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Shoebill

2025-10-20T11:23:35Z

2A02:908:1087:D4A0:906F:D96:AE66:D1EA:

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Redirect|B. rex|the ''Tyrannosaurus'' specimen|B-rex}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Shoebill
| image = Balaeniceps rex.jpg
| image_caption = At the [[Pairi Daiza]] in [[Brugelette]], Belgium
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Balaeniceps rex'' |article-number=e.T22697583A133840708 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697583A133840708.en}}</ref>
| status2 = CITES_A2
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref>
| genus = Balaeniceps
| parent_authority = [[John Gould|Gould]], 1850
| species = rex
| authority = [[John Gould|Gould]], 1850
| range_map = Balaeniceps rex distribution.svg
| range_map_caption = {{legend0|#ff6601| range}}
}}

The '''shoebill''' ('''''Balaeniceps rex'''''), also known as the '''whale-headed stork''', '''whalebill''', and '''shoe-billed stork''', is a large long-legged wading bird. Its name comes from its enormous shoe-shaped [[beak|bill]]. It has a somewhat [[stork]]-like overall form and was previously classified as a stork in the order [[Ciconiiformes]]; but genetic evidence places it with [[pelican]]s and [[heron]]s in the [[Pelecaniformes]]. The adult is mainly grey while the juveniles are more brown. It lives in tropical [[East Africa]] in large swamps from South Sudan to Zambia.

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Hammerkopf2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=hamerkop|Molecular studies have found the [[hamerkop]] to be the closest relative of the shoebill.]]
The shoebill may have been known to [[Ancient Egypt]]ians<ref>{{Cite book |last=Houlihan |first=Patrick F. |title=The Birds of Ancient Egypt |date=1988 | publisher=American University in Cairo Press |location=Cairo, Egypt | pages=25–26 |isbn=978-977-424-185-7 | url=https://archive.org/details/birdsofancienteg0000houl/page/25/mode/1up | url-access=registration }}</ref> but was not classified by Europeans until the 19th century, after skins and eventually live specimens were brought to Europe. [[John Gould]] very briefly described it in 1850 from the skin of a specimen collected on the upper [[White Nile]] by the English traveller [[Mansfield Parkyns]]. Gould provided a more detailed description in the following year. He placed the species in its own [[genus]] ''Balaeniceps'' and coined the [[binomial name]] ''Balaeniceps rex,''<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Gould | first=John | author-link=John Gould | year=1850 | title=Scientific: Zoological | journal=Athenaeum | issue=1207 | page=1315 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/30570891 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal | last=Gould | first=John | author-link=John Gould | year=1851 | title=On a new and remarkable form in ornithology | journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London | volume=19 | issue=219 | pages=1–2 | doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1851.tb01123.x | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12859071 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | pages=252–253 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16108892 }}</ref> from [[Latin]] {{lang|la|balaena}} 'whale' and {{lang|la|caput}}/{{lang|la|ceps}} 'head'.<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=66 | url=https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n66/mode/1up }}</ref> Other common names are whalebill,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feduccia |first=Alan |date=1977 |title=The whalebill is a stork |journal=Nature |volume=266 |issue=5604 |pages=719–720 |doi=10.1038/266719a0 |bibcode=1977Natur.266..719F |s2cid=4260563 }}</ref> shoe-billed stork, and whale-headed stork.<ref name=hbw/>

