |first=Allan |last=Massie |date=27 March 2015 |accessdate=5 July 2015}}</ref> The series made Merle a household name in France, with the author repeatedly called the [[Alexandre Dumas]] of the 20th century.<ref name="Obit Guardian"/><ref name="Telegraph 2014-12">{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/11272930/The-Brethren-by-Robert-Merle.html |title=''The Brethren'' by Robert Merle, review: 'a lively adventure' |first=Toby |last=Clements |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |date=10 December 2014 |accessdate=4 August 2015}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Merle was married three times, and had four sons and two daughters. He died in 2004 at age 95 of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] in [[Montfort-l'Amaury]], France.<ref name="Obit Independent"/><ref name="Obit Guardian"/><ref name="Telegraph 2014-12"/>

==Bibliography==
{{French literature sidebar}}
* ''Week-end à Zuydcoote'' (1949) - Published in the U.S. as ''[[Week-end at Zuydcoote]]'' (1950)
* ''La mort est mon métier'' (1952) - Published in the UK as ''[[Death is my Trade]]'' (1954)
* ''L'île'' (1962) - Published in the U.S. as ''The Island'' (1964)
* ''Moncada, premier combat de Fidel Castro'' (1965)
* ''[[The Day of the Dolphin (novel)|Un animal doué de raison]]'' (1967) - Published in the U.S. as ''The Day of the Dolphin'' (1967)
* ''Derrière la vitre'' (1970) - Published in the U.S. as ''Behind the Glass'' (1972)
* ''[[Malevil]]'' (1972)
* ''Les hommes protégés'' (1974) - Published in the U.S. as ''The Virility Factor'' (1977)
* ''Madrapour'' (1976)
* ''L'idole'' (1987) - Published in the U.S. as ''The Idol'' (1987)
* ''Le jour ne se lève pas pour nous'' (1987)
* ''Le propre de l'homme'' (1989)

===''[[Fortune de France]]'' series (1977-2003)===
# ''Fortune de France'' (1977)
# ''En nos vertes années'' (1979)
# ''Paris ma bonne ville'' (1980)
# ''Le Prince que voilà'' (1982)
# ''La violente amour'' (1983)
# ''La Pique du jour'' (1985)
# ''La Volte des vertugadins'' (1991)
# ''L'Enfant-Roi'' (1993)
# ''Les Roses de la vie'' (1995)
# ''Le Lys et la Pourpre'' (1997)
# ''La Gloire et les Périls'' (1999)
# ''Complots et Cabales'' (2001)
# ''Le Glaive et les amours'' (2003) (English: ''Love and the Sword'')

==Reception==
Kirkup called the ''Fortune de France'' series "spectacular" and dubbed it Merle's "major achievement".<ref name="Obit Independent"/> Douglas Johnson of ''[[The Guardian]]'' described the author as "a master of the historical novel".<ref name="Obit Guardian"/> The series made Merle a household name in France, and he has been repeatedly called the [[Alexandre Dumas]] of the 20th century.<ref name="Telegraph 2014-12"/><ref name="Guardian 2014-08 Channel">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/aug/16/historical-epic-by-frances-hilary-mantel-crosses-the-channel-robert-merle |title=Modern-day Dumas finally crosses Channel |first=Dalya |last=Alberge |work=The Guardian |date=16 August 2014 |accessdate=4 August 2015}}</ref> ''[[Le Monde]]'' dubbed Merle "France's greatest popular novelist", and ''[[Le Figaro]]'' observed, "Robert Merle is one of the very few French writers who have attained both popular success and the admiration of critics."<ref name="Guardian 2014-08 Channel"/>

Writing for ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', Allan Massie praised Merle's "thorough research, depth of understanding and popular touch", noting that "one of the strengths of Merle's novels in his ability to evoke the feeling and texture of everyday life as well as high politics".<ref name="WSJ"/> Massie compared the first novel in Merle's series to [[Maurice Druon]]'s ''[[The Accursed Kings]]'' (''Les Rois maudits''), another famed French historical novel series, writing "There is a philosophical depth to the novel absent from Druon, for the Brethren are attracted to the Reformed Protestant (or Huguenot) faith ... Though not as gripping as ''The Accursed Kings'', ''The Brethren'' never strays, as Druon sometimes does, into the grotesque. It has a credibly human solidity."<ref name="WSJ"/> Toby Clements of ''[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]'' wrote, "There are set-piece discussions on the dilemmas of faith that are informative if not the stuff of high drama, and passages on the history of France that can only be made sense of with the aid of a map and a memory for names. But elsewhere there is much colour, and, overall, ''The Brethren'' gives a salty and plausible idea of just how different, odd and parlous life might have been."<ref name="Telegraph 2014-12"/>

As of 2014, ''Fortune de France'' had sold over five million copies in France.<ref name="Guardian 2014-08 Channel"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=0580975|name=Robert Merle}}
* {{Isfdb name|name=Robert Merle}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070630203337/http://images.evene.fr/img/celeb/4501.jpg Small picture]

{{Prix Goncourt}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Merle, Robert}}
[[Category:1908 births]]
[[Category:2004 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Tébessa]]
[[Category:French people of colonial Algeria]]
[[Category:Pieds-noirs]]
[[Category:Emigrants from French Algeria to France]]
[[Category:Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni]]
[[Category:French Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:French prisoners of war in World War II]]
[[Category:World War II prisoners of war held by Germany]]
[[Category:French escapees]]
[[Category:Escapees from German detention]]
[[Category:French historical novelists]]
[[Category:French male novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century French novelists]]
[[Category:French science fiction writers]]
[[Category:20th-century French male writers]]
[[Category:Prix Goncourt winners]]
[[Category:Grand prix Jean Giono recipients]]

Albert Soboul

2025-08-18T20:54:11Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{Short description|French historian}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Albert Soboul
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1914|04|27|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Ammi Moussa]], [[French Algeria]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1982|09|11|1914|04|27|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Nîmes]], [[France]]
| resting_place = [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Paris|La Sorbonne]]
| subject = [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleonic era]], [[Napoleon]]
}}
'''Albert Marius Soboul''' (27 April 1914 – 11 September 1982) was a historian of the [[French Revolution]]ary and [[Napoleon]]ic periods. A professor at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]], he was chair of the History of the French Revolution and author of numerous influential works of history and historical interpretation. In his lifetime, he was internationally recognized as the foremost French authority on the Revolutionary era.

== Early life ==
Soboul was born in [[Ammi Moussa]], [[French Algeria]], in the spring of 1914.<ref name=Boyd1999>{{Cite book|author=Kelly Boyd|title=Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA1110|access-date=1 June 2012|year=1999|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=Chicago|isbn=978-1-884964-33-6|page=1,110}}</ref> His father, a textile worker, died later that same year at the front in World War I. He and his older sister Gisèle grew up first in a rural community in [[Ardèche]] in southern France before moving with their mother back to Algeria. When she too died in 1922, the children were sent to be raised by their aunt Marie in [[Nîmes]].<ref name=McPhee2010>{{Cite book |title=French historians 1900–2000 |last=McPhee |first=Peter |editor=Philip Daileader |editor2=Philip Whalen |year=2010 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Chichester, UK; Malden, Mass. |isbn=978-1-4051-9867-7 |pages=589–598 }}</ref><ref name=Blackwell>{{Cite book |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians |last=Friguglietti |first=James |editor=Cannon, John |editor-link=John Cannon (historian) |year=1988 |publisher=Basil Blackwell Ltd. |location=Oxford; New York |isbn=063114708X |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackwelldiction0000unse_u4p6/page/383 383–385] |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwelldiction0000unse_u4p6/page/383 }}</ref>

=== Education ===
The children's aunt was a primary school teacher and under her care Soboul blossomed in his education at the [[lycée]] of Nîmes (1924–1931). He was uniquely inspired by the educator Jean Morini-Comby, who was himself a published historian of the Revolution.<ref>For a list of Morini-Comby's works, see [http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3AJean+Morini-Comby&qt=results_page Worldcat.org].</ref> Soboul excelled in his studies and developed a lifelong passion for history and philosophy.<ref name=McPhee2010/>

After Nîmes, Soboul studied for a year at the university of [[Montpellier]], then transferred to the [[Lycée Louis-le-Grand]] in [[Paris]]. He published his first work of history, an examination of the ideas of the revolutionary leader [[Louis Antoine de Saint-Just|Saint-Just]],<ref name=McPhee2010/> originally attributed to a pseudonym, Pierre Derocles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3ADerocles%2C+Pierre.&qt=hot_author |title=Author: Pierre Derocles |year=2012 |publisher=OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc. |work=Worldcat.org |access-date=2 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://catalogue.bnf.fr/servlet/autorite?ID=11925063&idNoeud=1.1&host=catalogue |title=Notice d'autorité personne |language=fr |year=2012 |publisher=BnF Catalogue Général |work=Catalogue.bnf.fr |access-date=2 June 2012 }}</ref> Soboul completed his {{lang|fr|[[agrégation]]}} in history and geography in 1938.<ref name=Boyd1999/>

== Career ==
Called up for military service that same year, Soboul served in the horse-drawn artillery before being demobilized in 1940. He had already become a member of the [[French Communist Party]] and remained committed to them under the [[Occupied France|German occupation]].<ref name=Blackwell/> He received a teaching position at the lycée of Montpellier, but he was dismissed by the [[Vichy France|Vichy regime]] in 1942 for supporting [[French Resistance|Resistance]] activities.<ref name=Blackwell/> Soboul spent the rest of the war years doing historical research under the direction of [[Georges Henri Rivière]] for the [[Musée national des Arts et Traditions Populaires (France)|Musée national des Arts et Traditions Populaires]] in Paris.<ref name=Blackwell/>

After the war's end, Soboul returned again to Montpellier to teach, then moved to the Lycée Marcelin Berthelot and finally the [[Lycée Henri-IV]]. He became a close friend of the eminent historian [[Georges Lefebvre]] and under his direction wrote his 1,100-page doctoral dissertation on the revolutionary [[sans-culottes]], ''The Parisian Sans-culottes in the Year II''.<ref name=Blackwell/> Soboul was later promoted to the [[Blaise Pascal University|University of Clermont-Ferrand]].<ref name=Blackwell/> After a decade as a combative academic presence and prolific author, he was made Chair of the History of the French Revolution at the Sorbonne in 1967.<ref name=Blackwell/><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520034198 |title=Albert Soboul: 'A Short History of the French Revolution' |author=University of California Press |year=2010 |publisher=Regents of the University of California |access-date=1 June 2012 }}</ref> He served also as editor of the ''Annales historiques de la Rèvolution française'' and lectured frequently throughout the world, acquiring a reputation as "the leading French authority on the Revolution".<ref name=Blackwell/>

In his writings, Soboul promulgated the concept of overarching [[class struggle]] as the basis of the Revolution.<ref name=Blackwell/> He carried forward many of the central viewpoints of earlier historians like [[François Victor Alphonse Aulard]] and [[Albert Mathiez]]<ref name="Boyd1999" /> and his extensive body of work is characterized by a clear, unfettered writing style and deeply detailed research.<ref name=McPhee2010/> He always rejected labels of his work as Marxist or communist, describing himself as "part of the 'classical' and 'scientific' school of historiography represented by [[Alexis de Tocqueville|Tocqueville]], [[Jean Jaurès|Jaurès]] and Lefebvre".<ref name=Blackwell/> Nonetheless, Soboul remains considered a principal architect of the [[Marxist historiography|Marxist school of historical analysis]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Robespierre |last=Haydon|first=Colin |author2=Doyle, William |author2-link=William Doyle (historian) |year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-59116-3|pages=272–274 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=McGarr |first=Paul |date=September 1998 |title=The French Revolution: Marxism versus revisionism |journal=International Socialism |issue=80 |publisher=Socialist Workers Party [Britain] |url=http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj80/france.htm |access-date=1 June 2012 }}</ref>

Soboul propounded the Marxist interpretation arguing the [[Reign of Terror]] was a necessary response to outside threats (in terms of other countries going to war with France) and internal threats (of traitors inside France threatening to frustrate the Revolution). In this interpretation, [[Maximilien Robespierre]] and the [[sans-culottes]] were justified for defending the Revolution from its enemies. Soboul's position and the entire Marxist model of the French Revolution have come under intense criticism since the 1990s. [[François Furet]] and his followers have rejected Soboul and argued that foreign threats had little to do with the Terror.<ref>François Furet, "A Deep-rooted Ideology as Well as Circumstance", in ''The French Revolution: Conflicting Interpretations,'' ed. by Frank Kafker et al. (2002). p. 222.</ref> Instead, the extreme violence was an inherent part of the intense ideological commitment of the revolutionaries—it was inevitable and necessary for them to achieve their utopian goals to kill off their opponents. Still others like Paul Hanson take a middle position, recognising the importance of the foreign enemies and viewing the Terror as a contingency that was caused by it the interaction of a series of complex events and the foreign threat. Hanson says the Terror was not inherent in the ideology of the Revolution, but that circumstances made it necessary.<ref>Paul R. Hanson, ''Contesting the French Revolution'' (1999)</ref>

Soboul emphasized the importance of the [[sans-culottes]] as a social class, a sort of proto-[[proletariat]] that played a central role. That view has been sharply attacked as well by scholars who say the sans-culottes were not a class at all. Indeed, as one historian points out, Soboul's concept of the sans-culottes has not been used by scholars in any other period of French history.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul R. Hanson|title=Contesting the French Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsCf8Q0xqO4C&pg=PA95|year= 2009|publisher=John Wiley|pages=95–96|isbn=9781405160834}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
Soboul died in Nîmes on the estate of his late aunt Marie. The French Communist Party gave him a lavish burial ceremony at the [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]], near the graves of prominent party leaders and the [[Communards' Wall]], where the last [[Communards]] were shot in May 1871.<ref>{{Cite book |title=People and places |last=Cobb |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Cobb |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0192158813 |page=[https://archive.org/details/peopleplaces00cobb/page/50 50] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleplaces00cobb/page/50 }}</ref> A biography, ''Un historien en son temps: Albert Soboul (1914–1982)'' by Claude Mazauric, was published in France in 2004.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Un historien en son temps, Albert Soboul (1914-1982) |last1=Mazauric |first1=Claude |last2=Huard |first2=Raymond |last3=Naudin |first3=Marie-Josèphe |language=fr |year=2004 |publisher=d'Albret |location=Narrosse |isbn=2913055079 }}</ref> Toward the end of his life, Soboul's interpretations faced increasing opposition by new historians of the [[Historiography of the French Revolution#Revisionism and modern work|revisionist school]], but his work is still regarded as a major contribution to the study of [[People's history|history from below]].<ref name=Blackwell/>

His collection of books on the Revolution was bequeathed to the [[Musée de la Révolution française]].

== Published works ==
=== Major publications in English ===
* 1948: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1277778 The Revolution of 1848 in France]''
* 1953: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/65901136 Classes and class struggles during the French revolution]''
* 1955: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/459631306 Robespierre and the popular movement of 1793-4]''
* 1958: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/459631253 The French rural community in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries]''
* 1964: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/237133335 The Parisian Sans-Culottes and the French Revolution, 1793-4]''
* 1972: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/219960197 The Sans-culottes: the Popular Movement and Revolutionary Government, 1793-1794]''
* 1974: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/254626682 From the Jacobin dictatorship to Napoleon]''
* 1975: ''[http://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=wikipedia&q=isbn%3A0394473922 The French Revolution, 1787-1799: From the Storming of the Bastille to Napoleon]''
* 1977: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/317361723 A Short History of the French Revolution, 1789-1799]''
* 1988: ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17478826 Understanding the French Revolution]''

=== French publications ===
Soboul authored scores of books and articles in his native French. He also updated and revised numerous earlier works and often collaborated with other historians in compilations and other projects.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3AAlbert+Soboul&fq=ln%3Afre&dblist=638&qt=sort&se=yr&sd=asc&qt=sort_yr_asc |title=Author: Albert Soboul (French language) |year=2012 |publisher=OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc. |work=Worldcat.org |access-date=2 June 2012 }}</ref> After his death, his extant writings formed the basis of several further publications:

; Posthumous publications
* 1983: ''Problèmes paysans de la Révolution (1789-1848)'', Paris, Maspero, 442 p.
* 1984: ''La Révolution française'', Gallimard, 2005, 121 p.
* 1986: ''Portraits de révolutionnaires'', Messidor, 312 p.
* 1989: ''Dictionnaire historique de la Révolution française'', PUF, 1132 p.
* 1990: ''La France napoléonienne'', Arthaud, 419 p.
* 1995: ''La Maison rurale française'', Paris, [[Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques|Cths]], 171 p.

== See also ==
* [[Historiography of the French Revolution]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Soboul, Albert}}
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1982 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Relizane Province]]
[[Category:French people of colonial Algeria]]
[[Category:Pieds-noirs]]
[[Category:Emigrants from French Algeria to France]]
[[Category:Lycée Henri-IV alumni]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Paris]]
[[Category:French Communist Party members]]
[[Category:Historians of the French Revolution]]
[[Category:French Marxist historians]]
[[Category:20th-century French historians]]
[[Category:French male writers]]
[[Category:Historians of the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin]]
[[Category:French Resistance members]]
[[Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery]]

Paul Prosper Henrys

2025-08-18T20:19:55Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{More citations needed|date=February 2020}}
[[File:LPDF 185 Paul Henrys.jpg|thumb|General Henrys]]
'''Paul Prosper Henrys''' (or Paul-Prosper) (13 March 1862 – 6 November 1943)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |title=World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [5 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection |date=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-965-8 |page=751 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ&q=%22Paul+Prosper+Henrys%22+march+13&pg=PA751 |accessdate=3 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref> was a French general.

In his early career, Henrys was stationed in [[French Algeria]]. In 1912, he participated in the [[French conquest of Morocco]] under general [[Hubert Lyautey]]. In May 1914, he received command over all French troops fighting in the [[Zaian War]]. Henrys was replaced by Colonel [[Joseph-François Poeymirau]] in July 1916 and was sent to fight the Germans on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]].

Henrys commanded the French army on the [[Salonika front]] (''L'[[Armée d'Orient (1914)|Armée d'Orient]]'') in the final year of the [[First World War]]. Subsequently, he was the chief of the [[French Military Mission to Poland]] during the [[Polish-Soviet War]].

Grades:
*04/07/13 général de brigade
*24/11/14 général de division

Service history:
*28/09/12-27/07/16 - cavalry commander of units in [[Morocco]]
*27/07/16-20/05/17 - commander of 59th infantry division (reserve)
*20/05/17-12/12/17 - commander of [[17th Army Corps (France)|17th army corps]]
*31/12/17-01/04/19 - commander of the French army in the East (on the [[Balkan]] front)
*01/04/19-30/09/20 - chief of the [[French Military Mission to Poland]]
*28/06/22-13/03/24 - commander of 33rd army corps in the [[Rhineland]].
*13/03/24- placed in reserve

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Franco-Spanish conquest of Morocco |state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Henrys, Paul Prosper}}
[[Category:1862 births]]
[[Category:1943 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century French military personnel]]
[[Category:People of the Hungarian–Romanian War]]
[[Category:French people of colonial Algeria]]
[[Category:French Army generals of World War I]]
{{france-mil-bio-stub}}

Fernand Bouisson

2025-08-18T18:11:44Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{Short description|French politician (1874–1959)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox Prime Minister
| name = Fernand Bouisson
| image = Fernand Bouisson 1931.jpg
| order =
| office = [[Prime Minister of France]]
| president = [[Albert Lebrun]]
| term_start = 1 June 1935
| term_end = 7 June 1935
| predecessor = [[Pierre Étienne Flandin]]
| successor = [[Pierre Laval]]
| office2 = [[List of presidents of the National Assembly of France|President of the Chamber of Deputies]]
| term_start2 = 11 January 1927
| term_end2 = 31 May 1936
| predecessor2 = [[Raoul Péret]]
| successor2 = [[Édouard Herriot]]
| birth_date = 16 June 1874
| birth_place = [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], [[French Algeria]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1959|12|28|1874|6|16}}
| death_place = [[Antibes]], France
| party = None
}}

'''Fernand Bouisson''' ({{IPA|fr|fɛʁnɑ̃ bwisɔ̃|lang}}; 16 June 1874 – 28 December 1959) was a Socialist French politician of the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]], who served as [[List of presidents of the National Assembly of France|President of the Chamber of Deputies]] from 1927 to 1936 and briefly as Prime Minister in June 1935 following the ouster of [[Pierre-Étienne Flandin]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sachar |first=Howard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-wQBBQAAQBAJ |title=The Assassination of Europe, 1918-1942: A Political History |date=2014-10-29 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0918-1 |pages=280 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fernand, Emile, Honoré Bouisson - Base de données des députés français depuis 1789 - Assemblée nationale |url=https://www2.assemblee-nationale.fr/sycomore/fiche/(num_dept)/1043 |access-date=2023-01-06 |website=www2.assemblee-nationale.fr}}</ref>

==Bouisson's Ministry, 1–7 June 1935==
*Fernand Bouisson – President of the Council and Minister of the Interior
*[[Georges Pernot]] – Vice President of the Council and Minister of Justice
*[[Pierre Laval]] – Minister of Foreign Affairs
*[[Louis Maurin]] – Minister of War
*[[Joseph Caillaux]] – Minister of Finance
*[[Ludovic-Oscar Frossard]] – Minister of Labour
*[[François Piétri]] – Minister of Marine and interim Minister of Merchant Marine
*[[Victor Denain]] – Minister of Air
*[[Mario Roustan]] – Minister of National Education
*[[Camille Perfetti]] – Minister of Pensions
*[[Paul Jacquier]] – Minister of Agriculture
*[[Louis Rollin]] – Minister of Colonies
*[[Joseph Paganon]] – Minister of Public Works
*[[Louis Lafont]] – Minister of Public Health and Physical Education
*[[Georges Mandel]] – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
*[[Laurent Eynac]] – Minister of Commerce and Industry
*[[Édouard Herriot]] – Minister of State
*[[Louis Marin (politician)|Louis Marin]] – Minister of State
*[[Philippe Pétain]] – Minister of State

== References ==
{{Reflist}}{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of presidents of the National Assembly of France|President of the Chamber of Deputies]]|before=[[Raoul Péret]]|after=[[Édouard Herriot]]|years=1927–1936}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of prime ministers of France|Prime Minister of France]]|before=[[Pierre-Étienne Flandin]]|after=[[Pierre Laval]]|years=1935}}
{{s-end}}

{{Presidents of the National Assembly of France}}
{{Heads of government of France}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bouisson, Fernand}}
[[Category:1874 births]]
[[Category:1959 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Constantine, Algeria]]
[[Category:French people of colonial Algeria]]
[[Category:Pieds-noirs]]
[[Category:French Section of the Workers' International politicians]]
[[Category:Republican-Socialist Party politicians]]
[[Category:Socialist Party (France) politicians]]
[[Category:Prime ministers of France]]
[[Category:French interior ministers]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (France)]]
[[Category:Members of the 9th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic]]
[[Category:Members of the 10th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic]]
[[Category:Members of the 11th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic]]
[[Category:Members of the 12th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic]]
[[Category:Members of the 13th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic]]
[[Category:Members of the 14th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic]]
[[Category:Members of the 15th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic]]
[[Category:Members of the 16th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic]]

{{France-politician-Socialist-stub}}

Louis Althusser

2025-08-18T17:33:57Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{short description|French Marxist philosopher (1918–1990)}}
{{use Oxford spelling|date=March 2018}}
{{use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era = [[20th-century philosophy]]
| image = Althusser.jpg
| birth_name = Louis Pierre Althusser
| birth_date = {{birth date|1918|10|16|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Birmendreïs]], [[French Algeria]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1990|10|22|1918|10|16}}
| death_place = [[Paris]], France
| alma_mater = {{unbulleted list | [[École Normale Supérieure]] | [[University of Picardie]]}}
| notable_works = {{unbulleted list | ''[[For Marx]]'' (1965) | ''[[Reading Capital]]'' (1965) | "[[Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses]]" (1970)}}
| spouse = [[Hélène Rytmann]] ({{abbr|m.|married}} {{circa|1975}}; {{abbr|d.|died}} 1980)
| institutions = [[École Normale Supérieure]]
| school_tradition = {{ubl| [[Continental philosophy]] | [[Western Marxism]] | [[Structural Marxism]] }}
| main_interests = {{hlist | [[Politics]] | [[economics]] | [[ideology]]}}
| notable_ideas = {{unbulleted list | [[Epistemological break]] of [[Young Marx]] | [[Overdetermination]] | [[Ideological state apparatuses]] | [[Interpellation (philosophy)|Interpellation]] | [[Aleatory materialism]] | Determination in the last instance<ref>Geoff Boucher, ''Understanding Marxism'', Routledge, 2014, p. 133.</ref> |"Individuals are [[always-already]] [[Subjectification|subjects]]"<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cla.purdue.edu/academic/english/theory/marxism/modules/althusserideology.html | title=Introduction to Louis Althusser; Module on Ideology }}</ref>}}
| notable_students = {{hlist|[[Jean-Luc Marion]]<ref>{{cite book
| last = Horner
| first = Robyn
| title = Jean-Luc Marion: a Theo-Logical Introduction
| publisher = Ashgate
| date = 2005
| location = Burlington
|page=3
}}</ref>
}}
| party = [[French Communist Party]] (1948–1990)
}}

'''Louis Pierre Althusser''' ({{IPAc-en|uk|ˌ|æ|l|t|ʊ|ˈ|s|ɛər}}, {{IPAc-en|us|ˌ|ɑː|l|t|uː|ˈ|s|ɛər}};<ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|fr|altysɛʁ|lang}}; 16 October 1918 – 22 October 1990) was a French [[Marxist philosopher]] who studied at the [[École Normale Supérieure]] in Paris, where he eventually became Professor of Philosophy.

Althusser was a long-time member and sometimes a strong critic of the [[French Communist Party]]. His arguments and theses were set against the threats that he saw attacking the theoretical foundations of [[Marxism]]. These included both the influence of [[empiricism]] on Marxist theory, and [[Marxist humanism|humanist]] and [[reformist]] orientations which manifested as divisions in the European communist parties, as well as the problem of the [[cult of personality]] and of [[ideology]]. Althusser is commonly referred to as a [[structural Marxist]], although his relationship to other schools of French [[structuralism]] is not a simple affiliation and he was critical of many aspects of structuralism. He later described himself as a [[social anarchist]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/blogs/news/3312-the-crisis-of-marxism-an-interview-with-louis-althusser | title=The Crisis of Marxism: An interview with Louis Althusser }}</ref>

Althusser's life was marked by periods of intense mental illness. In 1980, he killed his wife, the sociologist [[Hélène Rytmann]], by strangling her. He was declared unfit to stand trial due to insanity and committed to a psychiatric hospital for three years. He did little further academic work, dying in 1990.

