Flavian dynasty

2025-10-20T13:13:34Z

82.132.246.142: /* Military activity */Grammatical error.

{{short description|Roman imperial dynasty (r 69–96 CE)}}
{{redirect|Flavian Dynasty|the Roman imperial dynasty beginning with Constantine the Great, sometimes referred to as the "Neo-Flavian" Dynasty|Constantinian dynasty}}
{{Flavian dynasty|image=[[File:The Triumph of Titus Alma Tadema.jpg|260px]]|caption=The Flavian family, depicted on ''The Triumph of Titus'', by [[Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]<ref>File:The Triumph of Titus Alma Tadema.jpg</ref>
}}

The '''Flavian dynasty''', lasting from 69 to 96 CE, was the second dynastic line of emperors to rule the [[Roman Empire]] following the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty|Julio-Claudians]], encompassing the reigns of [[Vespasian]] and his two sons, [[Titus]] and [[Domitian]]. The Flavians rose to power during the [[civil war]] of 69 CE, known as the [[Year of the Four Emperors]]; after [[Galba]] and [[Otho]] died in quick succession, [[Vitellius]] became emperor in mid 69. His claim to the throne was quickly challenged by [[Roman legion|legions]] stationed in the eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian emperor in his place. The [[Second Battle of Bedriacum]] tilted the balance decisively in favor of the Flavian forces, who entered Rome on 20 December, and the following day, the [[Roman Senate]] officially declared Vespasian emperor, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign.

The reign of Titus was struck by multiple [[natural disaster]]s, the most severe of which was the eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]] in 79 CE, which saw the surrounding cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] be completely buried under [[volcanic ash|ash]] and [[lava]]. One year later, Rome was struck by [[Wildfire|fire]] and a [[Plague (disease)|plague]]. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|siege and destruction of Jerusalem]] by Titus in 70 CE, following the failed [[First Jewish-Roman War|Jewish rebellion]] of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under the command of [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] between 77 and 83 CE, while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King [[Decebalus]] in the war against the [[Dacians]]. In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the [[Limes Germanicus]].

The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the [[Colosseum]].

Flavian rule came to an end on 18 September 96, when Domitian was [[Domitian#Assassination | assassinated]]. He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor [[Nerva|Marcus Cocceius Nerva]], who founded the long-lived [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty]].

The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family.

==History==

===Establishment===

====Family history====
[[File:Vespasian - Vatikanische Museen sw.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Vespasian, [[Vatican Museums]], Vatican City]]

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BCE had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century CE.<ref name="jones-domitian-3">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 3</ref> One such family were the [[Flavius|Flavians]], or ''[[Flavia gens|gens Flavia]]'', which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]. Vespasian's grandfather, [[Titus Flavius Petro]], had served as a [[centurion]] under [[Pompey]] during [[Caesar's Civil War]]. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] in 48 BCE.<ref name="jones-domitian-1">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 1</ref> Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son [[Titus Flavius Sabinus (father of Vespasian)|Titus Flavius Sabinus I]].<ref name="jones-domitian-2">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 2</ref> Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] status through his services as [[tax collector]] in Asia and banker in [[Helvetia]] (modern Switzerland). By marrying [[Vespasia Polla]] he allied himself to the more prestigious [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] ''gens Vespasia'', ensuring the elevation of his sons [[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul AD 47)|Titus Flavius Sabinus II]] and Vespasian to the [[Roman Senate|senatorial]] rank.<ref name="jones-domitian-2"/>

[[File:Flavian family tree.png|thumb|left|300px|Flavian family tree, indicating the descendants of [[Titus Flavius Petro]] and Tertulla.]]
Around 38 CE, Vespasian married [[Domitilla the Elder]], the daughter of an equestrian from [[Ferentium]]. They had two sons, [[Titus|Titus Flavius Vespasianus]] (born in 39) and [[Domitian|Titus Flavius Domitianus]] (born in 51), and a daughter, [[Domitilla the Younger|Domitilla]] (born in 45).<ref>Townend (1961), p. 62</ref> Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress [[Caenis]] was his wife in all but name until she died in 74.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology|editor=Smith, William |via=University of Michigan Library Digital Collections |location=Boston|publisher=Little, Brown and co.|year=1867|page=1248|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moa;cc=moa;q1=caenis;rgn=full%20text;idno=ACL3129.0003.001;didno=ACL3129.0003.001;view=image;seq=00001256 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507095823/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moa;cc=moa;q1=caenis;rgn=full%20text;idno=ACL3129.0003.001;didno=ACL3129.0003.001;view=image;seq=00001256 |archive-date= May 7, 2023 }}</ref> The [[cursus honorum|political career]] of Vespasian included the offices of [[quaestor]], [[aedile]] and [[praetor]], and culminated with a [[Roman consul|consulship]] in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the [[Roman conquest of Britain|Roman invasion of Britain]] in 43.<ref>Jones (1992), p. 8</ref> Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,<ref name="suetonius-domitian">Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#1 1]</ref> even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors [[Caligula]] (37–41) and [[Nero]] (54–68).<ref>Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#4 4]</ref> Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a [[propaganda]] campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Emperor [[Claudius]] (41–54) and his son [[Britannicus]].<ref>Jones (1992), p. 7</ref> By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as [[proconsul]] of the [[Africa Province|Africa province]] in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of [[Greece]] in 66.<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 9–11</ref>

