New Zealand bellbird
Template:Short description Template:Good article Template:Use New Zealand English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Speciesbox The New Zealand bellbird (Anthornis melanura), also known by its Māori language names korimako, makomako and kōmako, is a medium-sized species of honeyeater endemic to New Zealand. It has been the only living member of the genus Anthornis since the Chatham bellbird went extinct in the early 20th century. The bellbird's closest living relative is the only other New Zealand honeyeater, the tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae). The bellbird forms a significant component of the famed New Zealand dawn chorus of birdsong, which was much noted by early European settlers. Exceptional singing abilities were already observed by Captain James Cook, who described its song as "like small bells most exquisitely tuned".<ref name=":11">Template:Cite book</ref>
Bellbirds measure about Template:Convert in length, with females weighing approximately Template:Convert and males Template:Convert. Males are mostly olive-green with paler underparts, and bluish-black wings and tail. Females are paler and browner. Like other honeyeaters, the bellbird has a brush-like tongue that enables effective feeding on nectar from deep flowers. The species is common across much of New Zealand, its offshore islands, and the Auckland Islands, but it is scarce north of Waikato and across the Canterbury Plains and Central Otago. Its habitat includes both native and exotic forests and scrublands, and it is commonly found in parks and gardens.
Bellbirds feed on nectar, fruit, honeydew, and insects. During the breeding season, they become highly territorial and aggressively defend their territory against intruders. Bellbirds form monogamous pairs with long-lasting bonds that can span many years. Females typically lay around 3–4 eggs and incubate them for about 13–15 days. Fledging occurs approximately 19 days after hatching. Bellbirds have modified their ninth primary flight feathers, allowing them to produce specific whirring sounds in flight that they utilise during courtship and territorial defence. The bellbird is regarded as taonga (cultural or spiritual treasure) by the Māori, who traditionally valued it for both its meat and its melodious singing abilities.
Taxonomy and nomenclature
History and names
The first Europeans to encounter New Zealand bellbirds were members of the first voyage of James Cook (1768–1771). When anchored at Queen Charlotte Sound, the voyage botanist Joseph Banks wrote in his diary on 17 January 1770 about a local dawn chorus: "Their voices were certainly the most melodious wild musick I have ever heard, almost imitating small bells but with the most tuneable silver sound imaginable".<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref name=":16" /> It is assumed that the chorus was created by bellbirds.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar>Template:Cite journal</ref> Johann Reinhold Forster and Anders Sparrman collected the first specimens in April 1773 during Cook's second voyage.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /> Forster illustrated the bellbird in Dusky Sound, however his illustration remained unpublished for many years.Template:Sfn John Latham published a description of the bellbird in his 1782 work A General Synopsis of Birds. He mentioned that the bellbird "has an agreeable note" and that because of its ability to imitate the notes of other birds, "it was called by the English the Mocking-bird".Template:Sfn Latham, who at that time created English names for species, and did not start applying Latin binomial names until a 1790 publication, assigned it to the Creeper genus and named the species the Mocking Creeper.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar />Template:Sfn The specimen he described was in the Leverian Museum in London, but has been lost, which probably happened when the Leverian collection was broken up and sold by auction in 1806.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar />
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Sparrman published his own description of the species in 1786 and coined the binomial name Certhia melanura.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="ioc">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> His description was based on a specimen in the private museum of Template:Ill in Sweden, which held birds that Sparrman had collected on the voyage with Cook and at the Cape of Good Hope, where he lived before and after the voyage.<ref name=Medway2004/> He erroneously wrote in the description that the specimen was from the Cape of Good Hope (in the original text he used the Cape's Latin name, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref name=":1" />). In the past, mislabelling specimens was quite common<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and Sparrman made exactly the same mistake with two other New Zealand birds, the rifleman and piopio.Template:Sfn The type locality was later corrected to Queen Charlotte Sound.Template:Sfn Parts of Carlson's collection ended up in the Swedish Museum of Natural History and the type specimen was there as of 1857, but it was not found there in a 1926 study.