==Biography==
===Early life: 1918–1948===
Althusser was born in [[French Algeria]] in the town of [[Birmendreïs]], near [[Algiers]], to a ''[[pied-noir]]'' [[petit-bourgeois]] family from [[Alsace]], France. His father, Charles-Joseph Althusser, was a lieutenant in the French army and a bank clerk, while his mother, Lucienne Marthe Berger, a devout [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], worked as a schoolteacher.{{sfnm|1a1=Stolze|1y=2013|1p=7|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} According to his own memoirs, his Algerian childhood was prosperous; historian [[Martin Jay]] said that Althusser, along with [[Albert Camus]] and [[Jacques Derrida]], was "a product of the French colonial culture in Northern Africa."{{sfn|Jay|1984|p=391, note 18}} In 1930, his family moved to the French city of [[Marseille]] as his father was to be the director of the [[Compagnie Algérienne]] bank branch in the city.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=266|2a1=Stolze|2y=2013|2p=7}} Althusser spent the rest of his childhood there, excelling in his studies at the {{interlanguage link|Lycée Saint-Charles|fr|Lycée Saint-Charles (Marseille)}} and joining a [[scout group]].{{sfnm|1a1=Stolze|1y=2013|1p=7|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} A second displacement occurred in 1936 when Althusser settled in [[Lyon]] as a student at the [[Lycée du Parc]]. Later he was accepted by the highly regarded higher-education establishment (''[[Grandes écoles|grande école]]'') [[École Normale Supérieure]] (ENS) in Paris.{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=7}} At the Lycée du Parc, Althusser was influenced by Catholic professors,{{efn|Among them, the philosophers [[Jean Guitton]] (1901–1999) and {{interlanguage link|Jean Lacroix (philosopher){{!}}Jean Lacroix|fr|Jean Lacroix}} (1900–1986) and the historian {{interlanguage link|Joseph Hours|fr|Joseph Hours}} (1896–1963).{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}}}} joined the Catholic youth movement [[Jeunesse Étudiante Chrétienne]],{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} and wanted to be a [[Trappist]].{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=110}} His interest in Catholicism coexisted with his [[communist]] ideology,{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} and some critics argued that his early Catholic introduction affected the way he interpreted [[Karl Marx]].{{sfn|Jay|1984|p=391}}

[[Image:LyceeDuParcLyon.jpg|thumb|left|The Lycée du Parc, where Althusser studied for two years and was influenced by Catholic professors]]

After a two-year period of preparation (''[[Khâgne]]'') under [[Jean Guitton]] at the Lycée du Parc, Althusser was admitted into the ENS in July 1939.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=266|2a1=Roudinesco|2y=2008|2p=106}} But his attendance was deferred by many years because he was drafted into the French Army in September of that year in the run-up to [[World War II]] and, like most French soldiers following the [[Fall of France]], was captured by the Germans. Seized in [[Vannes]] in June 1940, he was held in a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] in [[Schleswig-Holstein]], in Northern Germany, for the five remaining years of the war.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=266|2a1=Stolze|2y=2013|2p=7|3a1=Lewis|3y=2014}} In the camp, he was at first drafted to hard labour but ultimately reassigned to work in the infirmary after falling ill. This second occupation allowed him to read philosophy and literature.{{sfn|Ferretter|2006|pp=2–3}} In his memoirs, Althusser described the experiences of solidarity, political action, and community in the camp as the moment he first understood the idea of communism.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} Althusser recalled: "It was in prison camp that I first heard [[Marxism]] discussed by a Parisian lawyer in transit—and that I actually met a communist".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=106}} His experience in the camp also affected his lifelong bouts of mental instability, reflected in constant [[Major depressive disorder|depression]] that lasted until the end of life.{{sfnm|1a1=Stolze|1y=2013|1p=7|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} Psychoanalyst [[Élisabeth Roudinesco]] has argued that the absurd war experience was essential for Althusser's philosophical thought.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=106}}

Althusser resumed his studies at the ENS in 1945 to prepare himself for the ''[[agrégation]]'', an exam to teach philosophy in secondary schools.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} In 1946, Althusser met sociologist [[Hélène Rytmann]],{{efn|She was also known as Hélène Legotien and Hélène Legotien-Rytmann because "Legotien" had been her cover name in the Resistance and she continued to use it.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=168}} There is some divergence on how to spell her last name; some sources spell it as "Rytman",{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|3a1=Lewis|3y=2014}} while others use "Rytmann".{{sfnm|1a1=Roudinesco|1y=2008|2a1=European Graduate School}} In Althusser's compilation of his letters to his wife, ''Lettres à Hélène'', he always addressed her as "Rytmann", although the book's own preface by [[Bernard-Henri Lévy]] calls her "Rytman".{{sfn|Althusser|2011}}}} a [[Jewish]] former [[French Resistance]] member with whom he was in a relationship until he killed her by strangulation in 1980.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=271|2a1=Roudinesco|2y=2008|2p=116}} That same year, he started a close friendly relationship with Jacques Martin, a translator of [[G. W. F. Hegel]] and [[Hermann Hesse]]. Martin, to whom Althusser dedicated his first book, would later commit suicide.{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=7}} Martin was influential on Althusser's interest on reading the bibliography of [[Jean Cavaillès]], [[Georges Canguilhem]] and Hegel.{{sfnm|1a1=Roudinesco|1y=2008|1p=105|2a1=Stolze|2y=2013|2p=7}} Although Althusser remained a Catholic, he became more associated with left-wing groups, joining the "[[worker-priest]]s" movement{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=267}} and embracing a synthesis of Christian and Marxist thought.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} This combination may have led him to adopt [[German Idealism]] and Hegelian thought,{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} as did Martin's influence and a renewed interest in Hegel in the 1930s and 1940s in France.{{sfn|Biard|1995|p=139}} In consonance, Althusser's master thesis to obtain his ''diplôme d'études supèrieures'' was "On Content in the Thought of G. W. F. Hegel" ("Du contenu dans la pensée de G. W. F. Hegel", 1947).{{sfnm|1a1=Ferretter|1y=2006|1p=3|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} Based on ''[[The Phenomenology of Spirit]]'', and under [[Gaston Bachelard]]'s supervision, Althusser wrote a dissertation on how Marx's philosophy refused to withdraw from the Hegelian [[master–slave dialectic]].{{sfn|Biard|1995|p=140}} According to the researcher Gregory Elliott, Althusser was a Hegelian at that time but only for a short period.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=335}}

===Academic life and Communist Party affiliation: 1948–1959===
[[File:Façade de l'École normale supérieure.JPG|thumb|The main entrance to the [[École Normale Supérieure]] on Rue d'Ulm, where Althusser established himself as well-known intellectual]]

In 1948, he was approved to teach in secondary schools but instead made a tutor at the ENS to help students prepare for their own ''agrégation''.{{sfnm|1a1=Ferretter|1y=2006|1p=3|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} His performance on the exam—he was the best ranked on the writing part and second on the oral module—guaranteed this change on his occupation.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} He was responsible for offering special courses and tutorials on particular topics and on particular figures from the history of philosophy.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} In 1954, he became {{lang|fr|secrétaire de l'école litteraire}} (secretary of the literary school), assuming responsibilities for management and direction of the school.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} Althusser was deeply influential at the ENS because of the lectures and conferences he organized with participation of leading French philosophers such as [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Jacques Lacan]].{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=8}} He also influenced a generation of French philosophers and French philosophy in general{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}}—among his students were Derrida, [[Pierre Bourdieu]], [[Michel Foucault]], and [[Michel Serres]].{{sfn|Schrift|2006|p=86}} In total, Althusser spent 35 years in the ENS, working there until November 1980.{{sfnm|1a1=Jackson|1y=1996|1p=136|2a1=Schrift|2y=2006|2p=86}}

Parallel to his academic life, Althusser joined the [[French Communist Party]] (''Parti communiste français'', PCF) in October 1948. In the early postwar years, the PCF was one of the most influential political forces and many French intellectuals joined it. Althusser himself declared, "Communism was in the air in 1945, after the German defeat, the victory at Stalingrad, and the hopes and lessons of the Resistance."{{sfn|Ferretter|2006|p=3}} Althusser was primarily active on the "Peace Movement" section and kept for a few years his Catholic beliefs;{{sfn|Ferretter|2006|p=3}} in 1949, he published in the ''L'Évangile captif'' (The captive gospel), the tenth book of the Jeunesse de l'Église (the youth wing of Church), an article on the historic situation of Catholicism in response to the question: "Is the good news preached to the men today?"{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=267}} In it, he wrote about the relationship between the Catholic Church and the labour movement, advocating at the same time for social emancipation and the Church "religious reconquest".{{sfn|Biard|1995|p=140}} There was mutual hostility between these two organizations—in the early 1950s, the Vatican prohibited Catholics from membership in the worker priests and left-wing movements—and it certainly affected Althusser since he firmly believed in this combination.{{sfn|Ferretter|2006|p=3}}

Initially afraid of joining the party because of ENS's opposition to communists, Althusser did so when he was made a tutor—when membership became less likely to affect his employment—and he even created at ENA the ''Cercle Politzer'', a Marxist study group. Althusser also introduced colleagues and students to the party and worked closely with the communist cell of the ENS. But his professionalism made him avoid Marxism and Communism in his classes; instead, he helped students depending on the demands of their ''agrégation''.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} In the early 1950s, Althusser distanced himself from his youthful political and philosophical ideals{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=8}} and from Hegel, whose teachings he considered a "bourgeois" philosophy.{{sfn|Biard|1995|p=140}} Starting from 1948, he studied history of philosophy and gave lectures on it; the first was about [[Plato]] in 1949.{{sfn|IMEC|1997|p=82}} In 1949–1950, he gave a lecture about [[René Descartes]],{{efn|He also lectured about Descartes' thought relation to [[Nicolas Malebranche]], as can be found in an inventory of his archives by the [[Institute for Contemporary Publishing Archives]] (L'Institut mémoires de l'édition contemporaine, IMEC).{{sfn|IMEC|1997|p=84}} }} and wrote a thesis titled "Politics and Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century" and a small study on [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s "[[Second Discourse]]". He presented the thesis to [[Jean Hyppolite]] and [[Vladimir Jankélévitch]] in 1950 but it was rejected.{{sfn|Schrift|2006|p=86}} These studies were nonetheless valuable because Althusser later used them to write his book about [[Montesquieu]]'s philosophy and an essay on Rousseau's ''[[The Social Contract]]''.{{sfn|Jay|1984|p=393}} Indeed, his first and the only book-length study published during his lifetime was ''Montesquieu, la politique et l'histoire'' ("Montesquieu: Politics and History") in 1959.{{sfnm|1a1=Jay|1y=1984|1p=393|2a1=Stolze|2y=2013|2p=8|3a1=Lewis|3y=2014}} He also lectured on Rousseau from 1950 to 1955,{{sfn|IMEC|1997|p=86}} and changed his focus to philosophy of history, also studying [[Voltaire]], [[Condorcet]], and [[Claude Adrien Helvétius|Helvétius]], which resulted in a 1955–1956 lecture on "Les problèmes de la philosophie de l'histoire".{{sfnm|1a1=IMEC|1y=1997|1p=94|2a1=Althusser|2y=2006|2p="Sommaire"}} This course along with others on [[Machiavelli]] (1962), 17th- and 18th-century [[political philosophy]] (1965–1966), [[John Locke|Locke]] (1971), and [[Hobbes]] (1971–1972) were later edited and released as a book by François Matheron in 2006.{{sfnm|1a1=IMEC|1y=1997|1p=85|2a1=Althusser|2y=2006|2p="Sommaire"}} From 1953 to 1960, Althusser basically did not publish on Marxist themes, which in turn gave him time to focus on his teaching activities and establish himself as a reputable philosopher and researcher.{{sfn|Kelly|1982|p=119}} 

===Major works, ''For Marx'' and ''Reading Capital'': 1960–1968===
Althusser resumed his Marxist-related publications in 1960 as he translated, edited, and published a collection directed by Hyppolite about [[Ludwig Feuerbach]]'s works.{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=8}} The objective of this endeavour was to identify Feuerbach's influence on Marx's early writings, contrasting it with the absence of his thought on Marx's mature works.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} This work spurred him to write "On the Young Marx: Theoretical Questions" ("Sur le jeune Marx – Questions de théorie", 1961).{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} Published in the journal ''La Pensée'', it was the first in a series of articles about Marx that were later collected in his most famous book ''[[For Marx]]''.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=267}} He inflamed the French debate on Marx and Marxist philosophy, and gained a considerable number of supporters.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} Inspired by this recognition, he started to publish more articles on Marxist thought; in 1964, Althusser published an article titled "Freud and Lacan" in the journal ''La Nouvelle Critique'', which greatly influenced the [[Freudo-Marxism#Althusser|Freudo-Marxism]] thought.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=267}} At the same time, he invited Lacan to a lecture on [[Baruch Spinoza]] and the fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=267}} The impact of the articles led Althusser to change his teaching style at the ENS,{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} and he started to minister a series of seminars on the following topics: "On the Young Marx" (1961–1962), "The Origins of Structuralism" (1962–1963; it versed{{clarify|date=May 2023}} on Foucault's ''[[History of Madness]]'', which Althusser highly appreciated{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|pp=105–106}}), "Lacan and Psychoanalysis" (1963–1964), and ''Reading Capital'' (1964–1965).{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=267}} These seminars aimed for a "return to Marx" and were attended by a new generation of students.{{efn|This include [[Étienne Balibar]] (1942–), [[Alain Badiou]] (1937–), [[Pierre Macherey]] (1938–), [[Dominique Lecourt]] (1944–), [[Régis Debray]] (1940–), [[Jacques Rancière]] (1940–), and [[Jacques-Alain Miller]] (1944–).{{sfn|Schrift|2006|p=86}} }}{{sfn|Schrift|2006|p=86}}

''For Marx'' (a collection of works published between 1961 and 1965) and ''[[Reading Capital]]'' (in collaboration with some of his students), both published in 1965, brought international fame to Althusser.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|pp=267–268}} Despite being criticized widely,{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=268}} these books made Althusser a sensation in French intellectual circles{{sfn|Levine|1999|p=23}} and one of the leading theoreticians of the PCF.{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=8}} He supported a [[structuralism|structuralist]] view of Marx's work, influenced by Cavaillès and Canguilhem,{{sfn|Schrift|2006|p=87}} affirming that Marx laid the "cornerstones" of a new science, incomparable to all non-Marxist thought, of which, from 1960 to 1966, he espoused the fundamental principles.{{sfn|Ferretter|2006|p=3}} Critiques were done to [[Stalin's cult of personality]] and Althusser defended what he called "theoretical [[anti-humanism#Structuralism|anti-humanism]]", as an alternative to [[Stalinism]] and the [[Marxist humanism]]—both popular at the time.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=267|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} At mid-decade, his popularity grew to the point that it was virtually impossible to have an intellectual debate about political or ideological theoretical questions without mentioning his name.{{sfn|Cotten|1979|p=150}} Althusser's ideas were influential enough to arouse the creation of a young militants group to dispute the power within the PCF.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|}} Nevertheless, the official position of the party was still Stalinist Marxism, which was criticized both from [[Maoist]] and humanist groups. Althusser was initially careful not to identify with Maoism but progressively agreed with its critique of Stalinism.{{sfn|Jay|1984|p=394}} At the end of 1966, Althusser even published an unsigned article titled "On the Cultural Revolution", in which he considered the beginning of the [[Chinese Cultural Revolution]] as "a historical fact without precedent" and of "enormous theoretical interest".{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=174}} Althusser mainly praised the non-bureaucratic, non-party, mass organizations in which, in his opinion, the "Marxist principles regarding the nature of the ideological' were fully applied.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=176}}

Key events in the theoretical struggle took place in 1966. In January, there was a conference of communist philosophers in [[Choisy-le-Roi]];{{sfn|Kelly|1982|p=142}} Althusser was absent but [[Roger Garaudy]], the official philosopher of the party, read an indictment that opposed the "theoretical anti-humanism".{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=268}} The controversy was the pinnacle of a long conflict between the supporters of Althusser and Garaudy. In March, in [[Argenteuil]], the theses of Garaudy and Althusser were formally confronted by the PCF Central Committee, chaired by [[Louis Aragon]].{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=268}} The Party decided to keep Garaudy's position as the official one,{{sfn|Schrift|2006|p=87}} and even [[Lucien Sève]]—who was a student of Althusser at the beginning of his teaching at the ENS—supported it, becoming the closest philosopher to the PCF leadership.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=268}} General secretary of the party, [[Waldeck Rochet]] said that "Communism without humanism would not be Communism".{{sfn|Ferretter|2006|p=69}} Even if he was not publicly censured nor expelled from the PCF, as were 600 Maoist students, the support of Garaudy resulted in a further reduction of Althusser's influence in the party.{{sfn|Schrift|2006|p=87}}

Still in 1966, Althusser published in the ''[[Cahiers pour l'Analyse]]'' the article "On the 'Social Contract'" ("Sur le 'Contrat Social'"), a course about Rousseau he had given at the ENS, and "Cremonini, Painter of the Abstract" ("Cremonini, peintre de l'abstrait") about Italian painter [[Leonardo Cremonini]].{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=269}} In the following year, he wrote a long article titled "The Historical Task of Marxist Philosophy" ("La tâche historique de la philosophie marxiste") that was submitted to the Soviet journal ''Voprossi Filosofii''; it was not accepted but was published a year later in a Hungarian journal.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=269}} In 1967–1968, Althusser and his students organized an ENS course titled "Philosophy Course for Scientists" ("Cours de philosophie pour scientifiques") that would be interrupted by [[May 1968 events in France|May 1968 events]]. Some of the material of the course was reused in his 1974 book ''Philosophy and the Spontaneous Philosophy of the Scientists'' (''Philosophie et philosophie spontanée des savants'').{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=269}} Another Althusser's significant work{{sfn|Stolze|2013|pp=8–9}} from this period was "Lenin and Philosophy", a lecture first presented in February 1968 at the {{interlanguage link|French Society of Philosophy|fr|Société française de philosophie}}.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=269}}

===May 1968, Eurocommunism debates, and auto-critique: 1968–1978===
During [[May 68]], the tumultuous events of May 1968 in France, Althusser was hospitalized because of a depressive breakdown and was absent from the [[Latin Quarter, Paris|Latin Quarter]]. Many of his students participated in the events, and [[Régis Debray]] in particular became an international celebrity revolutionary.{{sfn|Jay|1984|p=395}} Althusser's initial silence{{sfn|Jay|1984|p=395}} was met with criticism by the protesters, who wrote on walls: "Of what use is Althusser?" ("A quoi sert Althusser?").{{sfn|Majumdar|1995|p=22}} Later, Althusser was ambivalent about it; on the one hand, he was not supportive of the movement{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=8}} and he criticized the movement as an "ideological revolt of the mass",{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=270}} adopting the PCF official argument that an "infantile disorder" of anarchistic utopianism that had infiltrated the student movement.{{sfn|Jay|1984|pp=395–396}} On the other hand, he called it "the most significant event in Western history since the Resistance and the victory over Nazism" and wanted to reconcile the students and the PCF.{{sfn|Jay|1984|pp=395–396, note 44}} Nevertheless, the Maoist journal ''La Cause du peuple'' called him a [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionist]],{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=270}} and he was condemned by former students, mainly by [[Jacques Rancière]].{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=8}} After it, Althusser went through a phase of "self-criticism" that resulted in the book ''[[Essays in Self-criticism]]'' (''Éléments d'autocritique'', 1974) in which he revisited some of his old positions, including his support of [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia]].{{sfnm|1a1=Jay|1y=1984|1p=397|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005a|2p=XII|3a1=Stolze|3y=2013|3p=8}}

{{multiple image
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| footer = While Althusser was criticized in France by his former students, such as [[Jacques Rancière]] (''right''), his influence in Latin America grew, as exemplified by [[Marta Harnecker]] (''left'').
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In 1969, Althusser started an unfinished work{{efn|Balibar referred to it as "L'Etat, le Droit, la Superstructure" ("The State, the Law, the Superstructure"),{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=270}} while Elliott cited it as "De la superstructure (Droit-État-Idéologie)" ("On the Superstructure (Law-State-Ideology)").{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=204, 395}} The IMEC archives report the existence of "De la superstructure", latter called "Qu'est-ce que la philosophie marxiste-léniniste?" ("What is the Marxist-Lenist philosophy?") and reworked as "La reproduction des rapports de production" ("The reproduction of relations of production"), but that ultimately returned to its first title.{{sfn|IMEC|1997|p=44–46}} }} that was only released in 1995 as ''Sur la reproduction'' ("On the Reproduction"). However, from these early manuscripts, he developed "[[Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses]]", which was published in the journal ''La Pensée'' in 1970,{{sfnm|1a1=IMEC|1y=1997|1p=44|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005b|2p=270|3a1=Elliott|3y=2006|3p=204}} and became very influential on ideology discussions.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=203; 310, note 16}} In the same year, Althusser wrote "Marxism and Class Struggle" ("Marxisme et lutte de classe") that would be the foreword to the book ''The Basic Concepts of Historical Materialism'' of his former student, the Chilean Marxist sociologist [[Marta Harnecker]].{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005a|1p=XII|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005b|2p=270}} By this time, Althusser was very popular in Latin America: some leftist activists and intellectuals saw him almost as a new Marx, although his work has been the subject of heated debates and sharp criticism.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=270}} As an example of this popularity, some of his works were first translated to Spanish than into English, and others were released in book format first in Spanish and then in French.{{efn|For example, "Théorie, pratique théorique et formation théorique. Idéologie et lutte idéologique" was published in ''Casa de las Americas'' (Havana), no. 34, 1966, pp. 5–31, but was only translated into English in 1990.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=391}} The same article was first published in book-form as ''La filosofía como arma de la revolución'' in 1968.{{sfn|Anderson|1989|p=84}} Some of his articles on the debate over humanism were also only published in Spanish as ''Polemica sobre Marxismo y Humanismo'' that same year.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=395}} }} At the turn from the 1960s to the 1970s, Althusser's major works were translated into English—''For Marx'', in 1969, and ''Reading Capital'' in 1970—disseminating his ideas among the English-speaking Marxists.{{sfn|Levine|1981|p=243}}

In the early 1970s, the PCF was, as most of European Communist parties, in a period of internal conflicts on strategic orientation that occurred against the backdrop of the emergence of [[Eurocommunism]]. In this context, Althusserian structuralist Marxism was one of the more or less defined strategic lines.{{sfn|Benton|1984|p=152}} Althusser participated in various public events of the PCF, most notably the public debate "Communists, Intellectuals and Culture" ("Les communistes, les intellectuels et la culture") in 1973.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=271}} He and his supporters contested the party's leadership over its decision to abandon the notion of the "[[dictatorship of the proletariat]]" during its twenty-second congress in 1976.{{sfnm|1a1=Benton|1y=1984|1p=153|2a1=Stolze|2y=2013|2p=8}} The PCF considered that in the European context it was possible to have a peaceful transition to socialism,{{sfn|Benton|1984|p=153}} which Althusser saw as "a new opportunistic version of Marxist Humanism".{{sfn|Jay|1984|p=420}} In a lecture given to the [[Union of Communist Students]] in the same year, he criticized above all the form in which this decision was taken. According to Althusser—echoing his notion of "French misery" exposed on ''For Marx''—the party demonstrated a contempt for the materialist theory when it suppressed a "scientific concept".{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|pp=271–272}} This struggle ultimately resulted in the debacle of the fraction "Union of the Left" and an open letter written by Althusser and five other intellectuals in which they asked for "a real political discussion in the PCF".{{sfnm|1a1=Jay|1y=1984|1pp=420–421|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005b|2p=273}} That same year, Althusser also published a series of articles in the newspaper ''[[Le Monde]]'' under the title of "What Must Change in the Party".{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=273|2a1=Stolze|2y=2013|2p=8}} Published between 25 and 28 April, they were expanded and reprinted in May 1978 by [[François Maspero]] as the book ''Ce qui ne peut plus durer dans le parti communiste''.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=401}} Between 1977 and 1978, Althusser mainly elaborated texts criticizing Eurocommunism and the PCF. "Marx in his Limits" ("Marx dans ses limits"), an abandoned manuscript written in 1978, argued that there was no Marxist theory of the state; it was only published in 1994 in the ''Écrits philosophiques et politiques I''.{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2006|1pp=366, 401|2a1=Diefenbach et al.|2y=2013|2p=193}} The Italian Communist newspaper ''[[Il manifesto]]'' allowed Althusser to develop new ideas on a conference held in Venice about "Power and Opposition in Post-Revolutionary Societies" in 1977.{{sfn|Callinicos|1982|p=5}} His speeches resulted into the articles "The [[Crisis of Marxism]]" ("La crisi del marxismo") and "Marxism as a 'finite' theory" in which he stressed "something vital and alive can be liberated by this crisis": the perception of Marxism as a theory that originally only reflected Marx's time and then needed to be completed by a state theory.{{sfn|Diefenbach et al.|2013|pp=193–194}} The former was published as "Marxism Today" ("Marxismo oggi") in the 1978 Italian ''Enciclopedia Europea''.{{sfnm|1a1=Lazarus|1y=1993|1p=179|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005b|2p=272|3a1=Elliott|3y=2006|3p=366|4a1=Lewis|4y=2016|4p=39}} The latter text was included in a book published in Italy, ''Discutere lo Stato'', and he criticized the notion of "government party" and defended the notion of a revolutionary party "out of state".{{sfnm|1a1=Lazarus|1y=1993|1p=179|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005b|2p=272}}

During the 1970s, Althusser's institutional roles at the ENS increased but he still edited and published his and other works in the series ''Théorie'', with François Maspero.{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} Among the essays published, there was "Response to John Lewis", a 1973 reply of an English Communist's defence of Marxist Humanism.{{sfnm|1a1=Jay|1y=1984|1p=397|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005b|2pp=270–271}} Two years later, he concluded his ''[[Doctorat d'État]]'' (State doctorate) in the [[University of Picardie Jules Verne]] and acquired the right to direct research on the basis of his previously published work.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=271|2a1=Schrift|2y=2006|2pp=86–87|3a1=Lewis|3y=2014}} Some time after this recognition, Althusser married Hélène Rytmann.{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} In 1976, he compiled several of his essays written between 1964 and 1975 to publish ''Positions''.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005a|1p=XII|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|2p=398}} These years would be a period in which his work was very intermittent;{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=272}} he gave a conference titled "The Transformation of Philosophy" ("La transformation de la philosophie") in two Spanish cities, first [[Granada]] and then in [[Madrid]], in March 1976.{{sfnm|1a1=Corpet|1y=1994|1p=10|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} The same year he gave a lecture in Catalonia titled "Quelques questions de la crise de la théorie marxiste et du mouvement communiste international" ("Some Questions on the Crisis of Marxist Theory and the International Communist Movement") in which Althusser outlined [[empiricism]] as the main enemy of class struggle.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=272|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|2p=398}} He also started a rereading of Machiavelli that would influence his later work;{{sfn|Lewis|2016|p=29}} he worked between 1975 and 1976 on "Machiavel et nous" ("Machiavelli and Us"), a draft, only published posthumously, based on a 1972 lecture,{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2001|1p=xi|2a1=Diefenbach et al.|2y=2013|2p=61}} and also wrote for the [[Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques|National Foundation of Political Science]] a piece titled "Machiavelli's Solitude" ("Solitude de Machiavel", 1977).{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=273}} In Spring 1976, requested by [[Léon Chertok]] to write for the International Symposium on the Unconscious at [[Tbilisi]], he drafted a presentation titled "The Discovery of Dr. Freud" ("La découverte du docteur Freud").{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=273|2a1=Corpet|2y=2005|2p=79}} After sending it to Chertok and some friends, he was unsettled by the requested criticism he received by Jacques Nassif and Roudinesco, and then, by December, he wrote a new essay, "On Marx and Freud".{{sfn|Corpet|2005|p=80}} He could not attend the event in 1979 and asked Chertok to replace the texts, but Chertok published the first without his consent.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=273|2a1=Corpet|2y=2005|2pp=80–81}} This would become a public "affair" in 1984 when Althusser finally noticed it by the time Chertok republished it in a book titled ''Dialogue franco-soviétique, sur la psychanalyse''.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=273|2a1=Corpet|2y=2005|2p=81}}

=== Killing of Rytmann and late years: 1978–1990 ===
After the PCF and the left were defeated in the [[1978 French legislative election|French legislative elections of 1978]], Althusser's bouts of depression became more severe and frequent.{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} In March 1980, Althusser interrupted the dissolution session of the [[École Freudienne de Paris]], and, "in the name of the analysts", called Lacan a "beautiful and pitiful harlequin."{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=273}} Later, he went through a [[hiatal hernia]]-removal surgery as he had difficulties breathing while eating.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=113}} According to Althusser himself, the operation caused his physical and mental state to deteriorate; in particular, he developed a persecution complex and suicidal thoughts. He would recall later:
{{blockquote|I wanted not only to destroy myself physically but to wipe out all trace of my time on earth: in particular, to destroy every last one of my books and all my notes, and burn the École Normale, and also, "if possible," suppress Hélène herself while I still could.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=113}}}}

After the surgery, in May, he was hospitalized for most of the summer in a Parisian clinic. His condition did not improve, but in early October he was sent home.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=273}} Upon returning, he wanted to get away from ENS and even proposed to buy Roudinesco's house.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=113}} He and Rytmann were also convinced about the "human decline", and so he tried to talk to the [[Pope John Paul II]] through his former professor Jean Guitton.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=114}} Most of the time, however, he and his wife spent locked in their ENS apartment.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=114}} In the fall of 1980, Althusser's psychiatrist [[René Diatkine]], who by now was also treating Althusser's wife Hélène Rytmann,{{sfnm|1a1=Kirshner|1y=2003|1p=219|2a1=Roudinesco|2y=2008|2p=121}} recommended that Althusser be hospitalized, but the couple refused.{{sfn|Kirshner|2003|p=235}}

{{rquote|right|Before me: Hélène lying on her back, also wearing a dressing gown. ... Kneeling beside her, leaning over her body, I am engaged in massaging her neck. ... I press my two thumbs into the hollow of flesh that borders the top of the sternum, and, applying force, I slowly reach, one thumb toward the right, one thumb toward the left at an angle, the firmer area below the ears. ... Hélène's face is immobile and serene, her open eyes are fixed on the ceiling. And suddenly I am struck with terror: her eyes are interminably fixed, and above all here is the tip of her tongue lying, unusually and peacefully, between her teeth and her lips. I had certainly seen corpses before, but I had never seen the face of a strangled woman in my life. And yet I know that this is a strangled woman. What is happening? I stand up and scream: I've strangled Hélène!|Althusser, ''L'avenir dure longtemps''{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=1992}} }}

On 16 November 1980, Althusser strangled Rytmann in their ENS room. He himself reported the murder to the doctor in residence who contacted psychiatric institutions.{{sfn|European Graduate School}} Even before the police arrival, the doctor and the director of ENS decided to hospitalize him in the Sainte-Anne hospital and a psychiatric examination was conducted on him.{{sfnm|1a1=Poisson|1y=1998|1p=107|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005b|2p=273}} Due to his mental state, Althusser was deemed to not understand the charges or the process to which he was to be submitted, so he remained at the hospital.{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} The psychiatric assessment concluded he should not be criminally charged, based on article 64 of the [[French Penal Code of 1810|French Penal Code]], which stated that "there is neither crime nor delict where the suspect was in a state of dementia at the time of the action".{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} The report said Althusser killed Rytmann in the course of an acute crisis of melancholy, without even realizing it, and that the "wife-murder by manual strangulation was committed without any additional violence, in the course of [an] iatrogenic hallucinatory episode complicated by melancholic depression."{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=103}} As a result, he lost his civil rights, entrusted to a representative of the law, and he was forbidden to sign any documents.{{sfn|Poisson|1998|p=107}} In February 1981, the court ruled Althusser as having been mentally irresponsible when he committed the murder, therefore he could not be prosecuted and was not charged.{{sfnm|1a1=Poisson|1y=1998|1p=107|2a1=European Graduate School}} Nonetheless, a warrant of confinement was subsequently issued by the [[Paris police prefecture]];{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=108}} the [[Ministry of National Education (France)|Ministry of National Education]] mandated his retirement from the ENS;{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=274}} and the ENS requested his family and friends to clear out his apartment.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=108}} In June, he was transferred to the L'Eau-Vive clinic at [[Soisy-sur-Seine]].{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1pp=273–274|2a1=Roudinesco|2y=2008|2p=108}}