Traditionally considered as allied with the [[stork]]s ([[Ciconiiformes]]), it was retained there in the [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] which grouped many unrelated taxa into the Ciconiiformes. Based on osteological evidence, the suggestion of a pelecaniform affinity was made in 1957 by Patricia Cottam.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Cottam, P. A.|year=1957|title=The Pelecaniform characters of the skeleton of the Shoebill Stork, ''Balaeniceps rex'' |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2342059|journal=Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology |volume=5|pages=49–72|doi=10.5962/bhl.part.11718|doi-access=free}}</ref> Microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995 found that the eggshells of shoebills closely resembled those of other [[Pelecaniformes]] in having a covering of thick microglobular material over the crystalline shells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mikhailov|first=Konstantin E.|year=1995|title=Eggshell structure in the shoebill and pelecaniform birds: comparison with hamerkop, herons, ibises and storks|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=73|issue=9|pages=1754–70|doi=10.1139/z95-207|bibcode=1995CaJZ...73.1754M }}</ref> In 2003, the shoebill was again suggested as closer to the [[pelican]]s (based on anatomical comparisons)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mayr, Gerald |year=2003 |title=The phylogenetic affinities of the Shoebill (''Balaeniceps rex'') |url=http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/balaeniceps.pdf |journal=Journal für Ornithologie |volume=144 |issue=2 |pages=157–175 |doi=10.1007/BF02465644 |bibcode=2003JOrni.144..157M |s2cid=36046887 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929002144/http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/balaeniceps.pdf |archive-date=29 September 2018 |access-date=21 August 2012}}</ref> or the [[heron]]s (based on biochemical evidence).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hagey, J. R. |last2=Schteingart, C. D. |last3=Ton-Nu, H.-T. |last4=Hofmann, A. F. |name-list-style=amp |year=2002 |title=A novel primary bile acid in the Shoebill stork and herons and its phylogenetic significance |journal=Journal of Lipid Research |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=685–90 |doi=10.1016/S0022-2275(20)30109-7 |pmid=11971938|doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2008 DNA study reinforces their membership among the Pelecaniformes.<ref>{{ cite journal | last1=Hackett | first1=S.J.| last2=Kimball | first2=R.T. | last3=Reddy | first3=S. | last4=Bowie | first4=R.C.K.| last5=Braun | first5=E.L.| last6=Braun | first6=M.J.| last7=Chojnowski | first7=J.L.| last8=Cox | first8=W.A. | last9=Han | first9=K-L. | last10=Harshman | first10=J. | last11=Huddleston | first11=C.J.| last12=Marks | first12=B.D.| last13=Miglia | first13=K.J.| last14=Moore | first14=W.S.| last15=Sheldon | first15=F.H.| last16=Steadman | first16=D.W.| last17=Witt | first17=C.C.| last18= Yuri | first18= T. | year=2008 | title=A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history | journal=Science | volume=320 | issue=5884 | pages=1763–1767 | doi=10.1126/science.1157704 | pmid=18583609| bibcode=2008Sci...320.1763H| s2cid=6472805}}</ref>

So far, two fossilized relatives of the Shoebill have been described: ''[[Goliathia]]'' from the [[Rupelian|Early Oligocene]] of [[Egypt]] and ''[[Paludiavis]]'' from the [[Late Miocene]] of [[Pakistan]] and [[Tunisia]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=N.D.|last2=Ksepka|first2=D.T.|year=2015|title=Five well-supported fossil calibrations within the "Waterbird" assemblage (Tetrapoda, Aves)|journal=Palaeontologia Electronica|volume=18|issue=1|pages=1–21|doi=10.26879/483|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rich|first1=P.V.|title=A fossil avifauna from the Upper Miocene, Beglia Formation of Tunisia|journal=Notes et mémoires du Service géologique (Tunis)|date=1972|volume=35|pages=29–66}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mayr|first1=G.|year=2003|title=The phylogenetic affinities of the Shoebill (''Balaeniceps rex'')|journal=Journal of Ornithology|volume=144|issue=2|pages=157–175|doi=10.1007/BF02465644|bibcode=2003JOrni.144..157M |url=https://www.senckenberg.de/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/balaeniceps.pdf}}</ref> It has been suggested that the enigmatic African fossil bird ''[[Eremopezus]]'' have features resembling those of the shoebill and the secretary bird.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Rasmussen, D. Tab |author2=Simons, Elwyn L. |author3=Hertel, F. |author4=Judd, A. |year=2001|title= Hindlimb of a giant terrestrial bird from the Upper Eocene, Fayum, Egypt|journal=[[Palaeontology (journal)|Palaeontology]]|volume=44|issue=2|pages= 325–337|doi=10.1111/1475-4983.00182|bibcode=2001Palgy..44..325R |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Balaeniceps rex (Schuhschnabel - Shoebill) - Weltvogelpark Walsrode 2010-10.jpg|alt=photograph|left|thumb|Shoebill]]
The shoebill is a tall bird, with a typical height range of {{convert|110|to|140|cm|in|abbr=on}} and some specimens reaching as much as {{convert|152|cm|in|abbr=on}}. Length from tail to beak can range from {{convert|100|to|140|cm|in|abbr=on}} and wingspan is {{convert|230|to|260|cm|ftin|0|abbr=on}}. Weight has reportedly ranged from {{convert|4|to|7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. A male will weigh on average around {{convert|5.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and is larger than a typical female of {{convert|4.9|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Hancock" /> The signature feature of the species is its huge, bulbous [[Beak|bill]], which is pinkish in color with erratic greyish markings. The [[Culmen (bird)|exposed culmen]] (or the measurement along the top of the upper mandible) is {{convert|18.8|to|24|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the third longest bill among extant birds after pelicans and large storks, and can outrival the pelicans in bill circumference, especially if the bill is considered as the hard, bony keratin portion.<ref name="Hancock" /> As in the pelicans, the upper mandible is strongly keeled, ending in a sharp nail. The dark coloured legs are fairly long, with a [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] length of {{convert|21.7|to|25.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The shoebill's feet are exceptionally large, with the middle toe reaching {{convert|16.8|to|18.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length, likely assisting the species in its ability to stand on aquatic vegetation while hunting. The neck is relatively shorter and thicker than other long-legged wading birds such as herons and [[crane (bird)|crane]]s. The wings are broad, with a [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] length of {{convert|58.8|to|78|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and well-adapted to [[Lift (soaring)|soaring]].<ref name="Hancock" />