<ref name=Medway2004>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The specific name melanura means "black-tailed" (from Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "black", and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "tail").<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In Māori, the bellbird is known by several names, including {{#invoke:Lang|lang}},<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}},<ref name=":3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}},<ref name=":16">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.Template:Sfn The male bellbird is known as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The English common name "bellbird" originates from the imaginative similarity of one of its notes to the distant ringing of a bell.Template:Sfn The subspecies epithet oneho is named after a hill (216 m) on Aorangi Island (one of the Poor Knights Islands). The hill was named after Oneho, the wife of Tatua, the last chief of the Ngatitoki hapū that inhabited the island until the 1820s.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /> Obscurus, another subspecies epithet, comes from Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("dark", "dusky").Template:Sfn
Classification
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The bellbird was originally placed into the genus Certhia.<ref name=":1" /> In 1840, George Robert Gray established a genus Anthornis, where he moved the bellbird.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The bellbird is the type species of the genus.<ref name="Checklist" /> This classification has been widely accepted since then.<ref name="Checklist">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> For a long time, the New Zealand bellbird was the sole representative of the genus Anthornis. The Chatham bellbird (A. melanocephala), which became extinct in the early 20th century, was formerly classified as a subspecies of the New Zealand bellbird, as A. melanura melanocephala. The Chatham bellbird is now recognised as a separate species and a second member of the genus.<ref name="Checklist" /> The New Zealand bellbird and the tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) are the only representatives of honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) in New Zealand.<ref name=":20">Template:Cite journal</ref> The hihi or stitchbird (Notiomystis cincta), another New Zealand endemic bird, was originally considered to be a honeyeater also, but it is now believed to constitute its own monotypic family Notiomystidae.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
A molecular study from 2017 identified the Chatham bellbird as the closest relative to the New Zealand bellbird. Both species constitute a clade to which the tūī is a sister taxon. Other close relatives of the bellbirds and the tūī are the marbled and plain honeyeaters from New Guinea. Their phylogenetic relationships are shown in the cladogram below:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Subspecies
There are three recognised subspecies of the New Zealand bellbird with the following distribution:<ref name="ioc" />
- A. melanura melanura (Sparrman, 1786) – occurs in the North Island, South Island, Stewart Island and Auckland Islands
- A. melanura oneho (Falla, 1948)<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /> – Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands
- A. melanura obscura (Bartle & Sagar, 1987)<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> – Poor Knights Islands
Description
Bellbirds are medium-sized honeyeaters, about 17–20 cm in length from the tip of their beak to the end of their tail. Females weigh about 25Template:Nbspg and males 33Template:Nbspg.Template:Sfn Males have an olive-green body with a dark purplish sheen on their head. Their belly and flanks are lighter.Template:Sfn The uppertail is black-brown with a narrow iridescent blue-black edge on most feathers. The upperwing coverts are mostly dark olive-green, with blackish inner webs. The vent and undertail-coverts are pale yellow to off-white, and the thighs are grey. The underwing is mainly grey with a dark olive leading edge, pale-yellow secondary coverts, and a brown tint to the remiges.Template:Sfn There is a yellow patch at the bend of a folded wing.Template:Sfn The iris of the male is red.<ref name=":8">Template:Cite book</ref>
Females are slightly smaller than males.<ref name=":8" /> Their plumage is duller and much browner than adult males.Template:Sfn The gloss on the head is bluish, and there is a narrow white stripe starting at the gape and continuing below the eye.<ref name=":8" /> Upperparts are dark olive-brown with dark brown uppertail and olive-edged outer webs. The upperwing is mostly dark olive-brown with dark brown inner webs and olive outer edges. Underparts are mostly olive-brown with a patch of pale yellow feathers on the flanks, less prominent than in adult males, and pale olive to off-white vent and undertail-coverts. The undertail is brownish grey, and the underwing resembles that of an adult male.Template:Sfn The iris of a female is brown.<ref name=":8" />