The murder of Rytmann attracted much media attention, and there were several requests to treat Althusser as an ordinary criminal.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|pp=101–102}} The newspaper ''[[Minute (French newspaper)|Minute]]'', journalist [[Dominique Jamet]] and Minister of Justice [[Alain Peyrefitte]] were among those who accused Althusser of having "privileges" because of the fact he was Communist. From this point of view, Roudinesco wrote, Althusser was three times a criminal. First, the philosopher had legitimated the current of thought judged responsible for the [[Gulag]]; second, he praised the Chinese Cultural Revolution as an alternative to both capitalism and Stalinism; and finally because he had, it was said, corrupted the elite of French youth by introducing the cult of a criminal ideology into the heart of one of the best French institutions.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=103}} Philosopher [[Pierre-André Taguieff]] went further on claiming Althusser taught his students to perceive crimes positively, as akin to a revolution.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=169}} Five years after the murder, a critique by ''Le Monde''{{'s}} [[Claude Sarraute]] would have a great impact on Althusser.{{sfn|European Graduate School}} She compared his case to the situation of [[Issei Sagawa]], who killed and cannibalized a woman in France, but whose psychiatric diagnosis absolved him. Sarraute criticized the fact that, when prestigious names are involved, a lot is written about them but that little is written about the victim.{{sfnm|1a1=Roudinesco|1y=2008|p=98|2a1=European Graduate School}} Althusser's friends persuaded him to speak in his defense, and the philosopher wrote an autobiography in 1985.{{sfn|European Graduate School}} He showed the result, ''L'avenir dure longtemps'',{{efn|Taken from a phrase by [[Charles de Gaulle]], its literal translation is "the future lasts a long time".{{sfn|Poisson|1998|p=108}} Several biographers and sources refer to it as ''The Future Lasts A Long Time''.{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2006|2a1=Roudinesco|2y=2008|3a1=European Graduate School}} This was the title of the British version published by [[Chatto & Windus]].{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=318}} The US version by [[The New York Press]], however, adopts the title ''The Future Lasts Forever''.{{sfnm|1a1=Poisson|1y=1998|1p=124|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|2p=318}} }} to some of his friends and considered publishing it, but he never sent it to a publisher and locked it in his desk drawer.{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=274|2a1=Roudinesco|2y=2008|2p=110}} The book was only published posthumously in 1992.{{sfnm|1a1=Roudinesco|1y=2008|1p=100|2a1=European Graduate School}}

Despite the critics, some of his friends, such as Guitton and Debray, defended Althusser, saying the murder was an act of love—as Althusser argued too.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|pp=109–110}}{{Failed verification|date=March 2023}} Rytmann had bouts of melancholy and self-medicated because of this.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=114, 171}} Guitton said, "I sincerely think that he killed his wife out of love of her. It was a crime of mystical love".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=110}} Debray compared it to an [[altruistic suicide]]: "He suffocated her under a pillow to save her from the anguish that was suffocating him. A beautiful proof of love ... that one can save one's skin while sacrificing oneself for the other, only to take upon oneself all the pain of living".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=110}} In his autobiography, written to be the public explanation he could not provide in court,{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2006|1p=325|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} Althusser stated that "she matter-of-factly asked me to kill her myself, and this word, unthinkable and intolerable in its horror, caused my whole body to tremble for a long time. It still makes me tremble{{nbsp}}... We were living shut up in the cloister of our hell, both of us."{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=114}}

{{rquote|left|I killed a woman who was everything to me during a crisis of mental confusion, she who loved me to the point of wanting only to die because she could not continue living. And no doubt in my confusion and unconsciousness I 'did her this service,' which she did not try to prevent, but from which she died.|Althusser, ''L'avenir dure longtemps''{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=109}}}}

Quebecois author Suzanne Léveillée has written that Rytmann wanted to leave him. Another Quebecois author, Francis Dupuis-Déri, also confirms that idea in an article about how the media dealt handled the murder,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dupuis-Déri |first1=Francis |title=An ordinary man: Louis Althusser killed his wife, Hélène Rytmann-Legotien, who wanted to leave him |journal=Nouvelles Questions Féministes |date=17 June 2015 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=84–101 |doi=10.3917/nqf.341.0084 |url=https://shs.cairn.info/journal-nouvelles-questions-feministes-2015-1-page-84?lang=en |issn=0248-4951}}</ref> and later in a book titled ''Althusser Assassin''.<ref>{{cite web |title="Althusser assassin" : redonner vie à Hélène Rytmann {{!}} Philosophie magazine |url=https://www.philomag.com/articles/althusser-assassin-redonner-vie-helene-rytmann |website=Philosophie magazine |publisher=Philo Éditions |access-date=14 October 2024 |language=fr |date=15 November 2023}}</ref>

The crime seriously tarnished Althusser's reputation.{{sfn|Schrift|2006|pp=87–88}} As Roudinesco wrote, from 1980, he lived his life as a "specter, a dead man walking".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=108}} Althusser was forced to live in various public and private clinics until 1983, when he became a voluntary patient.{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=8}} He was able to start an untitled manuscript during this time, in 1982; it was later published as "The Underground Current of the Materialism of the Encounter" ("Le courant souterrain du matérialisme de la rencontre").{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=401}} From 1984 to 1986, he stayed at an apartment in the north of Paris,{{sfn|Stolze|2013|p=8}} where he remained confined most of his time, but he also received visits from some friends, such as philosopher and theologian [[Stanislas Breton]], who had also been a prisoner in the German [[stalag]]s;{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=274}} from Guitton, who converted him into a "mystic monk" in Roudinesco's words;{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=110}} and from Mexican philosopher Fernanda Navarro during six months, starting from the winter of 1984.{{sfn|Althusser|1988|p=11–13}} Althusser and Navarro exchanged letters until February 1987, and he also wrote a preface in July 1986 for the resulting book, ''Filosofía y marxismo'',{{sfn|Althusser|1988|p=11–13}} a collection of her interviews with Althusser that was released in Mexico in 1988.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=274}} These interviews and correspondence were collected and published in France in 1994 as ''Sur la philosophie''.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=318}} In this period he formulated his "materialism of the encounter" or "aleatory materialism", talking to Breton and Navarro about it,{{sfnm|1a1=Balibar|1y=2005b|1p=274|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|2p=318}} that first appeared in ''Écrits philosophiques et politiques I'' (1994) and later in the 2006 [[Verso Books|Verso]] book ''Philosophy of the Encounter''.{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2006|1p=318|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} In 1987, after Althusser underwent an emergency operation because of the obstruction of the [[esophagus]], he developed a new clinical case of depression. First brought to the Soisy-sur-Seine clinic, he was transferred to the psychiatric institution MGEN in [[La Verrière]]. There, following a pneumonia contracted during the summer, he died of a [[heart attack]] on 22 October 1990.{{sfn|Balibar|2005b|p=274}}

==Personal life==
===Romantic life===
Althusser was such a homebody that biographer William S. Lewis affirmed, "Althusser had known only home, school, and P.O.W. camp" by the time he met his future wife.{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} In contrast, when he first met Rytmann in 1946, she was a former member of the French resistance and a Communist activist. After fighting along with [[Jean Beaufret]] in the group "Service Périclès", she joined the PCF.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=116}} However, she was expelled from the party accused of being a double agent for the [[Gestapo]],{{sfnm|1a1=Althusser|1y=1992|1p=109|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|2p=329}} for "[[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]] deviation" and "crimes", which probably referred to the execution of former [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|Nazi collaborators]].{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=116}} Although high-ranking party officials instructed him to sever relations with Rytmann,{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=39–40, note 112}} Althusser tried to restore her reputation in the PCF for a long time by making inquiries into her wartime activities. Although he did not succeed in reinserting her into the party, his relationship with Rytmann nonetheless deepened during this period.{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} Their relationship "was traumatic from the outset, so Althusser claims", wrote Elliott.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=328}} Among the reasons were his almost total inexperience with women and the fact she was eight years older than him.{{sfn|Lewis|2014}}

{{rquote|right|I had never embraced a woman, and above all I had never been embraced by a woman (at age thirty!). Desire mounted in me, we made love on the bed, it was new, exciting, exalting, and violent. When she (Hélène) had left, an abysm of anguish opened up in me, never again to close.|Althusser, ''L'avenir dure longtemps''{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|pp=116–117}} }}

His feelings toward her were contradictory from the very beginning; it is suggested that the strong emotional impact she caused in him led him to deep depression.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=328}} Roudinesco wrote that, for Althusser, Rytmann represented the opposite of himself: she had been in the Resistance while he was remote from the anti-Nazi combat; she was a Jew who carried the stamp of the [[Holocaust]], whereas he, despite his conversion to Marxism, never escaped the formative effect of Catholicism; she suffered under Stalinism at the very moment when he was joining the party; and, in opposition to his petit-bourgeois background, her childhood was not prosperous—at the age of 13 she became the sexual abuse victim of a family doctor who, in addition to the abuse, instructed her to give her terminally ill parents a dose of [[morphine]].{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=116}} However, this story could have been invented by Althusser, who admitted to incorporating "imagined memories" into his "traumabiography."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v14/n24/john-sturrock/the-paris-strangler |title=The Paris Strangler |issue=24 |journal=[[London Review of Books]] |date=17 December 1992 |volume=14 |access-date=11 August 2020|last1=Sturrock |first1=John }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dupuis-Déri |first=Francis |author-link1=Francis Dupuis-Déri |date=2015 |title=La banalité du mâle. Louis Althusser a tué sa conjointe, Hélène Rytmann-Legotien, qui voulait le quitter= |trans-title=The banality of the male. Louis Althusser killed his wife, Hélène Rytmann-Legotien, who wanted to leave him |language=fr |journal=[[Nouvelles Questions Féministes]] |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=84–101 |doi=10.3917/nqf.341.0084 |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to Roudinesco, she embodied for Althusser his "displaced conscience", "pitiless superego", "damned part", "black animality".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=116}}

Althusser considered that Rytmann gave him "a world of solidarity and struggle, a world of reasoned action, ... a world of courage".{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=328}} According to him, they performed an indispensable maternal and paternal function for one another: "She loved me as a mother loves a child{{nbsp}}... and at the same time like a good father in that she introduced me ... to the real world, that vast arena I had never been able to enter. ... Through her desire for me she also initiated me ... into my role as a man, into my masculinity. She loved me as a woman loves a man!"{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=328}} Roudinesco argued that Rytmann represented for him "the sublimated figure of his own hated mother to whom he remained attached all his life". In his autobiography, he wrote: "If I was dazzled by Hélène's love and the miraculous privilege of knowing her and having her in my life, I tried to give that back to her in my own way, intensely and, if I may put it this way, ''as a religious offering'', as I had done for my mother."{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=117}}

Although Althusser was really in love with Rytmann,{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} he also had affairs with other women. Roudinesco commented that "unlike Hélène, the other women loved by Louis Althusser were generally of great physical beauty and sometimes exceptionally sensitive to intellectual dialogue".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=117}} She gives as an example of the latter case a woman named Claire Z., with whom he had a long relationship until he was forty-two.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=172}} They broke up when he met Franca Madonia, a philosopher, translator, and playwright from a well-off Italian bourgeois family from [[Romagna]].{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|pp=118, 172}} Madonia was married to Mino, whose sister Giovanna was married to the Communist painter Leonardo Cremonini. Every summer the two families gathered in a residence in the village of [[Bertinoro]], and, according to Roudinesco, "It was in this magical setting ... that Louis Althusser fell in love with Franca, discovering through her everything he had missed in his own childhood and that he lacked in Paris: a real family, an art of living, a new manner of thinking, speaking, desiring".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=118}} She influenced him to appreciate modern theatre ([[Luigi Pirandello]], [[Bertolt Brecht]], [[Samuel Beckett]]), and, Roudinesco wrote, also on his detachment of Stalinism and "his finest texts (''For Marx'' especially) but also his most important concepts".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|pp=118–119}} In her company in Italy in 1961, as Elliott affirmed, was also when he "truly discovered" Machiavelli.{{sfn|Elliott|2001|p=xiv}} Between 1961 and 1965, they exchanged letters and telephone calls, and they also went on trips together, in which they talked about the current events, politics, and theory, as well as made confidences on the happiness and unhappiness of daily life.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=119}} However, Madonia had an explosive reaction when Althusser tried to make her Rytmann's friend, and seek to bring Mino into their meetings.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=119}} They nevertheless continued to exchange letters until 1973; these were published in 1998 into an 800-page book ''Lettres à Franca''.{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2006|p=319|2a1=Roudinesco|2y=2008|2p=117}}

===Mental condition===

Althusser underwent psychiatric hospitalisations throughout his life, the first time after receiving a diagnosis of [[schizophrenia]].{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=328}} He suffered from [[bipolar disorder]], and because of it he had frequent bouts of depression that started in 1938 and became regular after his five-year stay in German captivity.{{sfnm|1a1=Ferretter|1y=2006|1p=4|2a1=Stolze|2y=2013|2p=7|3a1=Lewis|3y=2014}} From the 1950s onward, he was under constant medical supervision, often undergoing, in Lewis' words, "the most aggressive treatments post-war French psychiatry had to offer", which included [[electroconvulsive therapy]], [[truth serum|narco-analysis]], and psychoanalysis.{{sfnm|1a1=Schrift|1y=2006|1p=87|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}} Althusser did not limit himself to prescribed medications and practised self-medication.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=171, note 39}} The disease affected his academic productivity; in 1962, he began to write a book about Machiavelli during a depressive exacerbation but was interrupted by a three-months stay in a clinic.{{sfn|European Graduate School}} The main psychoanalyst he attended was the anti-Lacanian René Diatkine, starting from 1964, after he had a dream about killing his own sister.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=120}} The sessions became more frequent in January 1965, and the real work of exploring the unconscious was launched in June.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=120}} Soon Althusser recognized the positive side of non-Lacanian psychoanalysis; although he sometimes tried to ridicule Diatkine giving him lessons in Lacanianism, by July 1966, he considered the treatment was producing "spectacular results".{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|pp=120–121}} In 1976, Althusser estimated that he had spent fifteen of the previous thirty years in hospitals and psychiatric clinics.{{sfn|Ferretter|2006|p=4}}

Althusser analysed the prerequisites of his illness with the help of psychoanalysis and found them in complex relationships with his family (he devoted to this topic half of the autobiography).{{sfnm|1a1=Jackson|1y=1996|1p=135|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|2pp=325–326}} Althusser believed that he did not have a genuine "I", which was caused by the absence of real maternal love and the fact that his father was emotionally reserved and virtually absent for his son.{{sfnm|1a1=Jackson|1y=1996|1p=135|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|2p=326}} Althusser deduced the family situation from the events before his birth, as told to him by his aunt: Lucienne Berger, his mother, was to marry his father's brother, Louis Althusser, who died in [[World War I]] near [[Verdun]], while Charles, his father, was engaged with Lucienne's sister, Juliette.{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2006|1p=326|2a1=Roudinesco|2y=2008|2p=115}} Both families followed the old custom of the [[Levirate marriage|levirate]], which obliged an older, still unmarried, brother to wed the widow of a deceased younger brother. Lucienne then married Charles, and the son was named after the deceased Louis. In Althusser's memoirs, this marriage was "madness", not so much because of the tradition itself, but because of the excessive submission, as Charles was not forced to marry Lucienne since his younger brother had not yet married her.{{sfn|Roudinesco|2008|p=115}} As a result, Althusser concluded, his mother did not love him, but loved the long-dead Louis.{{sfnm|1a1=Jackson|1y=1996|1p=135|2a1=Ferretter|2y=2006|2p=114}} The philosopher described his mother as a "[[Castration anxiety|castrating mother]]" (a term from psychoanalysis), who, under the influence of her phobias, established a strict regime of social and sexual "hygiene" for Althusser and his sister Georgette. His "feeling of fathomless solitude" could only be mitigated by communicating with his mother's parents who lived in [[Morvan]].{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=326}} His relationship with his mother and the desire to deserve her love, in his memoirs, largely determined his adult life and career, including his admission to the ENS and his desire to become a "well-known intellectual".{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=327}} According to his autobiography, ENS was for Althusser a kind of refuge of intellectual "purity" from the big "dirty" world that his mother was so afraid of.{{sfnm|1a1=Jackson|1y=1996|1p=136|2a1=Elliott|2y=2006|2p=327}}

The facts of his autobiography have been critically evaluated by researchers. According to its own editors, ''L'avenir dure longtemps'' is "an inextricable tangle of 'facts' and 'phantasies'".{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=325}} His friend{{sfn|Jackson|1996|p=131}} and biographer [[Yann Moulier-Boutang]], after a careful analysis of the early period of Althusser's life, concluded that the autobiography was "a re-writing of a life through the prism of its wreckage".{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=330}} Moulier-Boutang believed that it was Rytmann who played a key role in creating a "fatalistic" account of the history of the Althusser family, largely shaping his vision in a 1964 letter. According to Elliott, the autobiography produces primarily an impression of "destructiveness and self-destructiveness".{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=330}} Althusser, most likely, postdated the beginning of his depression to a later period (post-war), having not mentioned earlier manifestations of the disease in school and in the concentration camp.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=331}} According to Moulier-Boutang, Althusser had a close psychological connection with Georgette from an early age, and although he did not often mention it in his autobiography, her "nervous illness" may have tracked his own.{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=330–331}} His sister also had depression, and despite their living separately from each other for almost their entire adult lives, their depression often coincided in time.{{sfn|Jackson|1996|p=135}} Also, Althusser focused on describing family circumstances, not considering, for example, the influence of ENS on his personality.{{sfn|Jackson|1996|p=136}} Moulier-Boutang connected the depression not only with events in his personal life, but also with political disappointments.{{sfn|Jackson|1996|p=135}}

==Thought==
{{Primary sources|section|date=February 2017}}
{{Marxism}}
Althusser's earlier works include the influential volume ''Reading Capital'' (1965), which collects the work of Althusser and his students in an intensive philosophical rereading of Marx's ''[[Das Kapital|Capital]]''. The book reflects on the philosophical status of Marxist theory as a "critique of [[political economy]]", and on its object. Althusser would later acknowledge<ref>Althusser, L. "Elements of Self-Criticism" (1974) in ''Essays in Self-Criticism'' (1976), 132–141, translated by Grahame Lock, pp. 105–150. New Left Books. {{ISBN|0-902308-87-4}}</ref> that many of the innovations in this interpretation of Marx attempt to assimilate concepts derived from [[Baruch Spinoza]] into Marxism.<ref name=Anderson1>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Perry |author-link=Perry Anderson |year=1976 |title=Considerations on Western Marxism |location=Bristol |publisher=New Left Books |pages=64–66}}</ref> The original English translation of this work includes only the essays of Althusser and [[Étienne Balibar]],<ref>Althusser L., and Balibar E. (1965). ''Reading Capital'', translated by Ben Brewster, New Left Books, {{ISBN|0-902308-56-4}}</ref> while the original French edition contains additional contributions from Jacques Rancière, [[Pierre Macherey]] and [[Roger Establet]]. A full translation was published in 2016.

Several of Althusser's theoretical positions have remained influential in [[Marxist philosophy]]. His essay "On the Materialist Dialectic" proposes a great "[[epistemological break]]" between Marx's early writings (1840–44) and his later, properly [[Marxist]] texts, borrowing a term from the [[philosopher of science]] [[Gaston Bachelard]].<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "On the Materialist Dialectic" in ''For Marx'' (1969), pp. 161–218, 168. Verso {{ISBN|1-84467-052-X}}</ref> His essay "Marxism and Humanism" is a strong statement of [[anti-humanism]] in Marxist theory, condemning ideas like "human potential" and "[[species-being]]", which are often put forth by Marxists, as outgrowths of a [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] ideology of "humanity".<ref>Althusser, L. (1969), "Marxism and Humanism" in ''For Marx'', pp. 219–48.</ref> His essay "Contradiction and Overdetermination" borrows the concept of [[overdetermination]] from [[psychoanalysis]], in order to replace the idea of "contradiction" with a more complex model of multiple [[causality]] in political situations<ref>Althusser, L. (1969), "Contradiction and Overdetermination" in ''For Marx'', pp. 87–128. {{ISBN|1-84467-052-X}}</ref> (an idea closely related to [[Antonio Gramsci]]'s concept of [[cultural hegemony]]).<ref>Althusser, L., "Contradiction and Overdetermination" in ''For Marx'', 114</ref>

Althusser is also widely known as a theorist of [[ideology]]. His best-known essay, "[[Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses|Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses: Notes Toward an Investigation]]",<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses" in ''Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays'' (1971), translated by Ben Brewster, pp. 121–76. {{ISBN|0-902308-89-0}}</ref> establishes the concept of ideology. Althusser's theory of ideology draws on Marx and Gramsci, but also on [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]'s and Lacan's psychological concepts of the unconscious and mirror-phase respectively, and describes the structures and systems that enable the concept of self. For Althusser, these structures are both agents of repression and inevitable: it is impossible to escape ideology and avoid being subjected to it. On the other hand, the collection of essays from which "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses" is drawn<ref>Althusser, L. (1995) ''Sur la reproduction'', Presses Universitaires de France. {{ISBN|9782130473725}}</ref> contains other essays which confirm that Althusser's concept of ideology is broadly consistent with the classic Marxist theory of [[class struggle]].

Althusser's thought evolved during his lifetime. It has been the subject of argument and debate, especially within Marxism and specifically concerning his theory of knowledge (epistemology).

===Epistemological break===
Althusser argues that Marx's thought has been fundamentally misunderstood and underestimated. He fiercely condemns various interpretations of Marx's works—[[historicism]],<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), ''Reading Capital'', pp. 119–45. {{ISBN|0-902308-56-4}}</ref> [[idealism]] and [[economic determinism|economism]]—on grounds that they fail to realize that with the "science of history", [[historical materialism]], Marx has constructed a revolutionary view of social change. Althusser believes these errors result from the notion that Marx's entire body of work can be understood as a coherent whole. Rather, Marx's thought contains a radical "[[epistemological break]]". Although the works of the [[young Marx]] are bound by the categories of German [[philosophy]] and classical political economy, ''[[The German Ideology]]'' (written in 1845) makes a sudden and unprecedented departure.<ref>Althusser, L. "Elements of Self-Criticism" (1974) in ''Essays in Self-Criticism'' (1976), translated by Grahame Lock, pp. 101–62, 107. New Left Books. {{ISBN|0-902308-87-4}}</ref> This break represents a shift in Marx's work to a fundamentally different "problematic", i.e., a different set of central propositions and questions posed, a different theoretical framework.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), ''Reading Capital'', 25–28. {{ISBN|0-902308-56-4}}</ref> Althusser believes that Marx himself did not fully comprehend the significance of his own work, and was able to express it only obliquely and tentatively. The shift can be revealed only by a careful and sensitive "symptomatic reading".<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), ''Reading Capital'', 28. {{ISBN|0-902308-56-4}}</ref> Thus, Althusser's project is to help readers fully grasp the originality and power of Marx's extraordinary theory, giving as much attention to what is not said as to the explicit. Althusser holds that Marx has discovered a "continent of knowledge", History, analogous to the contributions of [[Thales]] to [[mathematics]] or [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] to [[physics]],<ref>Althusser, L., "Philosophy as a Revolutionary Weapon" (1968) in ''Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays'' (1971), pp. 13–26, 18. {{ISBN|0-902308-89-0}}</ref> in that the structure of his theory is unlike anything posited by his predecessors.

Althusser believes that Marx's work is fundamentally incompatible with its antecedents because it is built on a groundbreaking [[epistemology]] (theory of knowledge) that rejects the distinction between [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] and [[object (philosophy)|object]]. In opposition to empiricism, Althusser claims that Marx's philosophy, [[dialectical materialism]], counters the theory of knowledge as vision with a theory of knowledge as production.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), ''Reading Capital'', 24.</ref>{{sfn|Benton|1984|p=36}} On the empiricist view, a knowing subject encounters a real object and uncovers its essence by means of abstraction.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E., ''Reading Capital'', 36. Althusser's definition of "empiricism" is much broader than the traditional one.</ref> On the assumption that thought has a direct engagement with reality, or an unmediated vision of a "real" object, the empiricist believes that the truth of knowledge lies in the correspondence of a subject's thought to an object that is external to thought itself.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E., ''Reading Capital'', 36–42</ref> By contrast, Althusser claims to find latent in Marx's work a view of knowledge as "theoretical practice". For Althusser, theoretical practice takes place entirely within the realm of thought, working upon theoretical objects and never coming into direct contact with the real object that it aims to know.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), ''Reading Capital'', 41–43</ref> Knowledge is not discovered, but rather produced by way of three "Generalities": (I) the "raw material" of pre-scientific ideas, abstractions and facts; (II) a conceptual framework (or "problematic") brought to bear upon these; and (III) the finished product of a transformed theoretical entity, concrete knowledge.<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "On the Materialist Dialectic" in ''For Marx'' (1969), pp. 161–218, 183–85. Verso {{ISBN|1-84467-052-X}}</ref>{{sfn|Benton|1984|p=36-37}} In this view, the validity of knowledge does not lie in its correspondence to something external to itself. Marx's historical materialism is a science with its own internal methods of proof.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), ''Reading Capital'', 59–60</ref> It is therefore not governed by interests of society, class, ideology, or politics, and is distinct from the [[base and superstructure|superstructure]].

In addition to its unique epistemology, Marx's theory is built on concepts—such as [[productive forces|forces]] and [[relations of production]]—that have no counterpart in classical political economy.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), ''Reading Capital'', 166–68.</ref> Even when existing terms are adopted—for example, the theory of [[surplus value]], which combines [[David Ricardo]]'s concepts of rent, profit, and interest—their meaning and relation to other concepts in the theory is significantly different.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E., (1970). ''Reading Capital'', 168–70.</ref> However, more fundamental to Marx's "break" is a rejection of ''[[homo economicus]]'', or the idea held by the [[classical economics|classical economists]] that the needs of individuals can be treated as a fact or "given" independent of any economic organization. For the classical economists, individual needs can serve as a premise for a theory explaining the character of a [[mode of production]] and as an independent starting point for a theory about society.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970). ''Reading Capital'', 161–67.</ref> Where classical political economy explains economic systems as a response to individual needs, Marx's analysis accounts for a wider range of social phenomena in terms of the parts they play in a structured whole. Consequently, Marx's ''Capital'' has greater explanatory power than does political economy because it provides both a model of the economy and a description of the structure and development of a whole society. In Althusser's view, Marx does not merely argue that human needs are largely created by their social environment and thus vary with time and place; rather, he abandons the very idea that there can be a theory about what people are like that is prior to any theory about how they come to be that way.<ref>Althusser, L., "Is It Simple to Be a Marxist in Philosophy" (1975) in ''Essays in Self-Criticism'' (1976), pp. 163–215, 205. {{ISBN|0-902308-87-4}}</ref>

Although Althusser insists that there was an epistemological break,<ref>Althusser, L. (1974), "Elements of Self-Criticism", 107–118</ref> he later states that its occurrence around 1845 is not clearly defined, as traces of humanism, historicism, and [[Hegelianism]] are found in ''Capital''.<ref>Althusser, L., "Preface to ''Capital'' Volume One" (1969) in ''Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays'' (1971), pp. 69–96, 90 {{ISBN|0-902308-89-0}}</ref> He claims that only Marx's ''[[Critique of the Gotha Programme]]'' and some marginal notes on a book by [[Adolph Wagner]] are fully free from humanist ideology.<ref>Althusser, L., "Preface to ''Capital'' Volume One" (1969), 90.</ref> In line with this, Althusser replaces his earlier definition of Marx's philosophy as the "theory of theoretical practice" with a new belief in "politics in the field of history"<ref>Althusser, L. (1973). "Reply to John Lewis", 68 in ''Essays in Self-Criticism'' (1976), pp. 35–79 {{ISBN|0-902308-87-4}}</ref> and "class struggle in theory".<ref>Althusser, L. (1976). "Elements of Self-Criticism", 142.</ref> Althusser considers the epistemological break to be a ''process'' instead of a clearly defined ''event'' — the product of incessant struggle against ideology. Thus, the distinction between ideology and science or philosophy is not assured once and for all by the epistemological break.<ref>Althusser, L. (1976). "Elements of Self-Criticism", 119–25</ref>

===Practices===
Because of Marx's belief that the individual is a product of society, Althusser holds that it is pointless to try to build a social theory on a prior conception of the individual. The subject of observation is not individual human elements, but rather "structure". As he sees it, Marx does not explain society by appealing to the properties of individual persons—their beliefs, desires, preferences, and judgements. Rather, Marx defines society as a set of fixed "practices".<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "On the Materialist Dialectic" in ''For Marx'' (1969), pp. 161–218, 166–67. Verso {{ISBN|1-84467-052-X}}</ref> Individuals are not actors who make their own history, but are instead the "supports" ({{lang|de|Träger}}) of these practices.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), ''Reading Capital'', 180.</ref>

Althusser uses this analysis to defend Marx's historical materialism against the charge that it crudely posits a base (economic level) and superstructure (culture/politics) "rising upon it" and then attempts to explain all aspects of the superstructure by appealing to features of the (economic) base (the well known architectural metaphor). For Althusser, it is a mistake to attribute this economic determinist view to Marx. Just as Althusser criticises the idea that a social theory can be founded on a historical conception of human needs, so does he reject the idea that [[economic]] practice can be used in isolation to explain other aspects of society.<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "On the Materialist Dialectic", 205.</ref> Althusser believes that the base and the superstructure are interdependent, although he keeps to the classic Marxist materialist understanding of the determination of the base "in the last instance" (albeit with some extension and revision). The advantage of practices over human individuals as a starting point is that although each practice is only a part of a complex whole of society, a practice is a whole in itself in that it consists of a number of different kinds of parts. Economic practice, for example, contains raw materials, tools, individual persons, etc., all united in a process of production.<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "On the Materialist Dialectic", 166–67.</ref>

Althusser conceives of society as an interconnected collection of these wholes: economic practice, ideological practice, and politico-legal practice. Although each practice has a degree of relative autonomy, together they make up one complex, structured whole (social formation).<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970). ''Reading Capital'', 58</ref> In his view, all practices are dependent on each other. For example, among the relations of production of capitalist societies are the buying and selling of labour power by capitalists and workers respectively. These relations are part of economic practice, but can only exist within the context of a legal system which establishes individual agents as buyers and sellers. Furthermore, the arrangement must be maintained by political and ideological means.<ref>Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970). ''Reading Capital'', 177–78.</ref> From this it can be seen that aspects of economic practice depend on the superstructure and vice versa.<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "On the Materialist Dialectic", 177</ref> For him this was the moment of ''reproduction'' and constituted the important role of the superstructure.

