View source for 16 mm film

{{short description|Historically popular gauge of film}}
{{redirect|16 mm|other uses|16 mm (disambiguation)}}
[[File:USN16mmSoundtrack.jpg|right|thumb|16&nbsp;mm sound movie showing a variable-width sound track on single-perforation film stock]]
'''16&nbsp;mm film''' is a historically popular and economical [[Film gauge|gauge]] of [[Photographic film|film]]. 16&nbsp;mm refers to the width of the film (about {{frac|2|3}} inch); other common film gauges include [[8 mm film|8 mm]] and [[35 mm movie film|35&nbsp;mm]]. It is generally used for non-theatrical (e.g., industrial, educational, television) film-making, or for low-budget motion pictures. It also existed as a popular amateur or home movie-making format for several decades, alongside 8&nbsp;mm film and later [[Super 8 film]]. [[Kodak|Eastman Kodak]] released the first 16&nbsp;mm "outfit" in 1923, consisting of a [[Ciné-Kodak]] camera, [[Kodascope]] projector, tripod, screen and splicer, for US$335 ({{inflation|US|335|1923|fmt=eq|cursign=US$}}).<ref name=Kattelle>{{cite book |last=Kattelle |first=Alan |title=Home Movies: A History of the American Industry, 1897–1979 |date=2000 |publisher=Transition Publishing |isbn=0-9654497-8-5}}</ref>{{rp|334}} [[RCA Records|RCA-Victor]] introduced a 16&nbsp;mm sound movie projector in 1932, and developed an optical [[sound-on-film]] 16&nbsp;mm camera, released in 1935.<ref name=Kattelle/>{{rp|231}}

== History ==
[[File:ATS Cine Projector Operators, Aldershot, Hampshire, England, UK, 1941 D5503.jpg|thumb|right|Two projectionists showing a film on a 16&nbsp;mm De Vry Simplex Ampro projector in 1941.]]
Eastman Kodak introduced 16&nbsp;mm film in 1923, as a less expensive alternative to [[35mm movie film|35&nbsp;mm]] [[Film formats|film]] for amateurs. The same year the [[Victor Animatograph Corporation]] started producing their own 16&nbsp;mm cameras and projectors. During the 1920s, the format was often referred to by the professional industry as 'sub-standard'.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eisloeffel |first=Paul |title=16mm Format History |url=http://www.archivesfilmworks.com/uploads/1/2/5/3/12531554/16mm_format_history_v2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630091706/http://www.archivesfilmworks.com/uploads/1/2/5/3/12531554/16mm_format_history_v2.pdf |archive-date=2016-06-30 |url-status=live |website=Archives Filmworks |date=2013 |access-date=November 10, 2016}}</ref>

Kodak hired Willard Beech Cook from his [[28 mm film|28 mm]] Pathescope of America company to create the new 16&nbsp;mm 'Kodascope Library'.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Kodascope libraries inc|url=http://archive.org/details/descriptivecatal00kodarich |title=Descriptive catalogue of Kodascope library motion pictures, classified for convenient reference .. |date=1925 |publisher=New York, Kodascope libraries |others=Prelinger Library}}</ref> In addition to making [[home movies]], people could buy or rent films from the library, a key selling aspect of the format.

Intended for amateur use, 16&nbsp;mm film was one of the first formats to use [[acetate]] [[safety film]] as a [[film base]]. Kodak never used [[Nitrocellulose#Film|nitrate film]] for the format, owing to the high flammability of the nitrate base. Kodak discontinued all nitrate base use in 1952.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Storage & Handling of Processed Nitrate Film |url=https://www.kodak.com/en/motion/page/storage-and-handling-of-processed-nitrate-film/ |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=Kodak |language=en}}</ref>

=== Production evolution ===
<gallery caption="16 mm movie film examples">
File:16mmBWrevDP.png|Black-and-white reversal silent home movie on double-perforation film stock
File:Warsaw Poland abcd 1939.jpg|Eastman Kodak color movie from Warsaw dated 1939
File:Warsaw Poland Nalewki Street 1939.jpg|Eastman Kodak color movie from Warsaw dated 1939
File:Avenue des Champs-Élysées in 1939.jpg|Eastman Kodak color movie from Paris dated 1939
File:Special Film Project 186 - Feldherrnhalle 2.png|Eastman Kodak color movie from [[Feldherrnhalle]] in Munich after American liberation in 1945
</gallery>
The silent 16&nbsp;mm format was initially aimed at the home enthusiast, but by the 1930s it had begun to make inroads into the educational market. The addition of [[Sound-on-film|optical sound]] tracks and, most notably, Kodachrome in 1935, gave an enormous boost to its popularity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=100 Years of 16mm Film |url=https://www.kodak.com/en/motion/page/100-years-of-16mm-film/ |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=Kodak |language=en}}</ref> The format was used extensively during [[World War II]], and there was a huge expansion of 16&nbsp;mm professional filmmaking in the post-war years. Films for government, business, medical and industrial clients created a large network of 16&nbsp;mm professional filmmakers and related service industries in the 1950s and 1960s. The advent of [[television production]] also enhanced the use of 16&nbsp;mm film, initially for its advantage of cost and portability over 35&nbsp;mm. At first used as a news-gathering format, the 16&nbsp;mm format was also used to create [[television program]]ming shot outside the confines of the more rigid [[television studio]] production sets. The home movie market gradually switched to the even less expensive [[8 mm film|8 mm]] and [[Super 8&nbsp;mm film|Super 8 mm]] film formats.