Bare parts of males and females are the same. The bill is black and slightly curved downwards. Legs are grey-black, claws brown.<ref name=":8" /> Similar to other honeyeaters, bellbirds have a brush-like tongue that is used to collect nectar deeply from flowers.<ref name=":17">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The tongue is longitudinally grooved, and its tip is divided into four segments. The end of each segment is equipped with fine hair-like structures that form the final brush.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In both sexes, the ninth primary feather is notched.<ref name=":8" /> Sometimes, the eighth or tenth or all three mentioned primaries are notched too.<ref name=":9">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Both subspecies oneho and obscura are very similar in appearance to the nominate species described above.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Male subsp. oneho has more blue sheen on its head, and feathers on some upper parts (nape, forehead, crown, ear coverts, chin, and throat) have a violet sheen.Template:Sfn Female subspecies oneho differs from the nominate female by having a greener sheen on the head and neck, and a green-blue sheen on the crown, forehead, nape, and ear coverts.Template:Sfn Compared to mainland birds, males of the subsp. oneho are relatively larger in proportion to females.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /> The male subsp. obscura has slightly darker plumage than the nominate male, and its sheen on the upper body parts is violet. The female subsp. obscura has slightly paler underparts compared to the nominate female.Template:Sfn
A juvenile male is similar to an adult male but is duller with very little to no iridescence. A juvenile female is even paler and greyer than a juvenile male.Template:Sfn Unlike adults, juvenile bellbirds don't have their primaries notched.<ref name=":8" /> Nestlings are initially born without feathers but quickly develop a covering of grey down.<ref name=":8" />
Distribution and habitat
The most widespread subspecies by far is melanura, which can be found throughout North, South, Stewart and Auckland Islands.Template:Sfn It is also present on many satellites like Tiritiri Matangi Island,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Mokohinau, Little Barrier, Cuvier, Mercury, Hen and Chickens, Aldermen and Mayor Islands.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite journal</ref> Vagrants have appeared as far south as Campbell Island<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and there is a historical record from the Snares Islands dating back to 1888.Template:Sfn Subsp. oneho only occurs on Three Kings Islands, and subsp. obscura only nests on Poor Knights Islands, but occasionally visits the nearby mainland of eastern Northland. Bellbirds are almost absent north of Waikato. Northland can get occasional winter female visitors from nearby offshore islands, and small pocket populations exist in some places north of Auckland like Tāwharanui Peninsula and Shakespear Regional Park.Template:Sfn It is also scarce in the Canterbury Plains and Central Otago.<ref name=":14" /> In their native forest habitat, bellbirds can be abundant and are more widely distributed than tūī.<ref name=":22">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The bellbird's habitat encompasses both native and exotic forests and scrublands, and it is frequently found in urban areas such as parks and gardens,Template:Sfn especially if there is a nearby patch of native bush. It is found from lowland areas at sea level up to about 1200 metres, including subalpine regions above the tree line. It particularly thrives in densely vegetated areas with a mix of podocarp-hardwood lowland forests with diverse vegetation. It is typically found in forests dominated by northern rātā (Metrosideros robusta), tawheowheo (Quintinia serrata), kāmahi (Weinmannia racemosa), as well as mixed southern beech forests (Nothofagus spp.) or coastal broadleaf forests, such as pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa). Additionally, it can be found in exotic forests such as eucalyptus, acacia, and even pine and willow forests. Occasionally, it ventures into farmland, including orchards.Template:Sfn
On predator-free islands, bellbirds typically reach higher population densities than on the mainland.<ref name=":23">Template:Cite journal</ref> On the Poor Knights Islands, subsp. oneho reaches densities of 71 birds per hectare.<ref name=":24">Template:Cite journal</ref> However, this figure was derived from a study area of only 0.45 hectares, and therefore may not accurately reflect the entire 66-hectare island.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> On the predator-free Great Island in the Three Kings Islands, the density of bellbirds was estimated to be 16 birds per hectare<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and on Tiritiri Matangi Island 2.13 pairs per hectare.<ref name=":23" />
Behaviour and ecology
During the breeding season, bellbirds mostly remain within their territories but may leave to feed at nearby food sources. Outside of this period, they are solitary and nomadic.Template:Sfn The bellbird's flight is noisy and direct.Template:Sfn While some populations are residential, some may migrate locally. Seasonal migrations were recorded between bush in the winter and summer coastal forest, or between river beds and urban areas.Template:Sfn They are also capable of moving between offshore islands and the mainland. Bellbirds from Tawharanui are believed to have flown from Little Barrier Island, which is 23 km away across the open sea.Template:Sfn