[[File:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - ZMA.AVES.26542 - Balaeniceps rex Gould, 1850 - Balaenicipitidae - skeleton (whole) specimen.jpeg|thumb|right|alt=photograph|Shoebill skull]]
The plumage of adult birds is blue-grey with darker [[slaty]]-grey [[flight feather]]s. The breast presents some elongated feathers, which have dark shafts. The juvenile has a similar plumage colour, but is a darker grey with a brown tinge.<ref name=hbw>{{ cite book | last=Elliot | first=A. | year=1992 | chapter=Family Balaenicipitidae (Shoebill) | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | title=Handbook of the Birds of the World | volume=1: Ostrich to Ducks | location=Barcelona, Spain | publisher=Lynx Edicions | isbn=84-87334-10-5 | pages=466–471 | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/466/mode/1up | chapter-url-access=registration }}</ref> When they are first born, shoebills have a more modestly-sized bill, which is initially silvery-grey. The bill becomes more noticeably large when the chicks are 23 days old and becomes well developed by 43 days.<ref name="Hancock" />

===Voice===
The shoebill is normally silent, but they perform bill-clattering displays at the nest.<ref name=hbw/> When engaging in these displays, adult birds have also been noted to utter a [[Cattle|cow]]-like ''moo'' as well as high-pitched whines. Both nestlings and adults engage in bill-clattering during the nesting season as a means of communication. When young are begging for food, they call out with a sound uncannily like human hiccups. In one case, a flying adult bird was heard uttering hoarse croaks, apparently as a sign of aggression at a nearby [[marabou stork]] (''Leptoptilos crumeniferus'').<ref name="Hancock" />

===Flight pattern===
Its wings are held flat while soaring and, as in the pelicans and the storks of the genus ''[[Leptoptilos]]'', the shoebill flies with its neck retracted. Its flapping rate, at an estimated 150 flaps per minute, is one of the slowest of any bird, with the exception of the larger stork species. The pattern is alternating flapping and gliding cycles of approximately seven seconds each, putting its gliding distance somewhere between the larger storks and the [[Andean condor]] (''Vultur gryphus''). When flushed, shoebills usually try to fly no more than {{convert|100|to|500|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Hancock" /> Long flights of the shoebill are rare, and only a few flights beyond its minimum foraging distance of {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} have been recorded.

[[File:Shoebill-uenozoo2008.ogv|thumb|alt=photograph|A shoebill at the [[Ueno Zoo]], [[Tokyo]] (video)]]

==Distribution and habitat==
The shoebill is distributed in freshwater swamps of central tropical Africa, from southern [[Sudan]] and [[South Sudan]] through parts of eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Uganda]], western [[Tanzania]] and northern [[Zambia]]. The species is most numerous in the [[West Nile sub-region]] and South Sudan (especially the [[Sudd]], a main stronghold for the species); it is also significant in wetlands of Uganda and western Tanzania. More isolated records have been reported of shoebills in [[Kenya]], the [[Central African Republic]], northern [[Cameroon]], south-western [[Ethiopia]], and [[Malawi]]. Vagrant strays to the [[Okavango Basin]], [[Botswana]] and the upper [[Congo River]] have also been sighted. The distribution of this species seems to largely coincide with that of [[Cyperus papyrus|papyrus]] and [[Protopterus|lungfish]]. They are often found in areas of flood plain interspersed with undisturbed papyrus and reedbeds. When shoebill storks are in an area with deep water, a bed of floating vegetation is a requirement. They are also found where there is poorly oxygenated water. This causes the fish living in the water to surface for air more often, increasing the likelihood a shoebill stork will successfully capture it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Balaeniceps rex'' (shoebill) |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Balaeniceps_rex/ |last=Steffen |first=Angie |website=Animal Diversity Web |language=en |access-date=6 May 2020}}</ref> The shoebill is non-migratory with limited seasonal movements due to habitat changes, food availability and disturbance by humans.<ref name="Hancock">{{Cite book |last1=Hancock | first1=J.A. |last2=Kushan | first2=J.A. | last3=Kahl | first3= M.P. | date=1992 | title=Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of the World |publisher=Academic Press/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers |isbn=0-12-322730-5 |location=London | pages=139–145, 305 }}</ref>

