Mandaeans

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Template:Short description Template:Use American English Template:Use mdy dates Template:Infobox Religious group Template:Contains special characters Template:Mandaeism Mandaeans (Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) (Template:Langx Template:Transliteration), also known as Mandaean Sabians (Template:Lang Template:Transliteration) or simply as Sabians (Template:Lang Template:Transliteration),Template:Efn are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and most important prophet.

They may have been among the earliest religious groups to practise baptism, as well as among the earliest adherents of Gnosticism, a belief system of which they are the last surviving representatives.<ref name="McGrath">Template:Citation</ref><ref name="BuckleyOrigin" />Template:Rp The Mandaeans were originally native speakers of Mandaic, an Eastern Aramaic language, before they nearly all switched to Mesopotamian Arabic or Persian as their main language.

After the invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies in 2003, the Mandaean community of Iraq, which before the war numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed with most of the community relocating to Iran, Syria and Jordan, or forming diaspora communities beyond the Middle East.

The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious persecution over the decades. Unlike other religious minorities such as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians, Mandaeans have no protection from persecution whatsoever, similar to Baháʼís in Iran.<ref name="saving" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.Template:Sfn There are estimated to be 60,000–100,000 Mandaeans worldwide.<ref name=sly/> About 10,000 Mandaeans live in Australia and between 10,000 and 20,000 in Sweden, making them the countries with the most Mandaeans.<ref name=Routledge/><ref name=manaus/> There are about 2,500 Mandaeans in Jordan, the largest Mandaean community in the Middle East outside of Iraq and Iran.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref>

Etymology

The name "Mandaean" comes from the Mandaic word manda, meaning "to have knowledge".Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also called Sabians (Template:Langx Template:Transliteration), a Quranic epithet historically claimed by several religious groups (see also below).<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb.</ref> The etymology of the Arabic word Template:Transliteration is disputed. According to one interpretation, it is the active participle of the Arabic root Template:Transliteration-Template:Transliteration-Template:Transliteration ('to turn to'), meaning 'converts'.<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb, citing Template:Harvnb and also referring to Template:Harvnb.</ref> Another widely cited hypothesis is that it is derived from an Aramaic root meaning 'to baptize'.<ref name="Häberl1">Template:Citation</ref>

History

The Genesis Apocryphon, part of the Dead Sea Scrolls

Origin

According to a theory first proposed by Ignatius of Jesus in the 17th century, the Mandaeans originated in Judea and later migrated east to the Mesopotamian Marshes.<ref name=LupieriIranica>Template:Cite web</ref> This theory was gradually abandoned, but was revived in the early 20th century through the first translation of Mandaean texts, which Biblical scholars like Rudolf Bultmann believed capable of shedding new light on the development of early Christianity.<ref name=LupieriIranica/> However, most New Testament scholars rejected the Judean origin thesis, which by World War II was again largely deserted by scholars.<ref name=LupieriIranica/> It was revived in the 1960s by Rudolf Macúch; it is now accepted by Mandaean scholars such as Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley and Şinasi Gündüz.<ref name=LupieriIranica/> According to Macúch, the eastward migration from the Roman province of Judea to southern Iraq took place in the first century CE, while other scholars such as Kurt Rudolph think it probably took place in the third century.Template:Sfn

There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated in Sasanian-ruled Mesopotamia in the fifth century.<ref>Template:Harvnb. For a critical review of van Bladel's thesis, see Template:Harvnb.</ref> According to Carlos Gelbert, Mandaeans formed a vibrant community in Edessa in late antiquity.<ref name="Gelbert 2013">Template:Cite book</ref> Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the Jordan Valley, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>Template:Rp