Main natural predators of bellbirds are the swamp harrier (Circus approximans)<ref name=":23" /> and the New Zealand falcon (Falco novaeseelandiae). In the Auckland Islands, bellbirds were the most commonly eaten prey of falcons.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Bellbirds can also be attacked by Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Breeding
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Bellbirds are monogamous and establish long-term bonds.<ref name=":8" /> They keep the same territory each year.Template:Sfn On Poor Knight Islands, adult males were defending their territories year-round. During the breeding season, a female shared a male's territory and helped defend it by chasing away other bellbirds. After breeding, she became non-territorial and, especially in autumn, joined flocks of juveniles and immature birds.<ref name=":24" /> During breeding, bellbirds vigorously defend their territories, with females willing to physically attack intruders. Sometimes, females attempt to distract approaching predators by falling to the ground and flapping away through dense undergrowth.<ref name=":8" />
Courtship occurs in August and September, during which a pair of bellbirds can be seen chasing each other or singing together.<ref name=":23" /> Male courtship behaviour includes hovering or slowly ascending with his body in a vertical position, producing a whirring sound with his wings.<ref name=":8" /> Courtship feeding sometimes occurs, during which the male feeds the female.Template:Sfn Courtship behaviour intensifies as they get closer to nest building.<ref name=":23" /> The female constructs a cup-shaped nest from twigs, moss and fibres,Template:Sfn<ref name=":23" /> lining it with fine grasses, wool and feathers.Template:Sfn<ref name=":8" /> While the nest is usually situated in a tree, on some islands it may be located in a rock or trunk cavity.Template:Sfn On a tree, it could be placed from ground level to about 15 m high.<ref name=":8" /> On Tiritiri Matangi, most nests were placed under the hanging fronds of tree ferns.<ref name=":23" /> Nest building takes about 3–7 days.<ref name=":23" />
Mainland bellbirds generally lay eggs between September and January, typically raising two broods. In contrast, bellbirds from the Poor Knights Islands lay eggs from late September to late November and usually have only one brood.Template:Sfn Females lay 3–4 eggs at daily intervals.Template:Sfn The eggs measure approximately 23×16 mm and are pinkish with red-brown spots.Template:Sfn Only females incubate the eggs, while males defend the territory.<ref name=":8" /> Incubation lasts approximately 13–15 days,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn starting with the last egg laid.Template:Sfn Occasionally, the male may feed the incubating female, but she also leaves the nest to forage independently.<ref name=":8" />
Usually both parents feed the chicks,Template:Sfn though sometimes only females feed the chicks or do the majority of feeding.<ref name=":8" /> The female broods the chicks for about 5–6 days, spending all night and about half of the day doing so; after this period, she only broods at night.Template:Sfn Chicks fledge after around 19 days.Template:Sfn They stay close to the nest in dense vegetation, where their parents continue to feed them. After about 3 days, the young birds begin to forage on their own, becoming fully independent in approximately another week or two.Template:Sfn On Tiritiri Matangi, nest success was 44 %, primarily hindered by predation and nest abandonment, contributing to the relatively low reproductive success.<ref name=":23" /> Bellbirds can begin breeding in their first yearTemplate:Sfn and can live at least eight years.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Diet
Bellbirds consume nectar, fruit, honeydew, and insects.Template:Sfn<ref name=":19">Template:Cite journal</ref> For most of the year, they feed on nectar from a large variety of native and, more recently, exotic plant species. However, in autumn, when nectar and honeydew are scarce, they eat more fruit.Template:Sfn<ref name=":19" />Template:Sfn Females tend to consume more insects than males, likely because the more aggressive males exclude them from feeding territories.Template:Sfn Fruit is typically consumed whole, with diameters mostly below 6 mm and occasionally up to 10 mm.<ref name=":19" />
Nectar is taken from a variety of local plants, such as New Zealand fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata), kōwhai (Sophora sp.), five-finger (Neopanax arboreus), flax (Phormium sp.), southern rātā (Metrosideros umbellata), mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus), horopito (Pseudowintera sp.), kanuka (Kunzea ericoides), pate (Schefflera digitata), red matipo (Myrsine australis), supplejack (Ripogonum scandens), broadleaf (Griselinia littoralis), cabbage tree (Cordyline australis), ribbonwood (Plagianthus regius) and many others.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":21" /><ref name=":20" /> Similar to nectar, fruit can be obtained from numerous species of trees and shrubs, such as karamū (Coprosma lucida, C. robusta), makomako (Aristotelia serrata), rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), flax, red matipo or rōhutu (Neomyrtus pedunculata).<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":21">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":20" />Template:Sfn Favourite insects taken include flies (Diptera), true bugs (Hemiptera), and true cicadas (Cicadidae).Template:Sfn Young birds primarily feed on insects such as caterpillars, moths, larvae, and spiders.Template:Sfn