[[Petroglyph]]s from [[Rock engravings of Oued Djerat|Oued Djerat]], eastern [[Algeria]], show that the shoebill occurred during the [[Holocene|Early Holocene]] much more to the north, in the wetlands that covered the present-day [[Sahara]] [[Desert]] at that time.<ref name="oeschger2004">{{Cite journal |last=Oeschger, E. |year=2004 |title=Sahara - Algeria - Rock Art in Oued Derat and the Tefedest Region |url=http://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a04oeschger.pdf |journal=Adoranten |language=English |volume=2004 |pages=5–19}}</ref>

The shoebill occurs in extensive, dense freshwater [[marshes]]. Almost all wetlands that attract the species have undisturbed ''Cyperus papyrus'' and [[reed bed]]s of ''[[Phragmites]]'' and ''[[Typha]]''. Although their distribution largely seems to correspond with the distribution of papyrus in central Africa, the species seems to avoid pure papyrus swamps and is often attracted to areas with mixed vegetation. More rarely, the species has been seen foraging in [[Paddy field|rice fields]] and flooded [[plantation]]s.<ref name="Hancock" />

==Behaviour and ecology==
The shoebill is noted for its slow movements and tendency to stay still for long periods, resulting in descriptions of the species as "statue-like". They are quite sensitive to human disturbance and may abandon their nests if flushed by humans. However, while foraging, if dense vegetation stands between it and humans, this wader can be fairly tame. The shoebill is often attracted to poorly oxygenated waters such as swamps, marshes, and bogs where fish frequently surface to breathe. They also seem to exhibit migratory behaviors based upon differences in the surface water level. Immature shoebills abandon nesting sites which increased in the surface water level whereas adult shoebills abandon nesting sites which decreased in surface water level. It is suggested that both adult and immature shoebills prefer nesting sites with similar surface water levels.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Acácio |first1=Marta |last2=Mullers |first2=Ralf H. E. |last3=Franco |first3=Aldina M. A. |last4=Willems |first4=Frank J. |last5=Amar |first5=Arjun |date=2021-08-04 |title=Changes in surface water drive the movements of Shoebills |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=15796 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-95093-5 |pmid=34349159 |pmc=8338928 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1115796A |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> Exceptionally for a bird this large, the shoebill often stands and perches on floating vegetation, making them appear somewhat like a giant [[Jacana (genus)|jacana]], although the similarly sized and occasionally sympatric [[Goliath heron]] (''Ardea goliath'') is also known to stand on aquatic vegetation. Shoebills, being solitary, forage at {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} or more from one another even where relatively densely populated. This species stalks its prey patiently, in a slow and lurking fashion. While hunting, the shoebill strides very slowly and is frequently motionless. Unlike some other large waders, this species hunts entirely using vision and is not known to engage in [[Somatosensory system|tactile]] hunting. When prey is spotted, it launches a quick violent strike. However, depending on the size of the prey, handling time after the strike can exceed 10 minutes. Around 60% of strikes yield prey. Frequently water and vegetation is snatched up during the strike and is spilled out from the edges of the mandibles. The activity of [[hippopotamus]] may inadvertently benefit the shoebill, as submerged hippos occasionally force fish to the surface.<ref name="Hancock" />

[[File:Balaeniceps rex -Ueno Zoo, Tokyo, Japan-8a.jpg|thumb|right|alt=photograph|A shoebill standing at [[Ueno Zoo]], [[Tokyo]]]]

===Breeding===
[[File:Balaeniceps rex in Prague Zoo 03.JPG|thumb|right|alt=photograph|A sitting shoebill in [[Prague Zoo]], [[Czech Republic]]]]

The solitary nature of shoebills extends to their breeding habits. Nests typically occur at less than three nests per square kilometre, unlike herons, [[cormorant]]s, pelicans, and storks, which predominantly nest in colonies. The breeding pair of shoebills vigorously defends a territory of {{convert|2|to|4|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} from [[Conspecificity|conspecifics]]. In the extreme north and south of the species' range, nesting starts right after the rains end. In more central regions of the range, it may nest near the end of the wet season in order for the eggs to hatch around the beginning of the following wet season. Both parents engage in building the nest on a floating platform after clearing out an area of approximately {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} across. The large, flattish nesting platform is often partially submerged in water and can be as much as {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep. The nest itself is about {{convert|1|to|1.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide. Both the nest and platform are made of aquatic vegetation. From one to three white eggs are laid. These eggs measure {{convert|80|to|90|mm|in|abbr=on}} high by {{convert|56|to|61|mm|in|abbr=on}} and weigh around {{convert|164|g|oz|abbr=on}}. Incubation lasts for approximately 30 days. Both parents actively brood, shade, guard and feed the nestling, though the females are perhaps slightly more attentive. Shoebills use their mandibles to cool their eggs with water during days with high temperatures around {{Convert|30-33|C}}. They fill their mandible once, swallow the water, and fill another mandible full of water before proceeding back to their nest where they pour out the water and regurgitate the previously swallowed water onto both the nest and eggs.<ref name="Tomita-2014" /> Food items are regurgitated whole from the gullet straight into the bill of the young. Shoebills rarely raise more than one chick but will hatch more. The younger chicks usually die and function as "back-ups" in case the eldest chick dies or is weak. Fledging is reached at around 105 days and the young birds can fly well by 112 days. However, they are still fed for possibly a month or more after this. It will take the young shoebills three years before they become fully sexually mature.<ref name="Hancock" />

