Saeculum obscurum

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1742 print of the corpse of John XII, one of the most infamous popes, being carried by a crowd

Template:Lang (Template:IPA, "the dark age/century"), also known as the Rule of the Harlots or the Pornocracy, was a period in the history of the papacy during the first two thirds of the 10th century, following the chaos after the death of Pope Formosus in 896, and the seven legitimate popes and one illegitimate antipope elected between 896 and 904. It began with the installation of Pope Sergius III in 904 and lasted for 60 years until the death of Pope John XII in 964. During this period, the popes were influenced strongly by a powerful and allegedly corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti, and their relatives and allies. The era is seen as one of the lowest points of the history of the papal office.

Periodisation

Europe in 912 AD, around the start of the Template:Lang

The Template:Lang was first named and identified as a period of papal immorality by the Italian cardinal and historian Caesar Baronius in his Annales Ecclesiastici in the 16th century.<ref name=Origin>Template:Cite book</ref> Baronius's primary source for his history of this period was the contemporaneous writer Bishop Liutprand of Cremona. Baronius himself was writing during the Counter-Reformation, a period of heightened sensitivity to clerical corruption. His characterisation of the early 10th-century papacy was perpetuated by Protestant authors. The descriptors "pornocracy" (Template:Langx, from Greek pornokratiā, "rule of prostitutes"), hetaerocracy ("government of mistresses"), and the Rule of the Harlots (Template:Langx), were coined by Protestant German theologians in the 19th century.<ref>Paolo Squatriti, "Pornocracy", in Christopher Kleinhenz (ed.), Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 2 (New York and London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 926–27. Template:ISBN.</ref>

Historian Will Durant refers to the period from 867 to 1049 as the "Template:Wikt-lang of the papacy".<ref>Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. p. 537</ref>

10th-century popes

Template:Main The Theophylacti family were descended from Theophylactus. They held positions of increased importance in the Roman nobility, such as iudex ("judge"), vestararius, gloriosissimus dux ("most-glorious duke"), consul, senator, and magister militum.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Theophylact's wife Theodora and daughter Marozia held a great influence over the papal selection and religious affairs in Rome through conspiracies, affairs, and marriages.<ref>Fedele, Pietro (1910 & 1911). "Ricerche per la storia di Rome e del papato al. sec. X". Archivo della Reale Società Romana di Storia Patria, 33: 177–247; & 34: 75–116, 393–423.</ref>

Marozia became the concubine of 45-year-old Pope Sergius III when she was 15 and later took other lovers and husbands.<ref name=Marozia>Template:Cite book</ref> She ensured that her son John (who was rumoured to have been fathered by Sergius III) was seated as Pope John XI according to Antapodosis sive Res per Europam gestae (958–962) by Liutprand of Cremona (Template:Circa–972). Liutprand affirms that Marozia arranged the murder of her former lover Pope John X (who had originally been nominated for office by Theodora) through her then husband Guy of Tuscany, possibly to secure the elevation of her current favourite as Pope Leo VI.<ref name=Leo>Template:Cite book</ref> There is no record substantiating that Pope John X had definitely died before Leo VI was elected since John X was already imprisoned by Marozia and was out of public view. Judicious historians, even those not noted for Catholic sympathies such as Ferdinand Gregorovius have noted that John X was a victim of posthumous calumny.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Theodora and Marozia held great sway over the popes during this time. In particular, as political rulers of Rome they had effective control over the election of new popes. Much that is alleged about the Template:Lang comes from the histories of Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona. Liutprand took part in the Assembly of Bishops which deposed Pope John XII, and was a political opponent of the Roman aristocracy and its control over papal elections. Lindsay Brook writes:

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List of popes during the saeculum obscurum

List of popes, including the names of popes of the Template:Lang buried in St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City. Marble slab at the entrance to Sacristia.

Family tree

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The Tusculan Papacy, 1012–1059

Template:Main After several Crescentii family popes up to 1012, the Theophylacti still occasionally nominated sons as popes:

Pope Benedict IX went so far as to sell the Papacy to his religious godfather, Pope Gregory VI (1045–1046). Benedict IX then changed his mind, seized the Lateran Palace, and became Pope for the third time in 1047–1048.

The Tusculan Papacy was finally ended by the election of Pope Nicholas II Template:Endash five years after the Great Schism of 1054 Template:Endash who was assisted by Hildebrand of Sovana against Antipope Benedict X. Hildebrand was elected Pope Gregory VII in 1073 and introduced the Gregorian Reforms, increasing the power and independence of the papacy that would lead to help ignite the First Crusade in about 20 years.

See also

References

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