16&nbsp;mm, using light cameras, was extensively used for [[television production]] in many countries before portable video cameras appeared. In Britain, the BBC's Ealing-based film department made significant use of 16mm film and, during its peak, employed over 50 film crews.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ealing Studios |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/buildings/ealing-studios |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> Throughout much of the 1960s–1990s period, these crews made use of cameras such as the Arriflex ST and Eclair NPR in combination with quarter-inch sound recorders, such as the Nagra III. Using these professional tools, film department crews would work on some of the most significant programmes produced by the BBC, including ''[[Man Alive (UK TV series)|Man Alive]]'', ''[[Panorama (TV programme)|Panorama]]'' and ''[[Chronicle (UK TV programme)|Chronicle]]''. Usually made up of five people, these small crews were able to work incredibly efficiently and, even in hostile environments, were able to film an entire programme with a [[shooting ratio]] of less than 5:1.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellis |first1=John |last2=Hall |first2=Nick |title=ADAPT |journal=Figshare |date=November 9, 2017 |language=en-US |doi=10.17637/rh.c.3925603.v1}}</ref>

Beginning in the 1950s, news organizations and documentarians in the United States frequently shot on portable [[Auricon]] and, later, [[CP-16]] cameras that were self-blimped and had the ability to record sound directly on film.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/americancinemato31unse |title=American cinematographer. (Vol. 31, 1950) |date=1920 |publisher=[Hollywood, Calif.], [ASC Holding Corp.] |others=MBRS Library of Congress}}</ref> The introduction of magnetic striped film further improved sound fidelity.

Replacing [[analog video]] devices, [[digital video]] has made significant inroads in television production use. Nevertheless, 16&nbsp;mm is still in use in its Super 16 ratio (see below) for productions seeking its specific look.

== Format standards ==
[[File:16 mm film (std 2p).svg|thumb|right|upright|Standard 16&nbsp;mm film with basic frame and perforation dimensions, double-perf]]
=== Perforations ===
Two [[Film perforations|perforation]] pitches are available for 16&nbsp;mm film. One specification, known as "long pitch", has a spacing of {{convert|7.62|mm|in|abbr=on}} and is used primarily for print and reversal film stocks. Negative and intermediate film stocks have perforations spaced {{convert|7.605|mm|in|abbr=on}}, known as "short pitch". These differences allow for the sharpest and smoothest possible image when making prints using a [[contact printer]].

Film stocks are available in either 'single-perf' or 'double-perf', meaning the film is perforated on either one or both edges. A perforation for 16&nbsp;mm film is {{convert|1.829|x|1.27|mm|in|abbr=on}} with a radius curve on all four corners of {{convert|0.25|mm|in|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}. Tolerances are ±{{convert|0.001|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="kodak-spec">{{cite web|url=http://www.kodak.com/KodakGCG/uploadedfiles/motion/US_plugins_acrobat_en_motion_newsletters_filmEss_11_Film_Specs.pdf|title=Film specifications|publisher=[[Kodak]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326135944/http://www.kodak.com/KodakGCG/uploadedfiles/motion/US_plugins_acrobat_en_motion_newsletters_filmEss_11_Film_Specs.pdf|archive-date=2017-03-26|access-date=2019-04-20}}</ref><ref name="kodak-h20">{{cite web|url=https://www.kodak.com/KodakGCG/uploadedfiles/motion/H20_2pgs.pdf|title=How to Read a Kodak Film Can Label|year=2014|publisher=[[Kodak]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323195922/http://www.kodak.com/KodakGCG/uploadedfiles/motion/H20_2pgs.pdf|archive-date=2017-03-23|access-date=2019-04-20}}</ref>

=== Standard 16 mm ===
The picture-taking area of standard 16&nbsp;mm is {{convert|10.26|x|7.49|mm|in|abbr=on}}, an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of {{#expr:10.26/7.49 round 2}}, the standard pre-widescreen [[Academy ratio]] for 35&nbsp;mm. The "nominal" picture projection area (per SMPTE RP 20-2003) is 0.380 in by 0.284 in,<ref>{{cite book |title=Specifications for 16-mm Registration Test Film |isbn=978-1-61482-073-4 |doi=10.5594/SMPTE.RP20.2003}}</ref> and the maximum picture projection area (per SMPTE ST 233-2003) is 0.384 in by 0.286 in,<ref>{{cite book |title=For Motion-Picture Film (16-mm) — Projectable Image Area and Projector Usage |isbn=978-1-61482-382-7 |doi=10.5594/SMPTE.ST233.2003}}</ref> each implying an aspect ratio of 1.34:1. [[Film perforations|Double-perf]] 16&nbsp;mm film, the original format, has a perforation at both sides of every [[frame line]]. Single-perf is perforated at one side only, making room for an optical or magnetic [[soundtrack]] along the other side.