===Contradiction and overdetermination===
An analysis understood in terms of interdependent practices helps people to conceive of how society is organized, but also permits them to comprehend social change and thus provides a theory of history. Althusser explains the reproduction of the relations of production by reference to aspects of ideological and political practice; conversely, the emergence of new production relations can be explained by the failure of these mechanisms. Marx's theory seems to posit a system in which an imbalance in two parts could lead to compensatory adjustments at other levels, or sometimes to a major reorganization of the whole. To develop this idea, Althusser relies on the concepts of contradiction and non-contradiction, which he claims are illuminated by their relation to a complex structured whole. Practices are contradictory when they "grate" on one another and non-contradictory when they support one another. Althusser elaborates on these concepts by reference to [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]]'s analysis of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]].<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "Contradiction and Overdetermination", 94–100, in ''For Marx'', pp. 87–128.</ref>

Lenin posited that despite widespread discontent throughout Europe in the early 20th century, Russia was the country in which revolution occurred because it contained all the contradictions possible within a single state at the time.<ref>Althusser, L., "Contradiction and Overdetermination", 95.</ref> In his words, it was the "weakest link in a chain of imperialist states".<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "Contradiction and Overdetermination", 97.</ref> He explained the revolution in relation to two groups of circumstances: firstly, the existence within Russia of large-scale exploitation in cities, mining districts, etc., a disparity between urban industrialization and medieval conditions in the countryside, and a lack of unity amongst the ruling class; secondly, a foreign policy which played into the hands of revolutionaries, such as the elites who had been exiled by the [[Tsar]] and had become sophisticated [[socialists]].<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "Contradiction and Overdetermination", 96–97.</ref>

For Althusser, this example reinforces his claim that Marx's explanation of social change is more complex than the result of a single contradiction between the forces and the relations of production.<ref>Althusser, L., "Contradiction and Overdetermination", 99.</ref> The differences between events in Russia and [[Western Europe]] highlight that a contradiction between forces and relations of production may be necessary, but not sufficient, to bring about revolution.<ref>Althusser, L. (1969). "Contradiction and Overdetermination", 99.</ref> The circumstances that produced revolution in Russia were heterogeneous, and cannot be seen to be aspects of one large contradiction.<ref name="ReferenceA">Althusser, L., "Contradiction and Overdetermination", 100</ref> Each was a contradiction within a particular social totality. From this, Althusser concludes that Marx's concept of contradiction is inseparable from the concept of a complex structured social whole. To emphasize that changes in social structures relate to numerous contradictions, Althusser describes these changes as "[[Overdetermination|overdetermined]]", using a term taken from Sigmund Freud.<ref>Althusser, L., "Contradiction and Overdetermination", 101</ref> This interpretation allows people to account for the way in which many different circumstances may play a part in the course of events, and how these circumstances may combine to produce unexpected social changes or "ruptures".<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

However, Althusser does not mean to say that the events that determine social changes all have the same causal status. While a part of a complex whole, economic practice is a "structure in dominance": it plays a major part in determining the relations between other spheres, and has more effect on them than they have on it. The most prominent aspect of society (the religious aspect in feudal formations and the economic aspect in capitalist formations) is called the "dominant instance", and is in turn determined "in the last instance" by the economy.{{sfn|Benton|1984|p=63}} For Althusser, the economic practice of a society determines which other formation of that society dominates the society as a whole.

Althusser's understanding of contradiction in terms of the dialectic attempts to rid Marxism of the influence and vestiges of Hegelian (idealist) dialectics, and is a component part of his general anti-humanist position. In his reading, the Marxist understanding of social totality is not to be confused with the Hegelian. Where Hegel sees the different features of each historical epoch – its art, politics, religion, etc. – as expressions of a single [[essence]], Althusser believes each social formation to be "decentred", i.e., that it cannot be reduced or simplified to a unique central point.{{sfn|Benton|1984|pp=62-63}}

===Ideological state apparatuses===
{{Main|Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses}}
Because Althusser held that a person's desires, choices, intentions, preferences, judgements, and so forth are the effects of social practices, he believed it necessary to conceive of how society makes the individual in its own image. Within capitalist societies, the human individual is generally regarded as a subject—a self-conscious, "responsible" agent whose actions can be explained by their beliefs and thoughts. For Althusser, a person's capacity to perceive themselves in this way is not innate. Rather, it is acquired within the structure of established social practices, which impose on individuals the role (''forme'') of a subject.<ref>As Althusser states, "No human, i.e. social individual can be the agent of a practice if he does not have the ''form of a subject''. The 'subject-form' is actually the form of the historical existence of every individual, of every agent of social practices." Althusser, L. (1973), "Reply to John Lewis" in ''Essays in Self-Criticism'' (1976), pp. 33–100, 95. {{ISBN|0-902308-87-4}}</ref> Social practices both determine the characteristics of the individual and give them an idea of the range of properties they can have, and of the limits of each individual. Althusser argues that many roles and activities are acquired and learned by social practice: for example, the production of steelworkers is a part of economic practice, while the production of lawyers is part of politico-legal practice. However, other characteristics of individuals, such as their beliefs about [[Eudaimonia|the good life]] or their [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] reflections on the nature of the self, do not easily fit into these categories.

In Althusser's view, values, desires, and preferences are inculcated in by ideological practice, the sphere which has the defining property of constituting individuals as subjects.<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses" in ''Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays'' (1971), pp. 121–76, 160. {{ISBN|0-902308-89-0}}</ref> Ideological practice consists of an assortment of institutions called "[[ideological state apparatuses]]" (ISAs), which include the family, the media, religious organizations, and most importantly in capitalist societies, the education system, as well as the received ideas that they propagate.<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 135–39</ref> No single ISA produces in people the belief of self-conscious agents. Instead, this belief is derived from learning what it is to be a daughter, a schoolchild, black, a steelworker, a councillor, and so forth.

Despite its many institutional forms, the function and structure of ideology is unchanging and present throughout history;<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 152</ref> as Althusser states, "ideology has no history".<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 150</ref> All ideologies constitute a subject, even though he or she may differ according to each particular ideology. Memorably, Althusser illustrates this with the concept of "hailing" or "[[interpellation (philosophy)|interpellation]]". He compares ideology to a policeman shouting "Hey you there!" toward a person walking on the street. Upon hearing this call, the person responds by turning around and in doing so, is transformed into a subject.<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 163.</ref> The person being hailed recognizes themselves as the subject of the hail, and knows to respond.<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 163</ref> Althusser calls this recognition a "mis-recognition" (''méconnaissance''),<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 161</ref> because it works retroactively: a material individual is [[always already]] an ideological subject, even before he or she is born.<ref name="Althusser, L. 1970">Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 164</ref> The "transformation" of an individual into a subject has always already happened; Althusser here acknowledges a debt to [[Spinoza]]'s theory of [[immanence]].<ref name="Althusser, L. 1970"/>

To highlight this, Althusser offers the example of Christian religious ideology, embodied in the Voice of [[God]], instructing a person on what their place in the world is and what he must do to be reconciled with [[Christ]].<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 166</ref> From this, Althusser draws the point that in order for that person to identify as a Christian, he must first already be a subject; that is, by responding to God's call and following His rules, he affirms himself as a free agent, the author of the acts for which he assumes responsibility.<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 169</ref> People cannot recognize themselves outside ideology, and in fact, their very actions reach out to this overarching structure. Althusser's theory draws heavily from Jacques Lacan and his concept of the [[Mirror Stage]]<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 162</ref>—people acquire their identities by seeing themselves mirrored in ideologies.<ref>Althusser, L. (1970), "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses", 168</ref>

=== Aleatory materialism ===
In various short papers drafted from 1982 to 1986 and published posthumously,<ref>Louis Althusser, Qu’y faire ? Que faire ?, May 30, 1985. Fonds Althusser. L’Institut Mémoires de l’Édition Contemporaine.</ref><ref>Louis Althusser, Thèses de juin 1986 (typewritten sheets, Archives IMEC), published on a site of Multitudes.</ref> Althusser is critical of the relation of Marxist science to the philosophy of dialectical materialism and [[materialism|materialist]] philosophy in general. Althusser rejects dialectical materialism and introduces a new concept: the '''philosophy of the encounter''', renamed '''aleatory materialism''' in 1986.{{sfn|Althusser|2006b|p=xv}} To develop this idea, Althusser holds that there exists an “underground” or barely recognized philosophical current of aleatory Materialism,{{sfn|Althusser|2006b|p=163-207 The Underground Current of the Materialism of the Encounter}} articulated by Marx, Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius, Machiavelli, Spinoza, Hobbes, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Heidegger, Wittgenstein, and Derrida.<ref>The Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Louis Althusser, First published Oct 16, 2009; substantive revision Aug 22, 2022.</ref>

He argues that it was an idealist and teleological mistake to think that there are general laws of history and that social relations are determined in the same manner as physical relations. Emphasising the role of contingency in history over laws of development he states that reconstructed historical materialism has as its object complex historical singularities or ''conjunctures'',{{sfn|Althusser|2006b|p=xl}} The ''conjuncture'' is the pivotal point, where political practice may intervene,<ref>Ross Speer, The Machiavellian Marxism of Althusser and Gramsci, Décalages: Vol. 2: Iss. 1., 2016</ref> and aleatory materialism is a materialist philosophy to understand this conjuncture.

==Reception and influence==
While Althusser's writings were born of an intervention against reformist and ecumenical tendencies within Marxist theory,<ref name=Soper>{{cite book |last=Soper |first=Kate|author-link=Kate Soper |date=1986 |title=Humanism and Anti-Humanism |location=London |publisher=Hutchinson |page=88 |isbn=0-09-162-931-4}}</ref> the eclecticism of his influences reflected a move away from the intellectual isolation of the [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin era]]. He drew as much from pre-Marxist systems of thought and contemporary schools such as structuralism, philosophy of science and psychoanalysis as he did from thinkers in the Marxist tradition. Furthermore, his thought was symptomatic of Marxism's growing academic respectability, and of a push towards emphasizing Marx's legacy as a [[philosopher]] rather than only as an [[economist]] or [[sociologist]]. [[Tony Judt]] saw this as a criticism of Althusser's work, saying he removed Marxism "altogether from the realm of history, politics and experience, and thereby ... render[ed] it invulnerable to any criticism of the empirical sort."<ref>New Republic, V. 210, 03-07-1994, p. 33.</ref>

Althusser has had broad influence in the areas of Marxist philosophy and [[post-structuralism]]: interpellation has been popularized and adapted by the [[feminist]] philosopher and critic [[Judith Butler]], and elaborated further by [[Göran Therborn]]; the concept of ideological state apparatuses has been of interest to [[Slovenia]]n philosopher [[Slavoj Žižek]]; the attempt to view history as a process without a subject garnered sympathy from [[Jacques Derrida]]; historical materialism was defended as a coherent doctrine from the standpoint of [[analytic philosophy]] by [[G. A. Cohen]];<ref>Cohen, G. A., ''Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence'', x. Oxford University Press, 1978. {{ISBN|0-19-827196-4}}. Cohen claims that Althusser's work is an inadequately vague defence of Marx's theory.</ref> the interest in [[structure and agency]] sparked by Althusser was to play a role in sociologist [[Anthony Giddens]]'s [[theory of structuration#Althusser|theory of structuration]].

Althusser's influence is also seen in the work of economists [[Richard D. Wolff]] and [[Stephen Resnick]], who have interpreted that Marx's mature works hold a conception of class different from the normally understood ones. For them, in Marx class refers not to a group of people (for example, those that own the means of production versus those that do not), but to a process involving the production, appropriation, and distribution of surplus labour. Their emphasis on class as a process is consistent with their reading and use of Althusser's concept of overdetermination in terms of understanding agents and objects as the site of multiple determinations.

Althusser's work has also been criticized from a number of angles. In a 1971 paper for ''[[Socialist Register]]'', Polish philosopher [[Leszek Kołakowski]]<ref>Kolakowski, Leszek (1971), "[http://www.socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/5334/2235 Althusser's Marx]". ''Socialist Register'' 1971, pp. 111–28.</ref> undertook a detailed critique of structural Marxism, arguing that the concept was seriously flawed on three main points:

{{blockquote|I will argue that the whole of Althusser's theory is made up of the following elements: 1. common sense banalities expressed with the help of unnecessarily complicated [[neologisms]]; 2. traditional Marxist concepts that are vague and ambiguous in Marx himself (or in Engels) and which remain, after Althusser's explanation, exactly as vague and ambiguous as they were before; 3. some striking historical inexactitudes.}}

Kołakowski further argued that, despite Althusser's 'verbal claims to "scientificity"', is ''himself''  "building a gratuitous ideological project". In 1980, sociologist Axel van den Berg<ref>Berg, Axel van den (1980). "Critical Theory: Is There Still Hope?" ''The American Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 86 No. 3 (Nov 1980), pp. 449–78.</ref> described Kołakowski's critique as "devastating", proving that "Althusser retains the orthodox radical rhetoric by simply severing all connections with verifiable facts".

G. A. Cohen, in his essay 'Complete Bullshit', has cited the 'Althusserian school' as an example of 'bullshit' and a factor in his co-founding the '[[Non-Bullshit Marxism Group]]'.<ref>Cohen, G. A. 'Complete Bullshit', pp. 94–5 in his ''Finding Oneself in the Other'' (ed. [[Michael Otsuka]]) (2013) Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref> He says that 'the ideas that the Althusserians generated, for example, of the interpellation of the subject, or of contradiction and overdetermination, possessed a surface allure, but it often seemed impossible to determine whether or not the theses in which those ideas figured were true, and, at other times, those theses seemed capable of just two interpretations: on one of them they were true but uninteresting, and, on the other, they were interesting, but quite obviously false'.<ref>Cohen, G. A. 'Complete Bullshit', pp. 95 in his ''Finding Oneself in the Other'' (ed. [[Michael Otsuka]]) (2013) Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref>

Althusser was vehemently attacked by British Marxist historian [[E. P. Thompson]] in his book ''The Poverty of Theory''.<ref name=Thompson1>Thompson, E. P., (1978) "The Poverty of Theory" in ''The Poverty of Theory & other essays'', pp. 193–397. Merlin, 1978. {{ISBN|0-85036-231-8}}</ref><ref name=Anderson2>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Perry |author-link=Perry Anderson |year=1980 |title=Arguments Within English Marxism |location=London |publisher=New Left Books and Verso | isbn=0-86091-727-4 |pages=103–4}}</ref> Thompson claimed that Althusserianism was Stalinism reduced to the paradigm of a theory.<ref name=Thompson2>Thompson, E. P., (1978) "The Poverty of Theory" in ''The Poverty of Theory & other essays'', p. 374. Merlin, 1978. {{ISBN|0-85036-231-8}}</ref> Where the Soviet doctrines that existed during the lifetime of the dictator lacked systematisation, Althusser's theory gave Stalinism "its true, rigorous and totally coherent expression".<ref name=Thompson3>Thompson, E. P., (1978) "The Poverty of Theory" in ''The Poverty of Theory & other essays'', p. 333. Merlin, 1978. {{ISBN|0-85036-231-8}}</ref> As such, Thompson called for "unrelenting intellectual war" against the Marxism of Althusser.<ref name=Thompson4>Thompson, E. P., (1978) "The Poverty of Theory" in ''The Poverty of Theory & other essays'', p. 381. Merlin, 1978. {{ISBN|0-85036-231-8}}</ref>

==Legacy==
Since his death, the reassessment of Althusser's work and influence has been ongoing. The first wave of retrospective critiques and interventions ("drawing up a balance sheet") began outside of Althusser's own country, France, because, as Étienne Balibar pointed out in 1988, "there is an absolute taboo now suppressing the name of this man and the meaning of his writings."<ref name="AlthusserConference">{{cite book |last=Sprinker |first=Michael |author2=Kaplan, E. Ann |title=The Althusserian Legacy |url=https://archive.org/details/althusserianlega0000unse/page/1 |year=1993 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-0-86091-594-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/althusserianlega0000unse/page/1 1] }}</ref> Balibar's remarks were made at the "Althusserian Legacy" Conference organized at [[Stony Brook University]] by [[Michael Sprinker]]. The proceedings of this conference were published in September 1992 as the ''Althusserian Legacy'' and included contributions from Balibar, Alex Callinicos, Michele Barrett, Alain Lipietz, Warren Montag, and Gregory Elliott, among others. It also included an obituary and an extensive interview with Derrida.<ref name="AlthusserConference"/>

Eventually, a [[:wikt:colloquium|colloquium]] was organized in France at the University of Paris VIII by [[Sylvain Lazarus]] on 27 May 1992. The general title was ''Politique et philosophie dans l'oeuvre de Louis Althusser'', the proceedings of which were published in 1993.<ref>{{cite book |last=Badiou |first=Alain |title=Pocket Pantheon: Figures of Postwar Philosophy |date=July 2009 |publisher= Verso|isbn=978-1-84467-357-5 |page=192 |orig-year=21 }}</ref>

In retrospect, Althusser's continuing influence can be seen through his students.{{sfn|Lewis|2014}} A dramatic example of this points to the editors and contributors of the 1960s journal ''Cahiers pour l'Analyse'': "In many ways, the 'Cahiers' can be read as the critical development of Althusser's own intellectual itinerary when it was at its most robust."<ref>[http://www.web.mdx.ac.uk/cahiers/names/althusser.html Althusser Homepage at The Cahiers pour l'Analyse website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505175320/http://www.web.mdx.ac.uk/cahiers/names/althusser.html |date=5 May 2010 }}</ref> This influence continues to guide much philosophical work, as many of these same students became eminent intellectuals in the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s: [[Alain Badiou]], Étienne Balibar and Jacques Rancière in philosophy, Pierre Macherey in [[literary criticism]] and [[Nicos Poulantzas]] in [[sociology]]. The prominent [[Guevarist]] Régis Debray also studied under Althusser, as did the aforementioned Derrida (with whom he at one time shared an office at the ENS), noted philosopher Michel Foucault, and the pre-eminent Lacanian psychoanalyst [[Jacques-Alain Miller]].{{sfn|Lewis|2014}}

Badiou has lectured and spoken on Althusser on several occasions in France, Brazil, and Austria since Althusser's death. Badiou has written many studies, including "Althusser: Subjectivity without a Subject", published in his book ''Metapolitics'' in 2005. Most recently, Althusser's work has been given prominence again through the interventions of [[Warren Montag]] and his circle; see for example the special issue of ''borderlands e-journal'' edited by David McInerney (''Althusser & Us'') and "Décalages: An Althusser Studies Journal", edited by Montag. (See "External links" below for access to both of these journals.)

In 2011 Althusser continued to spark controversy and debate with the publication in August of that year of Jacques Rancière's first book, ''Althusser's Lesson'' (1974). It marked the first time this groundbreaking work was to appear in its entirety in an English translation. In 2014, ''On the Reproduction of Capitalism'' was published, which is an English translation of the full text of the work from which the ISAs text was drawn.<ref name="thenewinquiry">{{cite web|url=http://thenewinquiry.com/essays/kill-the-philosopher-in-your-head/|title=Kill the Philosopher in Your Head|website=The New Inquiry|date=11 February 2014|access-date=9 January 2021}}</ref>

The publication of Althusser's posthumous memoir{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} cast some doubt on his own scholarly practices. For example, although he owned thousands of books, Althusser revealed that he knew very little about Kant, Spinoza, and Hegel. While he was familiar with Marx's early works, he had not read ''Capital'' when he wrote his own most important Marxist texts. Additionally, Althusser had "contrived to impress his first teacher, the Catholic theologian [[Jean Guitton]], with a paper whose guiding principles he had simply filched from Guitton's own corrections of a fellow student's essay," and "he concocted fake quotations in the thesis he wrote for another major contemporary philosopher, [[Gaston Bachelard]]."<ref name="Adair">{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/getting-away-with-murder-its-the-talk-of-paris--how-louis-althusser-killed-his-wife-how-he-was-an-intellectual-fraud-its-all-in-his-posthumous-autobiographical-memoir-gilbert-adair-turns-the-pages-1530755.html|title=Getting Away with Murder|last=Adair|first=Gilbert|work=The Independent|date=23 October 2011|access-date=14 April 2014}}</ref>

==Selected bibliography==
===French books===
{| class="wikitable"
! width="31%" | Original French
! width="63%" | English translation
! width="5%" | Ref.
|-
| ''Montesquieu, la politique et l'histoire'' (Paris: [[Presses Universitaires de France]], 1959)
| "Montesquieu: Politics and History" translation appears in ''Politics and History: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Marx'' trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1972), pp. 9–109
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=389}}
|-
| ''Pour Marx'' (Paris: François Maspero, September 1965)
| ''[[For Marx]]'' trans. Ben Brewster (London: Allen Lan, 1969)
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=392}}
|-
| ''Lire 'le Capital{{'}}'' (Paris: François Maspero, November 1965)
| ''[[Reading Capital]]'' trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1970)
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=392}}
|-
| ''Lénine et la philosophie'' (Paris: François Maspero, January 1969)
| "Lenin and Philosophy" translation appears in ''[[Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays]]'' trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1971), pp. 27–68; reprinted in ''Philosophy and the Spontaneous Philosophy of the Scientists & Other Essays'', pp. 167–202
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=391, 394}}
|-
| ''Réponse à John Lewis'' (Paris: François Maspero, June 1973)
| "Reply to John Lewis (Self-Criticism)" translation appears in ''Marxism Today'' trans. Grahame Lock, October 1972, pp. 310–18 and November 1972, pp. 343–9; reprinted (with revisions) in ''Essays in Self-Criticism'' trans. Grahame Lock (London: Verso, 1976), pp. 33–99; reprinted in ''Essays on Ideology'' trans. Grahame Lock and Ben Brewster (London: Verso 1984), pp. 141–71
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=391, 397}}
|-
| ''Éléments d'autocritique'' (Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1974)
| "Elements of Self-Criticism" translation appears in ''[[Essays in Self-criticism]]'' trans. Grahame Lock (London: Verso, 1976), pp. 101–161
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=397}}
|-
| ''Philosophie et philosophie spontanée des savants (1967)'' (Paris: François Maspero, September 1974)
| "Philosophy and the Spontaneous Philosophy of the Scientists" translation appears in Gregory Elliott ed. ''Philosophy and the Spontaneous Philosophy of the Scientists'' trans. Warren Montag (London: Verso, 1990), pp. 69–165
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=398}}
|-
| ''Positions (1964–1975)'' (Paris: Éditions Sociales, March 1976)
| Not translated
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=398}}
|-
| ''Ce qui ne peut plus durer dans le parti communiste'' (Paris: François Maspero, May 1978)
| The book itself was not translated, but the original ''Le Monde'' articles were translated as "What Must Change in the Party" by Patrick Camiller, in ''New Left Review'', I, no. 109, May–June 1978, pp. 19–45
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=401}}
|-
| ''L'avenir dure longtemps'' (Paris: Éditions Stock/IMEC, April 1992)
| "The Future Lasts A Long Time" translation appears in ''The Future Lasts a Long Time and The Facts'' trans. Richard Veasey (London: Chatto & Windus, 1993) "The Future Lasts Forever" translation appears ''The Future Lasts Forever: A Memoir'' trans. Richard Veasey (New York: New Press, 1993)
|{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2006|1pp=402–403|2a1=Lewis|2y=2014}}
|-
| ''Journal de captivité: Stalag XA/1940–1945'' (Paris: Éditions Stock/IMEC, September 1992)
| Not translated
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=403}}
|-
| ''Écrits sur la psychanalyse'' (Paris: Éditions Stock/IMEC, September 1993)
| Partially translated as ''Writings on Psychoanalysis: Freud and Lacan'' trans. Jeffrey Mehlman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996)
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=403}}
|-
| ''Sur la philosophie'' (Paris: [[Éditions Gallimard]], April 1994)
| Not translated
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=403}}
|-
| ''Écrits philosophiques et politiques II'' (Paris: Éditions Stock/IMEC, October 1994)
| Not translated
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=403}}
|-
| ''Écrits philosophiques et politiques II'' (Paris: Éditions Stock/IMEC, October 1995)
| Not translated
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=403}}
|-
| ''Sur la reproduction'' (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, October 1995)
| ''On the Reproduction of Capitalism'' trans. G. M. Goshgarian (London: Verso, 2014)
|{{sfn|Janik|2015|p=1}}
|-
| ''Psychanalyse et sciences humaines'' (Paris: Le Livre de Poche, November 1996)
| Not translated
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=403}}
|-
| ''Solitude de Machiavel et autres textes'' (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, October 1998)
| "Machiavell's Solitude" was translated by Ben Brewster and appeared in ''Economy and Society'', vol. 17, no. 4, November 1988, pp. 468–79; it was also reprinted in ''Machiavelli and Us'', pp. 115–30
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|p=400}}
|-
| ''Politique et Histoire de Machiavel à Marx'' (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 2006)
| Not translated
|{{sfn|Diefenbach et al.|2013|p=353}}
|-
| ''Machiavel et nous'' (Paris: Ed. Tallandier, 2009)
| A draft Althusser kept on his drawer, it was first published in ''Écrits philosophiques et politiques''. It was then published in English as ''Machiavelli and Us'' trans. Gregory Elliott (London: Verso, 1999)
|{{sfnm|1a1=Elliott|1y=2001|1p=xi|2a1=Balibar|2y=2005a|2p=v|3a1=Elliott|3y=2006|p=396|4a1=Moulfi|4y=2013|4p=1}}
|-
|''Initiation à la philosophie pour les non-philosophes'' (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, January 2014)
|''Philosophy for Non-Philosophers'' translated and edited by G.M. Goshgarian with an introduction by Warren Montag (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017)
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Initiation à la philosophie pour les non-philosophes|url=https://www.puf.com/content/Initiation_%C3%A0_la_philosophie_pour_les_non-philosophes|access-date=2021-03-23|website=www.puf.com|language=fr}}</ref>
|}

===English collections===
{| class="wikitable"
! width="31%" | Book
! width="63%" | Content
! width="5%" | Ref.
|-
| ''The Spectre of Hegel: Early Writings'' ed. François Matheron; trans. G. M. Goshgarian (London: Verso, 1997)
| It translates part of ''Écrits philosophiques et politiques I'' and covers some of Althusser's "early writings" (1946–1950) including the "Letter to Jean Lacroix".
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=318, 374}}
|-
| ''Politics and History: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Marx'' trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1972)
| It collects three texts: 1958's "Montesquieu: Politics and History", pp. 9–109; 1965's "Rousseau: The Social Contract (The Discrepancies)", pp. 111–160; and 1968's "Marx's Relation to Hegel", pp. 161–86
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=389, 392, 394}}
|-
| ''The Humanist Controversy and Other Texts'' ed. François Matheron; trans. G. M. Goshgarian (London: Verso, 2003)
| 1966's "The Theoretical Conjuncture and Marxist Theoretical Research", "On Lévi-Strauss" and "Three Notes on the Theory of Discourses", pp. 1–18, pp. 19–32 and pp. 33–84 respectively; 1967's "On Feuerbach", "The Historical Task of Marxist Philosophy" and "The Humanist Controversy", pp. 85–154, pp. 155–220 and pp. 221–305 respectively
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=374, 392–393}}
|-
| ''Philosophy of the Encounter: Later Writings, 1978–1987'' ed. François Matheron; trans. G.M. Goshgarian (London: Verso, 2006)
| Translation of texts from ''Écrits philosophiques et politiques 1'' and ''Sur la philosophie'', including the latter's preface, 1979's "Marx in his Limits", 1982's "The Underground Current of the Materialism of the Encounter" and 1986's "Portrait of the Materialist Philosopher" and letters to [[Merab Mamardashvili]], Mauricio Malamud and Fernanda Navarro, and his interviews with her
|{{sfn|Elliott|2006|pp=374, 400–402}}
|-
| ''History and Imperialism: Writings, 1963–1986'' translated and edited by G.M. Goshgarian (London: Polity, 2019)
| Includes Althusser's unpublished and incomplete book on imperialism
| <ref name="thecritic">{{cite web|url=https://thecritic.co.uk/issues/february-2020/inveterate-ignoramus/|title=Inveterate Ignoramus | Christopher Bray | The Critic Magazine|website=thecritic.co.uk|date=28 January 2020|access-date=9 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
|}