There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Yardena (Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism.Template:Sfn Mara ḏ-Rabuta (Mandaic: "Lord of Greatness", one of the names for Hayyi Rabbi) is found in the Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20) II, 4.Template:Sfn They formally refer to themselves as Naṣuraiia (Template:Script), meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.<ref name=RudolphEI>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=HG>Template:Cite book</ref> Another early self-appellation is bhiria zidqa, meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4.Template:Sfn<ref name=RudolphEI/><ref name="Aldihisi 2008">Template:Cite thesis</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of bnia nhura, meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The bit manda (beth manda) is described as biniana rba ḏ-šrara ("the Great building of Truth") and bit tušlima ("house of Perfection") in Mandaean texts such as the Qulasta, Ginza Rabba, and the Mandaean Book of John. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from Qumran such as the Community Rule, which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (Community Rule 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The Damascus Document, part of the Dead Sea Scrolls

The Mandaic language, is a Southeastern Aramaic dialect, notable for its abundant use of vowel letters in writing (Mandaic alphabet)<ref>Theodor Nöldeke, Mandäische Grammatik (Halle: Waisenhaus, 1875), pp. 3–8.</ref> and the amount of Iranian<ref>No comprehensive and individual study exists yet except for some word discussions in Geo Widengren, Iranisch-semitische Kulturbegegnung in parthischer Zeit (Köln: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1960) and the etymological sections in Ethel Stefana Drower and Rudolf Macuch, A Mandaic Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963).</ref> and Akkadian<ref>Stephen A. Kaufman, The Akkadian Influences on Aramaic (Assyriological Studies 19; Chicago: The University of Chicago: 1974).</ref> language influence on its lexicon, especially in the area of religious and mystical terminology. Mandaic is influenced by Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, Latin,<ref>Häberl, Charles

Hebraisms in Mandaic

In book: Linguistic and Philological Studies of the Hebrew Bible and its Manuscripts, June 2023. DOI:10.1163/9789004544840_004

</ref><ref>Häberl, Charles (2021). "Mandaic and the Palestinian Question". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 141 (1): 171–184. doi:10.7817/jameroriesoci.141.1.0171</ref> in addition to Akkadian and Parthian.<ref>Häberl, Charles G. (February 2006). "Iranian Scripts for Aramaic Languages: The Origin of the Mandaic Script". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (341): 53–62. doi:10.7282/T37D2SGZ</ref>

A priest holds the title of Rabbi<ref>McGrath, James F.,Template:Cite web ARAM Periodical / (2010): 583–592.</ref> and a place of worship is called a Mashkhanna.<ref>Secunda, Shai, and Steven Fine. Template:Cite book</ref> According to Mandaean sources such as the Haran Gawaita, the Nasuraiia inhabited the areas around Jerusalem and the River Jordan in the 1st century CE.<ref name="BuckleyOrigin">Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2010). Turning the Tables on Jesus: The Mandaean View. In Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="HG" /> There is archaeological evidence that attests to the Mandaean presence in pre-Islamic Iraq.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Scholars, including Kurt Rudolph, connect the early Mandaeans with the Jewish sect of the Nasoraeans. Mandaeans believe that their religion predates Judaism.Template:Sfn<ref name="BuckleyOrigin" /><ref name="Gelbert 2005">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> According to Mandaean scripture, the Mandaeans descend directly from Shem, Noah's son, in Mesopotamia<ref name="auto2" />Template:Rp and also from John the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.<ref name="HG" />Template:Rp According to the Mandaean Society in America, Mani (the founder of Manichaeism) was influenced by the Mandaeans, and a pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Jordan River

Gerard Russell quotes Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo, "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He [Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo] traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Page needed The Mandaean Synod of Australia led by Rishama Salah Choheili states: Template:Blockquote

Parthian and Sasanian period

Kartir's inscription at Ka'ba-ye Zartosht claimed that he "struck down" the non-Zoroastrian minorities, such as the Mandaeans

A number of ancient Aramaic inscriptions dating back to the 2nd century CE were uncovered in Elymais. Although the letters appear quite similar to the Mandaean ones, it is impossible to know whether the inhabitants of Elymais were Mandaeans.<ref name="Buckley 2002">Template:Harvnb.</ref>Template:Rp Rudolf Macúch believes Mandaean letters predate Elymaic ones.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp Under Parthian and early Sasanian rule, foreign religions were tolerated and Mandaeans appear to have enjoyed royal protection.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp The situation changed by the ascension of Bahram I in 273, who under the influence of the zealous Zoroastrian high priest Kartir persecuted all non-Zoroastrian religions. It is thought that this persecution encouraged the consolidation of Mandaean religious literature.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp The persecutions instigated by Kartir seems to temporarily erase Mandaeans from recorded history. Their presence, however can still be found in Mandaean magical bowls and lead strips which were produced from the 3rd to the 7th century.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp

Islamic period

The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia in Template:Circa, when their leader, Anush bar Danqa, is said to have appeared before the Muslim authorities, showing them a copy of the Ginza Rabba, the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be John the Baptist, who is also mentioned in the Quran by the name Yahya ibn Zakariya. Consequently, the Muslim caliph provided them acknowledgement as People of the Book (Template:Transliteration, adherents of religions recognized as guided by previous revelations).<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush bar Danqa traveled to Baghdad, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all.Template:Sfn

Mandaeans appear to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near Wasit is particularly noted as an important scribal center.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Tib as a town inhabited by 'Nabatean' (i.e. Aramaic speaking) 'Sabians' (see below) who consider themselves to be descendants of Seth.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp

The status of the Mandaeans was questioned by the Abbasid caliph al-Qahir Billah (899–950 CE), even though they had received recognition as People of the Book. To avoid further investigation by the authorities, the Mandaeans paid a bribe of 50,000 dinars and were left alone. It appeared that the Mandaeans were even exempt from paying the Jizya, otherwise imposed upon non-Muslims.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp

It has been suggested by some scholars that Harranian intellectuals who worked at the Abbasid court such as Thābit ibn Qurra may have been Mandaeans,<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb.</ref> though most scholars believe they were adherents of the pagan astral religion of Harran.<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb.</ref>

Early modern period

Early contact with Europeans came about in the mid-16th century, when Portuguese missionaries encountered Mandaeans in Southern Iraq and controversially designated them "Christians of St. John". In the next centuries Europeans became more acquainted with the Mandaeans and their religion.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp

The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the Qajar rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation, when a cholera epidemic broke out in Shushtar and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of few learned men such as Yahya Bihram.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor of Shushtar massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp

Modern Iraq and Iran

Mandaean silversmith at work in Baghdad, Iraq, 1932

Following the First World War, the Mandaeans were still largely living in rural areas in the lower parts of British protected Iraq and Iran.<ref name="MHRG5" /> Owing to the rise of Arab nationalism, Iraqi Mandaeans have seen the increased use of Arabic, with Mandaic being dropped as a language by the Mandaeans. With the rise of secularism in Iraq, more Mandaeans aimed to follow the secular way of life, with a lot of Iraqi Mandaeans abandoning daily baptisms, instead weekly ones, and for some monthly. By the 70s to 80s the Mandaeans were also forced to abandon their stances on the cutting of hair and forced military service, which are strictly prohibited in Mandaeaism.<ref Name=MHRG5>Template:Harvnb</ref>

Mandeans, who mostly lived in rural parts of Maysan Governorate, migrated to large cities such as Baghdad and Basra.<ref name=":1" /> This caused a major change in the community, as they transitioned from traditionalism to modernism.<ref name=":1" /> The future generation entered the world of politics.<ref name=":1" /> Some of them became leaders in the Communist Party.<ref name=":1" /> Some of them entered the Baath Party and the rest of the parties.<ref name=":1" /> During the time of Abdul Karim Qasim persecution decreased.<ref name=":1" /> Later under Saddam Hussein, the Mandaean community flourished in Iraq.<ref name=":1" /> They were given permission to practice their religion and the government allocated them lands to build their places of worship. A decree was issued in 1972, allowing Mandeans to have holiday and enjoy during their festivals.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In Iraq, Mandaeans were renowned goldsmiths and silversmiths, particularly in Baghdad, where they operated shops in Al-Nahr Street, Shorjah, Qishla, Rusafa, Al-Karimat, Al-Azramli, and Al-Fahhama on the Al-Karkh side.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref> Many Mandaeans also held prominent positions in the government.<ref name=":1" /> Lamia Abbas Amara served as Iraq’s cultural attaché and deputy permanent representative to UNESCO in Paris from 1973 to 1975.<ref name=":1" /> Poet Abdul Razzaq Abdul was a cultural advisor to the Ministry of Culture and Information, while astronomer Abdul Azim Al-Sabti played a key role in establishing the Erbil Observatory on Mount Korek, the largest observatory in the Middle East.<ref name=":1" /> In 2001, Saddam granted them the title of "Golden Sect".<ref name=":1" /> He pledged to build more Mandaean temples.<ref name=":1" /> Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilow met Saddam in 2001, an event televised in Iraq.<ref name=":1" /> The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad was built on the land donated by the government.<ref name=":1" />