=== Super 16 mm ===
[[File:16 mm film (S16).svg|thumb|right|upright|Super 16&nbsp;mm film with basic frame and perforation dimensions, single-perf]]
The variant called '''Super 16&nbsp;mm''', '''Super 16''', or '''16&nbsp;mm Type W''' is an adaptation of the 1.66 (1.66:1 or 15:9) aspect ratio of the "Paramount format"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/technology/article/art20130807235528919 |title=Beyond HD |last=Jones |first=Andy |year=2014 |publisher=[[BBC Academy]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219183402/http://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/technology/article/art20130807235528919 |archive-date=2014-12-19 |url-status=dead |access-date=2019-04-20}}</ref> to 16&nbsp;mm film. It was developed by Swedish cinematographer [[Rune Ericson]] in 1969,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fdtimes.com/2009/08/20/the-early-years-of-super-16-and-how-it-all-started/|title=The Early Years of Super 16 and How it All Started – Film and Digital Times|date=August 20, 2009|website=Film and Digital Times}}</ref> using single-sprocket film and taking advantage of the extra room for an expanded picture area of {{convert|12.52|x|7.41|mm|in|abbr=on}}, giving an aspect ratio of {{#expr:12.52/7.41 round 2}}.

Super 16 cameras are usually 16&nbsp;mm cameras that have had the film gate and ground glass in the [[viewfinder]] modified for the wider frame, and, since this process widens the frame by affecting only one side of the film, the various cameras' front mounting plate or turret areas must also be re-machined to shift and re-center the mounts for any lenses used. Because the resulting, new, Super 16 aspect ratio takes up the space originally reserved for the 16mm soundtrack, films shot in this format must be enlarged by [[optical printing]] to [[35mm movie film|35 mm]] for sound-projection, and, in order to preserve the proper 1.66:1, or (slightly cropped) 1.85:1 theatrical aspect ratios which this format was designed to provide. And, with the recent development of [[digital intermediate]] workflows, it is now possible to digitally enlarge to a 35&nbsp;mm sound print with virtually no quality loss (given a high quality digital scan), or alternatively to use high-quality video equipment for the original image capture.

In 2009, German lens manufacturer Vantage introduced a series of [[Anamorphic format|anamorphic lenses]] under its HAWK brand. These provided a 1.30x<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.vantagefilm.com/en/news/archive/november-2009-10259 | title=Hawk Anamorphic 1.3x SQUEEZE }}</ref> squeeze factor (as opposed to the standard 2×) specifically for the Super 16 format, allowing nearly all of the Super 16 frame to be used for 2.39:1 widescreen photography.

=== Ultra 16 mm ===
[[File:16 mm film (U16).svg|thumb|right|upright|Ultra 16&nbsp;mm film with basic frame and perforation dimensions, double-perf]]
The [[DIY]]-crafted '''Ultra 16''' is a variation of Super 16. Cinematographer Frank G. DeMarco is credited with inventing Ultra 16 in 1996 while shooting tests for [[Darren Aronofsky]]'s ''[[Pi (film)|Pi]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gullickson |first=Brad |title=Frank G. DeMarco On Capturing Punk Rock Grit in "How to Talk to Girls at Parties" |url=https://filmschoolrejects.com/frank-demarco-interview/ |website=Film School Rejects |date=May 29, 2018 |access-date=July 19, 2018}}</ref> Ultra 16 is created by widening the left and right sides of the gate of a standard 16&nbsp;mm camera by 0.7&nbsp;mm to expose part of the horizontal area between the perforations. Perforation placement on standard 16&nbsp;mm film at the divisions between frames accommodates use of these normally unexposed areas.

The Ultra 16 format, with frame dimensions of {{convert|11.66|x|6.15|mm|in|abbr=on}}, provides a frame size between standard 16&nbsp;mm and Super 16—while avoiding the expense of converting a 16&nbsp;mm camera to Super 16, the larger lens-element requirements for proper aperture field coverage on Super 16 camera conversions, and, the potential image [[vignetting]] caused by trying to use some "conventional" 16&nbsp;mm lenses on those Super 16 converted cameras. Thus, almost all standard 16&nbsp;mm optics can now achieve the wider image in Ultra 16, but without the above pitfalls and optical "shortcomings" encountered when attempting their use for Super 16.