===Selected articles in translation===
*"Our Jean-Jacques Rousseau". ''[[Telos (journal)|Telos]]'' 44 (Summer 1980). New York: [http://www.telospress.com Telos Press]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book | last=Althusser | first=Louis | title=Filosofía y marxismo | editor=Navarro, Fernanda | publisher=Siglo XXI | year=1988 | language=es | isbn=968-23-1474-7 }}
* {{cite book | last=Althusser | first=Louis | title=L'avenir dure longtemps: suivi de Les faits | editor1=Corpet, Olivier | editor2=Moulier-Boutang, Yann | publisher=Éditions Stock / IMEC | year=1992 | isbn=978-2-246-7796-12 }}
* {{cite book | last=Althusser | first=Louis | title=Politique et Histoire de Machiavel à Marx: cours à l'École normale supérieure de 1955 à 1972 | year=2006 | publisher=Éditions du Seuil | isbn=978-2-020-6283-34 }}
* {{cite book | last=Althusser | first=Louis | title=Philosophy of the Encounter, Later Writings, 1978-87| publisher=Verso | year=2006b | location=London, New York | isbn=978-1-84467-069-7}}
* {{cite book | last=Althusser | first=Louis | title=Lettres à Hélène: 1947-1980 | editor=Corpet, Olivier | publisher=[[Éditions Grasset]] | year=2011 | isbn= 978-2-246-7796-12 }}
* {{cite book | last=Anderson | first=Perry | author-link=Perry Anderson | title=Considerations on Western Marxism | year=1989 | publisher=Verso | isbn=978-0-86091-720-5 }}
* {{cite book | last=Balibar | first=Étienne | chapter=Avant-propos pour la réédition de 1996 | editor1=Althusser, Louis | title=Pour Marx | publisher=La Decouverte | year=2005a | pages=I-XIV | isbn= 2-7071-4714-1 | language=fr }}
* {{cite book | last=Balibar | first=Étienne | chapter=Note biographique | editor1=Althusser, Louis | title=Pour Marx | publisher=La Decouverte | year=2005b | pages=266–274 | isbn= 2-7071-4714-1 | language=fr }}
* {{cite book | last=Benton | first=Ted | title=The Rise and Fall of Structural Marxism: Althusser and His Influence | year=1984 | location=New York | publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] | isbn=0-312-68-375-8 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofstru00bent }}
* {{cite journal | last=Biard | first=Joel | title=Les écrits philosophiques de Louis Althusser | trans-title=The philosophical writings of Louis Althusser | journal=La Pensée | year=1995 | issue=303 | pages=137–145 | issn=0031-4773 | language=fr }}
* {{cite book | last=Callinicos | first=Alex | author-link=Alex Callinicos | title=Is There a Future for Marxism? | publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] | year=1982 | isbn=1-349-16677-4 }}
* {{cite book | last=Corpet | first=Olivier | chapter=Avertissement | editor1=Althusser, Louis | title=Sur la philosophie | publisher=Éditions Gallimard | language=fr | year=1994 | isbn=978-2-070-7389-46 }}
* {{cite book | last=Corpet | first=Olivier | chapter=The Tbilisi Affair | editor1=Althusser, Louis | editor2=Corpet, Olivier | editor3=Matheron, François | title=Writings on Psychoanalysis: Freud and Lacan | others=Jeffrey Mehlman (translator) | publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] | year=2005 | isbn=0-585-04147-4 }}
* {{cite book | last=Cotten | first=Jean-Pierre | title=La pensée de Louis Althusser | location=Toulouse | publisher=Privat | year=1979 | language=fr | isbn=2-7089-1435-9 }}
* {{cite book | last1=Diefenbach | first1=Katja | last2=Farris | first2=Sara R. | last3=Kirn | first3=Gal | last4=Thomas | first4=Peter | title=Encountering Althusser: Politics and Materialism in Contemporary Radical Thought | publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing USA]] | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-441-15213-8 | ref={{sfnref|Diefenbach et al.|2013}} }}
* {{cite book | last=Elliott | first=Gregory | title=Althusser: The Detour of Theory | location=Leiden, Boston | publisher=Brill Publishers | isbn=978-9-004-15337-0 | year=2006 }}
* {{cite book | last=Elliott | first=Gregory | chapter=Introduction: In the Mirror of Machiavelli | editor-last1=Althusser | editor-first1=Louis | editor-last2=Matheron | editor-first2=François | title=Machiavelli and Us | publisher=[[Verso Books]] | year=2001 | isbn=1-859-84282-8 }}
* {{cite web | last=European Graduate School | url=http://www.egs.edu/library/louis-althusser/biography/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924010153/http://www.egs.edu/library/louis-althusser/biography/ | archive-date=24 September 2015 | title=Louis Althusser – Philosopher – Biography }}
* {{cite book | last=Ferretter | first=Luke | title=Louis Althusser | series=Routledge Critical Thinkers | publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] | isbn=978-0-415-32732-9 | year=2006 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QeSI4gWjDX4C }}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.imec-archives.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ALT_web.pdf |author=L'Institut mémoires de l'édition contemporaine (IMEC)|author-link=Institute for Contemporary Publishing Archives| title=Inventaire des archives de Louis Althusser deposees a L'IMEC | year=1997 | ref={{sfnref|IMEC|1997}} }}
* {{cite journal | last=Jackson | first=Ned | title=The first death of Louis Althusser or totality's revenge | journal=[[History and Theory]] | volume=35 | issue=1 | date=February 1996 | publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] | pages=131–146 | doi=10.2307/2505519 | jstor=2505519 }}
* {{cite book | last=Jay | first=Martin | chapter=Louis Althusser and The Structuralist Reading of Marx | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1IN1QmMxngC&pg=PA385 | title=Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lukács to Habermas | location=Berkeley| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1IN1QmMxngC&pg=PA385 | publisher=[[University of California Press]] | year=1984 | isbn=0-520-05742-2 | pages=385–422 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Janik | first=Mateusz| title=Louis Althusser, On the Reproduction of Capitalism: Three Reading Strategies | url=http://scholar.oxy.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&context=decalages | journal=Décalages | volume=1 | issue=4 | year=2015 }}
* {{cite book | last=Kelly | first=Michael | title=Modern French Marxism | year=1982 | location=Oxford | publisher=Basil Blackwell | isbn=0-631-13202-3 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Kirshner | first=Lewis A. | title=The Man Who Didn't Exist: The Case of Louis Althusser | journal=[[American Imago]] | volume=60 | issue=2 | year=2003 | pages=211–239 | doi=10.1353/aim.2003.0012 | s2cid=144249214 }}
* {{cite book | last=Lazarus | first=Sylvain |author-link=Sylvain Lazarus | title=Politique et philosophie dans l'œuvre de Louis Althusser | publisher=[[Presses Universitaires de France]] | year=1993 | isbn=2-130-45500-X }}
* {{cite journal | last=Levine | first=Andrew | title=Althusser's Marxism | journal=Economy and Society | location=Southampton | publisher=The Camelot Press | year=1981 | volume=10 | issue=3 | pages=243–283 | doi=10.1080/03085148100000014 | issn=0308-5147 }}
* {{cite book | last=Levine | first=Andrew | editor=Audi, Robert | title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | year=1999 | isbn=0-521-63722-8 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last=Lewis | first=William S. | url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/althusser/ | title=Louis Althusser | editor=[[Edward N. Zalta|Zalta, Edward N.]] | encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] | year=2014 | publisher=Stanford University | location=California | issn=1095-5054 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Lewis | first=William S. | url=http://scholar.oxy.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1114&context=decalages | title=Althusser's Scientism and Aleatory Materialism | journal=Décalages | volume=2 | issue=1 | year=2016 }}
* {{cite book | last=Majumdar | first=Margaret A. | title=Althusser and the End of Leninism? | publisher=Pluto Press | year=1995 | isbn=978-0-7453-0888-3 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Moulfi | first=Mohamed | url=http://scholar.oxy.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=decalages | title=Althusser, lecteur de Machiavel | year=2013 | language=fr | volume=1 | issue=3 | journal=Décalages }}
* {{cite journal | last=Poisson | first=Catherine | title=Louis Althusser's The Future Lasts Forever: The Failure of Auto-Redemption | pages=107–125 | volume=2 | issue=1 | journal=Contemporary French & Francophone Studies | year=1998 | doi= }}
* {{cite book| last=Roudinesco | first=Élisabeth | url=https://archive.org/details/ElisabethRoudinescoPhilosophyInTurbulentTimesCanguilhemSartreFoucaultAlthusserDeleuzeDerrida2008 | title=Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser, Deleuze, Derrida | chapter=Louis Althusser: The Murder Scene | publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] | location=New York | others=William McCuaig (translator) | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-231-14300-4 | pages=97–131 }}
* {{cite book | last=Schrift | first=Alan D. | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arsVNvotJa4C&pg=PA86 | title=Twentieth-Century French Philosophy: Key Themes and Thinkers | chapter=Key Biographies in Brief | pages=86–88 | year=2006 | location=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | isbn=978-1-405-13218-3 }}
* {{cite book | last=Stolze | first=Ted | chapter=Althusser, Louis | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0sR1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 | editor1=McGee, R. Jon | editor2=Warms, Richard L. | title=Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia | year=2013 | publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] | location=Thousand Oaks, California | pages=7–10 | isbn=978-1-412-99963-2 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* ''Althusser: A Critical Reader'' (ed. Gregory Elliott).
*Backer, David I. (2019). ''The Gold and Dross: Althusser for Educators'' (Boston: Brill). ISBN 978-90-04-39468-1.
* [[Jason Barker|Barker, Jason]] and G. M. Goshgarian (eds.), "Other Althussers", Special issue of ''[[Diacritics (journal)|diacritics]]'' ('''43''' (2), 2015), {{ISSN|0300-7162}}.
* Callari, Antonio and David Ruccio (eds.) "Postmodern Materialism and the Future of Marxist Theory: Essays in Althusserian Tradition" (Wesleyan University Press, 1995).
* [[Giulio Angioni|Angioni, Giulio]], ''Rapporti di produzione e cultura subalterna'', Cagliari, EDeS, 1974.
* {{Cite journal | last = Assiter | first = Alison | author-link = Alison Assiter | title = Althusser and structuralism | journal = British Journal of Sociology | volume = 35 | issue = 2 | pages = 272–296 | publisher = London School of Economics | date = June 1984 | url = http://www.lse.ac.uk/BJS/pastVolumes/vol35/index284.aspx | doi = 10.2307/590235 | jstor = 590235 | access-date = 15 July 2013 | archive-date = 2 October 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181002060829/http://www.lse.ac.uk/BJS/pastVolumes/vol35/index284.aspx | url-status = dead | url-access = subscription }}
* {{cite book | last = Assiter | first = Alison | author-link= Alison Assiter | title = Althusser and feminism | url = https://archive.org/details/althusserfeminis0000assi | url-access = registration | publisher = Pluto Press | location = London Winchester, Mass | year = 1990 | isbn = 9780745302942 }}
* [[Alex Callinicos|Callinicos, Alex]], ''Althusser's Marxism'' (London: Pluto Press, 1976).
* de Ípola, Emilio. ''Althusser, el infinito adiós'' (2009)
* James, Susan, 'Louis Althusser' in Skinner, Q. (ed.) ''The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences''
* Henry, Chris, “The Ethics of Political Resistance: Althusser, Badiou, Deleuze” (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2019)
*[[Tony Judt|Judt, Tony]], "The Paris Strangler," in [[The New Republic]], Vol. 210, No. 10, March 7, 1994, pp. 33–7.
* Waters, Malcolm, ''Modern Sociological Theory'', 1994, page 116.
*Lewis, William, ''[[Louis Althusser and the Traditions of French Marxism]]''. Lexington books, 2005.
* McInerney, David (ed.), ''Althusser & Us'', special issue of ''borderlands e-journal'', October 2005.
* [[Warren Montag|Montag, Warren]], ''Louis Althusser'', Palgrave-Macmillan, 2003.
* {{cite book | last=Montag | first=Warren | title=Althusser and His Contemporaries: Philosophy's Perpetual War | publisher=[[Duke University Press]] | year=2013 | location=Durham, North Carolina | isbn=978-0-822-35400-0}}
* Resch, Robert Paul. Althusser and the Renewal of Marxist Social Theory. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. ([http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft3n39n8x3 link])
* Heartfield, James, ''The ‘Death of the Subject’ Explained'', Sheffield Hallam UP, 2002, {{cite web |author=James Heartfield|url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/en/heartfield-james.htm |title=Postmodernism and the 'Death of the Subject' by James Heartfield |publisher=Marxists.org |date=19 December 1980 |access-date=18 June 2011}}
* Lahtinen, Mikko, "Politics and Philosophy: Niccolò Machiavelli and Louis Althusser's Aleatory Materialism", Brill, 2009 (forthcoming in paperback via Haymarket, 2011).
* Tedman, Gary, ''[http://www.zero-books.net/books/aesthetics-alienation Aesthetics and Alienation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206180410/http://www.zero-books.net/books/aesthetics-alienation |date=6 December 2015 }}'' Zero Books 2012
* Thomas, Peter D., "The Gramscian Moment: Philosophy, Hegemony and Marxism", Brill, 2009 (forthcoming in paperback via Haymarket, 2011).

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/index.htm The Louis Althusser Internet Archive at Marxists.org]
* [http://www.generation-online.org/p/palthusser.htm Texts by or on Althusser at ''Generation-Online'']
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/althusser/ Louis Althusser (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081123060749/http://semimarx.free.fr/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=32 Texts on Althusser on the site of the Sorbonne Marx Seminar]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060125025950/http://multitudes.samizdat.net/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=383 Texts from Althusser & texts about him – in French] on ''Multitudes'' website.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100428223726/http://scholar.oxy.edu/decalages/ Décalages: An Althusser Studies Journal]
* [https://lareviewofbooks.org/feature/marginal-thinking-forum-louis-althusser/ Marginal Thinking: A Forum on Louis Althusser] at the ''Los Angeles Review of Books'' website.

{{Continental philosophy}}
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Nikolaus Federmann

2025-08-18T14:24:39Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D: Removed Category:People from the Spanish Empire as already in Category:German conquistadors

{{Short description|16th-century German conquistador in South America}}
{{For|the neighborhood in Bogotá, Colombia|Nicolás de Federmán (neighborhood)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Nikolaus Federmann
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Federman_nicolas2.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Portrait of Nikolaus Federmann
| birth_date = ~1505
| birth_place = [[Ulm]], [[Free Imperial City of Ulm]]
| death_date = February 1542 (aged ~37)
| death_place = [[Valladolid]], [[Spanish Empire|Spain]]
| death_cause =
| body_discovered =
| resting place =
| burial_coordinates =
| monuments =
| nationality = [[Swabians|Swabian]]
| other_names = Nicolás de Federmán
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = [[List of conquistadors in Colombia|Conquistador]]
| years_active = 1529->1539
| era =
| employer = [[Welser|Welser family]] of [[Augsburg]] [[Spanish Crown]]
| organization =
| known_for = Deputy leader of [[Klein Venedig]] Quest for ''[[El Dorado]]'' [[Spanish conquest of the Muisca]]
| notable_works = ''Indianische Historia. Ein schöne kurtzweilige Historia Niclaus Federmanns des Jüngern von Ulm erster raise'' (1557, ''[[post mortem]]'')
| style =
| title =
| term =
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| successor =
| opponents =
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| criminal_charge =
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| partner =
| children =
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| relatives =
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| signature =
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| footnotes =
}}
'''Nikolaus Federmann''' ({{langx|es|link=no|Nicolás Féderman}}, {{IPA|es|nikoˈlas ðe 'feðeɾman|pron}}) (c. 1505, [[Ulm]] – February 1542, [[Valladolid]]) was a German adventurer and [[conquistador]] in what is modern-day [[Venezuela]] and [[Colombia]]. He is a significant figure in the history of [[Klein-Venedig]] (1528–1546), the concession of [[Venezuela Province]] that [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I of Spain]] granted to the [[Welser]] banking family and the foundation of [[Bogotá|Santafe de Bogotá]].

== Life ==
Nikolaus Federmann was born in [[Ulm]] ([[Baden-Württemberg]]) around 1505. In 1529, he was sent to [[Santo Domingo]] by the [[Welser|Welser family]] of [[Augsburg]], who had signed an agreement to explore the territory of [[Venezuela]]. As an agent of the Welser family, Federmann took settlers and miners from [[Seville]] to [[Santa Ana de Coro|Coro]] in Venezuela in 1529 and 1530. Upon his arrival the governor [[Ambrosius Ehinger]] appointed him as his deputy. On 30 July 1530 Federmann became responsible for the colony of "Little Venice" (''Klein Venedig''). Governor Ehinger temporarily handed over authority to Federmann, because he had to go [[Hispaniola]] for health reasons.

Without the authorisation of the [[Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo]], Federmann undertook an expedition in September 1530 in the northern river basin of the [[Orinoco]], searching for the "South Sea" (the Pacific), with 110 foot soldiers, 16 mounted soldiers, and 100 [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|natives]]. However, he did not achieve his goal to open a new trade route to Asia. On 17 March 1531 he returned to Coro with 5,565 pesos of gold. Because of the unauthorized expedition, the governor Ehinger banished Federmann to Europe for a period of four years.

When he returned to Augsburg, he wrote ''Indianische Historia. Ein schöne kurtzweilige Historia Niclaus Federmanns des Jüngern von Ulm erster raise'' (published in 1557).

=== Expedition in La Guajira ===
Leaving from Coro in [[Paraguaná]], Federmann left for the present-day territory of [[La Guajira]], in northernmost Colombia. One of his goals was to secure the [[pearl]]s that can be found in the Caribbean waters at the coast, and one version of history has it that he founded [[Riohacha]] in 1535. However, Federmann did not secure [[Wayuu people|native]] divers to search for pearls, and his mission to found a city he wanted to call "Ulma", after his place of birth Ulm, failed. Federmann returned to Coro after reaching [[Cabo de la Vela]] in February 1536 without having founded a settlement on the Caribbean coast of La Guajira.<ref name=RiohachaWebsite>{{in lang|es}} [http://www.riohacha-laguajira.gov.co/MiMunicipio/Paginas/Pasado-Presente-y-Futuro.aspx Official website Riohacha – history, present and future]</ref>

=== Foundation of Bogotá ===
[[File:Conquest of Colombia.png|right|thumb|330px|Explored route of Federmann in Venezuela and eastern Colombia in pink, route back to Cartagena in green]]
From Coro, he traveled along the eastern edges of the [[Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)|Eastern Ranges]] of the Colombian [[Andes]], through the [[Llanos]] and, following the [[Muisca economy#Salt|salt trade route]], he encountered the eastern part of the [[Muisca Confederation]]. Their realm had already been largely conquered and occupied by [[Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada]], who considered the arrival of another conquistador unpleasant.<ref name=ConquistaGonzalo>{{in lang|es}} [http://letras-uruguay.espaciolatino.com/aaa/bolivar_grimaldos_rafael/conquista_rapida_y_saqueo.htm Conquista rápida y saqueo cuantioso de Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada]</ref> Together with [[Sebastián de Belalcázar]], Federmann re-founded the city of [[Bogotá]] on 27 April 1539. Jiménez de Quesada had failed to fulfill the official requirements of the Spanish Crown concerning the founding of a settlement when he attempted to establish a first Bogotá on 6 August 1538. The three leaders of the conquest expeditions; Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, [[Sebastián de Belalcázar]] and Federmann, met in [[Bosa, Bogotá|Bosa]] and agreed to travel back to Spain to ask for compensation for their exploration for the Spanish Crown. Gonzalo assigned his brother [[Hernán Pérez de Quesada]] as interim governor of the [[New Kingdom of Granada]] and chose the first mayor and council for the capital. The [[chaplain]] of the team of Federmann, Juan Verdejo, was named priest. Most of the soldiers of the expeditions of Federmann and De Belalcázar decided to stay in Bogotá, reinforcing the troops of De Quesada. Without having found ''[[El Dorado]]'', ten years after his arrival in the New World, in mid May 1539, Federmann returned to the Caribbean coast, to sail to Spain from [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]].<ref name=ConquistaGonzalo/> The work ''[[Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada]]'' reports they arrived in Spain in November 1539, when the Spanish King was crossing France to reach [[Flanders]].<ref name=Epitome_p96>''Epítome'', p. 96</ref>

=== Back in Europe ===
In Europe, Federmann was intercepted by the Welser family, who accused him of breaching his contract and suppressing funds. The Welser family demanded a remuneration of 100,000 ducats in emeralds and 15,000 ducats in gold. Since Federmann could not pay, he spent weeks in an [[Antwerp]] prison. Federmann tried to defend himself in court, first in [[Ghent]] and finally in [[Valladolid]] before the [[Council of the Indies]]. He filed counter-lawsuits, accusing the Welser family of evading taxes and acting against the interests of the Spanish king. On 19 October 1541 Federmann finally agreed to a settlement. The Welser family abandoned their financial revendications, and Federmann ceded the property rights of his lands in New Granada.

Accused by the Welser family of unfaithfulness, and suspected of being a [[Lutheran]] by the [[Inquisition]], Federmann died in February 1542 in prison in [[Valladolid]].

== Works ==
* "''Indianische Historia. Ein schöne kurtzweilige Historia Niclaus Federmanns des Jüngern von Ulm erster raise''" (about the first expedition), 1557 in [[Hagenau]]

== Miscellaneous ==
* As a homage to his figure a pedestrian statue of Nikolaus Federmann was unveiled in the Parque de los Cañones of [[Rio Hacha]] (Colombia), one of the few that has not been demolished or destroyed like that of other conquistadors of the New World
* There is a neighborhood in [[Bogotá]] named [[Nicolás de Federmán (neighborhood)|Nicolás de Federmán]], the Spanish rendering of his own name and as he was known by his fellow Spanish [[conquistador]]s.

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book |year=1979 |title=Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada |url=http://publicaciones.banrepcultural.org/index.php/boletin_cultural/article/view/3679/3806 |publisher=[[Bank of the Republic (Colombia)|Banco de la República]] |pages=81–97 |accessdate=2016-12-21}}, reprint of {{cite book |editor=Antonio B. Cuervo |title=Collectión de documentos inéditos sobre la geographía y la historia de Colombia |volume=II |pages=207–218 |location=Bogotá |year=1892}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.burks.de/forum/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?p=20130 Nikolaus Federmann: "Indianische Historia" online (In German)]
* [http://dispatch.opac.ddb.de/DB=4.1/REL?PPN=104274670 Literature from and about Nikolaus Federmann (In German)]{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Cite Appletons'|wstitle=Federmann, Nicholas|year=1900 |short=x |notaref=x}}

{{Muisca navbox|Conquest}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Federmann, Nikolaus}}

[[Category:1500s births]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:1542 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Ulm]]
[[Category:16th-century explorers from the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:German conquistadors]]

Olivier Gendebien

2025-08-18T13:53:27Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{short description|Belgian racing driver (1924–1998)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Olivier Gendebien
| image = Olivier Gendebien, 1960s.jpg
| caption = Gendebien {{circa|1961}}
| birth_name = Olivier Jean Marie Fernand Gendebien
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1924|1|12|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Brussels]], Belgium
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1998|10|2|1924|1|12|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Les Baux-de-Provence]], Bouches-du-Rhône, France
| module =
{{Infobox F1 driver|embed=yes
| nationality = {{flagicon|BEL}} [[Formula One drivers from Belgium|Belgian]]
| Years = {{F1|1955}}–{{F1|1956}}, {{F1|1958}}–{{F1|1961}}
| Team(s) = [[Écurie Nationale Belge|ENB]], [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]], [[British Racing Partnership|BRP]]
| Races = 18 (14 starts)
| Championships = 0
| Wins = 0
| Podiums = 2
| Points = 18
| Poles = 0
| Fastest laps = 0
| First race = [[1955 Belgian Grand Prix]]
| Last race = [[1961 United States Grand Prix]]
}}
| module2 =
{{infobox racing driver|embed=yes
| last series = [[World Sportscar Championship]] career
| years active = [[1953 World Sportscar Championship|1953]]–[[1962 World Sportscar Championship|1962]]
| teams = [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]], [[Panhard]], [[Écurie Francorchamps|Francorchamps]], [[Mercedes-Benz in motorsport|Mercedes]], [[Écurie Nationale Belge|ENB]], [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]], [[Ecurie Bonnier|Bonnier]], [[Porsche in motorsport|Porsche]], [[Scuderia Serenissima|Serenissima]], [[North American Racing Team|NART]]
| starts = 41

| wins = 11
| podiums = 23
| poles = 1{{efn|Until the mid-1960s, grid positions at the majority of World Sportscar Championship events were determined by [[engine capacity]].}}
| fastest laps = 4
}}
| module3 =
{{Infobox Le Mans driver|embed=yes
| Years = {{24hLM|1955}}–{{24hLM|1962}}
| Team(s) = [[Écurie Nationale Belge|ENB]], [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| Best Finish = 1st ({{24hLM|1958}}, {{24hLM|1960}}, {{24hLM|1961}}, {{24hLM|1962}})
| Class Wins = 4 ({{24hLM|1958}}, {{24hLM|1960}}, {{24hLM|1961}}, {{24hLM|1962}})
}}}}

'''Olivier Jean Marie Fernand Gendebien''' ({{IPA|fr|ɔlivje ʒɑ̃dəbjɛ̃}}; 12 January 1924 – 2 October 1998) was a Belgian [[racing driver]], who competed in [[Formula One]] from {{F1|1955}} to {{F1|1961}}. Widely regarded as one of the greatest drivers in the history of [[sportscar racing]],{{efn|Per several sources:<ref name=motorsport/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.24h-lemans.com/en/news/olivier-gendebien-the-amateur-four-time-le-mans-winner-58563|title=Olivier Gendebien, the "amateur" four-time Le Mans winner|date=3 May 2024|access-date=18 November 2024|first=|last=|website=[[24 Hours of Le Mans]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/articles/sports-cars/belgiums-greatest-racing-driver-olivier-gendebien/|title=Belgium's greatest racing driver? Olivier Gendebien and his remarkable career|date=15 September 2020|access-date=18 November 2024|first=Damien|last=Smith|magazine=Motor Sport Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://rossoautomobili.com/blogs/magazine/olivier-gendebien-ferrari-s-most-successful-le-mans-driver|title=Olivier Gendebien: Ferrari's Most Successful Le Mans Driver|date=|access-date=18 November 2024|first=Max|last=Lammers|magazine=ROSSOautomobili}}</ref>}} Gendebien was a [[List of 24 Hours of Le Mans winners|four-time winner]] of the [[24 Hours of Le Mans]] with [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]], a three-time winner of the [[12 Hours of Sebring]], and a three-time winner of the [[Targa Florio]].

Born and raised in [[Brussels]], Gendebien was initially a [[forester]] in the [[Belgian Congo]] before moving back to Europe in 1952, where he began his career in [[rallying]]. He won his first event driving an [[Alfa Romeo 1900|Alfa Romeo 1900 TI]] at the [[Tulip Rally]] in 1954. Gendebien added to his successes by winning the [[Liège–Rome–Liège|Liège–Rome–Liège Rally]], [[Dolomites Gold Cup Race]] and [[Rally Stella Alpina]] in 1955, driving a [[Mercedes-Benz 300 SL]]. Attracting the attention of [[Enzo Ferrari]], Gendebien signed for [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] in {{F1|1956}} to compete in Formula One and sportscars, making his debut in the former at the {{F1GP|1956|Argentine}}.{{efn|Gendebien had entered the [[1955 Belgian Grand Prix]] with [[Écurie Nationale Belge|ENB]], but did not attend.}}

Gendebien was appointed to the [[Order of the Crown of Belgium]] by [[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]] in 1998.

==Rally racer==
Gendebien spent some years in the Belgian Congo. On his return to Europe he teamed up with Fraikin to compete in the 1952 [[Liège–Rome–Liège]] Rally using a [[Jaguar Mk VII]] saloon car. Together with Pierre Stasse, Gendebien won the sixth running of the [[Tulip Rally]] in [[Zandvoort]] in April 1954. Their car was an [[Alfa Romeo 1900|Alfa Romeo 1900 TI]].<ref>{{cite news | title=Belgians Win Auto Race | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | date=1 May 1954 | page=20}}</ref><ref name="motorsportmemorial.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.motorsportmemorial.org/LWFWIW/focusLWFWIW.php?db=LWF&db2=&n=867|title=Olivier Gendebien|access-date=24 October 2009|work=motorsportmemorial.org}}</ref> The Gendebien and Fraiken partnership gained the nickname "the eternal bridesmaids", owing to their number of second-place finishes,<ref name=autocourse>{{cite web|title=Driver: Gendebien, Olivier |url=http://www.autocoursegpa.com/driver~driver_id~11763.htm |work=Autocourse Grand Prix Archive |access-date=18 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221185755/http://www.autocoursegpa.com/driver~driver_id~11763.htm |archive-date=21 December 2007 |url-status=usurped |df=dmy }}</ref> but after two previous attempts they triumphed in the [[Liège–Rome–Liège]] Rally, the Coppa d'Oro delle Dolomiti and [[Rally Stella Alpina]] in 1955, driving a [[Mercedes-Benz 300SL]]. In 1956 Olivier Gendebien and Pierre Stasse finished in third place driving a Ferrari 250 GT Europa (Nr 0373).

==Formula One driver==
Gendebien's success in rally competitions brought him to the attention of [[Enzo Ferrari]], who offered him a contract to drive a Ferrari in [[sports car racing|sports car events]] and selected [[Formula One|Grands Prix]]. Much respected as a true gentleman by everyone who knew him, he remained a member of the [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari team]] until he retired from racing. Enzo Ferrari summed him up as "''a gentleman who never forgets that [[noblesse oblige]] and, when he is at the wheel, he translates this code of behaviour into an elegant and discerning forcefulness''."<ref name=motorsport>Cooper, A. 1998. ''Obituary: Olivier Gendebien''. Motor Sport, '''LXXIV/11''' (November 1998), 4</ref>

During his career he competed in only 15 [[Formula One]] races as most of the time he was Ferrari's spare driver, filling in only occasionally. He nonetheless scored points in five races, and was only one place away from a points-scoring finish on a further two occasions.

He made his début at the [[1956 Argentine Grand Prix]], with the Ferrari team, but it was during a stint driving for the [[British Racing Partnership]]'s ''Yeoman Credit Racing'' team in {{F1|1960}} that Gendebien scored his best finishes; he took second in the [[1960 French Grand Prix]] and third in front of a home crowd at the [[1960 Belgian Grand Prix]].