From {{Circa|57}} to 59, Titus was a military [[tribune]] in [[Germania]], and later served in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]]. His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65.<ref>Jones & Milns (2002), pp. 95–96</ref> Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle [[Barea Soranus]] and his daughter [[Servilia (1st century)|Servilia]] were among those who were killed after the failed [[Pisonian conspiracy]] of 65.<ref name="jones-168">Jones (1992), p. 168</ref> Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.<ref>Townend (1961), p. 57</ref><ref name="jones-11">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 11</ref> He never remarried. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.<ref name="jones-38">Jones (1992), p. 38</ref> The only one known to have survived to adulthood was [[Julia Flavia]], perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.<ref name="jones-38"/> During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.<ref name="suetonius-titus-4">{{cite book|author=Suetonius|title=Life of Titus|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4|chapter=44}}; with Jones and Milns, pp. 95–96</ref>

In 66, the Jews of the [[Iudaea Province|Judaea Province]] [[First Jewish-Roman War|revolted against the Roman Empire]]. [[Cestius Gallus]], the [[legatus|legate]] of [[Roman Syria|Syria]], was forced to retreat from [[Jerusalem]] and defeated at [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|the battle of]] [[Beth-Horon]].<ref>Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book II#Chapter 19|II.19.9]]</ref> The pro-Roman king [[Agrippa II]] and his sister [[Berenice (daughter of Agrippa I)|Berenice]] fled the city to [[Galilee]] where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, and dispatched him to the region at once with the [[Legio V Macedonica|fifth]] and [[Legio X Fretensis|tenth legions]].<ref name="jones-domitian-13">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 13</ref><ref>Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 1|III.1.2]]</ref> He was later joined by Titus at [[Acre, Israel|Ptolemais]], bringing with him the [[Legio XV Apollinaris|fifteenth legion]].<ref name="josephus-wars-iii-4-2">Josephus, ''The War of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 4|III.4.2]]</ref> With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem.<ref name="josephus-wars-iii-4-2"/>

====Rise to power====
{{main|Year of the Four Emperors|Galba|Otho|Vitellius}}
[[File:Roman Empire 69.svg|thumb|300px|right|The Roman Empire during the [[Year of the Four Emperors]] (69 CE). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and [[Gaius Licinius Mucianus]]. Green areas indicate provinces loyal to [[Vitellius]].]]
On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] and the army, [[Nero]] committed [[suicide]], and with him the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the [[Year of the Four Emperors]], during which the four most influential generals in the [[Roman Empire]]—[[Galba]], [[Otho]], [[Vitellius]] and [[Vespasian]]—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of [[Jerusalem]]. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]] (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.<ref name="sullivan-69">Sullivan (1953), p. 69</ref> Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of [[Lusitania]] (modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in [[Germania]] had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.<ref>Wellesley (2000), p. 44</ref>

Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital [[History of Roman Egypt|province of Egypt]], which controlled the [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|grain supply to Rome]]. His brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire [[Cohortes urbanae|city garrison]] of Rome.<ref name="jones-11" /> Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.<ref>Wellesley (2000), p. 45</ref> When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the [[First Battle of Bedriacum]], however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.<ref name="sullivan-68">Sullivan (1953), p. 68</ref> Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with [[Mucianus|Gaius Licinius Mucianus]], the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.<ref name="sullivan-68" /> A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself traveled to [[Alexandria]], leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.<ref>Wellesley (2000), p. 126</ref>

[[File:Pseudo-Vitellius Louvre MR684.jpg|thumb|left|Emperor [[Vitellius]] ([[Louvre]])]]
In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed under [[house arrest]] by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression.<ref name="waters-54">Waters (1964), p. 54</ref> Support for the old emperor was waning, however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the [[Second Battle of Bedriacum#Second Battle of Bedriacum|Second Battle of Bedriacum]], which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 3#34|III.34]]</ref> In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II,<ref>Wellesley (2000), p. 166</ref> but the soldiers of the [[Praetorian Guard]]—the imperial [[bodyguard]]—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.<ref>Wellesley (2000), p. 189</ref> On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the [[Temple of Concord]], but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the [[Capitoline Hill]].<ref name="jones-14">Jones (1992), p. 14</ref> During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of [[Isis]], and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters.<ref name="jones-14" /> By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'', and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.<ref name="jones-14" /> The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.<ref>Wellesley (1956), p. 213</ref>

Although the war had officially ended, a state of [[anarchy]] and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate.<ref name="jones-14" /> Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at [[Alexandria]], the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to [[treason]]. In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.<ref>Sullivan (1953), pp. 67–70</ref> By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor.<ref>[[Will Durant|Durant]] (1944), p. 285.</ref>

===The Flavian dynasty===

====Vespasian (69–79)====
{{main|Vespasian}}
[[File:Flavian dynasty Aurei.png|thumb|right|160px|Set of three [[aureus|aurei]] depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian.]]
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to [[Mucianus]], aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sullivan | first1 = Phillip | title = A Note on Flavian Accession | journal = The Classical Journal | year = 1953 | pages = 67–70 }}</ref> In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], such as the institution of the tax on urinals, and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these was the [[First Jewish-Roman War]], which ended in the destruction of the city of [[Jerusalem]] by Titus. In addition, Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, [[Gaul]] and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him.<ref name="ReferenceA">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Vespasian 25</ref> Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the [[Colosseum]].<ref name="ReferenceB">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Vespasian 9</ref> Vespasian died of natural causes on 23 June 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Life of Vespasian 23.4''</ref> The ancient historians that lived through the period such as [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]], [[Josephus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]] speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.<ref name="Otho, Vitellius 1965 p. 267-269">"Otho, Vitellius, and the Propaganda of Vespasian", ''The Classical Journal'' (1965), pp. 267–269</ref>

