Vero - Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Diocese of Sofia and Plovdiv (Latin Catholic)

2025-10-01T18:21:02Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:8C63:EF83:92BE:104E:

{{Short description|Latin Catholic diocese in Bulgaria}}
{{cleanup|reason=dates need reformatting|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox diocese
| jurisdiction = Diocese
| name = Sofia and Plovdiv
| latin = {{normal|Diœcesis Sophiae et Philippopolis}}
| local = {{normal|{{lang|bg|Епархия София и Пловдив}}}}
| border = Catholic
| image = StLouisPlovdiv-2.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_alt =
| caption = [[Cathedral of St Louis, Plovdiv]]
| coat =
| coat_size =
| coat_alt =
| coat_caption =
| flag =
| flag_size =
| flag_alt =

| country = {{flag|Bulgaria}}
| territory =
| province =
| metropolitan = ''Immediately subject to the Holy See''
| deaneries =
| headquarters =
| coordinates =

| area_km2 = 80,000
| area_footnotes =
| population = {{loss}}4,935,000
| population_as_of = 2014
| catholics = {{steady}}33,000
| catholics_percent = {{steady}}0.7
| parishes = 
| churches = 
| congregations = 
| schools = 
| members = 

| denomination = [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]
| sui_iuris_church = [[Latin Church]]
| rite = [[Roman Rite]]
| established = {{indented plainlist|
* 1601 (Diocese of Sardica)
* 1642 (Archdiocese of Sardica)
* 1759 (Vicariate Apostolic of Sofia and Plovdiv)
* 3 March 1979 (Diocese of Sofia and Plovdiv)
}}
| dissolved =
| cathedral = {{ubl
| {{lang|bg|Катедрален храм „Свети Лудвиг“}}
| ([[Cathedral of St Louis, Plovdiv|Cathedral of St. Louis of France]]), Plovdiv
}}
| cocathedral = {{ubl
| {{lang|bg|Катедрален храм „Свети Йосиф“}}
| ([[Cathedral of St Joseph, Sofia|Cocathedral of St. Joseph]]), Sofia
}}
| patron =
| priests =

| pope = {{Incumbent pope}}
| emeritus_bishops = [[Gheorghi Ivanov Jovcev]]
| bishop =
| metro_archbishop =
| coadjutor =
| auxiliary_bishops =
| apostolic_admin =
| vicar_general =
| episcopal_vicar =
| judicial_vicar =

| map =
| map_size =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =

| website =
| footnotes =
}}
[[Image:Saint Joseph Sofia.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Cathedral of St Joseph, Sofia]]]]
The '''Diocese of Sofia and Plovdiv''' ({{langx|la|Diœcesis Sophiae et Philippopolis}}) is a [[Latin Church|Latin]] [[diocese]] of the [[Catholic Church]]<ref name=CathHierSardica>[http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dsofi.html "Diocese of Sofia e Plovdiv"] ''[[Catholic-Hierarchy.org]]''. David M. Cheney. Retrieved October 7, 2016</ref><ref name=GCathSardica>[http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/sofi0.htm "Diocese of Sofia e Plovdiv"] ''GCatholic.org''. Gabriel Chow. Retrieved October 7, 2016</ref> which includes the whole southern part of [[Bulgaria]]. The remainder of Bulgaria falls within the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Nicopoli|Diocese of Nicopoli]]. The diocese is [[Exemption (Catholic canon law)|exempt]], i.e. immediately subject of the [[Holy See]], not part of any ecclesiastical province.

The seat of the [[episcopal see]] is the [[Cathedral of St Louis, Plovdiv|Cathedral of St Louis]] is in [[Plovdiv]] and there is a new [[co-cathedral]] in [[Sofia]] — the [[Cathedral of St Joseph, Sofia|Cathedral of St. Joseph]], consecrated on May 21, 2006 by Cardinal [[Angelo Sodano]]. The construction was symbolically started by [[Pope John Paul II]] during his visit in Sofia in 2002.

== History ==
The former name of the city of Sofia, and the name of the previous diocese was [[Serdica]], the city of the [[Serdi]],<ref>The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC by John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond, {{ISBN|0-521-22717-8}}, 1992, page 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century bc. It has for long being supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin"</ref> a [[Celt]]ic people defeated by [[Crassus]] in 29 BC and subjected to the [[Thracian kingdom (Roman vassal state)|Kingdom of Thrace]], then a [[vassal state]] of [[republican Rome]]. When this kingdom was suppressed in 49 BC, the Serdi were included in the [[Roman Province]] of [[Thracia]]. [[Roman Emperor]] [[Trajan]] transformed the borough of the Serdi into a city which he called [[Ulpia Serdica]]. In 275 [[Aurelian]] caused Dacia beyond the [[Danube]] to be evacuated, and transplanted to [[Moesia]] and [[Roman Thracia]] the soldiers and colonists who were faithful to the Roman cause. The country occupied by these immigrants formed the new Province of [[Dacia]], Sardica being included in this province (Homo, "Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Aurélien", pp. 313–21).

Later, [[Diocletian]] divided Dacia into Dacia Ripensis and Dacia Mediterranea. Sardica was the civil and ecclesiastical [[metropolis]] of the latter. [[Gallienus]] established a mint at Sardica, and [[Constantine the Great]], who was born in the region, contemplated making it his capital. The [[Edict of Serdica]] ending the Diocletian persecution was signed into law here.

Ecclesiastically, Sardica belonged to the [[Holy See|Patriarchate of Rome]] until 733, when it was annexed to the [[Patriarchate of Constantinople]] until 809. Upon the conversion of the Bulgarians to Christianity in 865, Sardica was one of the first cities which had an episcopal see. Until 1204 it was included in the Graeco-Bulgarian [[Patriarchate of Achrida]], until 1393 in the Bulgarian [[Patriarchate of Tirnovo]] and until 1872 again in the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]]. Since then Sardica, which is now called Sophia, belongs to the Orthodox national Church of Bulgaria.

The earliest known bishop is Protagenes, who assisted at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325; the best known is [[Bonosus of Sardica|Bonosus]], who shortly afterwards attacked the virginity of the Blessed Virgin.

Julian of Sardica who was metropolitan of [[Dacia Meditteranea]] attended the [[Council of Ephesus]], in 431.

When it was captured by the Bulgars, they changed its name to [[Sredets (medieval Bulgaria)|Sredetz]], later transformed by the Greeks into [[Sraditza]] and [[Triaditza]]. Again occupied by the 'Greek' Byzantines from 1018 to 1186, it enjoyed great prosperity; a section of the population was [[Paulician]] or [[Manichaean]], heresies from both Catholic and (later) Orthodox points of view. After some years of troubles it again fell into the power of the Bulgars. Its present name of Sophia dates from the Middle Ages, though the precise date of its first use cannot be assigned; in the sixteenth century Sredetz and Sophia were used simultaneously. In 1382 the city was captured by the [[Ottoman Turks]], and for more than four centuries it was the residence of the [[beglerbeg]] (governor general) of all Rumelia. In 1878 Sophia was chosen as the capital of the tributary [[Principality of Bulgaria]], and since 1908 became the capital of the [[Kingdom of Bulgaria]], later of the present republic.

