View source for 1900 Galveston hurricane

{{Short description|Category 4 Atlantic hurricane}}
{{Redirect|Galveston hurricane|other hurricanes that impacted Galveston|Galveston hurricane (disambiguation)}}
{{About|the 1900 Galveston hurricane, also known as Hurricane One|other storms of the same name|List of storms named One}}
{{Good article}}
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{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox weather event
| name = 1900 Galveston hurricane
| image = 1900 Galveston hurricane weather map (high quality) (19877020).jpg
| caption = [[Surface weather analysis]] of the hurricane on September 8, just before landfall
| alt = A weather map showing the storm near Texas. Tight contour rings pressure are close to the center, indicating an intense hurricane
| formed = August 27, 1900
| extratropical = September 11, 1900
| dissipated = September 15, 1900
}}{{Infobox weather event/NWS
| winds = 125
| pressure = 936
}}{{Infobox weather event/Effects
| year = 2023
| fatalities = 6,000–12,000 <br />([[List of United States disasters|Deadliest]] in U.S. history; [[List of deadliest Atlantic hurricanes|fourth-deadliest Atlantic hurricane]])
| damage = 1251000000
| areas = [[Lesser Antilles]], [[Greater Antilles]] ([[Dominican Republic]] and [[Cuba]] landfalls), [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], [[Bahamas]], [[Gulf Coast of the United States]] ([[Texas]] landfall), [[Midwestern United States]], [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]], [[New England]], [[Eastern Canada]]
| refs = 
}}{{Infobox weather event/Footer
| season = [[1900 Atlantic hurricane season]]
}}
The '''1900 Galveston hurricane''',<ref name="200th">{{cite web|author=Trumbla, Ron|url=http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/magazine/galv_hurricane/welcome.html#intro|title=The Great Galveston Hurricane of 1900|series=NOAA Celebrates 200 Years of Science, Service and Stewardship|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|date=May 12, 2017|access-date=February 3, 2019}}</ref> also known as the '''Great Galveston hurricane''' and the '''Galveston Flood''', and known regionally as the '''Great Storm of 1900''' or the '''1900 Storm''',<ref name="rhor">{{cite news |last=Rhor |first=Monica |date=May 19, 2016|title=Great Storm of 1900 brought winds of change |url=http://www.houstonchronicle.com/local/history/article/Great-Storm-of-1900-brought-winds-of-change-7724171.php|newspaper=Houston Chronicle |access-date=February 3, 2019}}</ref><ref name="stephens">{{cite magazine|last=Stephens|first=Sara G.|date=December 31, 2012|title=Portrait of a Legend: The Great Storm of 1900: St. Mary's Orphan Asylum |url=https://www.houstonfamilymagazine.com/features/portrait-of-a-legend-the-great-storm-of-1900-st-marys-orphan-asylum/ |magazine=Houston Family Magazine |access-date=February 3, 2019}}</ref> was a catastrophic [[tropical cyclone]] that became the [[List of disasters in the United States by death toll|deadliest]] [[natural disaster]] in the [[History of the United States|history]] of the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=NOAA Press Release|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/news/NOAApr10.html|access-date=August 29, 2021|website=www.nhc.noaa.gov}}</ref> The strongest [[tropical cyclone|storm]] of the [[1900 Atlantic hurricane season]], it left between 6,000 and 12,000&nbsp;fatalities in the United States; the number most cited in official reports is 8,000. Most of these deaths occurred in and near [[Galveston, Texas|Galveston]], [[Texas]], after the [[storm surge]] [[Flood|inundated]] the [[coastline]] and [[Galveston Island|the island]] city with 8 to 12&nbsp;ft (2.4 to 3.7&nbsp;m) of water. As of 2025, it remains the fourth deadliest [[Atlantic hurricane]] on record, behind [[Hurricane Fifi–Orlene|Hurricane Fifi]] of 1974. In addition to the number killed, the storm destroyed about 7,000&nbsp;buildings of all uses in Galveston, which included 3,636&nbsp;demolished homes; every dwelling in the city suffered some degree of damage. The hurricane left approximately 10,000&nbsp;people in the city homeless, out of a total population of fewer than 38,000. The disaster ended the [[History of Galveston, Texas#Golden era|Golden Era of Galveston]].  The hurricane alarmed potential [[investor]]s, who turned to [[Houston]] instead. In response to the storm, three engineers designed and oversaw plans to raise the [[Gulf of Mexico]] shoreline of [[Galveston Island]] by {{convert|17|ft|m|abbr=on}} and erect a {{convert|10|mi|km|abbr=on}} [[Galveston Seawall|seawall]].