====Titus (79–81)====
{{main|Titus}}
Despite initial concerns over his character, [[Titus]] ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on 23 June 79, and was considered a good emperor by [[Suetonius]] and other contemporary historians.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars|The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#1 1]</ref> In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80,<ref>{{cite book | first=Leland M. | last=Roth | year=1993 | title=Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning | edition=First | publisher=Westview Press | location=Boulder, CO | isbn=0-06-430158-3 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth }}</ref> but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD|Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79]], and the fire of Rome of 80.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Cassius Dio#Roman History|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#22 LXVI.22–24]</ref> Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|imperial cult]], deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become the [[Temple of Vespasian and Titus]], which was finished by Domitian.<ref>Jones, Brian W. The Emperor Titus. New York: St. Martin's P, 1984. 143.</ref><ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars|The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#5 5]</ref> After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a [[fever]] on 13 September 81, and was [[Apotheosis|deified]] by the [[Roman Senate]].<ref name="suetonius-domitian-2">[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars|The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#2 2]</ref>

====Domitian (81–96)====
{{main|Domitian}}
Domitian was declared emperor by the [[Praetorian Guard]] the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since [[Tiberius]]. Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the [[Roman currency|Roman coinage]],<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 73–75</ref> expanded the border defenses of the Empire,<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 127–144</ref> and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome.<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 79–88</ref> In Britain, [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day [[Scotland]],<ref>Jones (1992), p. 131</ref> but in [[Dacia]], Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the [[Dacians]].<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 138–142</ref> On 18 September 96, Domitian was [[Domitian#Assassination | assassinated]] by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor [[Nerva]], who founded the long-lasting [[Nervan-Antonian dynasty]]. Domitian's memory was [[damnatio memoriae|condemned to oblivion]] by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign.<ref>Cary (1954), p. 624.</ref> Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the [[Principate]] of the peaceful 2nd century.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Botha | first = Pieter | title = The historical Domitian - illustrating some problems of historiography | journal = Neotestamentica | publisher = New Testament Society of Southern Africa | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | year = 1989 | pages = 45–47 | jstor = 43047910 }}</ref> His successors Nerva and [[Trajan]] were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's.<ref name="Jones196">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], pp. 196–198</ref>

==Administration==

===Government===
Since the fall of the [[Roman Republic|Republic]], the authority of the [[Roman Senate]] had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by [[Augustus]], known as the [[Principate]]. The Principate allowed the existence of a ''de facto'' dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Waters | first = K. H. | title = The Second Dynasty of Rome | journal = Phoenix | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 198–218 | year = 1963 | publisher = Classical Association of Canada | jstor = 1086720 | doi = 10.2307/1086720 }}</ref> Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a ''de facto'' monarch.<ref name="jones-164">Jones (1992), p. 164</ref> The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army.<ref>Cary (1954), p. 605.</ref> By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated.<ref>[[#Grant|Grant (1996)]] p. 220.</ref>

The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Vespasian 8</ref> He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Crook | first = John A. | title = Titus and Berenice | journal = The American Journal of Philology | volume = 72 | issue = 2 | pages = 162–175 | year = 1951| jstor=292544 | doi=10.2307/292544}}</ref> That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared [[tribune|tribunician power]] with his father, received seven [[Roman consul|consulships]], the [[Roman censor|censorship]], and perhaps most remarkably, was given [[Praetorian prefect|command]] of the [[Praetorian Guard]].<ref name=jones-18>Jones (1992), p. 18</ref> Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81.<ref name=jones-20>Jones (1992), p. 20</ref>

Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade<ref name="jones-22">Jones (1992), p. 22</ref> and transformed his government more or less formally into the [[Divine Right of Kings|divine monarchy]] he believed it to be. By moving the centre of power to the imperial [[court]], Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: [[edict]]s were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.<ref name="jones-107">Jones (1992), p. 107</ref> Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts, admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship,<ref name="jones-163">Jones (1992), pp. 163–168</ref> and assigning men of the [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] order to run the imperial bureaucracy.<ref name="jones-178">Jones (1992), pp. 178–179</ref>

===Financial reforms===
One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible,<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVI.2</ref> renewing old ones and instituting new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin [[proverb]] "''[[Pecunia non olet]]''" ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a [[urine tax]] on public toilets.<ref>[[Will Durant|Durant]] (1944), p. 287.</ref>

Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the [[Roman currency|Roman coinage]] to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the [[denarius]] by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced a [[devaluation]] to the Neronian standard of 65,<ref name="jones-75">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 75</ref> but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.<ref name="jones-75" /> Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.<ref name="jones-75" />

Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million [[sestertius|sestertii]], of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army.<ref name="jones-73">Jones (1992), p. 73</ref> The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself.<ref>[[Will Durant|Durant]] (1944), pp. 290-291.</ref>