==Ancient Bishopric==
Melitone (2nd century)
Giuliano (4th century)
Protogene (316 - 343)
Apollinare ([[flourit|fl]]380 )
Giuliano(424 - 431)
Zosimo (fl 458)
Domnus (fl 516)
Basil (553 - circa. 550)
Teupreprio † (6th century)
Felice (fl 594)
Eutimio(9th or 10th century)

==Council of Sardica==

{{Main|Council of Sardica}}

The Council of Sardica was summoned as an [[Ecumenical Council]] in 342, 343, or 347 in response to the [[Arianism|Arian]] [[Heresy]]. Emperors [[Constans]] and [[Constantius II|Constantius]], the two remaining sons of [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] worked together at the urging of [[Pope Julius I|Pope Julius]] in response to this heresy that not only divided the church, but the state as well. Constans, Augustus in [[Rome]], favored the Nicene [[bishop]]s while Constantius, Augustus in [[Constantinople]], often supported Arian ones. To help insure equal representation to solve this divisive issue, Sardica (now [[Sofia]] in [[Bulgaria]]) was chosen as a location near the division between eastern and western portions of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] State. However, fearing domination of the council by Western bishops, many Eastern bishops left the council to hold another council in [[Plovdiv|Philippopolis]]. As a result, the Council of Sardica failed to universally represent the church and is not one of the official Ecumenical Councils.

Sardica produced 21 [[canon law|canon]]. In addition to the attempt to resolve the Arian issue, other major points were:
#Bishops should not attempt to recruit from diocese other than their own
#Bishops should be permanent residents of their own diocese
#Bishops should spend most of their time in their own diocese (not at the court in Rome)
#Bishops should not be transferred to another diocese

== Modern Catholic jurisdiction in Sofia ==
An [[Apostolic vicariate]] (missionary pre-diocesan jurisdiction, entitled to a [[titular bishop]]) was created here at an early date and confided to the [[Franciscans]].

In 1610 Rome reestablished – but now as a [[suffragan]] bishopric – the episcopal see of Sophia, which in 1643 was made archiepiscopal again.

It was suppressed towards the end of the eighteenth century, because the Catholics felt persecuted by the Turks and had emigrated, mostly to imperial Austria-Hungary and Russia, yet in 1758 restored, now as '''Apostolic Vicariate of Sofia–Plovdiv''' . Relative peace was restored in 1835, and Rome confided the direction of the Catholics to the [[Redemptorists]], under a [[vicar Apostolic]] who had not received episcopal consecration. The Redemptorists were replaced by the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchins]] in 1841, their [[General superior|superior]] being consecrated bishop in 1848.

In the early 20th century a [[titular bishop]] (of various other sees) was the head of this vicariate Apostolic. Sophia had 105,000 inhabitants, of whom a small number are Catholics. The [[Congregation of Christian Brothers|Christian Brothers]] had a school there, and the [[Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition]] three convents.

==Leadership==
; Metropolitan Archbishops of Sofia
* [[Petar Bogdan|Petrus Deodatus]], [[Friars Minor]] (O.F.M.) (1642 – death 1672), Titular Bishop of [[Titular See of Callipolis|Callipolis]] (1638.02.13 – 1642), succeeding as former [[Coadjutor Bishop]] of Sofia (Bulgaria) (1638.02.13 – 1642)
* Pavao Joščić (? – 1719.07)
* Marko Andrijašević (1723.11.20 – ?)
* [[Gjergj Radovani]] (1767–1771)
* Paolo Dovanli (1771–1776)

; Apostolic Vicars of Sofia–Plovdiv
* Giovanni Nepomuceno, [[Holy Ghost Fathers|C.SS.R.]] (?–?)
* Andrea Canova (1851–1856)
* Francesco Domenico Raynaud (Reynaudi), [[Capuchin Franciscans|O.F.M. Cap.]] (12 Dec 1867 Appointed – 1885 Resigned), [[Titular Bishop]] of [[Ægeæ]] (1867.12.12 – 1885.05.05), [[Titular Archbishop]] of [[Stauropolis (diocese)|Stauropolis]] (1885.05.05 – death 1893.07.24)
* Roberto Menini, O.F.M. Cap. (19 May 1885 Appointed – 14 October 1916 Died), succeeding as former [[Coadjutor Vicar Apostolic]] of Sofia–Plovdiv (1880.01.30 – 1885.05.05) and Titular Bishop of [[Metellopolis]] (1880.01.30 – 1885.05.19), emeritus as [[Titular Archbishop]] of [[Gangra]] (1885.05.19 – 1916.10.14)
* [[Vinkenti Peev]] (Cleto Vincenzo Pejov), O.F.M. Cap. (14 October 1916 Succeeded – 1941 Died), succeeding as former Coadjutor Vicar Apostolic of Sofia–Plovdiv (1912.12.13 – 1916.10.14) & Titular Bishop of [[Lyrbe]] (1912.12.13 – 1941.11.03)
* [[Ivan Romanov (Catholic bishop)|Ivan Romanov]] (6 July 1942 Appointed – 1959 Died), Titular Bishop of [[Prizren]] (Kosovo) (1942.07.06 – 1959)
**[[Apostolic Administrator]] Simeon Kokov (Kokoff), O.F.M. (1958.04.20 – 1974.07.11)
* [[Bogdan Stefanov Dobranov]] (22 July 1975 Appointed – 1978.12.14), Titular Bishop of [[Giufi]] (1959.10.10 – 1978.12.14)

; Suffragan Bishops of Sofia–Plovdiv
* [[Bogdan Stefanov Dobranov]] (1978.12.14 – 4 October 1983 Died)
** [[Apostolic Administrator]] 1988.07.06 – 1995.11.13) Gheorghi Ivanov Jovcev, Titular Bishop of [[Lamphua]] (1988.07.06 – 1995.11.13)
* [[Gheorghi Ivanov Jovcev]] (13 November 1995 Appointed – 16 July 2025)

== Titular see of Philippopolis ==
The position of a Titular Bishop of Philippopolis (in Thracia) (i.e. Plovdiv) existed since 1893 and 1967<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|diocese|d2p22|Philippopolis in Thracia|21 January 2015}}</ref>

It was originally just called [[Plovdiv|Philippopolis]], until 'in Thracia' was added (distinguishing it from several homonymous sees) in 1926 (in curiate Italian; also in Latin in 1933).