The frame has an aspect ratio of {{#expr:11.66/6.15 round 3}}, which readily converts to NTSC/PAL (1.33 ratio), HDTV (1.78 ratio) and to 35&nbsp;mm film (1.66 [European] and 1.85 wide screen ratios), using either the full vertical frame, or the full width (intersprocket) frame, and at times, portions of both, depending upon the required application.

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%;text-align:center;"
|+Summary of 16&nbsp;mm motion picture film standards
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Parameter
! colspan=9 | Dimension
|-
! colspan=3 | Standard 16&nbsp;mm<ref name=ISO-69:1998>{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/27542.html |title=ISO 69:1998 {{!}} 16 mm motion-picture and magnetic film — Cutting and perforating dimensions |date=July 1998 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref><ref name=ISO-359:1983>{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/4325.html |title=ISO 359:1983 {{!}} Cinematography — Projectable image area on 16 mm motion-picture prints — Dimensions and locations |date=July 1983 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref><ref name=ISO-466:1976>{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/4531.html |title=ISO 466:1976 {{!}} Cinematography — Image produced by 16 mm motion-picture camera aperture — Position and dimensions |date=May 1976 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref>
! colspan=3 | Super 16 (Type W)<ref name=ISO-5768:1998>{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/4531.html |title=ISO 5768:1998 {{!}} Cinematography — Image produced by camera aperture Type W on 16 mm motion-picture film — Position and dimensions |date=December 1998 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref>
! colspan=3 | Ultra 16
|-
! Width !! Height !! Corner radius
! Width !! Height !! Corner radius
! Width !! Height !! Corner radius
|-
! colspan=2 | Film
| {{cvt|15.950|±|0.025|mm|in|4}}
| colspan=2 {{N/A}}
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16
|-
! rowspan=2 | Frame size
! Camera aperture
| {{cvt|10.05|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Min|Minimum value}} || {{cvt|7.42|+|0.15|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Uni|Unidirectional tolerance}}
| {{cvt|0.50|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Max}}
| {{cvt|12.35|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Nom}} || {{cvt|7.42|+|0.15|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Uni}}
| {{cvt|0.15|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Max}}
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}}
|-
! Projectable area
| {{cvt|9.65|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Nom|Nominal value}} || {{cvt|7.26|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Max}}
| {{cvt|0.50|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Max|Maximum value}}
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}}
|-
! rowspan=3 | Film reference edge
! to frame centerline
| colspan=3 | {{cvt|7.98|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Nom}}
| colspan=3 | {{cvt|9.00|mm|in|3}}
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16
|-
! to frame far edge
| colspan=3 | {{cvt|13.00|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Min}}{{efn|With an optical audio track, dimension is {{cvt|13.00|+|0.15|mm|in|3}}.{{efn|name=Uni}}}}
| colspan=3 | {{cvt|15.175|mm|in|3}}{{efn|name=Min}}
| colspan=3 {{dunno}}
|-
! to nearest perforation edge
| colspan=3 | {{cvt|0.900|±|0.050|mm|in|4}}{{efn|Tolerance tightened to ±{{cvt|0.025|mm|in|4}} for designated professional films}}
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16 (1R)
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16 (2R)
|-
! rowspan=2 | Perforation
! Size
| {{cvt|1.830|±|0.010|mm|in|4}} || {{cvt|1.270|±|0.010|mm|in|4}}
| {{cvt|0.25|±|0.03|mm|in|3}}
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16
|-
! Pitch
| colspan=3 | {{cvt|7.620|±|0.010|mm|in|4}}<br/>—or—<br/>{{cvt|7.605|±|0.010|mm|in|4}}
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16
| colspan=3 | Same as Std 16
|-
| colspan=11 | '''Notes'''
{{notelist}}
|}

== Modern usage ==
The only suppliers of 16&nbsp;mm color reversal/negative film in 2022 are [[Kodak]] and [[Orwo]]. [[Agfa]] and [[Fujifilm|Fuji]] closed their film manufacturing facilities in the 2010s. B&W films are still produced by Kodak, [[Foma Bohemia|Foma]] and ORWO/Filmotec, with ORWO/Filmotec having begun sales of a new color negative film in May of 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introducing WOLFEN NC500… Our brand new C41 photo film! |url=https://www.orwo.wtf/blog/introducing-wolfen-nc500-our-brand-new-c41-photo-film |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=Introducing WOLFEN NC500… Our brand new C41 photo film! |language=en}}</ref>

16&nbsp;mm film is used in television, such as for the ''[[Hallmark Hall of Fame]]'' anthology (it has since been produced in 16:9 [[High-definition video|high definition]]) and ''[[Friday Night Lights (TV series)|Friday Night Lights]]'' and ''[[The O.C.]]'' as well as ''[[The Walking Dead (TV series)|The Walking Dead]]'' in the US. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the format is exceedingly popular for television series such as ''[[Doc Martin]]'', dramas and commercials.