Shoebills are elusive when nesting, so cameras must be placed to observe them from afar to collect behavioral data. There is an advantage for birds that are early breeders, as the chicks are tended for a longer period.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mullers|first1=Ralf H. E.|last2=Amar|first2=Arjun|date=2015|title=Parental nesting behavior, chick growth and breeding success of shoebills (''Balaeniceps rex'') in the Bangweulu Wetlands, Zambia | journal=Waterbirds|volume=38|issue=1|pages=1–9|doi=10.1675/063.038.0102 |s2cid=84828980 }}</ref>

===Diet===
Shoebills are largely [[piscivorous]] but are assured predators of a considerable range of wetland vertebrates. Preferred prey species have reportedly included [[marbled lungfish]] (''Protopterus aethiopicus''), [[Protopterus annectens|African lungfish]] (''Protopterus annectens''), and [[Polypterus senegalus|Senegal bichir]] (''Polypterus senegalus''), various ''[[Tilapia (genus)|Tilapia]]'' species and [[catfish]], the latter mainly in the genus ''[[Clarias]]''. Other prey eaten by this species has included [[frog]]s, water [[snake]]s, [[Nile monitor]]s (''Varanus niloticus'') and baby [[crocodile]]s. More rarely, small [[turtle]]s, [[snail]]s, [[rodent]]s, small [[waterfowl]] and [[carrion]] have reportedly been eaten.<ref name = 'ohn' >{{cite journal |last1=John |first1=Jasson |last2=Lee |first2=Woo |title=Kleptoparasitism of Shoebills ''Balaeniceps rex'' by African Fish Eagles ''Icthyophaga vocifer'' in Western Tanzania |journal=Tanzania Journal of Science |date=2019 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=131–143 | url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tjs/article/view/188165 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Collar |first=Nigel J. |year=1994 |title=The Shoebill |journal=Bulletin of the African Bird Club |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=18–20 |doi=10.5962/p.308857 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/210670#page/25/mode/1up|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name = 'BUXTON'>{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1978.tb00440.x | title=The breeding behaviour of the shoebill or whale-headed stork ''Balaeniceps rex'' in the Bangweulu Swamps, Zambia | year=1978 | last1=Buxton | first1=Lucinda | last2=Slater | first2=Jenny | last3=Brown | first3=Leslie H. | journal=African Journal of Ecology | volume=16 | issue=3 | pages=201–220 | bibcode=1978AfJEc..16..201B }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Balaeniceps_rex/ | title=Balaeniceps rex (Shoebill) | website=[[Animal Diversity Web]] }}</ref>

Given its sharp-edged beak, huge bill, and wide gape, the shoebill can hunt large prey, often targeting prey bigger than is taken by other large wading birds. In the [[Bangweulu Swamps]] of Zambia, fish eaten by this species are commonly in the range of {{convert|15|to|50|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name = 'Mullers'>{{cite journal |last1=Mullers |first1=Ralf HE |last2=Amar |first2=Arjun |title=Shoebill ''Balaeniceps rex'' foraging behaviour in the Bangweulu Wetlands, Zambia |journal=Ostrich |date=2015 |volume=86 |issue=1–2 |pages=113–118 |doi=10.2989/00306525.2014.977364|bibcode=2015Ostri..86..113M |s2cid=84194123 }}</ref> The main prey items fed to young by the parents were the catfish ''[[Clarias gariepinus]]'', ([[syn.]] ''C. mossambicus'') and {{convert|50|to|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} long water snakes.<ref name = 'BUXTON'/> In Uganda, lungfish and catfish were mainly fed to the young.<ref name="Hancock" /> Larger lungfish and catfish were taken in Malagarasi wetlands in western Tanzania. During this study, fish around {{convert|60|to|80|cm|in|abbr=on}} were quite frequently taken and the largest fish caught by the shoebill was 99 cm long. Fish exceeding 60 cm were usually cut into sections and swallowed at intervals. The entire process from scooping to swallowing ranged from 2 to 30 minutes depending on prey size. However, these large prey are relatively hard to handle and often targeted by [[African fish eagle]] (''Icthyophaga vocifer''), which frequently steal large wading bird's prey.<ref name = 'ohn' />