It is vacant for decades, having been occupied by the following individuals:
* Giovanni Giorgio Topich, O.F.M. (10 Jul 1859 – 11 Jun 1868)
* Félix-Clair Ridel, M.E.P. (27 Apr 1869 – 20 Jun 1884)
* José Tomás Mazarrasa y Rivas (21 Feb 1885 – 11 Mar 1907 )
* [[Macario Sorini]]: 1893–1895
* [[François Lesné]]: 1896–1910
* [[Bonaventura Cerretti]]: 1914–1914, later Cardinal
* [[Wincenty Kluczynski]]: 1914–1917
* [[Ernesto Cozzi]]: 1920–1926
* [[Jean-Pierre Rey]]: 1926–1930
* [[Carlo Salotti]]: 1930–1935, later Cardinal
* [[Ivan Rafael Rodić]]: 1936–1954
* [[Franjo Šeper]]: 1954–1960, later Cardinal
* [[Emile-Arsène Blanchet]]: 1960–1967

== Sources and external links ==
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Sardica}}
* [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/sofi0.htm GigaCatholic Sofia-Plovid]
* [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0790.htm GigaCatholic Titular Metropolitan Philippopolis in Thracia]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13473a.htm Council of Sardica]
* [http://www.hist.edu/342sard.html Arms of the Cross site (Unification of Catholic and Orthodox)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040421121953/http://www.hist.edu/342sard.html |date=2004-04-21 }}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3815.htm English translations of the Greek and Latin versions of the canon]
* [http://www.synaxis.org/ecf/volume37/ECF37THE_CANONS_OF_THE_SYNODS_OF_SARD.htm Canon and documentation as to when the council was actually held]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Catholic Church in Bulgaria}}

{{coord|42|0|N|25|0|E|region:BG|display=title}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sofia and Plovdiv, Roman Catholic Diocese}}
[[Category:Roman Catholic dioceses in Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Exempt dioceses]]
[[Category:340s]]
[[Category:Culture in Sofia]]
[[Category:Culture in Plovdiv]]

Monte Cassino

2025-10-01T16:42:52Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:8C63:EF83:92BE:104E:

{{Short description|Historically significant hill in Lazio, Italy}}
{{For|information about the World War II battle|Battle of Monte Cassino}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox monastery
| name = Monte Cassino Abbey
| image = MonteCassino Abbey.jpg
| caption = Abbey of Monte Cassino
| order = [[Benedictine]]
| founder = [[Benedict of Nursia]]
| abbot = Antonio Luca Fallica [[Order of Saint Benedict|OSB]]
| established = AD 529
| mother =
| disestablished =
| diocese = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Monte Cassino|Diocese of Monte Cassino]]
| churches =
| people =
| location = [[Cassino]], [[Italy]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|41|29|24|N|13|48|50|E|region:IT_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = Italy
| remains =
| public_access = Yes
}}

The '''Abbey of Monte Cassino''' (today usually spelled '''Montecassino''') is a [[Benedictines|Benedictine]] monastery on a rocky hill about {{convert|130|km|mi|-1}} southeast of [[Rome]], in the [[Valle Latina|Latin Valley]]. Located on the site of the ancient Roman town of [[Casinum]], it is the first house of the [[Benedictine Order]], having been established by [[Benedict of Nursia]] himself around 529. It was for the community of Monte Cassino that the [[Rule of Saint Benedict]] was composed.

The first monastery on Monte Cassino was sacked by the invading [[Lombards]] around 570 and abandoned. Of the first monastery almost nothing is known. The second monastery was established by [[Petronax of Brescia]] around 718, at the suggestion of Pope [[Pope Gregory II|Gregory II]] and with the support of the Lombard Duke [[Romuald II of Benevento]]. It was directly subject to the pope and many monasteries in Italy were under its authority. In 883, the monastery was sacked by [[Saracens]] and abandoned again. The community of monks resided first at [[Teano]] and then from 914 at [[Capua]] before the monastery was rebuilt in 949. During the period of exile, the [[Cluniac Reforms]] were introduced into the community.

The 11th and 12th centuries were the abbey's golden age. It acquired a large secular territory around Monte Cassino, the so-called ''[[Terra Sancti Benedicti]]'' ("Land of Saint Benedict"), which it heavily fortified with castles. It maintained good relations with the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Church]], even receiving patronage from [[Byzantine emperors]]. It encouraged fine art and craftsmanship by employing Byzantine artisans. In 1057, Pope [[Pope Victor II|Victor II]] recognised the abbot of Monte Cassino as having precedence over all other abbots. Many monks rose to become bishops and cardinals, and three popes were drawn from the abbey: [[Pope Stephen IX|Stephen IX]] (1057–58), [[Pope Victor III|Victor III]] (1086–87) and [[Pope Gelasius II|Gelasius II]] (1118–19). During this period, a monastic chronicle, ''{{ill|Chronica sacri monasterii casinensis|it}}'', was written by two of its own, Cardinal [[Leo of Ostia]] and [[Peter the Deacon]] (who also compiled the [[cartulary]]).

By the 13th century, the monastery's decline had set in. In 1239, the Emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] garrisoned troops in it during his war with the Papacy. In 1322, Pope [[John XXII]] elevated the abbey into a bishopric but this was suppressed in 1367. The buildings were destroyed by an earthquake in 1349, and in 1369 Pope [[Pope Urban V|Urban V]] demanded a contribution from all Benedictine monasteries to fund the rebuilding. In 1454, the abbey was placed ''[[in commendam]]'' and in 1504 was made subject to the [[Abbey of Santa Giustina]] in Padua.

In 1799, Monte Cassino was sacked again by French troops during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]. The abbey was dissolved by the Italian government in 1866. The building became a national monument with the monks as custodians of its treasures. In 1944, during [[World War II]], it was the site of the [[Battle of Monte Cassino]], when the building was destroyed by Allied bombing. It was rebuilt after the war.

After the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] the monastery was one of the few remaining [[territorial abbey]]s within the [[Catholic Church]]. On 23 October 2014, Pope [[Pope Francis|Francis]] applied the norms of the ''[[motu proprio]]'' ''Ecclesia Catholica'' of [[Pope Paul VI|Paul VI]] (1976)<ref>{{cite web|title=Catholica Ecclesia|url=https://w2.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/it/motu_proprio/documents/hf_p-vi_motu-proprio_19761023_catholica-ecclesia.html|website=Holy See}}</ref> to the abbey, removing from its jurisdiction all 53 parishes and reducing its spiritual jurisdiction to the abbey itself – while retaining its status as a territorial abbey. The former territory of the Abbey, except the land on which the abbey church and monastery sit, was transferred to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo|diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Vatican announces reorganisation of Montecassino Abbey|url=http://en.radiovaticana.va/news/2014/10/23/vatican_announces_reorganisation_of_montecassino_abbey/1109281|publisher=Vatican Radio|date=23 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/30787/vatican-reorganizes-montecassino-mother-abbey-of-the-benedictines|publisher=Catholic News Agency|title=Vatican reorganizes Montecassino, mother abbey of the Benedictines|date=24 October 2014}}</ref> Pope [[Pope Francis|Francis]] at the same time appointed Father Donato Ogliari as the new Abbot who will serve as the 192nd successor of Saint [[Benedict of Nurcia|Benedict]].<ref>{{cite news |last= Pittiglio |first= Elena|date= 23 October 2014|title= Dom Ogliari nuovo abate di Montecassino |trans-title= Dom Ogliari is the new Abbot of Montecassino |url= https://www.ilmessaggero.it/frosinone/montecassino_ogliari_nuovo_abate-656782.html |language= IT |work= Il Messaggero |location= Rome, Italy|access-date= 13 February 2021}}</ref> As of 2015, the monastic community consists of 13 monks.<ref>''Catalogus Monasteriorum O.S.B.'' (SS. Patriarchae Benedicti Familiae Confoederatae: Curia dell'Abate Primate, Editio XXII 2015).</ref> Ogliari was succeeded as abbot by Antonio Luca Fallica in 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Resignations and Appointments |url=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2023/01/09/230109d.html |website=press.vatican.va |access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref>