On August&nbsp;27, 1900, a ship east of the [[Windward Islands]] detected a tropical cyclone, the first observed that year. The system proceeded to move steadily west-northwestward and entered the northeastern Caribbean on August&nbsp;30. It made [[landfall]] in the [[Dominican Republic]] as a weak tropical storm on September&nbsp;2. It weakened slightly while crossing [[Hispaniola]], before re-emerging into the Caribbean Sea later that day. On September&nbsp;3, the cyclone struck modern-day [[Santiago de Cuba Province]] and then slowly drifted along the southern coast of Cuba. Upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico on September&nbsp;6, the storm strengthened into a hurricane. Significant intensification followed and the system peaked as a [[Saffir-Simpson scale|Category 4]] hurricane with [[maximum sustained wind]]s of {{convert|145|mph|km/h|abbr=on|round=5}} on September&nbsp;8. Early on the next day, it made landfall to the south of Houston.{{#tag:ref|In local time, [[Central Time Zone|Central Standard Time]] (CST), the hurricane made landfall in Texas around 8:00&nbsp;p.m. on September&nbsp;8. However, government meteorological agencies such as [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] use [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC), which is six hours ahead of CST.<ref name="ibtracs"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldtimeserver.com/time-zones/cst/|title=Central Standard Time Zone – CST|date=November 14, 2015 |publisher=WorldTimeServer.com|access-date=December 29, 2018}}</ref>|group="nb"}} The cyclone weakened quickly after moving inland and fell to tropical storm intensity late on September&nbsp;9. The storm turned east-northeastward and became [[Extratropical cyclone|extratropical]] over [[Iowa]] on September&nbsp;11. The extratropical system strengthened while accelerating across the [[Midwestern United States]], [[New England]], and [[Eastern Canada]] before reaching the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] on September&nbsp;13. After striking [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] later that day, the extratropical storm entered the far North Atlantic Ocean and weakened, with the remnants last observed near Iceland on September&nbsp;15.

The great storm brought flooding and severe thunderstorms to portions of the Caribbean, especially Cuba and Jamaica. It is likely that much of [[South Florida]] experienced tropical storm-force [[wind]]s, though mostly minor damage occurred. Hurricane-force winds and storm surge inundated portions of southern [[Louisiana]], though the cyclone left no significant structural damage or fatalities in the state. The hurricane brought strong winds and storm surge to a large portion of east Texas, with Galveston suffering the brunt of the impact. Farther north, the storm and its remnants continued to produce heavy rains and gusty winds, which downed [[telegraph]] wires, signs, and trees in several states. Fatalities occurred in other states, including fifteen in [[Ohio]], two in [[Illinois]], two in [[New York (state)|New York]], one in [[Massachusetts]], and one in [[Missouri]]. Damage from the storm throughout the U.S. exceeded [[United States dollar|US$]]34&nbsp;million.{{#tag:ref|All damage figures pertaining to the United States are in 1900 [[United States dollar|USD]], unless otherwise noted|group="nb"}} The remnants also brought severe impact to Canada. In [[Ontario]], damage reached about [[Canadian dollar|C$]]1.35&nbsp;million, with CAD$1&nbsp;million to crops.{{#tag:ref|All damage figures pertaining to Canada are in 1900 [[Canadian dollar|CAD]], unless otherwise noted|group="nb"}} The remnants of the hurricane caused at least 52&nbsp;deaths&nbsp;– and possibly as many as 232&nbsp;deaths&nbsp;– in Canada, mostly due to sunken vessels near Newfoundland and the [[Overseas France|French territory]] of [[Saint-Pierre, Saint Pierre and Miquelon|Saint-Pierre]]. Throughout its path, the storm caused more than $35.4&nbsp;million in damage ($1.3 billion in 2023).{{#tag:ref|The Canadian dollar and United States dollar were roughly identical in value between January 1879 and August 1914.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/dollar_book.pdf|author=Powell, James|date=December 2005|title=A History of the Canadian Dollar|publisher=Bank of Canada|page=97|access-date=December 30, 2018}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