The [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]] (BBC) played a large part in the development of the format. It worked extensively with Kodak during the 1950s and 1960s to bring 16&nbsp;mm to a professional level, since the BBC needed cheaper, more portable production solutions while maintaining a higher quality than was offered at the time, when the format was mostly for home display of theatrical shorts, newsreels, and cartoons, documentary capture and display for various purposes (including education), and limited "high end" amateur use.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://indiefilmhustle.com/super-16mm-film-tutorial/|title=How to Shoot Super 16mm Film Tutorials |last=Ferrari|first=Alex|date=2016-10-17|website=Indie Film Hustle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-19}}</ref>

{{As of|2016}}, the format was frequently used for student films, while its use in documentaries had almost disappeared. With the advent of [[HDTV]], Super 16 film is still used for some productions destined for [[High-definition video|HD]].<ref name=":0" /> Some low-budget theatrical features are shot on 16&nbsp;mm and super 16&nbsp;mm such as [[Kevin Smith]]'s 16&nbsp;mm 1994 independent hit ''[[Clerks (1994 film)|Clerks]],'' or ''[[Man Bites Dog (film)|Man Bites Dog]]'',  ''[[Mid90s]]'' and ''[[Closer to Home (film)|Closer to Home]]''.

Thanks to advances in film stock and digital technology—specifically [[digital intermediate]] (DI)—the format has dramatically improved in picture quality since the 1970s, and is now a revitalized option. ''[[Vera Drake]]'', for example, was shot on Super 16&nbsp;mm film, digitally scanned at a high resolution, edited and color graded, and then printed out onto 35&nbsp;mm film via a laser [[film recorder]]. Because of the digital process, the final 35&nbsp;mm print quality is good enough to fool some professionals into thinking it was shot on 35&nbsp;mm.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}

In Britain, most exterior television footage was shot on 16&nbsp;mm from the 1960s until the 1990s, when the development of more portable television cameras and videotape machines led to video replacing 16&nbsp;mm in many instances. Many drama shows and documentaries were made entirely on 16&nbsp;mm, notably ''[[Brideshead Revisited (TV serial)|Brideshead Revisited]]'', ''[[The Jewel in the Crown (TV series)|The Jewel in the Crown]]'', ''[[The Ascent of Man]]'', ''[[Life on Earth (documentary)|Life on Earth]]'', and the early seasons of ''[[Agatha Christie's Poirot|Poirot]]''. More recently, the advent of widescreen television has led to the use of ''Super'' 16. For example, the 2008 [[BBC]] fantasy drama series ''[[Merlin (TV series)|Merlin]]'' was shot in Super 16.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mill TV Taps Baselight to Work Magic for BBC's 'Merlin'|url=http://www.filmlight.ltd.uk/case_studies/our_customers/03_broadcast/201008_merlin|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718080146/http://www.filmlight.ltd.uk/case_studies/our_customers/03_broadcast/201008_merlin|archive-date=July 18, 2011}}</ref>

As recently as 2010, ''[[Scrubs (TV series)#Cinematography and delivery format|Scrubs]]'' was shot on Super16 and aired either as 4:3 SD (first 7 seasons) or as 16:9 HD (seasons 8 and 9). John Inwood, the cinematographer of the series, believed that footage from his [[Aaton]] XTR Prod camera was not only sufficient to air in high definition, it "looked terrific".<ref name="hd_for_scrubs">{{cite web|url=http://www.highdef.com/magazine/archive/HighDef_2008_6NovDec.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320090728/http://www.highdef.com/magazine/archive/HighDef_2008_6NovDec.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-20 |url-status=live|title=A new HD frontier for Scrubs|access-date=November 1, 2009}}</ref>

The [[Academy Award]] winning ''[[Leaving Las Vegas]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) was shot on 16&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-12-14 |title=Cage relishes operatic role in tragic `Leaving Las Vegas' {{!}} Interviews {{!}} Roger Ebert |url=https://www.rogerebert.com/interviews/cage-relishes-operatic-role-in-tragic-leaving-las-vegas |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=www.rogerebert.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

The first two seasons of ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series)|Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' were shot on 16&nbsp;mm and switched to 35&nbsp;mm for its later seasons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Buffy: Young Blood |url=https://theasc.com/articles/buffy-vampire-slayer-young-blood |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=The American Society of Cinematographers |language=en}}</ref>

The first season of ''[[Sex and the City]]'' was shot on 16&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=HBO professionals rely on Nugen solutions to remaster "Sex and the City" |url=https://tmbroadcast.com/index.php/hbo-nugen-sex-city-remastered/ |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=TM Broadcast International |language=en-US}}</ref> Later seasons were shot on 35&nbsp;mm. All three seasons of ''[[Veronica Mars]]'' were shot on 16&nbsp;mm and aired in HD. ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'', and [[Christopher Guest]]'s subsequent [[mockumentary]] films, are shot in Super 16&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dessem |first=Matthew |date=2005-04-26 |title=The Criterion Contraption: #12: This Is Spinal Tap |url=https://criterioncollection.blogspot.com/2005/04/12-this-is-spinal-tap.html |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=The Criterion Contraption}}</ref>

The first three seasons of ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' (bar the season 3 finale and the effects shots) were shot in 16&nbsp;mm, before switching to 35&nbsp;mm for later seasons.