==History==
===Ancient history===
[[File:Monte Cassino 2010-by-RaBoe-12.jpg|thumb|280px|Cliff on "high mountain"]]

{{Main|Casinum}}

The history of Monte Cassino is linked to the nearby town of Cassino which was first settled in the fifth century BC by the [[Volsci]] people who held much of central Italy. It was they who first built a citadel on the summit of Monte Cassino. The Volsci in the area were defeated by the Romans in 312 BC. The Romans named the settlement [[Casinum]] and built a temple to Apollo at the citadel. Modern excavations have found no remains of the temple, but monumental remains of an amphitheatre, a theatre, and a mausoleum show the wealth of the Roman town.<ref name=IDHP/>

Generations after the Roman Empire adopted Christianity the town became the seat of a [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Monte Cassino|bishopric]] in the fifth century AD. Lacking strong defences the area was subject to barbarian attack and became abandoned and neglected with only a few struggling inhabitants holding out.<ref name=IDHP>{{cite book|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Volume 3 Southern Europe|editor1=by Trudy Ring |editor2=Robert M. Salkin |editor3=Sharon La Boda |year=1995|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers|location=Chicago, IL|page=132}}</ref>

===Era of Benedict (530–547)===
According to [[Pope Gregory I|Gregory the Great's]] hagiography of [[Benedict of Nurcia|Benedict]], the ''Life of Saint Benedict of Nursia'', the monastery was constructed on an older pagan site, a temple of [[Apollo]] that crowned the hill. The biography records that the area was still largely [[Paganism|pagan]] at the time; Benedict's first act was to smash the sculpture of Apollo and destroy the altar. He then reused the temple, dedicating it to [[Martin of Tours|Saint Martin]], and built another chapel on the site of the altar dedicated to Saint [[John the Baptist]].

Pope Gregory I's account of Benedict's seizure of Monte Cassino:
<blockquote>Now the citadel called Casinum is located on the side of a high mountain. The mountain shelters this citadel on a broad bench. Then it rises three miles above it as if its peak tended toward heaven. There was an ancient temple there in which Apollo used to be worshipped according to the old pagan rite by the foolish local farmers. Around it had grown up a grove dedicated to demon worship, where even at that time a wild crowd still devoted themselves to unholy sacrifices. When [Benedict] the man of God arrived, he smashed the idol, overturned the altar and cut down the grove of trees. He built a chapel dedicated to St. Martin in the temple of Apollo and another to St. John where the altar of Apollo had stood. And he summoned the people of the district to the faith by his unceasing preaching.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Life of Saint Benedict|author=Pope Gregory I|translator=Terrence Kardong, OSB|section=7:10–11|page=49|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=2009|location=Collegeville, MN}}</ref></blockquote>
[[File:Cathedral (Monte Cassino) - Facade.jpg|thumb|The façade of the church]]
Pope Gregory I's biography of Benedict claims that Satan opposed the monks repurposing the site. In one story, Satan invisibly sits on a rock making it too heavy to remove until Benedict drives him off. In another story, Satan taunts Benedict and then collapses a wall on a young monk, who is brought back to life by Benedict. Pope Gregory also relays that the monks found a pagan idol of bronze when digging at the site (which when thrown into the kitchen gave the illusion of a fire until dispelled by Benedict).<ref name="Pope">{{cite book|title=The Life of Saint Benedict|author=Pope Gregory I|translator=Terrence Kardong, OSB|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=2009|location=Collegeville, MN}}</ref>

Archaeologist [[Neil Christie]] notes that it was common in such [[hagiography|hagiographies]] for the protagonist to encounter areas of strong paganism.<ref>{{harvnb|Christie|2006|p=113}}</ref> Benedict scholar Terrence Kardong examines why Benedict did not face stiffer opposition in his seizure of the site from the local pagans. He contrasts this with the 25-year struggle faced by St. Martin of Tours in western Gaul by pagans angry at his attacks on their shrines: "By the time of Benedict, paganism was in a weaker condition in western Europe than it had been in Martin's time. And, of course, it must be remembered that Martin as a bishop was a much more prominent churchman than Benedict. This was an isolated and unusual episode in Benedict's monastic career. Martin, however, was thrust out of his monastery into the role of a missionary bishop in the fourth century."<ref name="Pope" />

Benedict scholars (such as Adalbert de Vogüé and Terrence Kardong) note the heavy influence of [[Sulpicius Severus]]' ''Life of Martin'' on Pope Gregory I's biography of Benedict, including the account of his seizure of Monte Cassino. Benedict's violence against a pagan holy place recalls both Martin's assault against pagan shrines generations before and the Biblical story of conquering Israel entering the Holy Land (see Exodus 34:12–14). De Vogue writes "this mountain had to be conquered from an idolatrous people and purified from its devilish horrors. And like conquering Israel, Benedict came precisely to carry out this purification. No doubt Gregory had this biblical model uppermost in his mind, as is clear from the terms he uses to describe the work of destruction. At the same time, neither Gregory nor Benedict could have forgotten the similar line of action taken by St. Martin against the pagan shrines of Gaul."<ref name="Vogue">{{cite book|title=The Life of St. Benedict|author=Gregory the Great|others=Commentary by Adalbert de Vogüé|translator=Hilary Costello and Eoin de Bhaldraithe|publisher=St. Bede's Publications|location=Petersham, MA|year=1993}}</ref>

Pope Gregory I's account of Benedict at Monte Cassino is seen by scholars as the final setting for an epic set in motion at Subiaco. In his earlier setting Benedict "had twice shown complete mastery over his aggressiveness, Benedict is now allowed to use it without restraint in the service of God."<ref name="Vogue" /> Scholars note that this striking contrast is not stressed by Gregory but rather both settings are portrayed as part of a single battle account against the same demonic enemy. Where Satan concealed himself behind underlings at Subiaco, at Monte Cassino he drops the masks to enter into a desperate attempt to prevent an abbey from being built, and "that the sole cause of this eruption of satanic action is the suppression of pagan worship on the high places."<ref name="Vogue" />
[[File:Abadía de Montecassino.jpg|left|thumb]]
While scholars see some similarities between the story of Benedict's encountering demonic phenomena and diabolic apparitions at Monte Cassino with the story of Saint [[Anthony the Great]]'s temptation in the desert, the influence of the story of St. Martin is dominant – with the resistance of Satan substituting for Martin's outraged pagan populace. Unlike the stories that may have influenced Pope Gregory's structure of the biography, Benedict's victories are practical, preventing Satan from stopping work on the abbey at Monte Cassino. Benedict's prayers are portrayed as the driving force behind the building of the abbey and the triumphs over Satan, through prayer: "Benedict the monk wrests from the devil a well-determined base which he never leaves."<ref name="Vogue" /> After the completion of the abbey, Satan's appearances in the story diminish back to the same level as Subiaco, "Only after the saint's death and by God's permission would other enemies, the Lombards, succeed in sacking it."<ref name="Vogue" />Once established at Monte Cassino, Benedict never left. He wrote the [[Rule of Saint Benedict|Benedictine Rule]] that became the founding principle for Western [[monasticism]], received a visit from [[Totila]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]] (perhaps in 543, the only remotely secure historical date for Benedict), and died there. According to accounts, "Benedict died in the oratory of St. Martin, and was buried in the oratory of St. John."<ref name="Vogue" />