==Meteorological history==
{{storm path|1900 Galveston hurricane path.png|left|300px|alt=The path of the 1900 Galveston hurricane. It begins over the open Atlantic Ocean and crosses Hispaniola and Cuba as a tropical storm. The storm strengthens over the Gulf of Mexico, becoming a Category 4 before striking Texas. The cyclone then moves north and eventually recurves east-northeastward over the Midwest. After that, the system tracks across the Midwest and eastern Canada, before reaching the Atlantic again and ending near Iceland|colors=new}}
The storm is believed to have originated from a [[tropical wave]] which moved off the west [[coast]] of [[Africa]] and then emerged into the [[Atlantic Ocean]].{{sfn|Frank|p=130}} However, this is not completely certain because of the limited observational methods available to contemporary [[meteorologist]]s, with ship reports being the only reliable tool for observing hurricanes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurricanescience.org/science/observation/ships/ships/|title=Ship-based Observations|work=Hurricanes: Science and Society|publisher=University of Rhode Island|access-date=May 18, 2019}}</ref> The first formal sighting of the [[tropical storm]] occurred on August&nbsp;27, about {{convert|1000|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of the [[Windward Islands]], when a ship encountered an area of unsettled [[weather]].<ref name="ibtracs"/>{{sfn|Frank|p=130}} Over the next couple of days, the system moved west-northwestwards and is thought to have maintained its intensity as a weak tropical storm, before it passed through the [[Leeward Islands]] and entered the [[Caribbean Sea]] on August&nbsp;31.<ref name="ibtracs">{{cite web|title=1900 Major Hurricane Not_Named (1900239N15318)|publisher=International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship|access-date=May 29, 2019|url={{IBTRACS url|id=1900239N15318}}}}</ref>