==Challenges==

===Military activity===
{{main|First Jewish-Roman War|Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Roman conquest of Britain|Trajan's Dacian Wars}}
[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|thumb|330px|left|This relief from the [[Arch of Titus]] depicts Roman soldiers carrying treasures from the Temple of [[Jerusalem]], including the [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]]. The city was besieged and destroyed by Titus in 70.]]
The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The [[Second Temple]] was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' in honor of the victory.<ref>Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 6|VI.6.1]]</ref> [[Destruction of Jerusalem|Jerusalem was sacked]] and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.<ref name="josephus-wars-vi-9">Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 9|VI.9.3]]</ref> 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including [[Simon Bar Giora]] and [[John of Giscala]].<ref name="josephus-wars-vi-9"/> Many fled to areas around the [[Mediterranean]]. Titus reportedly refused to accept a [[wreath]] of victory, and instead "disclaimed any such honor to himself, saying that it was not himself that had accomplished this exploit, but that he had merely lent his arms to God."<ref>Philostratus, ''The Life of Apollonius of Tyana'' [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_26.html#%A729 6.29] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315005913/http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_26.html#%A729 |date=2016-03-15 }}</ref> Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a [[Roman triumph|triumph]].<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#6 LXV.6]</ref> Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. [[Josephus]] describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]] and the [[Torah]]. <ref>Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5|VII.5.5]]</ref> Leaders of the resistance were executed in the [[Forum Romanum|Forum]]. It is reported in [[Ma'ariful Qur'an]], in the exegesis of Chapter 17:7 in the [[Koran]], that the Roman Emperor used "one hundred and seventy thousand vehicles" to transport the treasures. The exegesis mentions more: "There he had it deposited in the Temple of Gold". Thereafter the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the [[Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)|Temple of Jupiter]].<ref>Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5|VII.5.6]]</ref> The [[triumphal arch|triumphal]] [[Arch of Titus]], which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.<ref>{{cite journal | last = McFayden | first = Donald | title = The Date of the Arch of Titus | journal = The Classical Journal | publisher = The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | year = 1915 | pages = 133 | jstor = 3287778 }}</ref>

The conquest of Britain continued under command of [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], who expanded the Roman Empire as far as [[Caledonia]], or modern day [[Scotland]], between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.<ref name="tacitus-agricola-24">Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[wikisource:Agricola#24|24]]</ref> He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single [[Roman legion|legion]] and a few [[auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliaries]].<ref name="jones-132">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 132</ref> He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Reed | first = Nicholas | title = The Fifth Year of Agricola's Campaigns | journal = Britannia | volume = 2 | year = 1971 | pages =143–148 | jstor = 525804| doi =10.2307/525804 | s2cid = 164089455 }}</ref> The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the [[River Forth|Forth]] into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at [[Inchtuthil]].<ref name="jones-132" /> In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by [[Calgacus]], at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]].<ref name="tacitus-agricola-29">Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[wikisource:Agricola#29|29]]</ref> Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish [[swamp|marsh]]es and [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]], ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.<ref name="jones-132" /> Elsewhere, Vespasian had a road built between the Rhine and Danube frontiers which had later military significance.<ref>[[#Boren|Boren (1977)]] p. 184.</ref>

[[File:Germania 70.svg|thumb|right|220px|[[Limes Germanicus]] in 70]]

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.<ref name="jones-127">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 127</ref> His most significant military contribution was the development of the [[Limes Germanicus]], which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the [[Rhine]] river to defend the Empire.<ref name="jones-131">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 131</ref> Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in [[Gaul]], against the [[Chatti]], and across the [[Danube]] frontier against the [[Suebi]], the [[Sarmatians]], and the [[Dacians]]. Led by King [[Decebalus]], the Dacians invaded the province of [[Moesia]] around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor, [[Oppius Sabinus]].<ref name="jones-138">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 138</ref> Domitian immediately launched a [[counterattack|counteroffensive]], which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commander, [[Cornelius Fuscus]], was killed, and the [[Aquila (Roman)|battle standard]] of the Praetorian Guard lost.<ref name="jones-141">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 141</ref> In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command of [[Tettius Julianus]], and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed.<ref name="jones-142">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 142</ref> An attack on Dacia's capital was abandoned, however, when a crisis arose on the German frontier, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/67*.html#7.2 LXVII.7]</ref> For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful [[client state|client kingdom]], but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of [[Trajan]], in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the [[gold]] and [[silver mining|silver mines]] of Dacia.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html#14.2 LXVIII.14]</ref>

===Natural disasters===
{{main|Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD|Pompeii|Herculaneum}}

Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On 24 August 79, barely two months after his accession, [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD|Mount Vesuvius erupted]],<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#22 LXVI.22]</ref> resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the [[Bay of Naples]]. The cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] were buried under metres of stone and [[lava]],<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#23 LXVI.23]</ref> killing thousands of citizens.<ref>The exact number of casualties is unknown; however, estimates of the population of Pompeii range between 10,000 ({{cite web |title=Pompeii Engineering |url=http://enginova.com/engineering_of_pompeii.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708190434/http://www.enginova.com/engineering_of_pompeii.htm |archive-date=2008-07-08 |access-date=2009-03-10}}) and 25,000 ([http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm]), with at least a thousand bodies currently recovered in and around the city ruins.</ref> Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the [[Humanitarian aid|relief effort]], while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.<ref name="suetonius-titus-8">Suetonius, Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#8 8]</ref> Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-24">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#24 LXVI.24]</ref> The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748 and confirmation of identification in 1763.<ref>[[#Ozgenel|Ozgenel (2008)]], p. 13</ref><ref>[[#Romer|Romer (2000)]] p. 18.</ref>