The second of these was a somewhat bitter-sweet success, as Gendebien's team-mate at the time, [[Chris Bristow]], was killed in an accident during the race. Gendebien himself walked away with slight injuries in October 1961 after his [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Coventry Climax|Climax]] failed to negotiate a turn during practice for the [[1961 United States Grand Prix]] at [[Watkins Glen, New York]]. The car flipped over and Gendebien's shoes were torn off by the impact.<ref>{{cite news | title=Belgian Racing Ace Crashes | newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=7 October 1961 | page=A1 }}</ref>

==Sports car competition==
However, it was in [[sports car racing]], particularly the long distance and endurance events, where Gendebien excelled. Piloting a 2.5-litre Ferrari, Gendebien teamed up with [[Maurice Trintignant]] to place third in the [[1956 24 Hours of Le Mans]]. They were seven laps behind the winners, privateer [[Ecurie Ecosse]] [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]] drivers [[Ron Flockhart (racing driver)|Ron Flockhart]] and [[Ninian Sanderson]].<ref>{{cite news | title=Flockhart and Sanderson Take Le Mans Auto Endurance Race | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | date=30 July 1956 | page=26 }}</ref> The 1958 Grand Prix of [[Buenos Aires]] was a 1,000 kilometre event in which Gendebien paired with [[Wolfgang von Trips]]. They finished second to a fellow Ferrari pairing [[Phil Hill]] and [[Peter Collins (racing driver)|Peter Collins]]. In the race Argentine [[Maserati in motorsport|Maserati]] driver, Jorge Magnasco, died after his car skidded and turned over.<ref>{{cite news | title=Auto Race Driver Dies of Injuries | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | date=27 January 1958 | page=31 }}</ref>

The same year he partnered Hill and won the prestigious [[1958 24 Hours of Le Mans|24 Hours of Le Mans]]. Their victory came in a 3-litre Ferrari and secured the [[World Sportscar Championship]] for the Ferrari factory. They covered 2,511 miles with an average speed of 107 miles per hour. Hill became the first American to win the event and their Ferrari was the sole factory-sponsored car running at the end.<ref>{{cite news | title=Hill of California and Gendebien Triumph With Ferrari in Le Mans | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | date=23 June 1958 | page=30 }}</ref> Ferrari drivers took the first three positions at the conclusion of the [[1961 24 Hours of Le Mans]] and, as they were to be again the following year, Hill and Gendebien were first, averaging 115.89 miles per hour, and establishing a race record.<ref>{{cite news | title=First Three At Le Mans All Ferraris | newspaper=[[The Times]] | date=12 June 1961 | page=4}}</ref> The duo were a natural fit and together they won the Le Mans race three times in total, with Gendebien winning it a fourth time, partnered by fellow Belgian [[Paul Frère]] in {{24hLM|1960}}. Gendebien's record number of Le Mans victories was not exceeded until {{24hLM|1981}}, when fellow-Belgian [[Jacky Ickx]] won for the fifth time.

Away from [[Circuit de la Sarthe]], Gendebien also triumphed in the [[Targa Florio]] (1958, '61, '62), the [[12 Hours of Sebring]] (1959, '60, '61), the [[12 Hours of Reims]] (1957, '58) and the [[1000 km Nürburgring]] (1962).<ref name=motorsport/> When asked about the key to winning as a race car driver, Gendebien responded: "''It is a matter of taking the corners a little faster than one would want."''<ref>{{cite news | title=Life in a Sports Car | newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=2 October 1961 | page=C1 }}</ref> In honour of Gendebien's three wins at the 12 Hours of Sebring, turn 15 just before the final corner, onto the Ullman straight is named after him. He also won the [[Coppa d' Oro delle Dolomiti|Dolomites Cup]], a one-lap sportscar race that took place on a 188-mile circuit in the [[Dolomite Mountains]] in Italy.

===Major race victories===
* Tour of Sicily : 1957
* [[Tour de France Automobile]] : 1957, 1958, 1959
* [[Reims-Gueux|Reims]] 12 Hours : 1957, 1958
* [[Targa Florio]] : 1958, 1961, 1962
* [[12 Hours of Sebring]] : 1959, 1960, 1961
* [[24 hours of Le Mans]] : [[1958 24 Hours of Le Mans|1958]], [[1960 24 Hours of Le Mans|1960]], [[1961 24 Hours of Le Mans|1961]], [[1962 24 Hours of Le Mans|1962]]
* [[1000km Nürburgring]] : 1962

==Post race life==
Married with three children, Gendebien's wife pressured him to get out of the dangerous sport of automobile racing where more than two dozen of his competitors had died at the wheel. At 38 years of age, in 1962 Olivier Gendebien retired following his fourth victory at Le Mans. Independently wealthy, and an avid skier, tennis player, and equestrian rider, he devoted the rest of his life to running a variety of businesses. In 1998 [[Albert II of Belgium|King Albert II]] awarded him the Belgian [[Order of the Crown (Belgium)|Order of the Crown]].

Olivier Gendebien died in 1998 at his home in [[Les Baux-de-Provence]] in southern France.<ref>{{cite web |title=Olivier Gendebien |url=https://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns01757.html |website=grandprix.com |access-date=4 July 2019 |date=5 October 1998}}</ref>

==Racing record==

===Complete Formula One World Championship results===
([[:Template:F1 driver results legend 2|key]])
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
! Year
! Entrant
! Chassis
! Engine
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
! 10
! 11
! WDC
! Pts.
|-
| {{F1|1955}}
! [[Equipe Nationale Belge]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Ferrari 625 F1|625]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Straight-4]]
| [[1955 Argentine Grand Prix|ARG]]
| [[1955 Monaco Grand Prix|MON]]
| [[1955 Indianapolis 500|500]]
|style="background:#FFFFFF;"| [[1955 Belgian Grand Prix|BEL]] DNA
| [[1955 Dutch Grand Prix|NED]]
| [[1955 British Grand Prix|GBR]]
| [[1955 Italian Grand Prix|ITA]]
|
|
|
|
! NC
! 0
|-
|rowspan="2"| {{F1|1956}}
!rowspan="2"| [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Ferrari 555|555]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[straight-4|L4]]
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| [[1956 Argentine Grand Prix|ARG]] {{small|5}}
| [[1956 Monaco Grand Prix|MON]]
| [[1956 Indianapolis 500|500]]
| [[1956 Belgian Grand Prix|BEL]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
!rowspan="2"| 23rd
!rowspan="2"| 2
|-
! [[Lancia in Formula One|Lancia]]-[[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Lancia-Ferrari D50|D50]]
! [[Lancia in Formula One|Lancia]] [[V8 engine|V8]]
|
|
|
|
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| [[1956 French Grand Prix|FRA]] {{small|Ret}}
| [[1956 British Grand Prix|GBR]] DNA
| [[1956 German Grand Prix|GER]]
| [[1956 Italian Grand Prix|ITA]]
|
|
|
|-
| {{F1|1958}}
! [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Ferrari Dino 246|Dino 246]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[V6]]
| [[1958 Argentine Grand Prix|ARG]]
| [[1958 Monaco Grand Prix|MON]]
| [[1958 Dutch Grand Prix|NED]]
| [[1958 Indianapolis 500|500]]
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| [[1958 Belgian Grand Prix|BEL]] {{small|6}}
| [[1958 French Grand Prix|FRA]]
| [[1958 British Grand Prix|GBR]]
| [[1958 German Grand Prix|GER]]
| [[1958 Portuguese Grand Prix|POR]]
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| [[1958 Italian Grand Prix|ITA]] {{small|Ret}}
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| [[1958 Moroccan Grand Prix|MOR]] {{small|Ret}}
! NC
! 0
|-
| {{F1|1959}}
! [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Ferrari Dino 246|Dino 246]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[V6]]
| [[1959 Monaco Grand Prix|MON]]
| [[1959 Indianapolis 500|500]]
| [[1959 Dutch Grand Prix|NED]]
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| [[1959 French Grand Prix|FRA]] {{small|4}}
| [[1959 British Grand Prix|GBR]]
| [[1959 German Grand Prix|GER]]
| [[1959 Portuguese Grand Prix|POR]]
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| [[1959 Italian Grand Prix|ITA]] {{small|6}}
| [[1959 United States Grand Prix|USA]]
|
|
!15th
! 3
|-
|rowspan=2| {{F1|1960}}
! [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Ferrari Dino 246|Dino 246]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[V6]]
|style="background:#FFFFFF;"| [[1960 Argentine Grand Prix|ARG]] DNA
| [[1960 Monaco Grand Prix|MON]]
| [[1960 Indianapolis 500|500]]
| [[1960 Dutch Grand Prix|NED]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
!rowspan=2| 6th
!rowspan=2| 10
|-
! [[Yeoman Credit Racing|Yeoman Credit Racing Team]]
! [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper]] [[Cooper T51|T51]]
! [[Coventry Climax|Climax]] [[Straight-4|L4]]
|
|
|
|
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| [[1960 Belgian Grand Prix|BEL]] {{small|3}}
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| [[1960 French Grand Prix|FRA]] {{small|2}}
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| [[1960 British Grand Prix|GBR]] {{small|9}}
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| [[1960 Portuguese Grand Prix|POR]] {{small|7}}
| [[1960 Italian Grand Prix|ITA]]
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| [[1960 United States Grand Prix|USA]] {{small|12}}
|
|-
|rowspan="3"| {{F1|1961}}
! [[Equipe Nationale Belge]]
! [[Emeryson]] [[Emeryson Mk2|Mk2]]
! [[Maserati in motorsport|Maserati]] [[straight-4|L4]]
|style="background:#FFCFCF;"| [[1961 Monaco Grand Prix|MON]] {{small|DNQ}}
| [[1961 Dutch Grand Prix|NED]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
!rowspan="3"| 14th
!rowspan="3"| 3
|-
! [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Ferrari 156|156]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[V6]]
|
|
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| [[1961 Belgian Grand Prix|BEL]] {{small|4}}
| [[1961 French Grand Prix|FRA]]
| [[1961 British Grand Prix|GBR]]
| [[1961 German Grand Prix|GER]]
| [[1961 Italian Grand Prix|ITA]]
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[British Racing Partnership|UDT-Laystall Racing Team]]
! [[Team Lotus|Lotus]] [[Lotus 18|18/21]]
! [[Coventry Climax|Climax]] [[straight-4|L4]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| [[1961 United States Grand Prix|USA]] {{small|11}}
|
|
|
|-
!colspan="17"|{{center|{{small|Sources:<ref name=MSportStats>{{cite web|title=Olivier Gendebien Results|url=https://motorsportstats.com/driver/olivier-gendebien/results|publisher=Motorsport Stats|access-date=27 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Small|first=Steve|title=Grand Prix Who's Who|chapter=Olivier Gendebien|url=https://archive.org/details/grandprixwhoswho0000smal|year=2000|edition=Third|publisher=Travel Publishing|location=Reading, Berkshire|pages=223–224|access-date=27 May 2025|isbn=978-1-902007-46-5|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>}}}}
|}

===Non-championship results===
([[:Template:F1 driver results legend 3|key]]) (Races in '''bold''' indicate pole position)
(Races in ''italics'' indicate fastest lap)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
! Year
! Entrant
! Chassis
! Engine
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
! 10
! 11
! 12
! 13
! 14
! 15
! 16
! 17
! 18
! 19
! 20
! 21
|-
| 1956
! [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] [[Ferrari 555|555]]
! [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| [[1956 Buenos Aires Grand Prix|BUE]] {{small|6}}
| [[1956 Glover Trophy|GLV]]
| [[1956 Syracuse Grand Prix|SYR]]
| [[1956 BARC Aintree 200|AIN]]
| [[1956 BRDC International Trophy|INT]]
| [[1956 Naples Grand Prix|NAP]]
| [[1956 Aintree 100|100]]
| [[1956 Vanwall Trophy|VNW]]
| [[1956 Caen Grand Prix|CAE]]
| [[1956 Sussex Trophy|SUS]]
| [[1956 BRSCC Formula 1 Race|BRH]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 1957
! [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
! [[Lancia in Formula One|Lancia]] [[Lancia D50|D50]]
! [[Lancia in Formula One|Lancia]] [[V8 engine|V8]]
| [[1957 Buenos Aires Grand Prix|BUE]]
| [[1957 Syracuse Grand Prix|SYR]]
| [[1957 Pau Grand Prix|PAU]]
| [[1957 Glover Trophy|GLV]]
| [[1957 Naples Grand Prix|NAP]]
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| [[1957 Reims Grand Prix|RMS]] {{small|Ret}}
| [[1957 Caen Grand Prix|CAE]]
| [[1957 BRDC International Trophy|INT]]
| [[1957 Modena Grand Prix|MOD]]
| [[1957 Moroccan Grand Prix|MOR]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 1961
! [[Equipe Nationale Belge]]
! [[Emeryson]] [[Emeryson Mk2|Mk2]]
! [[Maserati in motorsport|Maserati]] [[straight-4|L4]]
| [[1961 Lombank Trophy|LOM]]
| [[1961 Glover Trophy|GLV]]
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| [[1961 Pau Grand Prix|PAU]] {{small|Ret}}
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| [[1961 Brussels Grand Prix|BRX]] {{small|Ret}}
| [[1961 Vienna Grand Prix|VIE]]
| [[1961 Aintree 200|AIN]]
| [[1961 Syracuse Grand Prix|SYR]]
| [[1961 Naples Grand Prix|NAP]]
| [[1961 London Trophy|LON]]
| [[1961 Silver City Trophy|SIL]]
| [[1961 Solitude Grand Prix|SOL]] DNA
| [[1961 Kanonloppet|KAN]]
| [[1961 Danish Grand Prix|DAN]]
| [[1961 Modena Grand Prix|MOD]]
| [[1961 Flugplatzrennen|FLG]]
| [[1961 International Gold Cup|OUL]]
| [[1961 Lewis-Evans Trophy|LEW]]
| [[1961 Coppa Italia|VAL]]
| [[1961 Rand Grand Prix|RAN]]
| [[1961 Natal Grand Prix|NAT]]
| [[1961 South African Grand Prix|RSA]]
|-
!colspan="25"|{{center|{{small|Source:<ref>{{cite web|title=Olivier Gendebien – Involvement Non World Championship|url=https://www.statsf1.com/en/olivier-gendebien/engagementhc.aspx|publisher=StatsF1|access-date=27 May 2025}}</ref>}}}}
|}

===Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
|-
! Year
! Team
! Co-Driver
! Car
! Class
! Laps
! {{Tooltip|Pos.|Overall Position}}
! {{Tooltip|Class Pos.|Class Position}}
|-
! [[1955 24 Hours of Le Mans|1955]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|BEL}} [[Ecurie Nationale Belge|Ecurie Belge]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|DEU}} [[Wolfgang Seidel]]
|align="left"| [[Porsche 550]] RS Spyder
| S 1.5
| 276
| 5th
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2nd'''
|-
! {{24hLM|1956}}
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Maurice Trintignant]]
|align="left"| [[Ferrari 625 LM]]
| S 3.0
| 374
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3rd'''
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2nd'''
|-
! {{24hLM|1957}}
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Maurice Trintignant]]
|align="left"| [[Ferrari 250 TR]]
| S 5.0
| 109
|colspan=2|DNF (Piston)
|-
! {{24hLM|1958}}
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Phil Hill]]
|align="left"| [[Ferrari TR|Ferrari 250 TR/58]]
| S 3.0
| 305
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1st'''
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1st'''
|-
! {{24hLM|1959}}
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Phil Hill]]
|align="left"| [[Ferrari TR|Ferrari 250 TR/59]]
| S 3.0
| 263
|colspan=2|DNF (Overheating)
|-
! {{24hLM|1960}}
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|BEL}} [[Paul Frère]]
|align="left"| [[Ferrari TR|Ferrari 250 TR/59/60]]
| S 3.0
| 314
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1st'''
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1st'''
|-
! {{24hLM|1961}}
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari|SEFAC Ferrari]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Phil Hill]]
|align="left"| [[Ferrari TR|Ferrari 250 TRI/61]]
| S 3.0
| 333
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1st'''
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1st'''
|-
! {{24hLM|1962}}
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari|SEFAC Ferrari]]
|align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Phil Hill]]
|align="left"| [[Ferrari 330 TRI/LM]]
| E +3.0
| 331
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1st'''
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1st'''
|-
!colspan="8"|{{center|{{small|Sources:<ref>{{cite web|title=Olivier Gendebien (B)|url=https://www.24h-en-piste.com/en/AfficherPilote.php?Pilote=1080|work=24h-en-piste.com|access-date=27 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Olivier Gendebien|url=https://www.24h-lemans.com/en/track-record/driver/olivier-gendebien-5974|publisher=[[Automobile Club de l'Ouest]]|access-date=27 May 2025}}</ref>}}}}
|}

===Complete 12 Hours of Sebring results===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
|-
! Year
! Team
! Co-Drivers
! Car
! Class
! Laps
! {{Tooltip|Pos.|Overall Position}}
! {{Tooltip|Class Pos.|Class Position}}
|-
! [[1957 12 Hours of Sebring|1957]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Maurice Trintignant]]
|align=left| [[Ferrari TR|Ferrari 250 TR]]
|S5.0
|109
|colspan=2|DNF (Piston)
|-
! [[1958 12 Hours of Sebring|1958]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luigi Musso]]
|align=left| [[Ferrari TR|Ferrari 250 TR 58]]
|S3.0
|199
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''2nd'''
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''2nd'''
|-
! [[1959 12 Hours of Sebring|1959]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Dan Gurney]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Phil Hill]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Chuck Daigh]] 
|align=left| [[Ferrari TR|Ferrari 250 TR 59]]
|S3.0
|188
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1st'''
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1st'''
|-
! [[1960 12 Hours of Sebring|1960]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Joakim Bonnier]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|West Germany}} [[Hans Herrmann]]
|align=left| [[Porsche 718|Porsche 718 RS60]]
|S1.6
|196
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1st'''
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1st'''
|-
! [[1961 12 Hours of Sebring|1961]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Scuderia Ferrari|Sefac Automobile Ferrari]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Phil Hill]]
|align=left| [[Ferrari TR|Ferrari 250 TRI/61]]
|S3.0
|210
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1st'''
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1st'''
|-
! [[1962 12 Hours of Sebring|1962]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|USA}} [[North American Racing Team]]
|align=left| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Phil Hill]]
|align=left| [[Ferrari 250 GTO]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.roadandtrack.com/motorsports/news/a18029/ferrari-gto-history/ |title=Phil Hill on the Iconic Ferrari 250 GTO|last=Hill|first=Phil|date=2017-04-20|website=Road & Track|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref>
|GT3.0
|196
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| '''2nd'''
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| '''1st'''
|-
!colspan="8"|{{center|{{small|Source:<ref name=RSCResults>{{cite web|title=Complete Archive of Olivier Gendebien|url=https://www.racingsportscars.com/driver/archive/Olivier-Gendebien-B.html|work=Racing Sports Cars|page=[https://www.racingsportscars.com/driver/archive/Olivier-Gendebien-B.html?page=2 2], [https://www.racingsportscars.com/driver/archive/Olivier-Gendebien-B.html?page=3 3]|access-date=27 May 2025}}</ref>}}}}
|}

===Complete 24 Hours of Daytona results===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
|-
! Year
! Team
! Co-Drivers
! Car
! Class
! Laps
! {{Tooltip|Pos.|Overall Position}}
! {{Tooltip|Class Pos.|Class Position}}
|-
! [[1962 3 Hours of Daytona|1962]]
|align=left| {{Flagicon|ITA}} Scuderia Serenissima
|align=left|
|align=left| [[Ferrari 250 GT SWB]]
|GT3.0
|75
| 16th
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| '''3rd'''
|-
!colspan="8"|{{center|{{small|Source:<ref name=RSCResults/>}}}}
|}

===Complete 24 Hours of Spa results===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
|-
! Year
! Team
! Co-Drivers
! Car
! Class
! Laps
! {{Tooltip|Pos.|Overall Position}}
! {{Tooltip|Class Pos.|Class Position}}
|-
! 1953
|align="left"|
|align="left"| {{flagicon|BEL}} Roland du Roy de Blicky
|align="left"| [[Panhard#Models|Panhard Dyna]]
| T
|
| DNF
| DNF
|-
!colspan="8"|{{center|{{small|Source:<ref name=RSCResults/>}}}}
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071107122548/http://thespeedblog.com/racers-past-olivier-gendebien-1924-1998/ Biographical article on The Speed Blog]

{{S-start}}
{{S-sports}}
{{Succession box|title=[[List of 24 Hours of Le Mans winners|Winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans]] |before= [[Ron Flockhart (racing driver)|Ron Flockhart]] [[Ivor Bueb]]|after= [[Carroll Shelby]] [[Roy Salvadori]]|years= [[1958 24 Hours of Le Mans|1958]]|with=[[Phil Hill]]}}
{{Succession box|title=[[List of 24 Hours of Le Mans winners|Winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans]] |before= [[Carroll Shelby]] [[Roy Salvadori]]|after= [[Ludovico Scarfiotti]] [[Lorenzo Bandini]]|years= [[1960 24 Hours of Le Mans|1960]]-[[1962 24 Hours of Le Mans|1962]] |with=[[Paul Frère]] (1960) & [[Phil Hill]] (1961-62)}}
{{S-end}}

{{24 Hours of Le Mans winners}}
{{12 Hours of Sebring winners}}
{{Formula One drivers from Belgium}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gendebien, Olivier}}
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:Belgian people of the Belgian Congo]]
[[Category:Belgian racing drivers]]
[[Category:Belgian Formula One drivers]]
[[Category:Ecurie Nationale Belge Formula One drivers]]
[[Category:Ferrari Formula One drivers]]
[[Category:British Racing Partnership Formula One drivers]]
[[Category:Reg Parnell Racing Formula One drivers]]
[[Category:24 Hours of Le Mans drivers]]

[[Category:24 Hours of Le Mans winning drivers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)]]
[[Category:World Sportscar Championship drivers]]
[[Category:Racing drivers from Brussels]]
[[Category:24 Hours of Spa drivers]]
[[Category:12 Hours of Sebring drivers]]
[[Category:12 Hours of Reims drivers]]

Boris Vilkitsky

2025-08-18T13:42:00Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{Short description|Russian polar explorer (1885–1961)}}
{{for|islands and other geographic features called "Vilkitsky"|Vilkitsky (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Boris Andreyevich Vilkitsky.jpg|thumb|Boris Andreyevich Vilkitsky]]
'''Boris Andreyevich Vilkitsky''' ({{langx|ru|Бори́с Андре́евич Вильки́цкий}}) (22 March (3 April [[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar#Adoption in Eastern Europe|N.S.]]) 1885, Pulkovo – 6 March 1961) was a Russian [[hydrographer]] and [[Surveyor (surveying)|surveyor]]. He was the son of [[Andrey Ippolitovich Vilkitsky]].

==Career==
{{see also|Arctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition|Severnaya Zemlya}}
Born in Pulkovo, [[Tsarskoselsky Uyezd]] (now part of [[Saint Petersburg]]), Vilkitsky graduated from the [[N.G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy|Naval Academy]] in [[Saint Petersburg]] in 1908. He participated in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] of 1904–1905. In 1913—1915 he led the [[Arctic]] hydrographic expedition on the ships [[Icebreaker Taymyr|''"Taimyr"'']] and [[Icebreaker Vaygach|''"Vaigach"'']] with the purpose of further exploration of the [[Northern Sea Route]].

In 1913, Vilkitsky's expedition discovered [[Emperor Nicholas II Land]] ({{langx|ru|Земля Императора Николая II}}, ''Zemlya Imperatora Nikolaya II'') —later renamed 'Severnaya Zemlya', perhaps one of the most important Russian discoveries in the Arctic at the time.<ref>[http://epic.awi.de/Publications/Polarforsch1975_1_6.pdf The Arctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition 1910–1915] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101016154350/http://epic.awi.de/Publications/Polarforsch1975_1_6.pdf |date=16 October 2010 }}</ref> Other discoveries were an island that now bears his name ([[Vilkitsky_Island_(East_Siberian_Sea)|Vilkitsky Island]]), as well as the islands of [[Maly Taymyr]] and neighboring [[Starokadomsky Island|Starokadomsky]]. In 1914–1915, Vilkitsky's expedition made the first through voyage from [[Vladivostok]] to [[Arkhangelsk]], discovered Novopashenniy Island (now [[Zhokhov Island]]), and described the eastern coastline of the territory he named 'Emperor Nicholas II Land'. He was awarded the prestigious [[Constantine Medal]] by the [[Russian Geographical Society]] for his endeavours. <ref> {{cite book| title= The Conquest of the Russian Arctic|first=Paul|last = Josephson|page= 30}} </ref>

In 1918, Vilkitsky was appointed head of the first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] hydrographic expedition, which never took place due to its seizure by the [[North Russia intervention]] in Arkhangelsk. In 1920, Vilkitsky [[emigrate]]d to [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. In 1923 and 1924, Vilkitsky led [[commerce|commercial]] expeditions in the [[Kara Sea]] at the invitation of the Soviet foreign trade organizations.

Later in his life, Vilkitsky was employed as a hydrographer in the [[Belgian Congo]].
Boris Vilkitsky died in [[Brussels]] in 1961.
{|
|- valign="top"
|[[File:1913-map-arctic.png|thumbnail|330px|1913 [[Russian Hydrographic Service]] map showing the route of Vilkitsky's expedition.]]
|[[File:Emperor Nicholas II Land Russian Empire Map.jpg|thumb|340px|[[Emperor Nicholas II Land]] and [[Tsarevich Alexei Island]], the still incompletely charted new territories named by Boris Vilkitsky, in a 1915 map of the Russian Empire.]]
|}

==Memory==
[[File:Stamps of Russia 2013 No 1732-1734 Severnaya Zemlya.jpg|thumb|450px|Russian 2013 stamp dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the discovery of [[Severnaya Zemlya]]]]
Many geographical features in Russia bear Vilkitsky's name:
* The most well-known one is '''[[Vilkitsky Strait]]''', the [[Vilkitsky Strait|strait]] between Severnaya Zemlya and [[Taimyr Peninsula]], an important landmark of the [[Northern Sea Route]].
* '''Zaliv Vil'kitskogo''', a bay in the NW shores of [[Novaya Zemlya]].
* [[Vilkitsky Island (Kara Sea)|Vilkitsky Island]] in the [[Kara Sea]].
* The '''Vilkitsky Islands''', a division of the [[Nordenskjold Archipelago]].
* The '''Vilkitsky Islands''' subgroup of the [[Komsomolskaya Pravda Islands]] in the [[Laptev Sea]] off the eastern shores of the [[Taymyr Peninsula]].
* [[Vilkitsky Island (East Siberian Sea)|Vilkitsky Island]] in the De Long Group in the [[Eastern Siberian Sea]].<ref>[http://worldmaps.web.infoseek.co.jp/russia_guide.htm Map Trot, Russia]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Russian Hydrographic Service]]
==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{Commons category|Boris Vilkitsky}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131112172005/http://poseidonexpeditions.com/encyclopedia/the-arctic/personalities/boris-vilkitsky/ The Arctic Personalities] at [http://poseidonexpeditions.com poseidonexpeditions.com]

{{Polar exploration|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vilkitsky, Boris}}
[[Category:1885 births]]
[[Category:1961 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:Engineers from Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:People from Tsarskoselsky Uyezd]]
[[Category:Russian people of Belarusian descent]]
[[Category:20th-century Russian explorers]]
[[Category:Polar explorers from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Hydrographers from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Russian hydrographers]]
[[Category:Russian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:White movement people]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Arctic]]
[[Category:Explorers of Siberia]]
[[Category:Severnaya Zemlya]]
[[Category:Expatriates in the Belgian Congo]]

Queen's Own Rifles of Canada

2025-08-18T11:41:04Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{Expand French|topic=mil|date=June 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada
| image = QOR badge.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| caption = [[Heraldic badge|Badge]] of the regiment
| dates = 26 April 1860 – present
| country = {{plainlist|
* [[Province of Canada]] (1860–1867)
* Canada (1867–present)
}}
| branch = [[Canadian Army]]
| type = [[Rifle regiment]]
| role = Light infantry
Parachute infantry
| size = One battalion
| command_structure = [[32 Canadian Brigade Group]]
| current_commander = Lieutenant-Colonel Christopher Boileau, CD
| garrison = [[Moss Park Armoury]], Toronto (HQ)/[[Scarborough, Toronto|Scarborough]]
| ceremonial_chief = [[Queen Camilla|The Queen]]
| ceremonial_chief_label = Colonel-in-Chief
| colonel_of_the_regiment =
| nickname =
| motto = {{langnf|la|In pace paratus|in peace prepared}}
| colours = None (rifle regiments have no colours)
| march = {{plainlist|
* Quick: "The Buffs" and "[[The Maple Leaf Forever]]"
* Double Past: "[[Money Musk#Music|Money Musk]]"
}}
| mascot =
| battle_honours = See {{Section link|#Battle honours}}
| website = {{official URL}}
| notable_commanders =
| anniversaries = 150th Anniversary on 26 April 2010
| battles = {{plainlist|
* [[Fenian Raids]]
* [[North-West Rebellion]]
* [[Second Boer War]]
* [[First World War]]
* [[Second World War]]
* [[Canada in the War in Afghanistan|War in Afghanistan]]
}}
| identification_symbol = QOR of C
| identification_symbol_label = Abbreviation
}}
The '''Queen's Own Rifles of Canada''' is a [[Primary Reserve]] regiment of the [[Canadian Armed Forces]], based in [[Toronto]]. The regiment is part of [[4th Canadian Division]]'s [[32 Canadian Brigade Group]]. It is the only reserve regiment in Canada to currently have a parachute role. The regiment consists of the reserve [[battalion]], the Regimental Association,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.qor.com/association/association.html |title=The Rifleman Online - the QOR of C |access-date=3 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120802031259/http://www.qor.com/association/association.html |archive-date=2 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the Regimental Band and Bugles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qor.com/orbat/band.html|title=The Regimental Band and Bugles|access-date=5 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730023615/http://www.qor.com/orbat/band.html|archive-date=30 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The official abbreviation is '''The QOR of C''', but the name is often abbreviated to '''QOR'''.