According to local sources, their population until 2003 was 75,000.<ref name=":1" /> The 2003 American invasion of Iraq and the war that followed brought more troubles to Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated.<ref name="Zurutuza">Template:Cite news</ref> Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms.<ref name="Zurutuza" /> The rise of ISIS forced thousands to flee the country, after they were given the choice of conversion or death.<ref name="Zurutuza" /> It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled after the U.S. led invasion.<ref name="Zurutuza" />

The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in Ahvaz, Iranian Khuzestan, but have moved as a result of the Iran–Iraq War to other cities such as Tehran, Karaj and Shiraz.<ref name=":2" /> The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered as People of the Book (members of a protected religion under Islamic rule), lost this status after the Iranian Revolution.<ref name=":2" /> However, despite this, Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such as Ahwaz.<ref name=":2" /> In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised.<ref name=":2" /> The parliament came to the conclusion that Mandaeans were included in the protected status of People of the Book alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, whom the parliament identified as being the Sabians mentioned explicitly in the Quran.<ref name=":2" /> That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi of Al-Zahra University in Qom posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers.<ref name=":2" /> These rulings, however, did not lead to Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In 2009, Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwā recognizing the Mandaeans as People of the Book.<ref name="Arabestani 2016">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn

Population

Iraqi Mandaeans

Template:Further

Further information (in Arabic): Mandaeans in Iraq
A Mandean child being baptised (masbuta) on the Karun River, Iran– May 19, 2021

Prior to the Iraq War, the Iraqi Mandaean community was centered in southern Iraq in cities such as Nasiriyah, Amarah, Qal'at Saleh,<ref name="Buckley2010">Template:Cite book</ref> Wasit,<ref name="Nasoraia 2021" />Template:Rp and Basra, as well as in Baghdad (particularly the district of Dora<ref>Rudolph, Kurt (1975). "Quellenprobleme zur Ursprung und Alter der Mandäer." In Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults, edited by Jacob Neusner, vol. 4: Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty, 112–42. Leiden: Brill. Reprinted in Gnosis und Spätantike Religionsgeschichte, 402–32.</ref>). Historically, Mandaean quarters had also existed in southern Iraqi towns such as Qurna and Suq al-Shuyukh.<ref>Petermann, Heinrich. Reisen in Orient. Vols. 1–2. Leipzig: Von Veit and Co., 1865.</ref>

Baptism (masbuta) gathering next to the Karun River, Iran- May 19, 2021

Many also live across the border in Southwestern Iran in the cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Mandaean emigration from Iraq began during Saddam Hussein's rule, but accelerated greatly after the American-led invasion and subsequent occupation.<ref name="exodus" >Template:Cite news</ref> Since the invasion Mandaeans, like other Iraqi ethno-religious minorities (such as Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidi, Roma and Shabaks), have been subjected to violence, including murders, kidnappings, rapes, evictions, and forced conversions.<ref name="exodus" /><ref name="wp">Template:Cite news</ref> Mandaeans, like many other Iraqis, have also been targeted for kidnapping since many worked as goldsmiths.<ref name="exodus" /> Mandaeism is pacifistic and forbids its adherents from carrying weapons.<ref name="exodus" /><ref name=Lupieri>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp During the 20th century in Iraq, most Mandaeans lived in large towns and cities, although a minority also lived in rural villages in the marshlands of southern Iraq.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021">Template:Cite book</ref>

Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.Template:Sfn<ref name="Genocide Watch: Mandaeans of Iraq">Template:Cite web</ref> Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of the Iraq War.Template:Sfn In 2019, an Al-Monitor study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in the Erbil Governorate, which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.<ref name="Salloum">Template:Cite web</ref>

Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before the Abbasid Caliphate when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.<ref name=Routledge/>Template:Rp

Notable Iraqi Mandaeans

Left to right – Ganzibra Dakheel Edan (1881–1964), Abdullah bar Sam (1890-1981) High Priests of the Mandaeans

Iranian Mandaeans

Template:See also

Mīnākārī on gold, an ancient art of Mandaeans, Ahvaz, Iran

The number of Iranian Mandaeans is a matter of dispute. In 2009, there were an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Mandaeans in Iran, according to the Associated Press.<ref name="saving" /> Alarabiya has put the number of Iranian Mandaeans as high as 60,000 in 2011.<ref name=alarabiya0612/>

Until the Iranian Revolution, Mandaeans were mainly concentrated in the Khuzestan Province, where the community used to coexist with the local Arab population. Other than the main cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr, Mandaean communities also existed in towns such as Chogha Zanbil in Shush County, Shushtar, and Abadan,<ref name="Buckley 2002"/> as well as Mahshahr, Shadegan, Behbahan, and Susangerd (Khafajiyeh). Mandaean communities had also formerly existed in Dezful, Hamidiyeh, Hoveyzeh, Karun, and Abadan.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>Template:Rp

Mandaeans undergoing baptism (Masbuta) in the Karun River, Ahvaz, Iran

They were mainly employed as goldsmiths, passing their skills from generation to generation.<ref name=alarabiya0612>Template:Cite web</ref> After the fall of the shah, its members faced increased religious discrimination, and many emigrated to Europe and the Americas.

In Iran, the Gozinesh Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and other gozinesh provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans, Yarsanis and Baháʼís.<ref>Annual Report for Iran Template:Webarchive, 2005, Amnesty International.</ref>

In 2002, the US State Department granted Iranian Mandaeans protective refugee status. Since then, roughly 1,000 have emigrated to the US,<ref name="saving" /> now residing in cities such as San Antonio, Texas.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> On the other hand, the Mandaean community in Iran has increased over the last decade because of the exodus from Iraq of the main Mandaean community, which used to be 50,000–70,000 strong.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Notable Iranian Mandaeans

Other Middle Eastern Mandaeans

Following the Iraq War, the Mandaean community dispersed mostly throughout Jordan, Syria,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Iran. Mandaeans in Jordan number about 2,500 (2018)<ref name=":0" /><ref name=monitor>Who Cares for the MANDAEANS?, Australian Islamist Monitor.</ref> and in Syria there are about 1,000 remaining (2015).<ref name=monitor/><ref name=MHRG/>

Diaspora

Mandaean community in Finland, May 2018

There are Mandaean diaspora populations in Sweden (c. 10,000–20,000),<ref name=Routledge/><ref name=manswe/> Australia (c. 10,000),<ref name=manaus/><ref>Source: ABS (2017), Census of Population and Housing, Reflecting Australia – Stories from the Census, 2016 – Religion, Table 1, ABS Catalogue Number 2071.0.</ref> the US (c. 4,000–7,000),<ref name=MHRG/><ref name=sly/> the UK (c. 2,500),<ref name=WMP/> New Zealand and Canada.<ref>Template:Bulleted list</ref><ref name="lt.se">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="newmarker">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="exodus" /> There are also Mandaeans living in Germany, the Netherlands (in Nijmegen, The Hague, etc.), Denmark,<ref name=dk/> Finland,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> France,<ref name=Fr/> and smaller communities in Norway and Italy.<ref name=MHRG/><ref name="GR Saadi">Template:Cite book</ref>