==Relationship to humans==
This species is considered to be one of the five most desirable birds in Africa by [[birdwatcher]]s.<ref name="Matthiessen">{{Cite book |last=Matthiessen |first=Peter |title=African Silences |url=https://archive.org/details/africansilences00pete |url-access=registration |publisher=Random House |year=1991 |isbn=0-679-40021-4 |edition=1st |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/africansilences00pete/page/56 56] |oclc=22707869 |author-link=Peter Matthiessen}}</ref> They are docile with humans and show no threatening behavior. Researchers were able to observe a bird on its nest at a close distance – within {{convert|2|m|sp=us}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Balaeniceps rex'' (shoebill) |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Balaeniceps_rex/ |publisher=Animal Diversity Web |access-date=2 March 2020}}</ref> Shoebills are often kept in zoos, but breeding is rarely reported. Shoebills have bred successfully at [[Pairi Daiza]] in [[Belgium]] and at [[ZooTampa at Lowry Park|Tampa's Lowry Park Zoo]] in Florida.<ref name=muir>{{Cite journal | last1=Muir | first1=A. | last2=King | first2=C.E. | date=2013 |title=Management and husbandry guidelines for Shoebills ''Balaeniceps rex'' in captivity |journal=International Zoo Yearbook | volume=47 |issue=1|pages=181–189|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.2012.00186.x}}</ref><ref name="Tomita-2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Tomita |first1=J.A. | last2=Killmar | first2=L.E. | last3=Ball | first3=R. | last4=Rottman | first4=L.A. | last5=Kowitz | first5=M. |year=2014 |title=Challenges and successes in the propagation of the Shoebill ''Balaeniceps rex'': with detailed observations from Tampa's Lowry Park Zoo, Florida |journal=International Zoo Yearbook |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=69–82 |doi=10.1111/izy.12038}}</ref>

=== Appearances in popular culture ===
Beginning in 2014 and with various interspersed surges of attention since then, the shoebill has become the subject of [[internet meme]]s, in part due to its intimidating appearance and its tendency to stand still for long periods of time. One such example is a video of a shoebill standing in the rain whilst staring into the camera. These memes have since also appeared on the [[social media]] platform [[TikTok]], bringing a comparatively unknown species of bird into [[popular culture]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vidal |first=Nicholas |date=2023-03-28 |title=Extinction, Climate Change and Shoebills Oh My! |url=https://themontclarion.org/opinion/extinction-climate-change-and-shoebills-oh-my/ |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=The Montclarion |language=en-US}}</ref> The shoebill also inspired the design of the Loftwing birds in the 2011 game ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yuste Frías |first1=José |title=Traducción y paratraducción en la localización de videojuegos |journal=Scientia Traductionis |date=16 December 2014 |issue=15 |page=72 |doi=10.5007/1980-4237.2014n15p61 |url=https://periodicos.ufsc.br/index.php/scientia/article/view/1980-4237.2014n15p61/28328 |access-date=28 January 2024 |language=es |quote=Pero por mucho que la forma del pico del ave esté inspirada en el picozapato (''Shoebill'' en inglés, ''balaeniceps rex'' en latín), un ave de color gris del África tropical y oriental, lo que más destaca en la imagen de ''Loftwing'' no es su pico sino sus alas.|doi-access=free }} [formatting original]</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=[[The Legend of Zelda: Hyrule Historia]]|author-link1=Shigeru Miyamoto|last1=Miyamoto|first1=Shigeru|author-link2=Eiji Aonuma|last2=Aonuma|first2=Eiji|publisher=[[Dark Horse Comics|Dark Horse]]|isbn=978-1-6165-5041-7|date=2013-01-29|page=9|quote=Loftwings are modeled after birds called shoebills [...] — Hiraoka, designer}}</ref>