The Rule of St. Benedict mandated the moral obligations to care for the sick. So in Monte Cassino St. Benedict founded a hospital that is considered today to have been the first in Europe of the new era. Benedictine monks took care of the sick and wounded there according to Benedict's Rule. The monastic routine called for hard work. The care of the sick was such an important duty that those caring for them were enjoined to act as if they served Christ directly. Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at nearby Subiaco (about 64 km to the east of Rome), where hospitals were settled, too, as adjuncts to the monasteries to provide charity. Soon many monasteries were founded throughout Europe, and everywhere there were hospitals like those in Monte Cassino.

Pope Gregory I's account of Benedict's construction was confirmed by archaeological discoveries made after the destruction of 1944. Adalbert de Vogüé recounts that "Traces have been found of the oratories of St. Martin and of St. John the Baptist, with additions from the eighth and eleventh centuries, together with their pre-Christian cellars. The first one which Benedict built in the temple itself was only twelve meters long and eight wide. From this, we can infer a fairly small community. The second oratory, on the mountain-top, where the pagan altar had stood in the open air, was of the same width but somewhat longer (15.25 meters)."<ref name="Vogue" />

=== 580–884 ===
[[File:Monte Cassino abbey from cemetery.JPG|thumb|Promontory and post-WWII rebuilt abbey|300px]]Monte Cassino became a model for future developments. Its prominent site has always made it an object of strategic importance. It was sacked or destroyed a number of times. "The first to demolish it were Lombards on foot in 580; the last were Allied bombers in 1944."<ref>{{cite book | first = Anne | last = Fremantle | author-link = Anne Fremantle | title = The Age of Faith | publisher = Time-Life Books | year = 1965 | page = 34 | isbn = 978-0652686104}}</ref> In 581, during the abbacy of [[Bonitus (abbot)|Bonitus]], the [[Lombards]] sacked the abbey, and the surviving monks fled to Rome, where they remained for more than a century. During this time the body of St Benedict was transferred to Fleury, the modern [[Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire|Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire]] near Orleans, France.

A flourishing period of Monte Cassino followed its re-establishment in 718 by [[Petronax of Monte Cassino|Abbot Petronax]], when among the monks were [[Carloman, Mayor of the Palace|Carloman]], son of [[Charles Martel]]; [[Ratchis]], predecessor of the Lombard King [[Aistulf]]; and [[Paul the Deacon]], the historian of the Lombards.

In 744, a donation of [[Gisulf II of Benevento]] created the ''[[Terra Sancti Benedicti]]'', the secular lands of the abbacy, which were subject to the abbot and nobody else save the pope. Thus, the monastery became the capital of a state comprising a compact and strategic region between the Lombard [[Duchy of Benevento|principality of Benevento]] and the [[Byzantine]] city-states of the coast ([[Duchy of Naples|Naples]], [[Duchy of Gaeta|Gaeta]], and [[Duchy of Amalfi|Amalfi]]).

In 884 [[Saracen]]s sacked and then burned it down,<ref>{{cite book | first = Will | last = Durant | title = The Age of Faith: A History of Medieval Civilization – Christian, Islamic, and Judaic – from Constantine to Dante: A.D. 325–1300 | url = https://archive.org/details/ageoffaithahisto012288mbp | url-access = limited | publisher = Simon and Schuster | year = 1950 | page = [https://archive.org/details/ageoffaithahisto012288mbp/page/n317 290]}}</ref> and Abbot [[Bertharius of Monte Cassino|Bertharius]] was killed during the attack. Among the great historians who worked at the monastery, in this period there is [[Erchempert]], whose ''Historia Langobardorum Beneventanorum'' is a fundamental chronicle of the ninth-century [[Southern Italy|Mezzogiorno]].

===The abbey under Desiderius===
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2021}}
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 144r 2.jpg|thumb|[[Woodcut]] of the abbey from the late 15th-century ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' ([[folio]] 144 [[recto]])]]
Monte Cassino was rebuilt and reached the apex of its fame in the 11th century under the abbot Desiderius (abbot 1058–1087), who later became [[Pope Victor III]]. Monks caring for the patients in Monte Cassino constantly needed new medical knowledge. So they began to buy and collect medical and other books by Greek, Roman, Islamic, Egyptian, European, Jewish, and Oriental authors. As Naples is situated on the crossroad of many seaways of Europe, the Middle East and Asia, soon the monastery library was one of the richest in Europe. All the knowledge of the civilizations of all the times and nations was accumulated in the Abbey of that time. The Benedictines translated into Latin and transcribed precious manuscripts. The number of monks rose to over two hundred, and the library, the manuscripts produced in the [[scriptorium]] and the school of [[illuminated manuscript|manuscript illuminators]] became famous throughout the West. The unique [[Beneventan script]] flourished there during Desiderius' abbacy.
Monks reading and copying the medical texts learned a lot about human anatomy and methods of treatment, and then put their theoretic skills into practice at monastery hospital. By the 10–11th centuries Monte Cassino became the most famous cultural, educational, and medical center of Europe with a great library in Medicine and other sciences. Many physicians came there for medical and other knowledge. That is why the first [[Schola Medica Salernitana|High Medical School]] in the world was soon opened in nearby [[Salerno]] which is considered today to have been the earliest Institution of Higher Education in Western Europe. This school found its original base in the Benedictine Abbey of Monte Cassino still in the 9th century and later settled down in Salerno. So, Montecassino and Benedictines played a great role in the progress of medicine and science in the Middle Ages, and with his life and work St. Benedict himself exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history" that followed the fall of the Roman empire.