During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days.<ref name="suetonius-titus-8"/><ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-24"/> Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the [[Great Fire of Rome|Great Fire of 64]], crucially sparing the many districts of [[insulae]], [[Cassius Dio]] records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's [[Temple|Pantheon]], the [[Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)|Temple of Jupiter]], the [[Diribitorium]], parts of [[Theatre of Pompey|Pompey's Theatre]] and the [[Saepta Julia]] among others.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-24"/> Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-24"/> According to Suetonius, a [[Plague (disease)|plague]] similarly struck during the fire.<ref name="suetonius-titus-8"/> The nature of the disease, however, as well as the death toll, remained unknown until 2023 when Giovanni Meledandri, of the Department of Human Sciences Guglielmo Marconi University, Rome, Italy, published a research article in which he concluded that the epidemic was most probably caused by the H5N1 virus commonly known as the [[avian flu]]. Meledandri cited ancient sources for the heavy mortality caused by the plague.<ref>[[#Meledandri|Meladandri (2023)]]</ref>

===Conspiracies===
Suetonius claims that Vespasian was continuously met with conspiracies against him.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and [[Aulus Caecina Alienus]] attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus.<ref>Crook (1963), p. 168</ref> According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of the opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus.<ref>Crook (1963), p. 169</ref> When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at the games.<ref name="suetonius-titus-9">[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars|The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#9 9]</ref>

Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventual [[Domitian#Assassination | assassination]] in 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor of [[Germania Superior]], [[Lucius Antonius Saturninus]], and his two legions at [[Mainz]], [[Legio XIV Gemina]] and [[Legio XXI Rapax]], rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti.<ref name="jones-144">Jones (1992), p. 144</ref> The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of [[appeasement]] towards Decebalus.<ref name="jones-145">Jones (1992), p. 145</ref> At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of [[Germania Inferior]], [[Lappius Maximus]], moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of [[Rhaetia]], [[Titus Flavius Norbanus]]. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid.<ref name="jones-146">Jones (1992), p. 146</ref> Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.<ref name="jones-149">Jones (1992), p. 149</ref>

Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89.<ref name="tacitus-agricola-45">Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[wikisource:Agricola#45|45]]</ref><ref name="suetonius-domitian-10">Suetonius, "Life of Domitian" [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#10 10]</ref> At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed,<ref>For a full list of senatorial victims, see Jones (1992), pp. 182–188</ref> including Domitia Longina's former husband [[Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus]] and three of Domitian's own family members, [[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul 82)|Titus Flavius Sabinus IV]], [[Titus Flavius Clemens (consul)|Titus Flavius Clemens]] and [[Marcus Arrecinus Clemens (consul)|Marcus Arrecinus Clemens]].<ref>M. Arrecinus Clemens may have been exiled instead of executed, see Jones (1992), p. 187</ref> Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion.<ref name="suetonius-domitian-10"/> Modern historian Pieter Botha states that most of Domitian's persecutions were probably in reaction to real plots against him.<ref>Botha (1989) p. 53.</ref>

==Flavian culture==

===Propaganda===
Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore, a massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Charleswroth | first1 = M.P. | year = 1938 | title = Flaviana | journal = Journal of Roman Studies | volume = 27 | pages = 54–62 | doi=10.2307/297187| jstor = 297187 | s2cid = 250344174 }}</ref> At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace,<ref>Jones, William "Some Thoughts on the Propaganda of Vespasian and Domitian", ''The Classical Journal'', p. 251</ref> while the word ''vindex'' was removed from coins as to not remind the public of rebellious [[Vindex]]. Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors,<ref>Aqueduct and roads dedication speak of previous emperors' neglect, ''CIL'' vi, 1257(''ILS'' 218) and 931</ref> and a [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]] was constructed in the forum.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed,<ref>Josephus, ''Against Apion'' 9</ref> while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Vespasian 18</ref> The ancient historians that lived through the period such as [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]], [[Josephus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]] speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.<ref name="Otho, Vitellius 1965 p. 267-269"/> Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' to Vespasian's son, Titus.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' I.1; Josephus, ''The Life of Flavius Josephus'' 72; Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History'', preface.</ref> Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' LXVI.12</ref> [[Helvidius Priscus]], a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' LXVI.13</ref>

Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the [[imperial cult (ancient Rome)|imperial cult]], which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, Domitian's first act as Emperor was the [[apotheosis|deification]] of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece [[Julia Flavia]], were likewise enrolled among the gods. To foster the worship of the imperial family, Domitian erected a dynastic [[mausoleum]] on the site of Vespasian's former house on the [[Quirinal Hill|Quirinal]],<ref name="jones-87">Jones (1992), p. 87</ref> and completed the [[Temple of Vespasian and Titus]], a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother.<ref name="jones-93" /> To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, in addition to the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, he ordered the construction of the ''[[Templum Divorum]]'' or ''[[Porticus Divorum]]''<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson]] p. 96.</ref><ref>[[#Aymer|Aymer]], ''Gardens of the Roman Empire.''</ref> Although most historians say that he completed the Arch of Titus, historian Donald MacFayden, contrary to "the universal opinion of writers on the topography of Rome", asserted several reasons for it being completed after Domitian's reign.<ref>Macfayden (1915), pp. 131-132.</ref> In order to further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deity [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]],<ref name="jones-99">Jones (1992), p. 99</ref> most significantly through the restoration of the [[Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)|Temple of Jupiter]] on the [[Capitoline Hill]].<ref>[[#Grant|Grant (1996)]] p. 246.</ref>

===Construction===
{{further|Colosseum|Rabirius (architect)}}
[[File:Colosseo 2020.jpg|thumb|right|280px|The most enduring landmark of the Flavian dynasty was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the [[Colosseum]] (in Italian Colosseo). Its construction was begun by Vespasian, and ultimately finished by Titus and Domitian.]]