==Status and conservation==
The population is estimated at between {{Val|5000|fmt=commas}} and {{Val|8000|fmt=commas}} individuals, the majority of which live in swamps in South Sudan, Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Zambia.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Williams |first1=John G. |title=A Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetobird00will |url-access=registration |last2=Arlott |first2=N |publisher=Collins |year=1980 |isbn=0-00-219179-2 |edition=Rev. |location=London |oclc=7649557}}</ref> There is also a viable population in the Malagarasi wetlands in Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=John |first1=Jasson |last2=Nahonyo |first2=Cuthbert |last3=Lee |first3=Woo |last4=Msuya |first4=Charles |date=March 2013 |title=Observations on nesting of shoebill ''Balaeniceps rex'' and wattled crane ''Bugeranus carunculatus'' in Malagarasi wetlands, western Tanzania |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=184–187 |doi=10.1111/aje.12023|bibcode=2013AfJEc..51..184J }}</ref> [[BirdLife International]] has classified it as [[vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] with the main threats being [[habitat destruction]], disturbance and hunting. The bird is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ([[CITES]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Appendices I, II and III |url=http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |date=14 October 2010 |publisher=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna |access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref> Habitat destruction and degradation, hunting, disturbance and illegal capture are all contributing factors to the decline of this species. Agriculture cultivation and pasture for cattle have also caused significant habitat loss. Indigenous communities that surround Shoebill habitats capture their eggs and chicks for human consumption and for trade. Frequent fires in southern Sudan and deliberate fires for grazing access contribute to habitat loss. Some swamps in Sudan are being drained for construction of a canal to control nearby waterways, causing more habitat loss.<ref name=muir/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite journal |last=Guillet |first=A |date=1978 |title=Distribution and conservation of the Shoebill (''Balaeniceps rex'') in the Southern Sudan |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=39–50 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(78)90017-4 |bibcode=1978BCons..13...39G | ref=none}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Shoe-bill}}

{{Pelecaniformes}}
{{Pelecaniformes genera|P.|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q18700}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Birds of East Africa]]
[[Category:Pelecaniformes]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1850]]
[[Category:Taxa named by John Gould]]

Green pheasant

2025-10-20T09:47:28Z

2A02:908:1087:D4A0:906F:D96:AE66:D1EA:

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Green pheasant
| image = Phasianus versicolor in Japan.JPG
| image_caption = Male in Japan
| image2 = Phasianus versicolor female.JPG
| image2_caption = Female in Japan
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Phasianus versicolor'' |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T22732650A95047948 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22732650A95047948.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Phasianus
| species = versicolor
| authority = [[Louis Pierre Vieillot|Vieillot]], 1825<ref name="ITIS">{{Cite web |url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=175906 |title=''Phasianus versicolor'' (Vieillot, 1825) |publisher=[[ITIS]] |access-date=2012-04-03}}</ref>
| synonyms = ''Phasianus colchicus versicolor''
}}

The '''green pheasant''' ('''''Phasianus versicolor'''''), also known as the '''Japanese green pheasant''' or '''Kiji''', is an [[Omnivore#Other_species|omnivorous bird]] native to the [[Japanese archipelago]], to which it is [[Endemism in birds|endemic]].<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /><ref name = BEA>{{cite book | last = Brazil | first = Mark | title = Birds of East Asia | year = 2009| publisher = Christopher Helm | pages = 40–41| isbn = 978-0-7136-7040-0}}</ref> Some taxonomic authorities consider it a subspecies of the [[common pheasant]], ''Phasianus colchicus''.<ref name=BoB/> It is the [[List of national birds|national bird]] of [[Japan]].<ref name=japanlink>{{cite web|title=Kokucho (The national bird)|url=http://www.japanlink.co.jp/ka/symb.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913060625/http://www.japanlink.co.jp/ka/symb.htm|archive-date=13 September 2014|work=japanlink.co.jp |access-date=25 July 2014}} Declared national bird by a non-government body in 1947</ref>

==Taxonomy and systematics==
Some sources claim that the green pheasant is a subspecies of the [[common pheasant]], though others claim that they are separate, though closely related, species. The green pheasant has three subspecies. The [[nominate subspecies]], ''P. v. versicolor'', is called the southern green pheasant or kiji. The Pacific green pheasant, ''P. v. tamensis'', and northern green pheasant, ''P. v. robustipes'', are the other two subspecies. There are some cases of hybrids between the green pheasant and the [[copper pheasant]] or [[common pheasant]].<ref name=BoB/> Interbreeding of between green and common pheasants is the origin of a melanistic variant of common pheasant found in English populations.<ref name="Lever1979">{{cite book |last=Lever |first=Christopher |date=1979 |title=The Naturalized Animals of the British Isles |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalizedanima0000leve |location=London |publisher=Paladin Books |page=331-342 |isbn=978-0-586-08285-0 |access-date=9 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="Lever2009">{{cite book |last=Lever |first=Christopher |date=2009 |title=The Naturalized Animals of Britain and Ireland |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalizedanima0000leve_i7q2/page/164 |location=London |publisher=New Holland Publishers |page=164-168 |isbn=978-1-84773-454-9 |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref>