On September&nbsp;1, Father Reese Gangoite, the director of the [[Belen Jesuit Preparatory School|Belen College Observatory]] in [[Havana]], [[Cuba]], noted that the storm was in its formative stages, with only vague indications of a small tropical cyclone to the southwest of [[Saint Croix]].<ref name="partagas"/> During that day, the system passed to the south of [[Puerto Rico]] before it made [[landfall]] near [[Baní]], [[Dominican Republic]], early on September&nbsp;2.<ref name="ibtracs"/> Moving west-northwestward, the storm crossed the island of [[Hispaniola]] and entered into the [[Windward Passage]] near [[Saint-Marc]], Haiti, several hours later.<ref name="ibtracs"/> The system made landfall on Cuba near [[Santiago de Cuba]] during September&nbsp;3, before it moved slowly west-northwestward across the island and emerged into [[Straits of Florida]] as a tropical storm on September&nbsp;5.<ref name="ibtracs"/> As the system emerged into the Straits of Florida, Gangoite observed a large, persistent halo around the [[moon]], while the sky turned deep red and [[cirrus cloud]]s moved northwards. This indicated to him that the tropical storm had intensified and that the prevailing winds were moving the system towards the coast of [[Texas]].<ref name="roker"/> However, the [[National Weather Service|United States Weather Bureau]] (as it was then called) disagreed with this forecast, as they expected the system to recurve and make landfall in [[Florida]] before impacting the [[East Coast of the United States|American East Coast]].<ref name="roker"/>{{sfn|Larson|p=83}} An [[High-pressure area|area of high pressure]] over the [[Florida Keys]] ultimately moved the system northwestward into the [[Gulf of Mexico]], where favorable conditions such as warm [[sea surface temperature]]s allowed the storm to intensify into a hurricane.<ref name="ibtracs"/><ref name="roker"/>
[[File:Galveston hurricane track, Sept 1-10, 1900.jpg|thumb|right|325px|Hurricane track from September 1 to 10|alt=An alternative style track map focusing on the storm's path from September 1–10.]]
In the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September&nbsp;6, the ship ''Louisiana'' encountered the hurricane, and its captain, T. P. Halsey, estimated that the system had wind speeds of {{convert|100|mph|km/h|abbr=on|round=5}}.{{sfn|Frank|p=131}} The hurricane continued to strengthen significantly while heading west-northwestward across the Gulf. On September&nbsp;7, the system reached its peak intensity with estimated sustained wind speeds of {{convert|145|mph|km/h|abbr=on|round=5}}, which made it equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the modern-day [[Saffir–Simpson scale]].<ref name="ibtracs"/> That day, the [[National Weather Service|Weather Bureau]] realized that the storm was continuing west-northwestward across the Gulf of Mexico, rather than turning northward over Florida and the East Coast as it had predicted. However, Weather Bureau director [[Willis Luther Moore]] insisted that the cyclone was not of hurricane intensity.<ref name="roker"/> The hurricane weakened slightly on September&nbsp;8 and recurved to the northwest as it approached the coast of Texas, while the Weather Bureau office in Galveston began observing hurricane-force winds by 22:00&nbsp;UTC.<ref name="ibtracs"/><ref name=NOAAcline/>

The cyclone made landfall around 8:00&nbsp;p.m [[Central Time Zone|CST]] on September&nbsp;8 (02:00&nbsp;UTC on September&nbsp;9) to the south of [[Houston]] as a Category&nbsp;4 hurricane.<ref name="ibtracs"/> While crossing [[Galveston Island]] and [[West Bay (Texas)|West Bay]], the eye passed southwest of the city of Galveston.{{sfn|Frank|p=136}} The hurricane quickly weakened after moving inland, falling to tropical storm intensity late on September&nbsp;9.<ref name="ibtracs"/> The storm lost tropical characteristics and transitioned into an [[extratropical cyclone]] over [[Iowa]] by 12:00&nbsp;UTC on September&nbsp;11.<ref name="ibtracs"/> Moving rapidly east-northeastward, the extratropical system re-intensified, becoming the equivalent of a Category&nbsp;1 hurricane over [[Ontario]] on September&nbsp;12.<ref name="ibtracs"/> The extratropical remnants reached the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] early the following day.<ref name="ibtracs"/> After crossing [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] and entering the far northern Atlantic hours later, the remnants of the hurricane weakened and were last noted near Iceland on September&nbsp;15 where the storm finally dissipated.<ref name="ibtracs"/>

{{Gallery|1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-2-1900 (630829).jpg|The storm approaches eastern Cuba after it went through the Dominican Republic and Haiti on September 2.|1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-3-1900 (7012478).jpg|A subtropical ridge forms to the north of Bermuda, allowing the storm to continue its westward trajectory through Cuba on September 3.|1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-4-1900 (290758).jpg|The storm continues to bring impacts to Cuba as it moves slowly west on September 4.|1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-5-1900 (1798399).jpg|The storm moves into western Cuba, where it would later emerge into the Gulf of Mexico on September 5.|1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-6-1900 (119740).jpg|The hurricane moves into the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, just northwest of Cuba and the Florida Keys on September 6.|1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-7-1900 (6977013).jpg|The hurricane rapidly strengthens south of Louisiana and the rest of the U.S. Gulf Coast on September 7.|1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-8-1900 (41089).jpg|The hurricane approaches southeast Texas, where it would make landfall near Galveston on September 8.|1900 Galveston hurricane weather map 9-9-1900 (771240).jpg|The hurricane moves inland away from the Texas coast after landfall on September 9.|title=Synoptic Weather Bureau maps showing the hurricane's progress through September 2-9, 1900|align=center|alt1=|alt2=|alt3=|alt4=|alt5=}}