The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during the Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Suetonius]]|title=The Lives of Twelve Caesars|chapter=Life of Vespasian 9|isbn=1-85326-475-X|year=1997|publisher=Wordsworth Editions Ltd.|location=Ware, Hertfordshire|oclc=40184695|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/livesoftwelvecae0000suet}}</ref> In 75 a colossal statue of [[Apollo]], begun under [[Nero]] as a [[Colossus of Nero|statue of himself]], was finished on Vespasian's orders, and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the [[Colosseum]] (probably after the nearby statue), was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus.<ref>{{cite book | first=Leland M. | last=Roth | year=1993 | title=Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning | edition=First | publisher=Westview Press | location=Boulder, CO | isbn=0-06-430158-3 | oclc=185448116 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth }}</ref> In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the [[First Jewish-Roman War|Jewish wars]].<ref>{{cite book | first=Amanda | last=Claridge | year=1998 | title=Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide | edition=First | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford, UK | isbn=0-19-288003-9 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 276–282] | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 }}</ref> Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's [[Domus Aurea|Golden House]], Titus also ordered the construction of a new public [[thermae|bath-house]], which was to [[Baths of Titus|bear his name]].<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-25"/> Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.<ref name="suetonius-titus-7">[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars|The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#7 7]</ref>

The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus.<ref name="jones-79">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 79</ref> Among the most important new structures were an [[Odeon (building)|Odeum]], a [[Stadium]], and an expansive palace on the [[Palatine Hill]], known as the [[Flavian Palace]], which was designed by Domitian's master architect [[Rabirius (architect)|Rabirius]].<ref>[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], pp. 84–88</ref> The most important building Domitian restored was the [[Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)|Temple of Jupiter]] on the [[Capitoline Hill]], which was said to have been covered with a [[gilding|gilded]] roof. Among those he completed were the [[Temple of Vespasian and Titus]], the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area and, according to many sources, the Arch of Titus.<ref name="jones-93">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 93</ref><ref>For a contrary opinion on Domitian completing the Arch of Titus, see McFayden (1915).</ref>

===Entertainment===
{{main|Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre|Capitoline Games}}
Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The [[Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre]] lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including [[gladiator|gladiatorial combat]], fights between wild animals ([[elephant]]s and [[crane (bird)|cranes]]), mock [[naval battle]]s for which the theatre was flooded, [[horse race]]s and [[chariot race]]s.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-25">[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Cassius Dio#Roman History|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#25 LXVI.25]</ref> During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes ([[clothing]], [[gold]], or even [[Slavery in antiquity#Slavery in Rome|slaves]]), which could then be traded for the designated item.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-25"/>

An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on ''[[Donativum|donativa]]'', or ''[[congiarium|congiaria]]'', throughout Domitian's reign.<ref name="jones-74">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 74</ref> He also revived the practice of public [[banquet]]s, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded the [[Capitoline Games]], a quadrennial contest comprising [[Athletics (physical culture)|athletic displays]], [[chariot racing|chariot races]], and competitions for [[Public speaking|oratory]], music and acting.<ref name="jones-103">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 103</ref> Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular [[gladiator]]ial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and [[dwarfism|dwarf]] gladiator fights.<ref name="jones-105">[[#Jones|Jones (1992)]], p. 105</ref> Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides the regular White, Red, [[Blues and Greens in the Byzantine Empire|Green and Blue teams]].<ref>[[#Hood|Hood (2025)]] p. 5.</ref><ref>[[#Harris|Harris (2025)]] p. 297.</ref>

==Legacy==
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees.<ref name=Trever>[[#Trever|Trever {1939}]], p. 501.</ref> Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century.<ref>[[#Merivale|Merivale (1865)]] pp. 254-255.</ref> However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the Senate, and a conclusive move away from ''princeps'', or first citizen, and toward ''imperator'', or emperor.<ref>[[#Merivale|Merivale (1865)]] p. 255.</ref>

Many historical records of the Flavian period, especially a large portion of [[Histories (Tacitus)|Tacitus's Histories]], were lost and other contemporary authors wrote comparatively little about this period. Later essays and more indirect sources such as coins and inscriptions are used for the history of this period.<ref>[[#Merivale|Merivale (1865)]], pp. 256-257.</ref> Vespasian's government is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He also established the first educational system in ancient times and had many public works built or restored.<ref>[[#Durant|Durant (1944)]] p. 287</ref> Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people.<ref>Cary (1954), p. 607.</ref> For example, much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum.<ref>[[#Grant|Grant (1996)]] p. 224.</ref>

Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as [[Suetonius|Suetonius Tranquillus]], [[Cassius Dio]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian.<ref>Cary (1954), pp. 607-609.</ref> In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple.<ref>[[#Jacobs|Jacobs]]</ref><ref>[[#OU Staff|OU Staff]]</ref> For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.<ref>Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b)</ref>

Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century, and the culmination of the ''[[Pax Romana]]''.<ref name="Trever" /> His successors [[Nerva]] and [[Trajan]] were less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's.<ref name="Jones196" /> Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which [[Theodor Mommsen]] described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.<ref>Syme (1930), p. 67.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Flavian art]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite web |last1=Aymer |first1=Valerie |last2=Gleason |first2=Kathryn |author-link2=Kathryn Gleason |date=2021-04-17 |title=Divorum |url=https://roman-gardens.github.io/id/864b23466d/ |website=Gardens of the Roman Empire |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Cornell University, ISAW/NYU |access-date=2025-07-04 |ref=Aymer}}
*{{cite journal | last = Anderson | first = James | title = A Topographical Tradition in Fourth Century Chronicles: Domitian's Building Program | journal = Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte | publisher = Franz Steiner Verlag. | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | year = 1983 | pages = 93–105 | jstor = 4435833 |ref=Anderson}}
*{{cite book |last=Boren|first=Henry |author-link=Henry C. Boren |title=Roman society: a social, economic, and cultural history |isbn=978-0-669-84681-2 |year=1977 |publisher=D.C. Heath|location=Lexington, MA |url=https://archive.org/details/romansocietysoci0000bore/page/184/mode/1up |accessdate=2025-07-04 }}
*{{cite journal | last = Botha | first = Pieter | title = The historical Domitian - illustrating some problems of historiography | journal = Neotestamentica | publisher = New Testament Society of Southern Africa | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | year = 1989 | pages = 45–59 | jstor = 43047910 }}
*{{cite book |last=Cary |first=Max |title=A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine |isbn=978-0-671-11500-5 |year=1954 |publisher=McMillan, St. Martin's Press|location=London |edition=second |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofromedow00cary/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=2025-06-30}}
*{{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |author-link=Will Durant |title=Caesar and Christ |isbn=978-0-671-11500-5 |year=1944 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |location=New York |series=The Story of Civilization |volume=3 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.29427/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=2025-06-30}}
*{{cite book | last = Grainger | first = John D. | title = Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of 96 CE–99 | location = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-415-28917-3 }}
*{{cite book |last=Grant | first=Michael |author-link=Michael Grant (classicist) |title=The Twelve Caesars |isbn=978-0-7607-0088-4 |year=1996 |publisher=Barnes & Noble Books |location=New York |ref=Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/twelvecaesars00mich/page/n307/mode/2up |access-date=2025-07-02}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Scanlon |editor-first=Thomas |author-last=Harris |author-first=Harold |title=Sport in the Greek and Roman worlds |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=978-0-19-870378-5 |ref=Harris |url=https://archive.org/details/sportingreekroma0000unse/page/n11/mode/2up |access-date=2025-06-30}}
*{{cite book |last=Hood |first=Jane |title=How to win a Roman chariot race : lives, legends and treasures from the ancient world |publisher=Icon Books |year=2015 |location=London, United Kingdom |isbn=978-1-84831-946-2 |ref=Hood |url=https://archive.org/details/howtowinromancha0000hood_y0k6/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=2025-06-30}}
*{{cite web |last1=Jacobs |first1=Joseph |last2=Krauss |first2=Samuel |author-link1=Joseph Jacobs |author-link2=Samuel Krauss |date=1906 |title=TITUS full name, Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14412-titus |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |location=Philadelphia, PA |publisher=The Kopelman Foundation |access-date=2025-07-05 |ref=Jacobs}} (This website contains the complete contents of the 12-volume Jewish Encyclopedia, which was originally published between 1901 and 1906. The Jewish Encyclopedia, which recently became part of the public domain, contains over 15,000 articles and illustrations.)
*{{cite book | last = Jones | first = Brian W. | title = The Emperor Domitian | publisher = Routledge | year = 1992 | location = London | isbn = 0-415-10195-6 |ref=Jones}}
*{{cite book | first = Brian W. |last=Jones |author2=Milns, Robert |title=Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary |year=2002 |publisher=Bristol Classical Press |location=London |isbn=1-85399-613-0 |ref=Milns}}
*{{cite journal | last = McFayden | first = Donald | title = The Date of the Arch of Titus | journal = The Classical Journal | publisher = The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | year = 1915 | pages = 131–141 | jstor = 3287778 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Meledandri |first=Charles Leslie |title=Titus' Plague, Hypotheses on its Origin and Causes: A Consilience Study |journal=Journal of Virology and Viral Diseases |volume=3 |issue=1 |year=2023 |location=Newark, Delaware |url=https://www.acquirepublications.org/Journal/Virology/Articles/JVVD2300101 |doi=10.54289/JVVD2300101 |doi-access=free |ref=Meledandri}} (full text online "...distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.")
*{{cite book |last=Merivale |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Merivale |title=A history of the Romans under the empire |year=1865 |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green |location=London |oclc=832686898 |ref=Merivale |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryromansu08merigoog/page/n271/mode/1up |access-date=2025-07-05}}
*{{cite journal | last = Murison | first = Charles Leslie | title = M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians | journal = Transactions of the American Philological Association | volume = 133 | issue = 1 | pages =147–157 | year = 2003 | location = University of Western Ontario | url = http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/transactions_of_the_american_philological_association/v133/133.1murison.html | doi = 10.1353/apa.2003.0008 | s2cid = 162211747 | url-access = subscription }}
*{{cite web |last=Staff |first=OU |date=2011-07-19 |title=Destruction and Desecration: Titus the Wicked and his Nephew Onkelos the Convert |url=https://www.ou.org/holidays/destruction_and_desecration/ |website= OrthodoxUnion |location=New York |publisher=Orthodox Union |access-date=2025-07-05}}
*{{Cite journal | last=Ozgenel | first=Lalo | title=A Tale of Two Cities: In Search of Ancient Pompeii and Herculaneum | url=http://jfa.arch.metu.edu.tr/archive/0258-5316/2008/cilt25/sayi_1/1-25.pdf | access-date=26 January 2018 | pages=1–25 | publisher=Middle East Technical University | place=Ankara | volume=25 | issue=1 | journal=Journal of the Faculty of Archaeology | date=15 April 2008 | archive-date=30 September 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930032022/http://jfa.arch.metu.edu.tr/archive/0258-5316/2008/cilt25/sayi_1/1-25.pdf | url-status=dead | ref=Ozgenel}}
*{{cite book |first=John |last=Romer |title=Great excavations: John Romer's history of archaeology |year=2000 |publisher=Caswell & Co. |location=London, UK |isbn=978-0-304-35563-1 |ref=Romer |url=https://archive.org/details/greatexcavations0000rome/page/18/mode/2up |accessdate=2025-07-02}}
*{{cite journal | last = Sullivan | first = Philip B. | title = A Note on the Flavian Accession | journal = The Classical Journal | publisher = The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. | volume = 49 | issue = 2 | year = 1953 | pages =67–70 | jstor = 3293160 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Syme |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Syme |title=The Imperial Finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=20 |year=1930 |pages=55–70 |jstor=297385 |doi=10.2307/297385 |s2cid=163980436 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Townend |first=Gavin |title=Some Flavian Connections |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=51 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=54–62 |year=1961 |publisher=Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies |jstor=298836 |doi=10.2307/298836 |s2cid=163868319 }}
*{{cite book |first=Albert |last=Trever |title=History Of Ancient Civilization Volume II The Roman World |year=1939 |publisher=Harcourt, Brace and Company |location=New York |asin=B000R0E4RI |ref=Trever |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.166237/page/n544/mode/1up?q=Flavians+accomplishments&view=theater |accessdate=2025-07-02}}
*{{cite journal | last = Waters | first = K. H. | title = The Character of Domitian | journal = Phoenix | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 49–77 | year = 1964 | publisher = Classical Association of Canada | jstor = 1086912 | doi = 10.2307/1086912 }}
*{{cite journal | last = Wellesley | first = Kenneth | title = Three Historical Puzzles in Histories 3 | journal = The Classical Quarterly | volume = 6 | issue = 3/4 | pages = 207–214 | year = 1956 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | jstor = 636914 | doi = 10.1017/S0009838800020188| s2cid = 170747190 }}
*{{cite book |last= Wellesley |first= Kenneth |title= The Year of the Four Emperors |orig-year= 1975 |series= Roman Imperial Biographies |year= 2000 |publisher= Routledge |location= London |page=272 |isbn= 978-0-415-23620-1 }}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Holland |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Holland (author) |title=PAX: War and Peace in Rome's Golden Age |publisher=Basic Books |year=2023 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7607-0088-4 |ref=Holland |url=https://archive.org/details/howtowinromancha0000hood_y0k6/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=2025-06-30}}
*{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Brian W. |title=The Emperor Titus |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1984 |location=London |isbn=0-312-24443-6 }}
*{{cite book | last = Levick | first = Barbara | title = Vespasian (Roman Imperial Biographies | publisher = Routledge | year = 1999 | location = London | isbn = 0-415-16618-7 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category multi|Vespasianus|Titus|Domitianus}}