The buildings of the monastery were reconstructed in the 11th century on a scale of great magnificence, artists being brought from Amalfi, Lombardy, and even [[Constantinople]] to supervise the various works. The abbey church, rebuilt and decorated with the utmost splendor, was consecrated in 1071 by [[Pope Alexander II]]. A detailed account of the abbey at this date exists in the ''Chronica monasterii Cassinensis'' by [[Leo of Ostia]] and [[Amatus of Montecassino|Amatus of Monte Cassino]] gives us our best source on the early [[Normans]] in the south.
[[File:"Montecasino" (22265553712).jpg|left|thumb|The abbey in depicted in [[Giovan Battista Pacichelli]]'s 1703 ''Il regno di Napoli in prospettiva'']]
Abbot Desiderius sent envoys to Constantinople some time after 1066 to hire expert [[Byzantine mosaic]]ists for the decoration of the rebuilt abbey church. According to chronicler [[Leo of Ostia]] the Greek artists decorated the apse, the arch and the vestibule of the basilica. Their work was admired by contemporaries but was totally destroyed in later centuries except two fragments depicting greyhounds (now in the Monte Cassino Museum). "The abbot in his wisdom decided that a great number of young monks in the monastery should be thoroughly initiated in these arts" – says the chronicler about the role of the Greeks in the revival of mosaic art in medieval Italy.

Architectural historian [[Kenneth John Conant]] believed that Desiderius' rebuilding included [[pointed arch]]es, and served as a major influence in the nascent development of [[Gothic architecture]]. Abbot [[Hugh of Cluny]] visited Monte Cassino in 1083, and five years later he began to build the third church at [[Cluny Abbey]], which then included pointed arches and became a major turning point in medieval architecture.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Verde | first = Tom
| title = The Point of the Arch
| journal = Aramco World
| volume = May/June 2012
| url = http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/201203/the.point.of.the.arch.htm}}</ref>

=== Later history ===
An earthquake damaged the Abbey in 1349, and although the site was rebuilt it marked the beginning of a long period of decline. In 1321, [[Pope John XXII]] made the church of Monte Cassino a cathedral, and the carefully preserved independence of the monastery from episcopal interference was at an end. That situation was reversed by [[Pope Urban V]], a Benedictine, in 1367.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Tomassetti, Aloysius|title=Bullarum, diplomatum et privilegiorum sanctorum romanorum pontificum Taurinensis editio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DCxOAQAAMAAJ|edition=Tomus IV|year=1859|publisher=Seb. Franco et Henrico Dalmazzo editoribus|location=Turin|language=la|pages=522–523}}</ref> In 1505 the monastery was joined with that of St. Justina of Padua.

{{Multiple image
| align =
| direction = vertical
| total_width =
| image1 = Peter McIntyre, Air raid at Monte Cassino, February 1944 (16291761647).jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Air assault on Monte Cassino, 15{{nbsp}}February{{nbsp}}1944, painted by [[Peter McIntyre (artist)|Peter McIntyre]], an [[New Zealand official war artists|official war artist]] of [[Military history of New Zealand during World War II|New Zealand during WWII]]
| image2 = Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2005-0004, Italien, Monte Cassino.jpg
| caption2 = Monte Cassino in ruins after Allied bombing in February 1944
}}

The abbey was sacked by the [[French Revolutionary Army]] in 1799. From the dissolution of the Italian monasteries in 1866, Monte Cassino became a national monument.

=== Battle of Monte Cassino ===
{{Main article|Battle of Monte Cassino}}
In the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]] of [[World War II]] the town of Cassino formed part of the German forces' 161-kilometre (100-mile) [[Winter Line|Gustav Line]], which aimed to prevent Allied troops from advancing northwards. The abbey itself however, was not initially utilised by the German troops as part of their fortifications, owing to General [[Albert Kesselring|Kesselring]]'s regard for the historical monument. The Gustav Line stretched from the [[Tyrrhenian Sea|Tyrrhenian]] to the [[Adriatic]] coast in the east, with Monte Cassino itself overlooking Highway 6 and blocking the path to Rome.

During the [[Battle of Monte Cassino]] (January–May 1944) the abbey was heavily damaged. On 15 February 1944 it was nearly destroyed in a series of heavy, American-led air raids. General [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Sir Harold Alexander]], with the support of numerous Allied commanders, ordered the bombing, which was conducted due to several reports from [[British Indian Army]] officers suggesting that German forces were occupying the monastery; the abbey was considered a key observation post by all those who were fighting in the field.<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/content/when-i-landed-war-was-over?page=6 "When I Landed the War Was over"], by [[Hughes Rudd]], ''American Heritage'', October/November 1981.</ref> However, during the bombing no German troops were present in the abbey. Subsequent investigations found that the only people killed in the monastery by the bombing were 230 Italian civilians seeking refuge there.<ref>Hapgood & Richardson, p. 211</ref> Following the bombing the ruins of the monastery were occupied by German ''[[Fallschirmjäger]]'' paratroopers of the [[1st Parachute Division (Germany)|1st Parachute Division]], due to the ruins providing excellent defensive cover.<ref>Atkinson (2007), pp. 432–441</ref>

=== Postwar history ===
The Abbey was rebuilt after the war.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pathé|first=British|title=Monks Rebuilding Monte Cassino|url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/monks-rebuilding-monte-cassino|access-date=2020-06-28|website=www.britishpathe.com|language=en-GB}}</ref> In the early 1950s, President of the Italian Republic [[Luigi Einaudi]] gave considerable support to the rebuilding.<ref>''The Abbey of Monte Cassino: An Illustrated Guide'' undated English language publication</ref> [[Pope Paul VI]] consecrated the rebuilt Basilica on 24 October 1964. During reconstruction, the abbey library was housed at the [[Pontifical Abbey of St Jerome-in-the-City]].<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher = Harvard University Press
| isbn = 0674586557
| last = Bloch
| first = Herbert
| title = Monte Cassino in the Middle Ages
| location = Cambridge, MA
| date = 1986
| volume = 1
| page = xix
}}</ref> Until his resignation was accepted by [[Pope Francis]] on 12 June 2013, the Territorial Abbot of Monte Cassino was [[Pietro Vittorelli]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.news.va/en/news/other-pontifical-acts-341|newspaper=News.va|date=12 June 2013|access-date=22 May 2016|title=Pontifical Acts – 12 June|archive-date=15 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615083629/http://www.news.va/en/news/other-pontifical-acts-341|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Vatican daily bulletin of 23 October 2014 announced that with the appointment of his successor Donato Ogliari, the territory of the abbey outside the immediate monastery grounds had been transferred to the Diocese of Sora-Aquino-Pontecorvo, now renamed [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo|Diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2014/10/23/0784/01660.html|title=Rinunce e nomine, 23.10.2014
|date=23 October 2014|newspaper=vatican.va|access-date= 3 March 2021}}</ref>

==Treasures==
In December 1943, some 1,400 irreplaceable manuscript [[Codex|codices]], chiefly patristic and historical, in addition to a vast number of documents relating to the history of the abbey and the collections of the [[Keats–Shelley Memorial House]] in Rome, had been sent to the abbey archives for safekeeping. German officers Lt. Col. Julius Schlegel (a Roman Catholic) and Capt. Maximilian Becker (a Protestant), both from the [[1st Fallschirm-Panzer Division Hermann Göring|Panzer-Division Hermann Göring]], had them transferred to the Vatican at the beginning of the battle.<ref>Atkinson (2007), p. 399</ref>