==Background==
{{See also|History of Galveston, Texas}}
The city of [[Galveston, Texas|Galveston]], formally founded in 1839, had weathered numerous storms, all of which the city survived with ease. In the late 19th century, Galveston was a [[boomtown]] with the population increasing from 29,084&nbsp;people in [[1890 United States census|1890]] to 37,788&nbsp;people in [[1900 United States census|1900]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.1900storm.com/isaaccline/isaacsstorm.html|title=Isaac's Storm: A Man, A Time, and the Deadliest Hurricane in History|newspaper=Galveston County Daily News|access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|url=https://texasalmanac.com/sites/default/files/images/CityPopHist%20web.pdf|title=Texas Almanac: City Population History from 1850–2000|publisher=Texas Almanac|access-date=April 18, 2018}}</ref> The city was the fourth largest municipality in terms of population in the state of Texas in 1900, and had among the highest [[per capita income]] rates in the U.S.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/19338041/longview_newsjournal/|title=Galveston marks anniversary of disaster|agency=Associated Press|date=September 9, 2000|newspaper=Longview News-Journal|page=4A|access-date=April 18, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=Longview, Texas}} {{free access}}</ref> Galveston had many ornate business buildings in a downtown section called [[Strand Historic District|The Strand]], which was considered the "[[Wall Street]] of the Southwest".<ref name="s-g">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/19338300/stargazette/|author=Babineck, Mark|title=A century ago, hurricane left thousands dead|date=September 4, 2000|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=Star-Gazette|page=5A|access-date=April 18, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=Elmira, New York}} {{free access}}</ref> The city's position on the natural harbor of [[Galveston Bay]] along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas, and one of the busiest ports in the nation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/etg01|title=Galveston Wharves|author=Sealy, Edward Coyle|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|date=July 7, 2017|access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> With this prosperity came a sense of complacency,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/11365-10-worst-natural-disasters.html|title=The 10 Worst U.S. Natural Disasters|author=Nguyen, Tuan C.|date=November 7, 2007|publisher=[[Live Science]]|access-date=May 18, 2019}}</ref> as residents [[survivorship bias|believed]] any future storms would be no worse than previous events.{{#tag:ref|However, that view was not universally held by all Texas residents, particularly those advocating other Texas seaports. "Galveston Island, with all its boasted accumulation of people, habitations, wealth, trade and commerce, is but a waif of the ocean, a locality but of yesterday&nbsp;... liable, at any moment, and certain, at no distant day, of being engulfed and submerged by the self-same power that gave it form. Neither is it possible for all the skillful devices of mortal man to protect this doomed place against the impending danger; the terrible power of a hurricane cannot be&nbsp;... resisted. I should as soon think of founding a city on an iceberg." – D. E. E. Braman (1857).{{sfn|Braman|p=46}}|group="nb"}} In fact, [[Isaac Cline]], director of the Weather Bureau's Galveston office, wrote an 1891 article in the ''[[Galveston Daily News]]'' that it would be impossible for a hurricane of significant strength to strike Galveston Island.<ref name=weatherdoctor>{{cite web|author=Heidorn, Keith C.|url=http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/history/icline2.htm|title=Weather people and history: Dr Isaac M. Cline: A Man of Storm and Floods&nbsp;– Part 2.|publisher=The Weather Doctor|date=September 1, 2000|access-date=February 3, 2019}}</ref>