Australia

Template:Main The Sydney metropolitan area in Australia has one of the largest Mandaean diaspora communities in the world.<ref name="Buckley2010"/> The community is centered in Greater Western Sydney suburbs such as Penrith<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Liverpool.<ref>Sabian Mandaean Association in Australia.</ref> In Liverpool, the main mandi (Beth Manda) is Ganzibra Dakhil Mandi.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Sabian Mandaean Association of Australia has purchased land by the banks of the Nepean River at Wallacia, New South Wales in order to build a new mandi.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Sweden

Template:Main Sweden became a popular destination because a Mandaean community existed there before the war and the Swedish government has a liberal asylum policy toward Iraqis. There are between 10,000 and 20,000 Mandaeans in Sweden (2019).<ref name=Routledge/><ref name="lt.se"/><ref name="exodus" /> The scattered nature of the Mandaean diaspora has raised fears among Mandaeans for the religion's survival. Mandaeism does not allow conversion, and the religious status of Mandaeans who marry outside the faith and their children is disputed.<ref name="saving" /><ref name="wp"/>

On September 15, 2018, the Beth Manda Yardna was consecrated in Dalby, Scania, Sweden.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

United States

Template:Main In the United States, Mandaean communities are centered in San Antonio (c. 2,500),<ref name=mansa>Template:Cite web</ref> New York City, San Diego,<ref name="Buckley 2002"/> Winnetka, California, Austin, Texas,<ref>Mandaean Association of Texas in Pflugerville, Texas.</ref> Worcester, Massachusetts (c. 2,500),<ref name="The Boston Globe">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="office"/> Warren, Michigan,<ref>Mandaean Association of Michigan.</ref> Chicago,<ref>Mandaean in Chicago.</ref> and other major metropolitan areas. There is a mandi in Detroit.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, The New York Times ran an op-ed piece in which Swarthmore professor Nathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community.Template:Sfn Iraqi Mandaeans were given refugee status by the US State Department in 2007. Since then, more than 2500 have entered the US, many settling in Worcester, Massachusetts.<ref name="saving" /><ref name=Bell/> The community in Worcester is believed to be the largest in the United States and the second largest community outside the Middle East.<ref name="office">Template:Cite web</ref> About 2,600 Mandaeans from Iran have been settled in Texas since the Iraq War.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Religion

Mandaean Drabsha, symbol of the Mandaean faith

Template:Main Mandaeans are a closed ethno-religious community, practicing Mandaeism, which is a monotheistic, Gnostic, and ethnic religion<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Mandaens3">Template:Cite book</ref> (Aramaic manda means "knowledge," and is conceptually related to the Greek term gnosis.)<ref name="Mandaens3"/> Its adherents revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist.<ref name="Mandaens3"/>Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets with Adam the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.Template:Sfn<ref name=MandaeanYT>Template:Cite web</ref>

The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness.<ref name="Mandaens3"/> They have a dualistic view of life, that encompasses both good and evil; all good is thought to have come from the World of Light (i.e. lightworld) and all evil from the World of Darkness.<ref name="Mandaens3"/> In relation to the body–mind dualism coined by Descartes, Mandaeans consider the body, and all material, worldly things, to have come from the dark, while the soul (sometimes referred to as the mind) is a product of the lightworld.

Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by Nhura (Light) and Maia Hayyi (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by Hshuka (darkness) and Maia Tahmi (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light).<ref name=Nashmi>Template:Citation</ref>

Inside Mandaean Mandi of Baghdad

In Mandaeism, the World of Light is ruled by a Supreme God, known as Hayyi Rabbi ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God').<ref name=Nashmi/> Other names used are Template:Transliteration ('Lord of Greatness'), Template:Transliteration ('The Great Mind'), Template:Transliteration ('King of Light') and Template:Transliteration ('The First Life').<ref name="auto2">Drower, Ethel Stefana. The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford At The Clarendon Press, 1937.</ref><ref>Rudolf, K. (1978). Mandaeism. Leiden: Brill.</ref> God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. It is believed that an innumerable number of uthras (angels or guardians),<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e. Yōšamin, Abathur, and Ptahil).Template:Sfn<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>Template:Rp