Another account, however, from revisionist author [[Franz Kurowski]]'s ''The History of the Fallschirmpanzerkorps Hermann Göring: Soldiers of the Reichsmarschall'', notes that 120 trucks were loaded with monastic assets and art which had been stored there for safekeeping. Robert Edsel (2006), on the other hand, speculates it might have been looting. The trucks were loaded and left in October 1943, and only "strenuous" protests resulted in their delivery to the Vatican, minus the 15 cases which contained the property of the [[Museo di Capodimonte|Capodimonte Museum]] in Naples. Edsel goes on to note that these cases had been delivered to Göring in December 1943, for "his birthday". This is, however, unproven.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rescuing Da Vinci: Hitler and the Nazis Stole Europe's Great Art, America and Her Allies Recovered It|last=Edsel|first=Robert M.|publisher=Laurel Pub.|year=2006|isbn=9780977433490|pages=[https://archive.org/details/rescuingdavincih0000edse/page/107 107]|url=https://archive.org/details/rescuingdavincih0000edse/page/107}}</ref>

==People==
===Abbots===
{{main|List of abbots of Monte Cassino}}

===Burials===
{{unsourced|section|date=November 2021}}
[[File:Monte Cassino Abbey (view from Polish cemetery).jpg|thumb|right|320px|Panorama from Polish cemetery]]
*[[Pope Victor III]]
*[[Cardinal Domenico Bartolini]] (1813–87)
*[[Apollinaris of Montecassino|Saint Apollinaris]], abbot of Montecassino, feast day on 27 November
*[[Benedict of Nursia|Saint Benedict]]
*[[Bertharius of Monte Cassino|Saint Bertharius]], abbot of Montecassino
*[[Józef Gawlina]], archbishop and Divisional general
*[[John Gradenigo]]
*Saint [[Scholastica]]
*[[Sikelgaita|Sigelgaita of Salerno]]
*[[Carloman (mayor of the palace)]]
*[[Władysław Anders]]
*[[II Corps (Poland)|Members of the Polish 2nd Army Corps]]
*[[Piero the Unfortunate]]

==See also==
*[[Battle of Monte Cassino]]
*[[Polish cemetery at Monte Cassino]]
*[[Red Poppies on Monte Cassino]]
*[[San Giovanni in Venere Abbey|San Giovanni in Venere]]
*[[San Liberatore a Maiella]]
*[[The Cassino Band of Northumbria Army Cadet Force]]
*[[The Red Poppies on Monte Cassino]]
*[[Lamp of Brotherhood]], lamps that were distributed at Monte Cassino to promote reconciliation after World War II

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book| last=Atkinson| first=Rick| title=The Day of Battle: the War in Sicily and Italy, 1943–1944| location=New York| publisher=Henry Holt| isbn=978-0-8050-6289-2| year=2007| url-access=registration| url=https://archive.org/details/dayofbattlewarin00atki}}
* {{Cite book|last=Bloch|first=Herbert|author-link=Herbert Bloch|title=Monte Cassino in the Middle Ages|volume=1|year=1986|location=Roma|publisher=Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6wtZs_8q9RoC}}
*{{citation |last=Christie |first=Neil |author-link=Neil Christie |title=From Constantine to Charlemagne: An Archaeology of Italy AD 300–800 |year=2006 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=1-85928-421-3}}
*''Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1908.
*{{cite book|last1=Hapgood|first1=David|last2=Richardson| first2=David| title=Monte Cassino: The Story of the Most Controversial Battle of World War II|publisher=Da Capo |location=Cambridge Mass.|year=2002|edition=reprint|orig-year=1984|isbn=0-306-81121-9}}
*Michela Cigola, ''L'abbazia benedettina di Montecassino. La storia attraverso le testimonianze grafiche di rilievo e di progetto''. Cassino, Ciolfi Editore, 2005. {{ISBN|88-86810-28-8}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Monte Cassino Abbey|Monte Cassino}}
*[http://www.abbaziamontecassino.org Abbey of Monte Cassino]
*[https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.490566,13.813827&spn=0.005407,0.007789&t=k&hl=en Satellite photo from Google Maps]
*[http://www.montecassinosociety.co.uk// The Monte Cassino Society]
*[https://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/la/apost_constitutions/documents/papa-francesco_costituzione-ap_20141023_abbatia-montis-cassini.html ''Contemplationi faventes''], original text of the 2014 [[apostolic constitution]] redefining territorial jurisdiction of the abbey
{{Latium}}
{{Province of Frosinone|nocat=yes}}
{{Landmarks of Lazio}}
{{Roman Catholic Ecclesiastical Province of Rome}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Abbey of Monte Cassino| ]]
[[Category:Territorial abbeys]]
[[Category:Hills of Italy]]
[[Category:Mountains of Lazio]]
[[Category:Benedictine monasteries in Italy]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic dioceses in Lazio]]
[[Category:Christian monasteries established in the 6th century]]
[[Category:Monasteries in Lazio]]
[[Category:Rebuilt buildings and structures in Italy]]
[[Category:Burial sites of the Carolingian dynasty]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in the Province of Frosinone]]
[[Category:Churches in the province of Frosinone]]
[[Category:Casinum]]

Acephali

2025-10-01T10:45:34Z

2A02:8012:227B:0:8C63:EF83:92BE:104E:

{{Short description|Various leaderless Christian sects}}
{{distinguish|Acephaly (disambiguation){{!}}Acephaly}}
{{about|the ancient Christian sects|the legendary men without heads|Headless men}}
{{Italic title}}
In [[church history]], the term '''{{lang|la|acephali}}''' (from {{langx|grc-x-koine|ἀκέφαλοι}} {{transliteration|grc-x-koine|aképhaloi}}, {{gloss|headless}}, singular {{lang|grc-x-koine|ἀκέφαλος}} {{transliteration|grc-x-koine|aképhalos}} from {{lang|grc-x-koine|ἀ-}} {{transliteration|grc-x-koine|a-}}, {{gloss|without}}, and {{lang|grc-x-koine|κεφαλή}} {{transliteration|grc-x-koine|kephalé}}, {{gloss|head}}) has been applied to several sects that supposedly had no leader. [[E. Cobham Brewer]] wrote, in ''[[Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable|Dictionary of Phrase and Fable]]'', that acephalites, "properly means men without a head."<ref name="Brewer1900">{{Source-attribution|{{cite encyclopedia|location=London|publisher=Cassell|encyclopedia=Dictionary of phrase and fable : giving the derivation, source, or origin of common phrases, allusions, and words that have a tale to tell|edition=New|year=1900|oclc=586047493|last=Brewer|first=E. Cobham|author-link=E. Cobham Brewer|title=Acephalites|page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-DQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA9|access-date=2014-10-22}}}}</ref> Jean Cooper wrote, in ''Dictionary of Christianity'', that it characterizes "various schismatical Christian bodies".<ref name="Cooper2013">{{cite encyclopedia|location=New York [u.a.]|publisher=Routledge|encyclopedia=Dictionary of Christianity|edition=eBook|editor-last=Cooper|editor-first=Jean C.|year=2013|orig-year=1996|isbn=978-1-315-07404-7|title=Acephalites|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZC3AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|access-date=2014-10-22}} This is "based on the Christian references taken from Brewer's ''Dictionary of phrase and fable''".</ref> Among them were [[Nestorians]] who rejected the [[Council of Ephesus]]’ condemnation of [[Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople]],<ref name="Cooper2013" /> which deposed Nestorius and declared him a [[heretic]].