A quarter of a century earlier, the nearby town of [[Indianola, Texas|Indianola]] on [[Matagorda Bay]] was undergoing its own boom.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-11-16-mn-7680-story.html|title=Town Abandoned After 2 Hurricanes: Ruins Mark Once-Busy Texas Port|author=Graczyk, Michael L.|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=November 16, 1986|access-date=June 6, 2019}}</ref> Then in 1875, a [[1875 Indianola hurricane|powerful hurricane]] blew through and nearly destroyed the town. Indianola was rebuilt,<ref>{{cite web|author=Frantz, Helen B.|title=Handbook of Texas Online: Indianola Hurricanes|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|date=January 19, 2008|access-date=November 27, 2008|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ydi01}}</ref> though a [[Indianola Hurricane of 1886|second hurricane in 1886]] caused most of the town's residents to move elsewhere.<ref name="texashurricanehistory"/> Many Galveston residents took the destruction of Indianola as an object lesson on the threat posed by hurricanes. Galveston is built on a low, flat island, little more than a large [[sandbar]] along the [[Gulf Coast]]. These residents proposed a [[seawall]] be constructed to protect the city, but the majority of the population and the city's government dismissed their concerns.<ref name="earthmag">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/benchmarks-september-8-1900-massive-hurricane-strikes-galveston-texas|title=Benchmarks: September 8, 1900: Massive hurricane strikes Galveston, Texas|author=Zalzal, Kate S.|date=September 8, 2016|magazine=Earth Magazine|access-date=May 30, 2019}}</ref> Cline further argued in his 1891 article in the ''Daily News'' that a seawall was not needed due to his belief that a strong hurricane would not strike the island. As a result, the seawall was not built, and development activities on the island actively increased its vulnerability to storms. [[Sand dune]]s along the shore were cut down to fill low areas in the city, removing what little barrier there was to the Gulf of Mexico.<ref name="earthmag"/>

==Preparations==
On September&nbsp;4, the [[National Weather Service|Weather Bureau]]'s Galveston office began receiving warnings from the Bureau's central office in [[Washington, D.C.]] that a [[Tropical cyclone intensity scales|tropical disturbance]] had moved northward over [[Cuba]]. At the time, they discouraged the use of terms such as "hurricane" or "[[tornado]]" to avoid panicking residents in the path of any storm event. The Weather Bureau [[Forecasting|forecasters]] had no way of knowing the storm's trajectory, as Weather Bureau director [[Willis Luther Moore]] implemented a policy to block [[telegraph]] reports from Cuban [[meteorologist]]s at the [[Weather station|meteorological observatory]] of the [[Colegio de Belén, Havana|Colegio de Belén]] in [[Havana]]&nbsp;– considered one of the most advanced meteorological institutions in the world at the time&nbsp;– due to tensions in the aftermath of the [[Spanish–American War]]. Moore also changed protocol to force local Weather Bureau offices to seek authorization from the central office before issuing [[storm warning]]s.<ref name="roker">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.historynet.com/blown-away.htm|title=Blown Away: Galveston Hurricane, 1900|author=Roker, Al|date=September 4, 2015|publisher=HistoryNet|magazine=American History Magazine|access-date=April 18, 2018}}</ref>

Weather Bureau forecasters believed that the storm had begun a northward curve into [[Florida]] and that it would eventually turn northeastward and emerge over the [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref name="roker"/> As a result, the central office of the Weather Bureau issued a storm warning in Florida from [[Cedar Key, Florida|Cedar Key]] to [[Miami]] on September&nbsp;5.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32168473/evening_star/|title=Weather Indications|page=3|newspaper=[[The Washington Star|Evening Star]]|date=September 5, 1900|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=June 2, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> By the following day, a hurricane warning was in effect along the coast from Cedar Key to [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], while storm warnings were displayed from [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[South Carolina]], to [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina|Kitty Hawk]], [[North Carolina]], as well as from [[Pensacola, Florida]], to [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32168707/evening_star/|title=Fair Tonight|page=3|newspaper=Evening Star|date=September 6, 1900|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=June 2, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> Cuban forecasters adamantly disagreed with the Weather Bureau, saying the hurricane would continue west. One Cuban forecaster predicted the hurricane would continue into [[central Texas]] near [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]].{{sfn|Larson|p=83}}