The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada parade out of [[Moss Park Armoury]] in downtown [[Toronto]]. The unit motto is {{lang|la|in pace paratus}}: in peace prepared.

== Regimental structure ==
The Reserve battalion is made up of the following companies:
* Battalion Headquarters & Signals Company
* 60th Company ([[Moss Park Armoury]])
* Buffs Company ([[Moss Park Armoury]])
* Parachute Company (airborne infantry)
* Victoria Company (combat support and combat service support)
* Normandy Company (training depot and battle school staff)
* [[Queen's Own Rifles of Canada Band & Bugles|Regimental Band & Bugles]]
* Ghurka Company (training and recruitment company)

==Lineage==
*April 26, 1860 – ''Second Battalion Volunteer Militia Rifles of Canada''
*March 18, 1863 – ''Second Battalion Volunteer Militia Rifles of Canada or Queen's Own Rifles of Toronto''
*January 13, 1882 – ''2nd Battalion, Queen's Own Rifles of Canada''
*May 8, 1900 – ''2nd Regiment Queen's Own Rifles of Canada''
*May 1, 1920 – ''The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada''
*November 7, 1941 – ''2nd (Reserve) Battalion, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada''
*May 14, 1946 – ''The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada''<ref name="autogenerated1">Canadian Forces Publication A-DH-267-003 Insignia and Lineages of the Canadian Forces. Volume 3: Combat Arms Regiments.</ref>

On October 16, 1953, it was amalgamated with the Regular Army ''1st Canadian Rifle Battalion'' and ''2nd Canadian Rifle Battalion.'' The 1st Canadian Rifle Battalion and 2nd Canadian Rifle Battalion became the 1st and 2nd Battalions, respectively, of The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, while the Reserve component was designated as the 3rd Battalion. On September 15, 1968, the 2nd Battalion was reduced to nil strength and transferred to the Supplementary Order of Battle. On April 27, 1970, the 1st Battalion was reduced to nil strength and transferred to the Supplementary Order of Battle, with most of the unit's personnel and equipment transferred to the newly formed 3rd Battalion, [[Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry]] (PPCLI), and the Reserve Force battalion automatically became the new home station of the regiment.<ref name="autogenerated1" />

=== Lineage chart ===
{{chart top|Lineage chart of The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-09-20|title=The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/military-history/history-heritage/official-military-history-lineages/lineages/infantry-regiments/queens-own-rifles.html|access-date=2025-07-03|website=www.canada.ca}}</ref>}}
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart|aa855|VMRB |aa855=1855|border_aa855=0|VMRB=Volunteer Militia Rifle {{abbr|Coy|Company}} of Barrie}}
{{tree chart|aa856| |!| | |1VMRT| |3VRT | |THVRC| |VFAT |aa856=1856|border_aa856=0|1VMRT=1st Volunteer Militia Rifle Coy of Toronto|3VRT=3d Volunteer Rifle Coy of Toronto|THVRC=The Toronto Highland Volunteer Rifle Coy|VFAT=The Volunteer Foot {{abbr|Arty|Artillery}} Coy of Toronto}}
{{tree chart| | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| }}
{{tree chart|aa860| |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |Cvdfc|aa860=1860|border_aa860=0|Cvdfc=Converted to rifle {{abbr|coy|company}}|border_Cvdfc=0}}
{{tree chart|aa858| |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |VHRW |aa858=1858|border_aa858=0|VHRW=The Volunteer Highland Rifle Coy of Whitby}}
{{tree chart|aa860| |`|-|-|2VMRC|-|-|^|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|'| |aa860=1860|border_aa860=0|2VMRC=Second {{abbr|Bn|Battalion}} Volunteer Militia Rifles of Canada}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart|aa863| | | | |2VMRC|aa863=1863|border_aa863=0|2VMRC='Second Bn Volunteer Militia Rifles of Canada' or 'Queen's Own Rifles of Toronto'}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart|aa866| | | | |Acvvc|aa866=1866|border_aa866=0|Acvvc=Active service{{efn|March, June}}|border_Acvvc=0}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart|aa882| | | | |2QORC|aa882=1882|border_aa882=0|2QORC=2nd Bn, "Queen's Own Rifles of Canada"}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart|aa885| | | | |Acvvc|aa885=1885|border_aa885=0|Acvvc=Active service{{efn|Detachments, April–July}}|border_Acvvc=0}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | |!| }}
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{{tree chart|aa917| |!| |!| | | |!|A5RB | |A12RB| | |!| | |255OB|aa917=1917|border_aa917=0|A5RB=Absorbed by 5th Reserve Bn|border_A5RB=0|boxstyle_A5RB=vertical-align: top|A12RB=Absorbed by 12th Reserve Bn|border_A12RB=0|boxstyle_A12RB=vertical-align: top|255OB=255th "Overseas" Bn, CEF}}
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{{tree chart|aa920|1QORC|'|2QORC|'|3QORC| | | | | |4QORC|aa920=1920|border_aa920=0|1QORC=1st Bn (83rd Bn, CEF), The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|2QORC=2nd Bn (95th Bn, CEF), The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|3QORC=3rd Bn (166th Bn, CEF),{{efn|name=chart note 2|Reserve}} The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|4QORC=4th Bn (255th Bn, CEF),{{efn|name=chart note 2}} The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada}}
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{{tree chart|aa926| |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |4QORC| |5QORC|aa926=1926|border_aa926=0|4QORC=4th Bn (198th Bn, CEF),{{efn|name=chart note 2}} The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|5QORC=5th Bn (255th Bn, CEF), The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada}}
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{{tree chart|aa926|1QORC| |2QORC| |3QORC| |4QORC| |5QORC| |6QORC|aa926=1926|border_aa926=0|1QORC=1st Bn (3rd Bn, CEF), The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|2QORC=2nd Bn (83rd Bn, CEF), The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|3QORC=3rd Bn (95th Bn, CEF), The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|4QORC=4th Bn (166th Bn, CEF), The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|5QORC=5th Bn (198th Bn, CEF), The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|6QORC=6th Bn (255th Bn, CEF),{{efn|name=chart note 2}} The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada}}
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{{tree chart|aa936| |`|-|-|QORC | |Dbndd| |Dbndd| |Dbndd| |Dbndd|aa936=1936|border_aa936=0|QORC=The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|Dbndd=Disbanded|border_Dbndd=0|boxstyle_Dbndd=vertical-align: top}}
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{{tree chart|aa941|1QORC| |2QORC|aa941=1941|border_aa941=0|1QORC=1st Bn, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, CASF|2QORC=2nd (Reserve) Bn, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada}}
{{tree chart|aa942| |!| | | |!| | |3QORC|aa942=1942|border_aa942=0|3QORC=3rd Bn, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, CASF}}
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==Role==
The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada are the only [[Primary Reserve]] unit in Canada with a parachute tasking.<ref>[http://www.qor.com/history/airborne.html The Airborne Role] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517105835/http://www.qor.com/history/airborne.html |date=May 17, 2011 }} ''Retrieved March 14, 2011''</ref> The unit has qualified Parachute Instructors, Drop Zone/Landing Zone Controllers and [[Jumpmasters]]. Members also take courses in helicopter operations, aerial delivery, and as Recce and Advanced Mountain Operations Instructors. Members of The QOR have also been sent on the Patrol [[Pathfinders (military)|Pathfinder Course]]. Qualified personnel in jump positions are allowed the honour of wearing the [[maroon beret]]. Trained soldiers are addressed as [[Riflemen]].

The Queen's Own Rifles have a long-standing support role with the [[Canadian Army Advanced Warfare Centre]], where QOR parachute instructors and other personnel on staff instruct on and support parachuting courses. The unit currently supplies a company(-) of paratroopers to the [[Royal Canadian Regiment|3 RCR]] parachute company when required.

The battalion deploys by parachute on numerous Field Training Exercises during the year and during divisional exercises during the summer.

The Canadian Forces [[SkyHawks Parachute Team|SkyHawks Parachute Demonstration Team]] has also had support from The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, with several members joining the elite demonstration team.

==History==
[[File:Queen's Own Rifles at Toronto Armories (HS85-10-12532).jpg|thumb|Queen's Own Rifles at Toronto Armories (HS85-10-12532)]]
[[File:Queen's Own Rifles in armouries, Toronto (HS85-10-22382).jpg|thumb|Queen's Own Rifles on parade in a Toronto drill hall, 1910]]

The ''2nd Battalion, Volunteer Militia Rifles of Canada'' was formed on April 26, 1860, predating the [[Confederation of Canada]]. Its first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel William Smith Durie.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=CWVkAAAAIBAJ&sjid=UXwNAAAAIBAJ&pg=2355,5260315 "Military Museum Brings Colorful History To Life"] [[Calgary Herald]]. April 25, 1960</ref>

During the [[Trent Affair]] of 1862, [[William Mulock]] asked [[John McCaul]], the head of [[University College, University of Toronto|University College]] (part of the University of Toronto), to call a student meeting that led to the formation of the University Rifle Company of volunteers, 9 Company of The Queen's Own Rifles of Toronto, later K Company of The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada. University of Toronto professor [[Henry Holmes Croft]] was a member and was its captain.

It was re-designated as the ''Second Battalion Volunteer Militia Rifles of Canada'' or ''Queen's Own Rifles of Toronto'' on March 18, 1863.

The name was chosen to honour [[Queen Victoria]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=September 8, 2022 |title=What happens to Canada's currency, stamps, place names after the Queen's death? |work=National Newswatch |agency=[[The Canadian Press]] |url=https://www.nationalnewswatch.com/2022/09/08/what-happens-to-canadas-currency-stamps-place-names-after-the-queens-death-2/#.Yxo94aJCpJZ.twitter |access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref>

===The Fenian Raids===
The Queen's Own Rifles of Toronto were called out on active service from March 8 to 31 and from June 1 to 22, 1866. The battalion fought on the Niagara frontier.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>
The Queen's Own Rifles first saw combat and sustained nine killed in action during the [[Battle of Ridgeway]] in 1866, where they and the 13th Volunteer Infantry Battalion ([[The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry]]) fell back when charged by a massive force of better armed and highly experienced Fenian insurgents composed of recent Irish American Civil War veterans.

It was renamed as ''2nd Battalion, Queen's Own Rifles of Canada'' on January 13, 1882.

===North-West Rebellion===
The 2nd Battalion, Queen's Own Rifles of Canada mobilized detachments for active service on April 10, 1885, that served with the Battleford Column of the North-West Field Force, and were removed from active service on July 24, 1885.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

===South African War===
It was named the 2nd Regiment Queen's Own Rifles of Canada on 8 May 1900.
The regiment contributed volunteers for the Canadian Contingents, mainly the 2nd (Special Service) Battalion, Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry. The [[Second Boer War]] was the first time that soldiers from the regiment fought on foreign soil. They were recognized for their service and earned a [[battle honour]] for the regiment, even though they were not allowed to wear the QOR cap badge in South Africa.

===The Great War===
Details of the regiment were placed on active service on August 6, 1914, for local protection duties.
In the First World War, none of the existing militia infantry regiments in Canada were formally mobilized. In 1914 The Queen's Own formed the [[3rd Canadian Battalion (Toronto Regiment), CEF]]. The 3rd Battalion, CEF was authorized on August 10, 1914, and embarked for Britain on September 26, 1914. It disembarked in France on February 11, 1915, and fought as part of the 1st Infantry Brigade, [[1st Canadian Division]], in France and Flanders until the end of the war. The battalion was disbanded on August 30, 1920.

Later in the war, The Queen's Own Rifles recruited for additional [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] battalions, which did not enter combat as units, but supplied reinforcements to the [[Canadian Corps]].

The [[83rd Battalion (Queen's Own Rifles of Canada), CEF|83rd Battalion (Queen's Own Rifles of Canada)]] was authorized on July 10, 1915, and embarked for Britain on April 28, 1916. It provided reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field until July 7, 1916, when its personnel were absorbed by the 12th Reserve Battalion, CEF. The battalion was subsequently disbanded on May 21, 1917.

The [[95th Battalion, (Queen's Own Rifles of Canada), CEF|95th Battalion (Queen's Own Rifles of Canada)]] was authorized on December 22, 1915, and embarked for Britain on May 31, 1916. It provided reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field until January 24, 1917, when its personnel were absorbed by the 5th Reserve Battalion, CEF, and was disbanded on July 17, 1917.

The [[166th Battalion (Queen's Own Rifles of Canada), CEF|166th Battalion (Queen's Own Rifles of Canada)]] was authorized on December 22, 1915, and embarked for Britain on October 12 and 17, 1916. It provided reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field until January 8, 1917, when its personnel were absorbed by the 12th Reserve Battalion, CEF. The battalion was disbanded on September 15, 1917.

The [[198th Battalion (Canadian Buffs), CEF|198th Battalion (Canadian Buffs)]] was authorized on July 15, 1916, and embarked for Britain on March 28, 1917. It provided reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field until March 9, 1918, when its personnel were absorbed by the 3rd Reserve Battalion, CEF. The battalion was then disbanded on November 29, 1918.

The [[255th Battalion (Queen's Own Rifles of Canada), CEF|255th Battalion (Queen's Own Rifles of Canada)]] was authorized on May 1, 1917, and embarked for Britain on June 6, 1917. On June 12, 1917, its personnel were absorbed by the 12th Reserve Battalion, CEF to provide reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field. The battalion was disbanded on September 1, 1917.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

The Queen's Own Rifles have perpetuated the traditions and battle honours of the 3rd Battalion, 83rd Battalion, 95th Battalion, 166th Battalion, 198th Battalion, and 255th Battalion, CEF. Both the QOR and [[The Royal Regiment of Canada]] perpetuate the 3rd Battalion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://regimentalrogue.com/cef_perpetuation/cef_infantry_1-50.htm |title=Perpetuation of C.E.F. Units – Infantry – 1st Bn to 50th Bn |access-date=7 February 2009 }}</ref>

===Between the wars===
It was designated "The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada" on May 1, 1920.

===The Second World War===
The regiment mobilized for active service on May 24, 1940. It was then redesignated as the ''1st Battalion, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, CASF'' on November 7, 1940. The unit served in Newfoundland (at the time a separate Dominion) in the defence of two strategic airfields at Botwood and Gander in Newfoundland from August 10 to December 15, 1940. After a build-up and training period, the unit embarked for Britain on July 19, 1941.
The regiment mobilized the ''3rd Battalion, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, CASF'' for active service on May 12, 1942. It served in Canada in a home defence role as part of the 20th Infantry Brigade, [[7th Canadian Infantry Division]]. The battalion was disbanded on August 15, 1943.

For the [[Invasion of Normandy]], the regiment landed in Normandy, France, as part of the 8th Infantry Brigade, [[3rd Canadian Infantry Division]].
The first major combat operations were on D-day June 6, 1944. The Queen's Own Rifles landed on "Nan" sector of [[Juno Beach]] and with the support of tanks of the [[Fort Garry Horse]]<ref>Beevor ''D-Day'' Viking 2009 London, p132</ref> captured the strategic seaside resort town of [[Bernières-sur-Mer]]. The battalion fought its way to its D-Day objective – the village of Anisy {{convert|13.5|km|abbr=on}} inland, the only{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} regiment to reach its assigned objective that day. The QOR had the highest casualties amongst the Canadian regiments, with 143 killed, wounded or captured. As well as losses in the initial landing, the reserve companies' landing craft struck mines as they approached the beach.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.members.shaw.ca/junobeach/juno-4-1.htm |title=Juno Beach – Queen's Own Rifles|publisher=Members.shaw.ca |access-date=August 14, 2014}}</ref>

In the battle for Caen, the QOR – as part of the 8th Infantry Brigade – participated in Operation Windsor to capture the airfield at Carpiquet which was defended by a detachment from the ''12th SS Panzer-Division Hitler Jugend''. The Germans inflicted heavy casualties and Panzer-grenadiers attempted to recapture the village.<ref>Beevor p265–267</ref>

During the war, 463 riflemen were killed in action and almost 900 were wounded as they fought through Normandy, Northern France, and into Belgium and the Netherlands, where they liberated the crucial [[Channel ports]]. Sixty more members of the regiment were killed while serving with other units in Hong Kong, Italy and northwest Europe. The overseas battalion was disbanded on November 30, 1945.

On June 1, 1945, a third Active Force battalion, designated the ''4th Battalion, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, CIC, CAOF'', was mobilized for service with the Canadian Army Occupation Force in Germany. The battalion was disbanded on May 14, 1946.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

In October 1953, the status of the regiment was upgraded, and it was made a part of the Regular Force. The regiment consisted of two Regular Force battalions and the Reserve (Third) battalion in Toronto until 1968. There was also a regimental depot in Calgary.

===Korea===
The 2nd Battalion, commanded by LCol W.H.V. Matthews, served in Korea following the armistice from 26 March 54 to April 6, 1955.

The following members of the 2nd Battalion died in Korea:

*Rifleman Norman Philip Ferland, March 31, 1954.
*Lt Neil MacDonald Anderson, August 25, 1954.
*Sgt Gerald Walter Koch, August 4, 1954.
*Lt Milton Cameron Vipond March 18, 1955.
*Rifleman George Peter Reid, June 11, 1955.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://members.shaw.ca/kcic1/peacekeepers.html|title=Shaw Communications|website=members.shaw.ca}}</ref>

Maj. Philip Edwin Gower, MC, died on December 9, 1956, while serving with the United Nations Command Military Assistance Commission.<ref name="autogenerated2"/>
As part of the Regular Force, the unit was involved in the [[Korean War]].

===Cold War===
The Regular Force battalions served on NATO duty in Germany and served on UN duty in Cyprus.

In 1963, the 1st Battalion QOR of C was relocated from [[Currie Barracks]] in [[Calgary]] to Work Point Barracks at [[CFB Esquimalt|Esquimalt Garrison]], replacing the 1st Battalion [[Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry]], which was deployed to [[West Germany]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bates |first1=Jack |title=History of Work Point Barracks |url=http://workpoint.opcmh.ca/1964.php |website=Organization for Preservation of Canadian Military Heritage |access-date=June 7, 2020}}</ref>

[[File:QOR camp flag.jpg|thumb|The camp flag of the Queen's Own Rifles of Canada.]]
In 1970, with the downsizing of the [[Canadian Forces]], the 1st Battalion of The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada was rebadged as the 3rd Battalion [[Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry]].<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BmxkAAAAIBAJ&sjid=93wNAAAAIBAJ&pg=3323,6693189&dq=queen's+own+rifles+rebadged&hl=en "Canadian Forces"] [[Calgary Herald]]. September 19, 1969</ref>

From 1983 to 1995, the regiment was operationally tasked to provide an airborne company to the [[Canadian Airborne Regiment]].

Members of The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada have served on recent overseas deployments including: [[UNTAG]] (United Nations Transition Assistance Group) Namibia 1989–1990, Cambodia, Cyprus, Somalia (for Operation Deliverance 1992–1993 members were attached to 1, 2 and 3 Commando of the [[Canadian Airborne Regiment]]), Sierra Leone, [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Kosovo]], [[Afghanistan]], Darfur and Sudan.

The unit played a large role in the purchase of the [[Victoria Cross]] of Corporal [[Frederick George Topham]] in 2005 and its subsequent donation to the [[Canadian War Museum]].
[[File:Fenian6.jpg|thumb|A QOR sword escort with Lieutenant Governor [[David Onley]] during an inspection of [[Battle of Ridgeway]] reenactors. The reenactment took place during the 150th anniversary of the QOR in 2010]]
On April 22, 2006, The QOR of C opened [[Dalton Armoury]] in [[Scarborough, Toronto|Scarborough]] as part of the Land Force Reserve Restructure expansion. Buffs Company parades out of Dalton Armoury. In September 1910, the QOR went on a {{convert|13|mi|km|adj=on}} route march with [[The Buffs (East Kent) Regiment]] of the British Army. It was noted that the Buffs and QOR used the same regimental march, a tune known as "The Regimental Quick Step of the Buffs" composed for The Buffs by [[Handel]]. A regimental alliance was made official in 1914.

== Alliances ==
*United Kingdom – [[The Rifles]] (2007–present)
*United Kingdom – [[Royal Gurkha Rifles|The Royal Gurkha Rifles]] (1994–present)
*United Kingdom – [[Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment|The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment (Queen's and Royal Hampshires)]] (1992–present)

===Historical Alliances===
*United Kingdom – [[Brigade of Gurkhas|The Brigade of Gurkhas]] (1982–1994)
*United Kingdom – [[The Royal Green Jackets]] (1966–2007)
*United Kingdom – [[The Queen's Regiment]] (1966–1992)
*United Kingdom – [[The Queen's Own Buffs, The Royal Kent Regiment]] (1961–1966)
*United Kingdom – [[The King's Royal Rifle Corps]] (1956–1966)
*United Kingdom – [[The Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment)]] (1935–1961)
*United Kingdom – [[The Buffs (East Kent Regiment)]] (1914–1935)

==Battle honours==
The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada has earned 47 [[battle honours]] during its history, which are emblazoned on the regimental drums (rifle regiments do not carry "colours").

=== North West Rebellion ===
*[[North-West Rebellion|North West Canada 1885]]‡

=== The South African War ===
*[[Second Boer War|South Africa 1899–1900]]‡

=== The Great War ===
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Second Battle of Ypres|Ypres, 1915]]
*[[Second Battle of Ypres|Gravenstafel Ridge]]
*[[Second Battle of Ypres|St. Julien]]‡
*[[Battle of Festubert|Festubert, 1915]]
*[[Mount Sorrel]]
*[[Battle of the Somme|Somme, 1916]]‡
*[[Battle of Pozières|Pozières Ridge]]
*[[Battle of Flers-Courcelette|Flers-Courcelette]]‡
*[[Battle of the Ancre Heights|Ancre Heights]]
*[[Battle of Arras (1917)|Arras, 1917]]
*[[Battle of Vimy Ridge|Vimy, 1917]]‡
*[[Battle of Arleux|Arleux]]
*[[Scarpe 1917]]
*[[Battle of Hill 70|Hill 70]]‡
*[[Third Battle of Ypres|Ypres, 1917]]
*[[Battle of Passchendaele|Passchendaele]]‡
*[[Battle of Amiens (1918)|Amiens]]‡
*[[Battle of Arras (1918)|Arras, 1918]]
*[[Battle of the Scarpe (1918)|Scarpe 1918]]
*[[Drocourt-Quéant]]
*[[Battle of the Hindenburg Line|Hindenburg Line]]
*[[Battle of Canal du Nord|Canal du Nord]]‡
*[[Pursuit to Mons]]‡
*[[France and Flanders, 1915–18]]
{{div col end}}

=== Second World War ===
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Normandy Landings|Normandy Landing]]‡
*[[Battle of Le Mesnil-Patry|Le Mesnil-Patry]]‡
*[[Battle for Caen|Caen]]‡
*[[Battle for Caen#Operation Windsor|Carpiquet]]
*[[Operation Goodwood|Bourguébus Ridge]]‡
*Faubourg de Vaucelles
*[[Falaise pocket|Falaise]]‡
*Quesnay Wood
*[[The Laison]]
*[[Operation Wellhit|Boulogne, 1944]]‡
*[[Operation Undergo|Calais, 1944]]
*[[Battle of the Scheldt|The Scheldt]]‡
*[[Breskens Pocket]]
*[[Rhineland#1918–1945|The Rhineland]]‡
*[[Operation Veritable|Waal Flats]]
*The Hochwald‡
*The Rhine‡
*Emmerich – Hoch Elten
*Deventer
*[[North-West Europe, 1944–45]]
{{div col end}}

=== War in Afghanistan ===
*Afghanistan ‡<ref>{{cite web|title=South-West Asia Theatre Honours|url=http://pm.gc.ca/eng/news/2014/05/09/south-west-asia-theatre-honours|publisher=Office of the Prime Minister of Canada|access-date=May 11, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512231549/http://pm.gc.ca/eng/news/2014/05/09/south-west-asia-theatre-honours|archive-date=May 12, 2014}}</ref>

==Important engagements==
* [[Battle of Ridgeway]], [[Fenian Raids]], 1866
* [[Battle of Cut Knife]], [[North-West Rebellion]], 1885
*[[First World War]]
**St Julien
**[[Hill 70]]
**[[Battle of Passchendaele|Passchendaele]]
**[[Mount Sorrel]]
**[[Amiens]]
**[[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Somme]], 1916
**[[Flers-Courcelette]]
**[[Battle of Canal du Nord|Canal du Nord]]
**[[Pursuit to Mons]]
**[[Battle of Vimy Ridge|Vimy]], 1917
* [[Second World War]]
**[[Normandy Landings|Normandy Landing]]
**Le Mesnil-Patry
**The [[Scheldt]]
**[[Caen]]
**The [[Rhineland]]
**[[Bourguebus Ridge]]
**The [[Operation Blockbuster|Hochwald]]
**[[Chambois pocket|Falaise]]
**The [[Rhine]]
**[[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]], 1944

==Victoria Cross recipients==
Seven members of the Regiment have been awarded the [[Victoria Cross]], Canada's highest military award:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qor.com/history/victoria.html |title=The Rifleman Online – The QOR of C |publisher=Qor.com |access-date=October 22, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017234621/http://www.qor.com/history/victoria.html |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>''Regimental Catechism The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada'', Printed January 1973</ref>


*Capt [[Thain Wendell MacDowell]], VC, DSO (April 9, 1917)
*Cpl [[Colin Fraser Barron]], VC (November 6, 1917)
*2Lt [[Edmund De Wind]], VC, (Killed in action March 21, 1918)
*Lt [[Charles Smith Rutherford]], VC, MC, MM (August 26, 1918)
*Lt [[Wallace Lloyd Algie]], VC (Killed in action October 11, 1918)
*Lt [[George Fraser Kerr]], VC, MC & Bar, MM (September 27, 1918)
*Sgt [[Aubrey Cosens]], VC (Killed in action February 25/26, 1945)

==Colonels-in-Chief==
* [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]] (1928–1953)<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colonel-in-Chief|url=http://www.qor.com/history/colonel.html|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619142100/http://www.qor.com/history/colonel.html|archive-date=19 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy]] (1960–2010)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadafreepress.com/index.php/article/22334 |title=The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada Celebrates its 150th Birthday |publisher=Canadafreepress.com |date=April 22, 2010 |access-date=18 March 2011}}</ref>
* [[Queen Camilla]] (2011–present)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.qor.com/association/powderhorn-dec2010.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624115839/http://www.qor.com/association/powderhorn-dec2010.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.torontosun.com/2012/05/22/camilla-pays-tribute-to-queens-own "Camilla pays tribute to Queen's Own"] By Ian Robertson, ''[[Toronto Sun]]''. May 22, 2012</ref>

==Notable members==

[[Image:William D Otter.JPG|thumb|LCol [[William Dillon Otter]]]]

*[[Vincent Massey]] was appointed [[Governor General of Canada]] in 1952. He was the first Canadian appointed to the post, and since then the governor general has always been a Canadian citizen. [[Massey Hall]] in Toronto was donated by his family.
*[[Donald Ethell]], [[Lieutenant-Governor of Alberta]] 2010–2015.
*Sir [[John Morison Gibson]] (January 1, 1842 – June 3, 1929) was a [[Lieutenant Governor of Ontario]]. He was a lieutenant during the [[Fenian Raids]], and fought at the [[Battle of Ridgeway]].
*Sir [[Hugh John Macdonald]] was the son of [[John A. Macdonald]], was a member of the [[House of Commons of Canada]], a federal [[cabinet minister]], and as the [[List of premiers of Manitoba|eighth]] [[Premier of Manitoba]].
*[[Lieutenant-colonel (Canada)|Lieutenant-Colonel]] [[Barney Danson]], [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]], [[Order of Canada|CC]], served with the regiment in Normandy and later was [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]]. He is a Companion of the [[Order of Canada]], Canada's highest civilian honour.
*General [[Order of the Bath|Sir]] [[William Dillon Otter]] (December 3, 1843 – May 6, 1929) was the first Canadian-born chief of the general staff, the head of the Canadian Army. In 1890, Otter founded the [[Royal Canadian Military Institute]] as a body for "the promotion and fostering of military art, science and literature in Canada." He was appointed as the first commanding officer of the [[The Royal Canadian Regiment|Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry]] in 1893.
*[[Lieutenant-general (Canada)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Charles H. Belzile]] was a former head of the [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|Canadian Army]].
*[[Major-General (Canada)|Major-General]] [[Lewis MacKenzie]] (born April 30, 1940) is a Canadian retired general and writer. MacKenzie established and commanded Sector Sarajevo as part of the United Nations Protection Force or UNPROFOR in Yugoslavia in 1992.
*Major-General [[Malcolm Mercer]] was a barrister and art patron who practised law in [[Toronto]]. He led the [[3rd Canadian Division]] during the first two years of the [[First World War]] before he was killed in action at [[Mount Sorrel]] in Belgium. He remains the most senior Canadian officer to die in combat.
*Major-General Sir [[Henry Pellatt]], CVO (January 6, 1859 – March 8, 1939) was a well-known Canadian financier and soldier who built [[Casa Loma]].
*Brigadier General John "Jock" Spragge,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://qormuseum.org/soldiers-of-the-queens-own/spragge-john-godery/|title=Spragge, John Godfrey|date=March 16, 2013}}</ref> [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire|OBE]], [[Canadian Efficiency Decoration|ED]] joined as a rifleman in 1925 and rose to become commanding officer of the Queen's Own Rifles on [[Normandy Landings|D-Day]] and in August 1944, Officer Commanding [[7th Canadian Infantry Brigade]].
*Lieutenant-Colonel [[Arthur Godfrey Peuchen]] was a businessman and [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] survivor. He commanded the Home Battalion of the QOR during the [[First World War]].
*Major [[John Hasek]] was a journalist and author of ''The Disarming of Canada''. He was the first commander of the [[SkyHawks Parachute Team]], and also served in Ghana, Vietnam and Cyprus. Hasek was injured and killed while reporting on the war in Yugoslavia in 1994.
*Major [[Ben Dunkelman]] – Promoted through the ranks from private to major during the Second World War. Saw action at [[Caen]], [[Falaise pocket|Falaise]], and the [[Battle of the Scheldt]]. His father was [[David Dunkelman]], the founder of [[Dylex|Tip Top Tailors]].
*Major [[Edward Arunah Dunlop, Jr.]] was an [[Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario)|MPP]] and first president of the [[Toronto Sun]]. He was blinded during the [[Second World War]] while trying to save a soldier from a grenade.
*Surgeon-Major [[James Thorburn (Canadian physician)|James Thorburn]] was a medical doctor and a professor of pharmacology and therapeutics at the [[University of Toronto]]
*Captain and Assistant Surgeon [[Norman Bethune, Sr.]], MD was a physician and medical educator who served with the Queen's Own from 1877 to 1879. His grandson was Henry [[Norman Bethune]], MD, the internationally known physician who doctored in the [[Spanish Civil War]] and in China during the Communist Revolution.
*Lieutenant [[Norm Gardner]], former Chair of the [[Toronto Police Services Board]].
*Bugle Major Charles Swift was Bugle Major of The Queen's Own Rifles Bugle Band from 1876 to 1923 – a total of 47 years.
*[[Herbert L. Clarke]] was a well-known American cornet player, feature soloist, bandmaster, and composer who joined The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada Band as a cornetist in 1882.
*[[Frederick J. Conboy]] was [[Mayor of Toronto]] from 1941 to 1944. He joined the unit as a Rifleman during the World War II in response to a government appeal for more volunteers.
*Rifleman John Andrew Forin, served in the [[North-West Rebellion]] where he kept a diary{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} of his experience, later moved to British Columbia where he practised law before serving as a County Judge.
*[[Alexander Muir]]—author of "[[The Maple Leaf Forever]]", fought at the [[Battle of Ridgeway]]
*[[John Bayley (musician)|John Bayley]] was the bandmaster of the regimental band from 1879 to 1901.
*[[K. Dock Yip]], reservist during [[World War II]], first Chinese Canadian to practice law and local activist.
*Lance corporal Albert Tilson, hockey player and namesake of the [[Red Tilson Trophy]].<ref name="vets">{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/canadian-virtual-war-memorial/detail/2083671|title=Albert Tilson|website=The Canadian Virtual War Memorial|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada|access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref>

==The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada Regimental Museum and Archives==
[[File:QueensOwnRiflesMuseumSign.jpg|thumb|Sign to the Regimental Museum and Archives at Casa Loma.]]
The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada Regimental Museum and Archives is on the third floor of the historic [[Casa Loma]] [[château]] in Toronto. Sir [[Henry Pellatt]], who built [[Casa Loma]], was an ardent supporter of the regiment, and was knighted in 1905 for his service with the unit.