Bellbirds can gather food from all levels of the forest. They may also forage in flocks with other bird species, such as the whitehead (Mohoua albicilla).Template:Sfn They obtain insects by gleaning them from all parts of a tree or by hawking.Template:Sfn During the breeding season, they are territorial and forage alone. After breeding, they are typically solitary, even though multiple individuals may forage in the same tree simultaneously; each defends its own foraging territory within the tree.Template:Sfn Bellbirds play an important part in pollinating numerous native plants such as mistletoe (e.g. Peraxilla tetrapetala), fuchsia, and kōwhai.<ref name="DOC">Bellbird/korimako facts – Department of Conservation Template:Webarchive Retrieved: 13 February 2011</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> They are also important seed dispersers.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":8" />
Song and sound
Template:Listen The New Zealand bellbirds have a distinctive vocal repertoire. Its pronounced singing voice was noted already by James Cook who thought that "it seemed to be like small bells most exquisitely tuned".<ref name=":11" /> Bellbird song varies regionallyTemplate:Sfn and is somewhat similar to the song of the tūī but it doesn't include harsh grunts, clicks and wheezes.Template:Sfn<ref name=":17" /> Bellbirds utilise their song throughout the year to defend breeding territories and food resources.<ref name=":18">Template:Cite journal</ref> Bellbirds sing throughout the day but are especially active in the early morning and evening. The male's song features three distinct sounds reminiscent of chiming bells. The dawn song typically includes 2 to 6 pure, bell-like notes, sometimes interspersed with quieter tones, and can last between 10 and 40 minutes, particularly at dawn and during the breeding season. While singing, the male stretches his neck and fluffs his feathers. Singing males often join together in unison. Their full song includes a variety of sounds, such as clonks, chonks, quiet notes, and harsh noises. The female sings with quite pure frequency, producing songs of 7 to 15 notes. She can engage in countersinging with other females or perform duets with her mate.<ref name=":8" />
Song types differ significantly between the sexes, with males singing several structurally distinct types of songs, while females produce overlapping types in structure.<ref name=":18" /> Joint singing at dawn, as noted by Sir Joseph Banks in Queen Charlotte Sound during James Cook's first voyage to New Zealand, occurs primarily at dawn and dusk in areas with a high density of bellbirds and few other bird species. This phenomenon is only heard when many bellbirds are present at the same time.<ref name=":17" /> Their alarm call is a rapidly repeated set of harsh staccato "yeng".<ref name=":17" />
The modification of the ninth, sometimes also eight or tenth primaries allow bellbirds to make a specific whirring sound during flight. The wing sound frequencies can vary, usually staying below 1000 hertz. Bellbirds can control the production of these sounds and tūī, a major food competitor, can also make them. The wing whirling sounds are connected to the expression of aggression on feeding territories, territory defence but also courtship displays.<ref name=":9" />
Conservation
Historical decline
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Bellbirds were once widespread across New Zealand in high numbers. At the time of European arrival, they were one of the most common birds.Template:Sfn<ref name=":4" /> Bellbird populations have declined significantly due to the destruction of native forests (initiated by Māori and perpetuated by Europeans<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>) and the introduction of invasive predators such as cats (Felis catus), mustelids including ferret (Mustela furo), stoat (M. erminea), weasel (M. nivalis), and rodents such as Norwegian rat (Rattus norvegicus) and ship rat (Rattus rattus).<ref name=":22" /> Between the 1860s and about 1900, bellbird numbers declined very dramatically, prompting many ornithologists to search for reasons beyond deforestation and introduced mammals.Template:Sfn<ref name=":4" /> Walter Buller, the prominent New Zealand ornithologist of the 19th century, in his landmark book A History of the Birds of New Zealand (1873), quoted Hokianga resident Frederick Maning, who said:Template:Sfn
The decline started in the north of the country and moved south.<ref name=":4" /> By 1870, bellbirds had vanished from Northland and between 1868 and 1878 they disappeared from Great Barrier Island.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /> In the South Island, bellbird numbers in Canterbury did not reach their lowest point until 1900. While bellbirds declined across New Zealand's main islands, the impact was most pronounced in the North Island.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /> After 1910, bellbird numbers in Canterbury started to surge. A comparable recovery, albeit earlier, occurred in many North Island areas apart from northern areas like Northland.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar />
J. G. Myers suggested that the decline could have been caused by a disease such as avian malaria, which was introduced from Europe together with some non-native bird species.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This hypothesis is supported by the fact that offshore island populations were not as affected (the Great Barrier, with its highly modified habitat, represents an exception), and bellbirds have survived in some mainland habitats with the same pressure of introduced mammals until the present day.Template:Sfn However, challenging the "disease hypothesis" is the observation that the probable disease organisms and their vectors had been present in New Zealand since the 1820s, making it unlikely that an avian disease would cause the sudden bellbird's decline a few decades later.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /> Moreover, further evidence supporting a sudden spread of disease is lacking, and widespread sudden decrease in other taxa suggest a wider ecological problem.<ref name=":4" />
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The main cause of this sharp decline remains unclear<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /><ref name=":17" /> and could differ in certain areas across New Zealand.<ref name=Bartle_Sagar /> Andreas Reischek considered the decline to be caused by "cats, rats, bees and bush-fires."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Buller mentioned that some Māori from Northland believed that the decline was caused by an introduced honey bee that drove away the bellbirds from their flowers. Buller originally believed that the decline was caused by introduced rats.Template:Sfn However, in 1894 he cast doubts on this hypothesis after visiting Motutaiko Island in Lake Taupō, infamous for its rat infestation, yet discovered a thriving bellbird population there.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Later authors suggested that rats still may have caused the decline of the bellbirds and that the rats Buller saw on Motutaiko Island were in fact either Norwegian ratsTemplate:Sfn or Polynesian rats,<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref> which do not climb trees frequently, and the sharp decline was caused by tree-climbing ship rats.Template:Sfn
Ship rats were introduced in northern New Zealand in the mid-19th century, and their rapid spread south indeed coincided with the decline of bellbirds (and some other passerines as well, like South Island saddleback (Philesturnus carunculatus), parakeets (Cyanoramphus spp.) and bush wren (Xenicus longipes)).<ref name=":4" /> Ship rats are believed to be the primary reason for the extinction of the Chatham Island bellbird, which is another reason to suspect that they also played a significant role in the population decline of New Zealand bellbirds.<ref name=":15">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Some other research also points to ship rats<ref name=":12">Template:Cite journal</ref> or introduced mammalian predators in general.<ref name="Elliott">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Reintroductions
There have been many attempts to reintroduce bellbirds to areas of their former abundance. The first reintroduction occurred in 1932 when Auckland Zoological Society released 15 bellbirds from Little Barrier Island in the Waitākere Ranges. The bellbirds initially dispersed a few kilometres into the valley but gradually disappeared with no reports after 1946.<ref name=":7" /> During the second mainland release in March 1983 at Shakespear Regional Park, 22 birds were set free. Only one nest was reported, and soon after, bellbirds disappeared, with some observed returning to their home island of Tiritiri Matangi. Similar outcomes were seen in a few other release attempts, where bellbirds vanished shortly after being released.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":10">Template:Cite journal</ref> As of 2012, a few more reintroductions were in progress.<ref name=":10" /> The cause of failures of reintroductions of bellbirds is often difficult to determine, but predation by mammalian predators, mainly ship rats, is thought to be a critical factor.<ref name=":4" /> There is a potential possibility to translocate bellbirds to Chatham Islands in order to replace the ecological niche of their extinct relative, the Chatham bellbird.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Threats and population assessment
Despite the bellbirds' widespread presence on the New Zealand mainland, their populations remain low due to the impact of mammalian predators like rats and stoats.<ref name=":16" /> Invasive mammalian predators are the main threats to bellbirds. In beech forest the main predator is the stoat, while in non-beech forest areas the main predator is likely the ship rat.<ref name=":15" /> In areas of the mainland where bellbirds are found, their numbers are typically lower compared to predator-free islands. Although possums have not been shown to directly kill bellbirds, they compete with them for food resources.<ref name=":16" /> Introduced social wasps like German wasps (Vespula germanica), and particularly common wasps (V. vulgaris), have been found to significantly diminish the availability of honeydew drops, which are an important food source for bellbirds.