[[Peter Jackson]]'s 1992 zombie comedy ''[[Braindead (film)|Braindead]]'' was shot on Super 16mm, so that more of its $3 million budget could be spent on its extensive gore effects.

[[Catherine Hardwicke]]'s 2003 teen drama ''[[Thirteen (2003 film)]]'' was shot on Super 16mm, due to low budget of $2 million. 

The 2009 [[Academy Award]] winner for Best Picture, ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'', was shot using [[Aaton]] Super 16&nbsp;mm cameras and [[Fujifilm]] 16&nbsp;mm film stocks. The cost savings over 35&nbsp;mm allowed the production to utilize multiple cameras for many shots, exposing over one million feet of film.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://filmmakermagazine.com/4677-cinematographer-barry-ackroyd-talks-the-hurt-locker-by-scott-macaulay/|title=Cinematographer Barry Ackroyd Discusses Oscar Winner The Hurt Locker <!-- BOT GENERATED TITLE -->|last=Macaulay|first=Scott|date=November 14, 2011|work=Filmmaker Magazine}}</ref>

British Napoleonic-era TV drama ''[[Sharpe (TV series)|Sharpe]]'' was shot on Super 16&nbsp;mm right through to the film ''[[Sharpe's Challenge]]'' (2006). For the last film in the series, ''[[Sharpe's Peril]]'' (2008), the producers switched to 35&nbsp;mm.

''[[Moonrise Kingdom]]'' was shot using super 16&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://shotonwhat.com/moonrise-kingdom-2012 |title=Moonrise Kingdom (2012) |date=2019-06-15 |language=en-US |access-date=2025-07-18 |via=shotonwhat.com}}</ref>

Darren Aronofsky shot ''[[mother!]]'' on 16&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thorsteinsson |first=Ari Gunnar |title=Darren Aronofsky on His Private Writing Process, Fighting Financiers and His Mysterious New Film |url=http://www.indiewire.com/2016/10/darren-aronofsky-reykjavik-film-festival-masterclass-1201735366/ |website=indiewire.com |date=October 11, 2016 |access-date=December 2, 2021}}</ref>

[[Linus Sandgren]] shot most of the 2018 biographical drama ''[[First Man (film)|First Man]]'' on Super 16.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kadner |first=Noah |title=Moon Walk: First Man |url=https://ascmag.com/articles/moon-walk-first-man |website=ASC Magazine |date=January 7, 2019 |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref>

[[Spike Lee]] shot the Netflix film ''[[Da 5 Bloods]]''{{'}} flashback scenes on 16&nbsp;mm film, which was part of the reason cinematographer Newton Thomas Sigel was considered for an Oscar nomination.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DP Newton Thomas Sigel ASC used KODAK EKTACHROME 16mm Film to… |url=https://www.kodak.com/en/motion/blog-post/spike-lee-da-5-bloods/ |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=Kodak |language=en}}</ref> ''The Insider'' reports that Netflix was "initially concerned about having the movie's flashback scenes shot on grainy 16&nbsp;mm film ... There was pushback because it opened up a lot of challenges." According to Sigel, the film stock Lee wanted to use was expensive because it is rarely used. It would be even more expensive to shoot on 16mm film while on location in Vietnam and then ship the film back to the United States to be processed at a film lab. Lee was "pretty adamant" about using 16mm for the flashbacks; Sigel said "I would never have been able to do it without such fervent support from him." Sigel had pitched to Lee the idea to shoot the Vietnam sequences using the kind of camera and film stock that would have been available during the Vietnam era.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sharf|first=Zack|date=2020-06-18|title='Da 5 Bloods' Cinematographer Says Netflix Pushed Back Against Spike Lee Using 16mm Film|url=https://www.indiewire.com/2020/06/spike-lee-battled-netflix-da-5-bloods-16mm-film-1202238666/|access-date=2020-06-19|website=IndieWire}}</ref>

Cornish filmmaker [[Mark Jenkin]] is notable for using 16&nbsp;mm film and a hand-cranked 1978 [[Bolex]] camera, most notably in his films ''[[Bait (2019 film)|Bait]]'' (2019) and ''[[Enys Men]]'' (2022).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Film-maker Mark Jenkin: ‘We’re Cornish. We can just have our own culture’ |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/film/2023/01/13/film-maker-mark-jenkin-were-cornish-we-can-just-have-our-own-culture/ |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=The Irish Times |language=en}}</ref>