==Fifth-century ''acephali''==

Those who refused to acknowledge the authority of the [[Council of Chalcedon]] were originally called Haesitantes; the ''{{lang|la|Acephali}}'' developed from among them, and, according to Blunt, the earlier name – Haesitantes – seems to have been used for only a short time.<ref name="Blunt1874">{{Source-attribution|{{cite encyclopedia|location=London|publisher=Rivingtons|title=Dictionary of sects, heresies, ecclesiastical parties, and schools of religious thought|year=1874|oclc=752973510|editor-last=Blunt|editor-first=John H.|editor-link=John Henry Blunt|pages=109
|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsect00blunuoft|access-date=2014-10-23}}}}</ref>{{rp|page=180}}

With the apparent purpose of bringing the Orthodox and heretics into unity, [[Patriarch Peter III of Alexandria]] and [[Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople]] had elaborated a new [[creed]] in which they expressly condemned both Nestorius and [[Eutyches]], a [[presbyter]] and [[archimandrite]], but at the same time rejected the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon.<ref name="Becket1907" /> This ambiguous formula, though approved by Byzantine Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] and imposed in his ''[[Henoticon]]'', could only satisfy the indifferent.<ref name="Becket1907" />

The term applied to a 5th-century faction among the [[Eutychians]], who seceded from Peter, a [[Miaphysite]], in 482,<ref name="Becket1907">{{Catholic|wstitle=Acephali|last=A'Becket|first=John J.|volume=1}}</ref> after Peter signed the ''Henoticon'' and was recognised by Zeno as the legitimate patriarch of Alexandria, by which they were "deprived of their head".<ref name="Brewer1900" /> They remained "without king or bishop"<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=January 1, 1995 |title=The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia, Volume 1 of 28 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/200/pg200.html.utf8 |access-date=2023-08-07 |website=[[Project Gutenburg]] |language=en |quote=ACEPHALI (from a'-, privative, and kefale, head), a term applied to several sects as having no head or leader; and in particular to a strict monophysite sect that separated itself, in the end of the 5th century, from the rule of the patriarch of Alexandria (Peter Mongus), and remained `without king or bishop' till they were reconciled by Mark I. (799-819).}}</ref> until they were reconciled with [[Coptic Orthodox]] [[Pope Mark II of Alexandria]] (799–819).<ref name=":0" /> The condemnation of Eutyches irritated the rigid Monophysites; the equivocal attitude taken towards the Council of Chalcedon appeared to them insufficient, and many of them, especially the monks, deserted Peter, preferring to be without a head, rather than remain in communion with him.<ref name="Becket1907" /> Later, they joined the adherents of the non-Chalcedonian Patriarch [[Severus of Antioch]].<ref name="Becket1907" />
They were, according to ''[[Oxford English Dictionary Online]]'', a "group of extreme Monophysites"<ref name="OEDOnline-acephali">{{cite encyclopedia|publisher=Oxford University Press|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary Online|edition=September 2014|title=acephali, n.|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/1347|access-date=2014-10-23|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and "were absorbed by the Jacobites".<ref name="Cooper2013" />

[[Liberatus of Carthage]] wrote, in ''{{lang|la|Breviarium causae Nestorianorum et Eutychianorum}}'', that those at the [[Council of Ephesus]] who followed neither [[Patriarch Cyril I of Alexandria]] nor [[Patriarch John I of Antioch]] were called ''{{lang|la|Acephali}}''.<ref name="Becket1907" />

Esaianites were one of the sects into which the Alexandrian ''{{lang|la|Acephali}}'' separated at the end of the 5th century. They were the followers of Esaias, a deacon of Palestine, who claimed to have been consecrated to the episcopal office by the Bishop Eusebius. His opponents averred that after the bishop's death, his hands had been laid upon the head of Esaias by some of his friends.<ref name="Blunt1874" />{{rp|page=148}}

''{{lang|la|Paulitae}}'' were a sect of ''{{lang|la|Acephali}}'' who followed Chalcedonian [[Patriarch Paul of Alexandria]], who was deposed by a synod at Gaza, in 541, for his uncanonical consecration by the Patriarch of Constantinople, and who, after his deposition, sided with the Miaphysites.<ref name="Blunt1874" />{{rp|page=415}}{{efn|They are mentioned as Paulianists in a treatise on the reception of heretics written by [[Patriarch Timothy I of Constantinople]].<ref name="Blunt1874" />{{rp|page=415}}}}

Barsanians, later called Semidalites, were a sect of ''{{lang|la|Acephali}}'' at the end of the 5th century. They had no succession of priests, and professed to keep up the celebration of a valid Eucharist by placing a few crumbs of some of the bread which had been consecrated by [[Antipope Dioscorus|Dioscorus]] into a vessel of meal, and then using as fully consecrated the bread baked from it.<ref name="Blunt1874" />{{rp|page=551}}

The [[Barsanuphians]] separated from the ''Acephali'' in the late 6th century and developed their own episcopal hierarchy.
==Other ''acephali''==

According to Brewer, acephalites were also certain bishops exempt from the jurisdiction and discipline of their patriarch.<ref name="Brewer1900" /> Cooper explains that they are "priests rejecting episcopal authority or bishops that of their metropolitans."<ref name="Cooper2013" /> Blunt described ''{{lang|la|clerici acephali}}'' as those clergy who were ordained with a [[sinecure]] [[benefice]] and who generally obtained their orders by paying for them, that is, by [[simony]]. The Council of Pavia, in 853, legislated its canons 18 and 23 against them, from which it appears, according to Blunt, that they were mostly chaplains to noblemen, that they produced much scandal in the Church, and that they disseminated many errors.<ref name="Blunt1874" />{{rp|page=109}}

{{citation needed span|text=In the [[Middle Ages]] the term denoted ''{{lang|la|[[clerici vagantes]]}}'',|date=October 2014}} clergy without title or benefice.

According to Brewer, acephalites were also a sect of [[Levellers]] during the reign of [[Henry I of England]] who acknowledged no leader.<ref name="Brewer1900" /> They were, according to ''Oxford English Dictionary Online'', "a group of free [[socager]]s having no [[feudal]] superior except the [[king]]." This usage is now considered obsolete.<ref name="OEDOnline-acephali" />

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{Catholic|wstitle=Eutychianism|last=Chapman|first=John|volume=5|no-icon=1|prescript=}}

{{Subject bar |portal1=Christianity |commons= |commons-search= |wikt=yes |b= |b-search= |q= |q-search= |s=yes |s-search=Category:Acephali |v= |v-search= |voy= |voy-search=}}

[[Category:Christianity in late antiquity]]
[[Category:Christianity in the Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Nature of Jesus Christ]]
[[Category:Former Christian denominations]]