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies bellbirds as a species of least concern.<ref name=":13" /> New Zealand Department of Conservation considers subsp. melanura as "not-threatened", while island subspecies obscura and oneho are "naturally uncommon".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to IUCN and a 2010 study, the overall bellbird population is suspected to be in decline as a result of predation by introduced mammals and ongoing habitat destruction.<ref name=":13">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Elliott" /> The decline is most prominent in lowland areas under 1000 metres in elevation.<ref name="Elliott" /> A 2022 study of New Zealand garden birds concluded that bellbird numbers are stable or locally increasing.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Known increases of bellbirds in some areas like Christchurch Port Hills,<ref name=":14" /> Lake Rotoiti,<ref name=":15" /> Craigieburns,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Kapiti Island or Tiritiri Matangi are related to the control of invasive mammalian species.<ref name=":14">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Elliott" /><ref name=":12" />
Relationship with humans
In Māori culture
The bellbird is regarded as taonga by the Māori,<ref name=":3" /> who traditionally valued it for its meat and singing abilities. There are many {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (proverbs) that refer to the bellbird's singing. Early Māori, who deeply appreciated songs and oratories, compared skilled performers to bellbirds by saying "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}" (Just like a korimako singing at dawn).Template:Sfn In addition to proverbs highlighting the bellbird's singing abilities, some compare the restless nature of female bellbirds, who are constantly on the move, to that of irresponsible or even promiscuous women. An example is "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}" (Hey! The bellbird is a restless bird.) which could describe an irresponsible woman.Template:Sfn A well-known Māori song goes as follows:Template:Sfn
In the song above, the korimako (bellbird) represents humanity, while the flax symbolises the vitality of the land and its people. The proverb signifies that individuals will thrive if they receive the right support.Template:Sfn New Zealand missionary Richard Taylor wrote in 1855 that in the Taupō region during a child's naming ceremony, a bellbird was cooked in a small, specially dedicated oven. Shortly after cooking, this "sweetest singing bird of New Zealand" was ritually eaten by a chief priest ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) to ensure that "the child might have a sweet voice, and become an admired orator".Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Such customs varied across the country. In some birth ceremonies, the bellbird was released alive rather than being cooked and eaten. Occasionally, a young chief was given bellbird meat as he grew to adulthood, with the hope that he would become a successful orator. A well-spoken orator was often simply called a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (bellbird).Template:Sfn Bellbirds often eat the fruit of a small forest tree, Pennantia corymbosa, hence its Māori name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("food of the bellbird").Template:Sfn
The Māori hunted bellbirds for their meat using various methods. They would employ spears or long, thin rods to strike the birds. Ground snare traps, known as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, were baited with honey flowers such as those from the pōhutukawa tree. During direct hunting, a fowler would hide in a shelter made from vegetation such as fern fronds or nīkau palm leaves. The fowler would then set up a low-lying horizontal perch snare above the shelter and attract bellbirds by imitating their calls, using a leaf held between the lips. Once a bird landed on the perch, the fowler would strike it.Template:Sfn A method of catching live bellbirds involved using a trap called a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which was a long, thin rod ending with a short horizontal section and a loop at the end of a long string. The trap's design allowed the trapper to close the loop when a bird landed on the end of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, catching its feet.Template:Sfn
Preparing a bellbird meal involved cooking the entire birds in earth ovens (hāngī). The bellbirds were plucked, but their internal organs were left intact to infuse a special flavour. Another cooking method involved wrapping the bellbirds in large puka or rangiora leaves and placing them in a shallow hole, about 15 cm deep. They were then covered with ashes and earth until cooked, ensuring that the juices, fat, and aromas were sealed in.Template:Sfn
In culture
The call of the Anthornis melanura is used by Radio New Zealand as an interval signal.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The movie Bellbird was named after the New Zealand bellbird, as are places like Lake Bellbird<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> on the West Coast and the historic building site The Sign of the Bellbird in the Port Hills near Christchurch.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
References
Works cited
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