16mm film was also used to produce early [[Interactive movie|Full-Motion Video]] arcade games, such as [[Nintendo]]'s ''[[Wild Gunman]]'' (1974) and Kasco's ''The Driver'' (1979). These games would consist of one or more 16mm projectors that the game hardware would alternate between to display different outcomes depending on the player's actions; In single-projector systems, such as the one used in Nintendo's ''Sky Hawk'' (1976), both outcomes would appear simultaneously on the same film in [[Split screen (video production)|split-screen]], with the game instead adjusting the film's framing so that only one outcome could be seen at a time.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rare Footage From Nintendo's 1976 16mm Film Arcade Game 'Sky Hawk' Emerges|website=Nintendo life|url=https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2022/05/rare-footage-from-nintendos-1976-16mm-film-arcade-game-sky-hawk-emerges}}</ref>

=== Digital 16 mm ===
A number of digital cameras approximate the look of the 16&nbsp;mm format by using 16&nbsp;mm-sized sensors and taking 16&nbsp;mm lenses. These cameras include the Ikonoskop A-Cam DII (2008) and the [[Digital Bolex]] (2012).  The [[Blackmagic Design|Blackmagic]] Pocket Cinema Camera (2013) and the Blackmagic Micro Cinema Camera (2015) has a Super&nbsp;16-sized sensor. The Z CAM E2G (2019) even offers Digital 16&nbsp;mm in 4K and with a global shutter.

== Cameras ==
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2016}}

=== Professional cameras ===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:arri16sr3.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Arriflex 16SR#Arriflex 16SR3|Arriflex 16SR3]], a popular industry-standard 16&nbsp;mm and Super 16 camera.|{{deletable image-caption|1=Thursday, 10 September 2009}}]] -->
[[File:BolexH16.jpg|right|thumb|A 16&nbsp;mm spring-wound [[Bolex]] camera]]
[[File:16 mm Film camera.JPG|right|300px|thumb| A modern 16&nbsp;mm [[Arri]] 16SR camera]]
The professional industry tends to use 16&nbsp;mm cameras from [[Aaton]] and [[Arri]], most notably the Aaton Xtera, Aaton XTRprod, [[Arriflex 16SR#Arriflex 16SR3|Arriflex 16SR3]], and Arriflex 416. Aaton also released the A-Minima, which is about the size of a video camcorder and is used for specialized filming requiring smaller, more versatile cameras. [[Photo Sonics]] have special extremely high speed cameras for 16&nbsp;mm that film at up to 1,000 frames per second. [[Panavision]] has produced the Panaflex 16, nicknamed "Elaine".

=== Amateur cameras ===
For amateur, hobbyist, and student use, it is more economical to use older models from Arri, Aaton, [[Auricon]], [[Beaulieu (company)|Beaulieu]], [[Bell and Howell]], [[Bolex]], [[Canon Inc.|Canon]], [[CP-16|Cinema Products]], [[Eclair (camera)|Eclair]], [[Keystone Camera Company|Keystone]], [[Krasnogorsk (camera)|Krasnogorsk]], [[Mitchell Camera|Mitchell]], and others.

== Film reproduction methods ==
Most original movie production companies that use film shoot on 35&nbsp;mm. The 35&nbsp;mm size must be converted or reduced to 16&nbsp;mm for 16&nbsp;mm systems. There are multiple ways of obtaining a 16&nbsp;mm print from 35&nbsp;mm.  The preferred method is to strike a 16&nbsp;mm negative from the original 35&nbsp;mm negative and then make a print from the new 16&nbsp;mm negative. A 16&nbsp;mm negative struck from the original 35&nbsp;mm negative is called an ''original''. A new 16&nbsp;mm print made from a print with no negative is called a ''reversal''.
16&nbsp;mm prints can be made from many combinations of size and format, each with a distinct, descriptive name:
* A 16&nbsp;mm negative struck from an original 35&nbsp;mm print is a ''print down''.
* A 16&nbsp;mm negative struck from an original 16&nbsp;mm print that was struck from a 35&nbsp;mm original is a ''dupe down''.
* A 16&nbsp;mm print struck directly from a 16&nbsp;mm print is a ''double dupe''.
* A 16&nbsp;mm print struck directly from a 35&nbsp;mm print is a ''double dupe down''.

Film traders often refer to 16&nbsp;mm prints by the print's production method, i.e., an ''original'', ''reversal'', ''dupe down'', ''double dupe'', or ''double dupe down''.

=== Color fading of old film and color recovery ===
Over time, the cyan, magenta and yellow dyes that form the image in color 16&nbsp;mm film inevitably fade. The rate of deterioration depends on storage conditions and the film type. In the case of [[Kodachrome]] amateur and documentary films and [[Technicolor]] IB (imbibition process) color prints, the dyes are so stable and the deterioration so slow that even prints now over 70 years old typically show no obvious problems.