Saint John the Baptist by Leonardo da Vinci

The Lord of Darkness (Krun) is the ruler of the World of Darkness formed from dark waters representing chaos.Template:Sfn<ref name="auto2"/> A main defender of the darkworld is a giant monster, or dragon, with the name Ur, and an evil, female ruler also inhabits the darkworld, known as Ruha.Template:Sfn The Mandaeans believe these malevolent rulers created demonic offspring who consider themselves the owners of the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations.Template:Sfn

According to Mandaean beliefs, the material world is a mixture of light and dark created by Ptahil, who fills the role of the demiurge, with help from dark powers, such as Ruha, the Seven, and the Twelve.Template:Sfn Adam's body (believed to be the first human created by God in Abrahamic tradition) was fashioned by these dark beings, however his soul (or mind) was a direct creation from the Light. Therefore, many Mandaeans believe the human soul is capable of salvation because it originates from the lightworld. The soul, sometimes referred to as the 'inner Adam' or Adam kasia, is in dire need of being rescued from the dark, so it may ascend into the heavenly realm of the lightworld.Template:Sfn Baptisms are a central theme in Mandaeism, believed to be necessary for the redemption of the soul. Mandaeans do not perform a single baptism, as in religions such as Christianity; rather, they view baptisms as a ritual act capable of bringing the soul closer to salvation.<ref name=McGrath/> Therefore, Mandaeans are baptized repeatedly during their lives.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name = Bell/> John the Baptist is a key figure for the Mandaeans; they consider him to have been a Nasoraean Mandaean.<ref name="auto2"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=manaus/> John is referred to as their greatest and final teacher.<ref name="Buckley 2002"/><ref name="auto2"/> Template:Clear

Scholarship

Template:See also According to Edmondo Lupieri, as stated in his article in Encyclopædia Iranica,

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Mandaean Book of John

Lupieri believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims that Zazai d-Gawazta to be the founder of Mandaeism in the 2nd century. Jorunn J. Buckley refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied the Ginza Rabba.<ref name="Buckley2010"/><ref name=LupieriIranica/> In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Palestinian origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Edwin Yamauchi believes Mandaeism's origin lies in the Transjordan where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the 2nd century CE.<ref name=Deutsch>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Kevin van Bladel claims that Mandaeism originated no earlier than 5th century Sassanid Mesopotamia, a thesis which has been criticized by James F. McGrath.<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb.</ref> Al-Zuhairy (1998) believes that the roots of Mandaeism lies in Mesopotamia, inherited from the Sumerians, and the present form of Mandaeism likely emerged in Mesopotamia in the 3rd century BCE.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The Mandaean author Aziz Sbahi in his book, The Origins of Sabians and their Religious Beliefs, traced the Mandaeans to the Babylonian Era. Sbahi, who is known more as a secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party, acknowledges that Mandaeism may have been affected by religions in Mesopotamia and the Dead Sea region. Sbahi believes that Mandaeism originated in surroundings that had Hellenic, Babylonian, Gnostic and Judaic influence. However, due to Sbahi's lack of knowledge of the Mandaic language, he read only secondary sources on the Mandaeans.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, believes in a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both proto-Mandaeans originating in the Jordan valley as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) indigenous to southern Mesopotamia.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>Template:Rp

Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, Eric Segelberg, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Häberl, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, and Şinasi Gündüz argue for an Israelite origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb;Template:Page needed Template:Harvnb; Template:HarvnbTemplate:Page needed</ref><ref>McGrath, James F.,Template:Cite web ARAM Periodical / (2010): 583–592.</ref><ref name=Lidzbarski>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="R. Macuch, p. 6">R. Macuch, "Anfänge der Mandäer. Versuch eines geschichtliches Bildes bis zur früh-islamischen Zeit", chap. 6 of F. Altheim and R. Stiehl, Die Araber in der alten Welt II: Bis zur Reichstrennung, Berlin, 1965.</ref> Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in Mandaic, finds Jewish Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek and Latin influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Israelite history with Jews".<ref>Template:CitationTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In addition, scholars such as Richard August Reitzenstein, Rudolf Bultmann, G. R. S. Mead, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, Gilles Quispel, and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine or Jordan Valley origin for the Mandaeans.<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Mead, G. R. S., Gnostic John the Baptizer: Selections from the Mandaean John-Book, Dumfries & Galloway UK, Anodos Books (2020)</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Reeves, J. C., Heralds of that Good Realm: Syro-Mesopotamian Gnostic and Jewish Traditions, Leiden, New York, Koln (1996).</ref><ref>Quispel, G., Gnosticism and the New Testament, Vigiliae Christianae, vol. 19, No 2. (Jan., 1965), pp. 65–85.</ref><ref>Beyer, K., The Aramaic Language; Its Distribution and Subdivisions, translated from the German by John F. Healey, Gottingen (1986)</ref> James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Cbignore</ref>Template:Sfn Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."Template:Sfn Barbara Thiering questions the dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls and suggests that the Teacher of Righteousness (leader of the Essenes) was John the Baptist.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins<ref name = BuckleyOrigin/>Template:Rp and adds: Template:Blockquote

Other names

Sabians

Template:Main During the 9th and 10th centuries several religious groups came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with the Sabaeans of South Arabia) mentioned in the Quran alongside the Jews, the Christians, and the Zoroastrians as a 'people of the book' (Template:Transliteration).<ref>Template:Harvnb. On the Sabians generally, see Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb.</ref> These religious groups, which included the Mandaeans but also various pagan groups in Harran (Upper Mesopotamia) and the marshlands of southern Iraq, claimed the name in order to be recognized by the Muslim authorities as a people of the book deserving of legal protection (Template:Transliteration).<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref> The earliest source to unambiguously apply the term 'Sabian' to the Mandaeans was al-Hasan ibn Bahlul (Template:Floruit) citing the Abbasid vizier Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla (Template:Circa–940).<ref>Template:Harvnb; on the identification of al-Hasan ibn Bahlul's source (named merely "Abu Ali") as Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla, see p. 58.</ref> However, it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period already identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla.<ref>Template:Harvnb. On Ibn Muqla's possible motivations for applying the Quranic epithet to the Mandaeans rather than to the Harranian pagans (who were more commonly identified as 'Sabians' in the Baghdad of his time), see p. 66.</ref>

Some modern scholars have identified the Sabians mentioned in the Quran as Mandaeans,<ref>Most notably Template:Harvnb and Template:Harvnb, both cited by Template:Harvnb.</ref> although many other possible identifications have been proposed.<ref>As noted by Template:Harvnb, modern scholars have variously identified the Sabians of the Quran as Mandaeans, Manichaeans (Template:Harvnb), Sabaeans, Elchasaites, Archontics, [[Hanif|Template:Transliteration]] (either as a type of Gnostics or as "sectarians"), or as adherents of the astral religion of Harran. Various scholarly identifications are discussed by Template:Harvnb.</ref> Some scholars believe it is impossible to establish their original identity with any degree of certainty.<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb.</ref> Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day.<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref>

Nasoraeans

Template:See also The Haran Gawaita uses the name Nasoraeans for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.<ref name=RudolphEI/> Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski and Ethel S. Drower connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot.<ref>Lidzbarski, Mark. Ginza: der Schatz, oder das Grosse Buch der Mandäer. Leipzig, 1925.</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb;Template:Page needed Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="R. Macuch, p. 6"/> Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Christ. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.Template:Sfn<ref>The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-07926-2</ref>

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Language

Template:Main Neo-Mandaic is the contemporary language spoken by some Mandaeans, while Classical Mandaic is the liturgical language of Mandaeism.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> However, most Mandaeans currently do not speak conversational Neo-Mandaic in everyday life, but rather the languages of their host countries, such as Arabic, Farsi, or English.

Genetics

Template:Further According to the Iranian Journal of Public Health:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

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See also

Related historical groups
Other topics

Notes

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References

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Works cited

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Bibliography

Primary sources

Secondary sources

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