===Primary sources===
* [[Cassius Dio]], ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html Roman History]''
**[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/64*.html Book 64], English translation
**[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html Book 65], English translation
**[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html Book 66], English translation
**[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/67*.html Book 67], English translation
* [[Josephus]], [[s:The War of the Jews|''The War of the Jews'']], English translation
* [[Suetonius]], ''[[De Vita Caesarum|On the Life of the Caesars]]''
**[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html Life of Vespasian], Latin text with English translation
**[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html Life of Titus], Latin text with English translation
**[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html Life of Domitian], Latin text with English translation
* [[Tacitus]]
**[[s:Agricola|''Agricola'']], English translation
**[[s:Histories (Tacitus)|''Histories'']], English translation

===Secondary material===
*{{cite web |url=http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/index.php?cat=11162 |title=A Gallery of Flavian Coins}}

{{s-start}}
{{Succession box|title=Flavian dynasty|before=[[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]|after=[[Nerva–Antonine dynasty]]|years=69–96 CE}}
{{s-end}}

{{good article}}
{{Epochs of Roman Emperors}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Flavian Dynasty}}
[[Category:Flavian dynasty| ]]
[[Category:Roman imperial dynasties]]
[[Category:1st century in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:69 establishments]]
[[Category:96 disestablishments]]
[[Category:60s establishments in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:90s disestablishments in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]

Vero - Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Flavian dynasty