Dyes in the far more common [[Eastmancolor]] print film and similar products from other manufacturers are notoriously unstable. Prior to the introduction of a longer-lasting "low fade" type in 1979, Eastmancolor prints routinely suffered from easily seen color shift and fading within ten years. The dyes degrade at different rates, with magenta being the longest-lasting, eventually resulting in a pale reddish image with little if any other color discernible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://in70mm.com/news/2010/technicolor/index.htm |title=A History of Low Fade Color Print Stocks |publisher=In70mm.com |date=1963-07-11 |access-date=2014-05-20}}</ref>

In the process of [[digitizing]] old color films, even badly faded source material can sometimes be restored to full color through digital techniques that amplify the faded dye colors. A [[digital intermediate]] scanned from the original negative (if it was processed and stored correctly) can often fully restore colors.

== Technical specifications ==
[[File:Super 16 mm film.jpg|thumb|A strip of single-perf 16&nbsp;mm film with Super-16–sized frames]]
[[File:Fuji16mm64d.jpg|thumb|A 100-foot (30.5&nbsp;m) tin of 16&nbsp;mm [[Fujifilm]]]]
* 7.62&nbsp;mm per frame (40 frames per foot) for print stock—7.605&nbsp;mm per frame for camera stock
* 122&nbsp;m (400&nbsp;feet) = about 11 minutes at 24 frame/s
* vertical pulldown

===16&nbsp;mm===
* 1.37 aspect ratio
* enlarging ratio of 1:4.58 for 35&nbsp;mm [[Academy format]] prints
* ''camera aperture'': 10.26 by 7.49&nbsp;mm (0.404 by 0.295 in)
* ''projector aperture'': 9.65 by 7.21&nbsp;mm (0.380 by 0.284 in)
* ''projector aperture'' (1.85): 9.60 by 5.20&nbsp;mm (0.378 by 0.205 in)
* ''TV station aperture'': 9.65 by 7.26&nbsp;mm (0.380 by 0.286 in)
* ''TV transmission'': 9.34 by 7.01&nbsp;mm (0.368 by 0.276 in)
* ''TV safe action'': 8.40 by 6.29&nbsp;mm (0.331 by 0.248 in); corner radii: 1.67&nbsp;mm (0.066&nbsp;in)
* ''TV safe titles'': 7.44 by 5.61&nbsp;mm (0.293 by 0.221 in); corner radii: 1.47&nbsp;mm (0.058&nbsp;in)
* 1 perforation per frame (may also be double perf, i.e. one on each side)
* ''Picture to sound separation'': sound in advance of picture by 26 frames for optical sound and 28 frames for magnetic.

===Super 16===
* 1.66 aspect ratio
* ''camera aperture'': 12.52 by 7.41&nbsp;mm (0.493 by 0.292 in)
* ''projector aperture'' (full 1.66): 11.76 by 7.08&nbsp;mm (0.463 by 0.279 in)
* ''projector aperture'' (1.85): 11.76 by 6.37&nbsp;mm (0.463 by 0.251 in)
* 1 perforation per frame, always single perf

===Ultra 16===
* 1.85 aspect ratio
* ''camera aperture'': 11.66&nbsp;mm by 7.49&nbsp;mm (0.459 by 0.295 in)
* ''projector aperture'': 11.66&nbsp;mm by 6.15&nbsp;mm (0.459 by 0.242 in)
* 1 perforation per frame (may also be double perf, i.e. one on each side)

== See also ==
{{portal|Film}}

===Techniques===
* [[List of motion picture film formats]]
* [[Sync sound]]
* [[Pilottone]]

===Related film genres===
* [[Direct cinema]]
* [[Cinéma vérité]]
* [[Docufiction]]
* [[Ethnographic film]]
* [[Ethnofiction]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://doi.org/10.17637/rh.5987548.v1 Demonstration of a BBC 16mm film crew preparing to shoot]
* [https://doi.org/10.17637/rh.5987545.v1 Discussion and demonstration of 16mm film cameras by former BBC cameraman]
* [https://doi.org/10.17637/rh.5987764.v1 Demonstration of 'lacing up' a 16mm film camera]
* [http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/filmhist/filmhist.html History of sub-35 mm Film Formats & Cameras]
* [http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/s16/s16.html SUPER-16 modification of Bolex Reflex 16&nbsp;mm camera]
* [http://www.studiodaily.com/filmandvideo/technique/craft/f/shooting/4340.html "Sweet 16: A-list Cinematographers Say the Emulsion's Never Looked So Good, Here's Why..."], written February 1, 2005, and accessed December 29, 2005.
* [http://www.super8camera.com/processing.php DIY processing 16 mm] – guide for DIY processing of black/white 16&nbsp;mm film
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050424100041/http://www.abelcine.com/Resources/IndustryContacts/aaton16features.php Early list of films shot in Super16]
([[Wayback Machine]] copy)

{{Film formats}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Motion picture film formats]]