==Description==
The male (cock) southern green pheasant, ''P. v. versicolor'', has dark green [[plumage]] on the breast, neck, mantle, and flanks. The male also has a bluish-purplish hood with clear ear tufts, red [[Wattle (anatomy)|wattle]]s, and a long, pale grey-banded tail. The female (hen) is smaller than the male, with a shorter tail, and has brownish-black colored plumage, with dark brown feathers fringed pale brown.<ref name = BEA/> The males of this subspecies have the darkest plumage, which is mainly green. The male Pacific green pheasant, ''P. v. tamensis'', has lighter plumage than the nominate subspecies. Its feathers are more purple and blue. The male northern green pheasant, ''P. v. robustipes'', has the lightest plumage and its crown and mantle are more bronze than those of the other subspecies. The females of all three subspecies look much more similar, though, like with the males, the females of ''P. v. versicolor'' normally have the darkest plumage and the females of ''P. v. robustipes'' have the lightest.<ref name=BoB/>

==Behavior==
===Diet===
In the wild, green pheasants eat small animals, such as worms and insects, grains and plants. They are, in captivity, sometimes fed pellets, seeds, plants and live food.<ref name=BoB/>
===Breeding===
The green pheasants' breeding season starts during March or April and ends in June. Green pheasants can first breed when they are about one year old. One clutch has between six and fifteen eggs. The eggs are incubated for 23 to 25 days.<ref name=BoB/>
[[File:Faisan versicolore MHNT.jpg|thumb|A green pheasant egg]]

==In culture==
In Japan, many people claim that green pheasants are scared by earthquakes and 'scream'.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjo1915/20/90/20_90_239/_article|journal=Japanese Journal of Ornithology|title=On the "Cries" of the Green Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus)Concerned to the Earthquake|author=Hiroshi Yamamoto|date=1971 |volume=20 |issue=90 |pages=239–242 |doi=10.3838/jjo1915.20.90_239 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They are the national bird of Japan<ref name=japanlink/> because the way the female walks together with its chicks is seen as a symbol of harmony.<ref>{{cite book|language=ja|page=13|editor=小宮輝之|title=里山の野鳥ハンドブック|publisher=NHK Books|year=2011|isbn=978-4-14-011300-4}}</ref> It was featured on the Japanese [[10,000 yen note]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nicol |first=C.W. |date=2005-04-07 |title=Birds of fine feather -- and taste |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2005/04/07/environment/birds-of-fine-feather-and-taste/ |access-date=2024-06-10 |work=[[The Japan Times]]}}</ref>

==Habitat and distribution==
It is found throughout [[Honshu]], [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]] as well as some smaller islands;<ref name = BEA/> it has also been introduced in [[Hawaii]]<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> and (unsuccessfully) in [[North America]] as a [[gamebird]]. It inhabits woodlands and forest edges, brush, grassland, and parkland.<ref name = BEA/>

This species is common and widespread throughout its native range. It often frequents farmlands and human settlements. The introduced populations in Hawaii are stable. Populations in Western Europe have perhaps bred with the common pheasant for a number of years and no pure green pheasants exist there any longer. This species has been crossed with the common pheasant on some game farms in North America and released.<ref name=BoB>{{Cite web|url=https://www.beautyofbirds.com/greenpheasants.html|title=Green Pheasants aka Japanese Green Pheasants |last=Ramel |first=Gordon |website=Earthlife.net |access-date=2016-03-20}}</ref>

In its native range, the green pheasant outcompetes introduced populations of common pheasant; despite the two species close relation, they have differing ecological requirements, and the common pheasant is less adapted to the ecology of the green pheasant's range.

==Conservation==
Though the green pheasant population is decreasing, it is not severely fragmented. On a local and national level, green pheasants are used for food, sport hunting, specimen collecting and as pets or display animals. None of these practices are found on an international level.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> The green pheasant is one of the 29 designated 'game species' in Japan. These are the only species that can legally be hunted. A hunting license is required.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.env.go.jp/en/nature/biodiv/law.html|website= Ministry of environment(government of Japan)|title=Wildlife Protection System and Hunting Law, Wildlife Conservation in Japan|access-date=2020-01-02}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Phasianus versicolor -Japan -male-8.jpg|Male in Japan
Phasianus versicolor(Male female).jpg|Male (left) and female.<br/>Uniform color of male (with no white on neck) and spotted underside of female are characteristic.

</gallery>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Wikispecies|Phasianus versicolor}}
{{Commons}}
* gbwf.org - [https://web.archive.org/web/20060526110253/http://www.gbwf.org/pheasants/green_pheasant.html Green Pheasant ''(Phasianus versicolor)'']

{{Phasianidae}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q425900}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Phasianus]]
[[Category:Endemic birds of Japan]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1825]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Louis Pierre Vieillot]]