Three non-functioning firearms – a Sten submachine gun, Bren light machine gun and a Bock bolt-action rifle – were stolen during a 2008 break-in. They were later recovered and returned. Two suspects were arrested after police used DNA analysis, fingerprints, and tips from the public to identify them.<ref>[https://www.thestar.com/News/GTA/article/440398 "Stolen Casa Loma guns recovered"] [[Toronto Star]] Tue, June 10, 2008</ref>

==Regimental church==
[[St. Paul's, Bloor Street]], Anglican Church in Toronto has been the regimental church of the QOR since 1910. It is located at 227 [[Bloor Street]] between [[Church Street (Toronto)|Church Street]] and Ted Rogers Way (which connects to [[Jarvis Street]] which is further south).

The Cross of Sacrifice outside the church is dedicated to the members of the QOR who have died in combat. It was built and dedicated after the First World War.

The Books of Remembrance are a list of the names of the QOR dead, and are in the interior of the church. The books are displayed annually on Remembrance Day Sunday, when the regiment parades to St. Paul's to attend services.

==Memorials==
[[File:War memorial of The Queen's Own Rifles.jpg|thumb|The Cross of Sacrifice at St. Paul's Anglican Church in Toronto]]
The most recent is the regimental badge carved on the back of one of the pews of the [[Royal Memorial Chapel]] at [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]].

The oldest memorial is the Ridgeway tablet at the Memorial United Church in [[Ridgeway, Ontario]]. Ridgeway is also commemorated in a stained glass window at University College, a tablet in the [[Ontario Provincial Parliament]] buildings, the Canadian Volunteers Monument in Queen's Park (west side of Queen's Park Crescent) and a cairn at Ridgeway.

A sandstone monument with Italian marble figures and bronze plaques erected on the [[University of Toronto]] Campus was dedicated to those of the Queen's Own Rifles of Canada regiment who were killed in action or who died from wounds defending her frontier in June 1866. The monument was erected by the Canadian Volunteer Monument Campaign of 1866, Committee of Toronto citizens and its chairman, Dr. McCaul, then President of the University of Toronto.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/nic-inm/sm-rm/mdsr-rdr-eng.asp?PID=5780 |title=DHH - Memorials Details Search Results |website=www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca |access-date=3 February 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121216021134/http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/nic-inm/sm-rm/mdsr-rdr-eng.asp?PID=5780 |archive-date=16 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[North-West Rebellion]] of 1885 is remembered by the North-West Rebellion Monument in Queen's Park (east side of Queen's park Crescent), the Battleford Column tablet inside Moss Park Armoury and a cairn at Battleford, Saskatchewan.

The [[South African War]] memorial is on University Avenue. An additional tablet is inside [[Denison Armoury]].

The First World War is commemorated by the Cross of Sacrifice and the shrine containing the Book of Remembrance at St Paul's Anglican Church. In addition, a tablet is mounted at Moss Park Armoury. The QOR dead are also remembered in The Buffs Memorial window, Warrior's Chapel, of [[Canterbury Cathedral]].

A plaque was erected to the dead of the Second World War at the site of the D-Day landing, Bernières-sur-Mer, Normandy, France.

A tablet was also placed on a farm building at Mooshof, Germany, where Sergeant [[Aubrey Cosens]], VC, earned his decoration.

There are also significant memorials at Le Mesnil-Patry, Anguerny, Anisy (France) and Wons, Rha, Sneek, Doorn, Oostburg, Zutphen (Netherlands). Other lesser memorials also exist.

==Order of precedence==
{{s-start}}
{{order of precedence |
before= [[The Canadian Grenadier Guards]] |
title= The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada|
after= [[The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada]]
}}
{{s-end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada}}
*[[The Canadian Crown and the Canadian Forces]]
*[[Canadian Airborne Forces Association]]
*[[Queen's Own Rifles of Canada Band & Bugles]]
*[[Military history of Canada]]
*[[Parachute rigger]]
*[[Pathfinders (military)]]
* [[Toronto Armories]]

==References==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |title= The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, a history of a splendid regiment's origin, development and services, including a story of patriotic duties well performed in three campaigns |last= Chambers |first=Ernest J. |year=1901 |publisher=E.L. Ruddy |location=Toronto |access-date=July 22, 2012 |url=https://archive.org/stream/queensownrifleso00cham#page/n5/mode/2up}}
* ''Illustrated Historical Album of the 2nd Battalion, the Queens Own Rifles of Canada, 1856–1894'' by H. Bruce Brough (August 1, 2007)
* ''The Powder Horn 1963 : Chronicle of the Queen's Own Rifles of Canada'' by Col. JGK et al. Strathy (1966)
* ''At Duty's Call: Captain William Henry Victor Van Der Smissen, Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, and 3rd Battalion'' by Anonymous (September 7, 2010)

==External links==
*{{official website}}
*[https://www.canada.ca/en/army/corporate/4-canadian-division/the-queens-own-rifles-of-canada.html Canadian Army webpage for the QOR]
*[https://qormuseum.org/ Regimental Museum and Archive]
*[https://www.militaryheritage.com/queensownrifles.htm History and Uniform of the Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, 1860 to 1970]

{{Canadian Army Infantry Regiments |state=collapsed}}
{{Canadian Forces Land Force Command}}
{{coord|43.654586|N|79.372914|W|region:CA-ON_type:landmark|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Queen's Own Rifles of Canada}}
[[Category:Queen's Own Rifles of Canada| ]]
[[Category:Rifle regiments of Canada]]
[[Category:Airborne units and formations of Canada]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of Ontario]]
[[Category:Infantry regiments of Canada in World War II]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of Canada in World War II]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1860]]
[[Category:British colonial regiments|Canada, Rifles Queen's Own]]
[[Category:Museums in Toronto]]
[[Category:Regimental museums in Canada]]
[[Category:1860 establishments in Canada]]

Colonial militia in Canada

2025-08-18T11:37:46Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:75AF:5CF6:C4E2:D15D:

{{short description|none}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2009}}
{{CanWars20thC}}
The '''colonial militias in Canada''' were made up of various [[militia]]s prior to [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] in 1867. During the period of [[New France]] and [[Acadia]], [[Newfoundland Colony]], and [[History of Nova Scotia#17th century|Nova Scotia]] (1605–1763), these militias were made up of [[Canadiens]] (French Canadians), [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]], British and [[Military history of the Acadians|Acadians]]. Traditionally, the [[Canadian Militia]] was the name used for the local sedentary militia regiments throughout [[the Canadas]].

However, the term "militia" was also used to refer to the Canadian regular professional land forces, beginning with the passing of the [[Militia Act of 1855]]. Passed by the [[Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada]], the act created the Active Militia, later referred to as the [[Permanent Active Militia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cmhg-phmc.forces.gc.ca/cmh-pmc/page-448-eng.aspx|title=The 1855 Volunteers|publisher=Government of Canada|work=Canadian Military Heritage, vol. 2|date=1 May 2017|accessdate=15 December 2017}}</ref> After PAM's formation, the remaining sedentary colonial militia regiments were collectively referred to as the [[Non-Permanent Active Militia]] (NPAM).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cmhg-phmc.forces.gc.ca/cmh-pmc/page-545-eng.aspx|title=The Defence of Canada by Canadians|work=Canadian Military Heritage, vol. 3|date=1 May 2017|accessdate=15 December 2017|publisher=Government of Canada|archive-date=15 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215163732/http://cmhg-phmc.forces.gc.ca/cmh-pmc/page-545-eng.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> The terms PAM and NPAM continued to be used in Canada until 1940, when the Canadian militias was reorganized into the [[Canadian Army]]. The term Militia is still used to refer to the Canadian Army's part-time [[Primary Reserve]].

==History ==
===French colonial militia===
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2023}}
[[File:Clothing of the French Canadiens and the Milice reenactment 1.jpg|thumb|Re-creation of part of the clothing issued to the French colonial militia in the 17th century.]]
{{further|Military of New France}}
[[File:Milice canadienne francaise 1759 - Mary Elizabeth Bonham.jpg|upright|thumb|Depiction of a French Canadian militiaman during the [[Seven Years' War]].]]
Military service has been part of [[Canadians|Canadian]] life since the 17th century in [[New France]], where colonists were required to serve in local militia to support regular units of the French army and navy. In 1651, Pierre Boucher received a commission of captain from the governor of New France and asked to raise militia corps in [[Trois-Rivières, Quebec|Trois-Rivières]]. Until the arrival of the [[Carignan-Salières Regiment]] in 1665, militia corps were the only defence of New France. In the long struggle between the French and British colonies, they were organized into companies, usually one per church parish, and structured in the same way as a regular French infantry company. The Governor General, [[Louis de Buade de Frontenac]], arranged during the 1690s to provide all militiamen with clothing and equipment. This consisted generally of a [[capote (garment)|capote]], a [[breechcloth]], leggings, a blanket, moccasins, a knife and two shirts, The clothing did not constitute a military uniform but was simply Canadian-style civilian wear. Since these men were not paid, this was a relatively economical way of maintaining an effective militia. [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[colonial America]]n troops found that the Indigenous-style tactics (i.e., [[guerrilla warfare]], [[scalping]]) of the Canadian militia made them a formidable adversary. Perhaps the two most famous Canadian attacks against New England were the [[Siege of Pemaquid (1696)]] and the [[Raid on Deerfield]] (1704).

The success of the Canadians was underscored during the [[French and Indian War]] by [[George Washington]]'s [[Battle of Fort Necessity|defeat at Great Meadows]] and [[Edward Braddock]]'s [[Battle of the Monongahela|embarrassment at the Monongahela River]]. The British response was to create new "ranger" and "light infantry" units adept at woodland warfare. When France ceded Canada to Great Britain in 1763, defence of the territory remained a duty shared by Canadian and British colonists, Indian nations, and the regular forces of Britain. As the colonies advanced to nationhood, its people were called to their own defence three times in the next 100 years.

Approximate numbers of militiamen in New France in 1759:
{{col div}}
*[[Military history of the Acadians|Acadian Militia]] – 150 militiamen
* Canadien Cavalry: 200 cavalrymen
* District of Quebec: 5,640 militiamen
* District of Montreal: 5,455 militiamen 4,200 sent to Quebec City
* District of Trois-Rivière: 1,300 militiamen 1,100 to Quebec City
*[[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]]: 1,800
{{col div end}}

====Acadia====
Until the establishment of Halifax (1749), the militia units in [[Acadia]] (present day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) were primarily [[Military history of the Miꞌkmaq people|Mi'kmaq]], [[Military history of the Maliseet|Maliseet]] and [[Military history of the Acadians|Acadian militia]]. Before the British [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|Conquest of Acadia]] in 1710, these militias fought the New Englanders in [[King William's War]] and [[Queen Anne's War]]. After the conquest, the Mi'kmaq, Acadian and Maliseet militias continued to fight the British through [[Father Rale's War]], [[King George's War]], and [[Father Le Loutre's War]]. The two latter wars saw the arrival [[Gorham's Rangers]], the first British militias established in the colony (the British regulars of the [[40th Regiment of Foot]] was raised in the colony 1720).<ref>John Grenier. Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia. 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press. 2008.</ref> The Mi'kmaq and Acadian militias continued to fight in Nova Scotia throughout the [[French and Indian War]].

===British colonial militia===
====American Revolutionary War====
{{further|Invasion of Quebec (1775)}}
[[File:Canadian militiamen and British soldiers repulse the American assault at Sault-au-Matelot.jpg|thumb|British regulars and the [[Canadian militia]] repulse an American assault during the [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|Battle of Quebec]].]]
In 1775, during the [[American Revolutionary War]], plans to invade Canada were drawn up as the first major military initiative by the newly formed [[Continental Army]]. The objective of the campaign was to gain military control of the British [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] (modern day Canada), and convince the French-speaking [[Canadien]]s to join the revolution on the side of the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. There were only two British regiments in the colony of Quebec. Companies of Canadian volunteers had to be raised to support the regular troops. Pro-American sympathies were a problem among the anglophone company raised by the Montreal merchants. In November 1775, Governor [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Carleton]] organized the defenders of Quebec City to face a siege by the American rebels. British regular troops were few in number. [[Canadian militia]], from both the anglophone and francophone communities, made up the majority of the defenders. The militia of Quebec City was divided into two sections in 1775—'Canadian Militia' drawn from the francophone population, and 'British Militia' made up of anglophones. During the siege of Quebec, both were issued with the same uniform: green coat without lapels, with green facings; buff waistcoats and breeches; tricorne hat. The uniforms were drawn from stocks sent from Britain in the summer of 1775 for a proposed but never raised corps of Canadian light infantry.<ref>mhg.gc.ca/html/br-ex/search-eng.asp?Num=20&letter=Q&No=0&N=20001+100185+10004+1775&t=0&NoT=31&page=1&Ne=900000</ref>

In the aftermath of the [[American Revolutionary]] came an exodus of 40,000 [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] into the Canadas, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, joined by many of the Six Nations [[Iroquois]] who had remained loyal to the United Kingdom. Since many of the new Canadians were also veterans of Loyalist regiments, they brought both the British sympathies and the military training to establish competent professional forces to oppose the perceived American threat. Called "fencibles", the new units were organized within the British army, but charged wholly with the defence of their home colonies. Their professional presence also enhanced training for the citizen militia and established many traditions that continue to modern times.

====War of 1812====
{{main|Canadian units of the War of 1812}}
[[File:Push on, brave York volunteers(large).jpg|thumb|A mortally wounded [[Isaac Brock]] urges members of the [[2nd Regiment of York Militia|York Militia]] forward during the [[Battle of Queenston Heights]].]]
In 1812, with the [[United Kingdom]] engaged in Europe, the [[United States]] took the opportunity to declare war and launch another attempt to capture Canada and expand westward into Indian territories. While British redcoats did most of the fighting in the [[War of 1812]], Canadian militia and allied Indian warriors proved to be a vital part of Canada's defence.

The merit of British professional commanders was illustrated by Major-General Sir [[Isaac Brock]] in Upper Canada ([[Ontario]]) and Lieutenant-Colonel [[Charles de Salaberry]], a French Canadian, in Lower Canada ([[Quebec]]). As soon as war was declared, Brock hastened to capture the American post on Lake Huron at [[Michilimackinac]]. Besides closing a key crossing on the [[Great Lakes]], his success earned the admiration and loyalty of the Indian leader, [[Tecumseh]]. Brock then led a force of his troops along with colonial militia, fencibles and Tecumseh's Indians to capture Fort [[Detroit]], securing the upper Great Lakes.

In the east, the French Canadians fought a crucial battle at [[Battle of Chateauguay|Châteauguay]], south of Montreal. With only a force of Canadian regulars and militia supported by allied Indians, de Salaberry turned back a larger column of Americans advancing on Montreal.

Brock died a [[Canadians|Canadian]] hero as he repelled the American landing at the [[Battle of Queenston Heights]] and Tecumseh was later killed at the [[Battle of the Thames]]. Many engagements proved to be bloody but indecisive, including the [[Battle of Lundy's Lane]] near [[Niagara Falls, Ontario]], the burning of both York ([[Toronto]]) and [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], and in numerous naval engagements on the Great Lakes. When the war concluded in 1815, nothing material had changed for the European powers. The [[Treaty of Ghent]] restored all pre-war boundaries. Canadians, meanwhile, discovered the seeds of nationhood in their victories and their sacrifices, while their allies, the Indian nations, saw their hopes for secure boundaries of their own vanish.

====Rebellions of 1837–1838====
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Battle of the Windmill.jpg|thumb|Battle of the Windmill, as seen from the American shore]]
The militia were actively engaged in the Rebellions of 1837–1838, as well as the aftermath of the [[Patriot War]], which involved American groups invading the Canadas, such as the [[Battle of the Windmill]].

====Fenian Raids====
{{further|Fenian Raids}}
[[File:Funeral of Canadian volunteers killed at Ridgeway in the Fenian Invasion (St. James cemetery, Toronto) Pictures-r-1310.jpg|thumb|Funeral for Canadian Volunteer Militia members killed during the [[Battle of Ridgeway]].]]

In 1855, the Parliament of the Province of Canada passed the [[Militia Act of 1855|Militia Act]], which authorized the raising of an initial force of 5,000 (later increased to 10,000) regulars. The act was passed to raise an active force of militia which could partially compensate for the withdrawal of [[British Army|British regulars]] as a result of the [[Crimean War]]. Although additional British troops were re-deployed to Canada to deter a potential Union invasion during the [[American Civil War]], this force played an instrumental role in the defence of Canada from that point forward.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

Founded in the mid-19th century, the [[Fenian Brotherhood]] was an association of [[Irish Americans|Irish-American]] veterans of the American Civil War who plotted to gain [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Ireland]] independence from [[British rule in Ireland|British rule]] by attacking [[British Empire|Britain's overseas colonies]] within striking distance. In response, 20,000 Canadians volunteered for militia service, many from the [[Orange Institution|Orange Order]]. Several hundred soldiers were quickly deployed from nearby [[Toronto]], many of them coming from [[The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada]]. In Hamilton, the 13th Battalion (today's Royal Hamilton Light Infantry) mobilized over two hundred soldiers for frontier service.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

The first serious raid came in June 1866 with 850 Fenians attacking [[Battle of Ridgeway|at Ridgeway]] in the Niagara region, then withdrawing quickly back across the border. This was the largest and best-organized raid, and militia units, again primarily the Queen's Own Rifles and Hamilton's 13th Battalion, were called out. The engagement ended with Fenian victory at Ridgeway, but the Fenians withdrew back to the United States through Fort Erie, where another skirmish was fought before the invaders withdrew across the Niagara River. Militia units skirmished with the Fenians sporadically until 1871. The raids ended after unsuccessful attacks during the [[Battle of Eccles Hill]] in [[Quebec]] and in the northwest frontier, near the [[Manitoba]] border. The Fenians accomplished little, but the Canadian colonies came to recognize a shared need for a vigilant and coordinated defence: a key factor leading to [[Canadian Confederation|a confederation]] of the provinces into one country in 1867.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

==Equipment==
{| class=wikitable
|-
!Model/Type!!Period or Years in Use!!Manufacturer/Origins
|-
|[[Charleville musket|Charleville]] 1717 || || {{FRA}}
|-
|[[Charleville musket|Charleville]] 1728 || || {{FRA}}
|-
|[[Charleville musket|Charleville]] 1746 || || {{FRA}}
|-
|Fusil de Grenadier Tulle || || {{FRA}}
|-
|Fusil de Chasse Tulle || || {{FRA}}
|-
| [[Queen Ann Musket]] || 1702–1714 || {{UK}}
|-
|[[William III Carbine]] || || {{UK}}
|-
|[[Nock Carbine]] || 1780–1790s || {{UK}}
|-
|[[Elliot Carbine]] || 1770s || {{UK}}
|-
|[[Brown Bess]] Long Land, Short Land, India Patterns || || {{UK}}
|-
| Lovells Pattern 1838 musket and Double Barrel Carbine || || {{UK}}
|-
| Pattern 1842 Musket || || {{UK}}
|-
| Pattern 1851 Rifle || || {{UK}}
|-
|[[Pattern 1853 Enfield]] || || {{UK}}
|-
| Lancaster Rifle || || {{UK}}
|-
|[[Baker rifle]] || || {{UK}}
|-
| [[Brunswick rifle]] || || {{UK}}
|-
| Starr Carbine || 1860s || {{USA}}
|-
| [[Spencer repeating rifle|Spencer rifle and carbine]] || 1860s || {{USA}}
|-
| [[Westley Richards]] Rifle || || {{UK}}
|-
| [[Peabody action|Peabody]] Rifle || || {{UK}}
|-
|[[Snider Rifle|Snider Enfield]] || 1860s–1901 || {{UK}}
|}

==Forts==
{{see also|List of forts#Canada|l1=List of forts in Canada|List of French forts in North America}}
Forts were utilized by both French and British militia units throughout Canada's colonial history. The following forts built by the authorities of New France were used by its military, including its militia units:
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" width="95%"
|-
!Name
!Present location
!Historic colony
!Established
|-
|[[Citadelle of Quebec]]
|[[Quebec City]], Quebec
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1673
|-
|[[Fort Beauséjour]]
|[[Aulac, New Brunswick]]
|[[Acadia]], New France
|1751
|-
|[[Fort Carillon]]
|[[Ticonderoga (CDP), New York|Ticonderoga]], New York
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1755
|-
|[[Fort Chambly]]
|[[La Vallée-du-Richelieu Regional County Municipality|La Vallée-du-Richelieu]], Quebec
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1675
|-
|[[Fort de la Montagne]]
|[[Montreal]], Quebec
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1685
|-
|[[Fort Duquesne]]
|[[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania
|[[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], New France
|1754
|-
|[[Fort Frontenac]]
|[[Kingston, Ontario]]
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1673
|-
|[[Fort Gaspareaux]]
|[[Strait Shores]]
|[[Acadia]], New France
|1751
|-
|[[Fort Laprairie]]
|[[La Prairie, Quebec]]
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1687
|-
|[[Fort Lévis]]
|[[Ogdensburg, New York]]
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1759
|-
|[[Fort Menagoueche]]
|[[Saint John, New Brunswick]]
|[[Acadia]], New France
|1751
|-
|[[Fort Niagara]]
|[[Youngstown, New York]]
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1678
|-
|[[Fort Plaisance]]
|[[Placentia, Newfoundland and Labrador|Plaisance]], Newfoundland
|Newfoundland
|1662
|-
|[[Fort Richelieu]]
|[[La Vallée-du-Richelieu Regional County Municipality|La Vallée-du-Richelieu]], Quebec
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1641
|-
|[[Fort Rouillé]]
|[[Toronto]], Ontario
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1750
|-
|[[Fort Royal (Newfoundland)|Fort Royal]]
|[[Placentia, Newfoundland and Labrador|Placentia]], Newfoundland
|Newfoundland
|1687
|-
|[[Fort Saint-Jean (Quebec)|Fort Saint-Jean]]
|[[Saint John, New Brunswick]]
|[[Acadia]], New France
|1666
|-
|[[Fort Saint Louis (Newfoundland)|Fort Saint Louis]]
|[[Placentia, Newfoundland and Labrador|Plaisance]], Newfoundland
|Newfoundland
|1662
|-
|[[Fort Senneville]]
|[[Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec]]
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1671
|-
|[[Fortress of Louisbourg]]
|[[Louisbourg, Nova Scotia]]
|[[Île-Royale (New France)|Île-Royale]], New France
|1713
|-
|[[The Citadel, Montreal|The Citadel]]
|[[Montreal]], Quebec
|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]], New France
|1690
|}
Military fortifications continued to be used by the British after the [[conquest of 1760]]. In addition to using the forts already built by the previous French regime, the British Army, and Canadian militia units, also built their own fortifications. The following British-built fortifications were used by members of the Canadian militia:
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" width="95%"
|-
!Name
!Present location
!Historic colony{{notetag|Colonial administration at the time of the fortification's establishment.}}
!Established
|-
|[[Fort Amherst, St. John's|Fort Amherst]]
|[[St. John's, Newfoundland|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]
|[[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]
|1770
|-
|[[Fort Amherstburg]]
|[[Amherstburg]], Ontario
|[[Upper Canada]]
|1796
|-
|[[Fort Anne]]
|[[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia]]
|Colony of Nova Scotia
|1629
|-
|[[Citadel Hill (Fort George)|Citadel Hill]]
|[[Halifax, Nova Scotia]]
|Colony of Nova Scotia
|1749
|-
|[[Fort de l'Île Sainte-Hélène]]
|[[Montreal]], Quebec
|[[Lower Canada]]
|1820s
|-
|[[Fort Frederick (Kingston, Ontario)|Fort Frederick]]
|[[Kingston, Ontario]]
|[[Province of Canada]]
|1846
|-
|[[Fort Frederick (Newfoundland)|Fort Frederick]]
|[[Placentia, Newfoundland and Labrador|Placentia]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]
|[[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]
|1721
|-
|[[Fort George, Ontario|Fort George]]
|[[Niagara-on-the-Lake]], Ontario
|[[Upper Canada]]
|1796
|-
|[[Fort Henry National Historic Site|Fort Henry]]
|[[Kingston, Ontario]]
|[[Upper Canada]]
|1812
|-
|[[Fort Howe]]
|[[Saint John, New Brunswick]]
|Colony of Nova Scotia
|1777
|-
|[[Fort Lawrence (Nova Scotia)|Fort Lawrence]]
|[[Fort Lawrence, Nova Scotia]]
|Colony of Nova Scotia
|1750
|-
|[[Fort Lennox]]
|[[Saint-Paul-de-l'Île-aux-Noix, Quebec]]
|[[Lower Canada]]
|1819
|-
|[[Fort Mississauga]]
|[[Niagara-on-the-Lake]], Ontario
|[[Upper Canada]]
|1814
|-
|[[Fort Point, Newfoundland and Labrador|Fort Point]]
|[[Trinity, Newfoundland and Labrador|Trinity]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]
|[[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]
|1744
|-
|[[Fort Townshend (St John's)|Fort Townshend]]
|[[St. John's, Newfoundland|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]
|[[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]
|1775
|-
|[[Fort Waldegrave, Newfoundland and Labrador|Fort Waldegrave]]
|[[St. John's, Newfoundland|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]
|[[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]
|1798
|-
|[[Fort William, Newfoundland|Fort William]]
|[[St. John's, Newfoundland|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]
|[[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]
|1698
|-
|[[Fort Wellington]]
|[[Prescott, Ontario]]
|[[Upper Canada]]
|1813
|-
|[[Fort York]]
|[[Toronto]], Ontario
|[[Upper Canada]]
|1793
|-
|[[Lévis Forts]]
|[[Lévis, Quebec]]
|[[Province of Canada]]
|1865
|-
|[[New Fort York]]
|[[Toronto]], Ontario
|[[Province of Canada]]
|1840
|-
|[[Signal Hill, St. John's|Signal Hill]]
|[[St. John's, Newfoundland|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]
|[[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]
|1762
|-
|[[York Redoubt]]
|[[Halifax, Nova Scotia]]
|Colony of Nova Scotia
|1793
|}

==See also==

* [[Canadian Armed Forces]]
* [[Military history of the Mi'kmaq]]
* [[Provincial Marine]]

==Notes==
{{notefoot}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Colonial Militia In Canada}}
[[Category:Canadian Militia]]
[[Category:Military history of Canada]]
[[Category:British colonial regiments|Canada, Militia]]