In Galveston on the morning of September&nbsp;8, the [[ocean swell|swells]] persisted despite only partly cloudy skies. Largely because of the unremarkable weather, few residents saw cause for concern.<ref name="ewth">{{cite web|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/galveston.htm|title=The Galveston Hurricane of 1900|publisher=EyeWitnesstoHistory.com|access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> Few people evacuated across Galveston's bridges to the mainland,<ref name=HoT/> and the majority of the population was unconcerned by the rain clouds that began rolling in by midmorning.<ref name="ewth"/> According to his memoirs, Isaac Cline personally traveled by horse along the beach and other low-lying areas to warn people of the storm's approach.<ref name=lasso>{{cite news|url=http://www.1900storm.com/storm/storm3.lasso|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010124074000/http://www.1900storm.com/storm/storm3.lasso|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 24, 2001|title=The 1900 Storm: An Island Washed Away|newspaper=Galveston County Daily News|access-date=December 18, 2007}}</ref> However, these accounts by Cline and his brother, Galveston meteorologist Joseph L. Cline, have since been in dispute.{{sfn|Cline|p=49}}{{sfn|Larson|p=103}} Although Isaac Cline is credited with issuing a hurricane warning without permission from the Bureau's central office,<ref>{{cite news|author=Moore, Nolan|url=https://listverse.com/2014/07/15/10-tragic-stories-about-americas-deadliest-disaster/|title=10 Tragic Stories About America's Deadliest Disaster|publisher=ListVerse|date=July 15, 2014|access-date=June 6, 2019}}</ref> [[author]] [[Erik Larson (author)|Erik Larson]] points to his earlier insistence that a seawall was unnecessary and his notion that an intense hurricane could not strike the island, with Cline even considering it "simply an absurd delusion" to believe otherwise.{{sfn|Larson|p=12}} Further, according to Larson, no other survivors are known to have corroborated these accounts.{{sfn|Larson|p=103}}

==Impact==
===Caribbean===
Antigua reported a [[severe thunderstorm]] passing over on August&nbsp;30, with lower barometric pressures and {{convert|2.6|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} of rain on the island. In Puerto Rico, the storm produced winds up to {{convert|43|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} at [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]].<ref name="partagas"/> In Jamaica, heavy rainfall from the storm caused all rivers to swell. Floodwaters severely damaged banana plantations and washed away miles of railroads. Damage estimates ranged in the thousands of [[Pound sterling|British pounds]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Destructive Storm in Jamaica|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23343396/chicago_tribune/|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|date=September 8, 1900|page=9|access-date=September 1, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> Heavy rains fell in Cuba in association with the cyclone, including a peak 24-hour total of {{convert|12.58|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} in the city of Santiago de Cuba.<ref name=MWRUSWB>{{Cite journal|last=Garriott|first=Edward B.|title=West Indian Hurricane of September 1–12, 1900|journal=Monthly Weather Review|volume=28|issue=9|page=376|date=September 1900|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1900.pdf|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1900)28[371b:WIHOS]2.0.CO;2|bibcode = 1900MWRv...28..371G | access-date= May 22, 2019|doi-access=free}}</ref> The city experienced its worst weather since 1877. The southern end of the city was submerged with about {{convert|5|ft|m|abbr=on}} of water. Firefighters and police rescued and aided stranded residents. ''St. George'', a German steamer, ran aground at [[Daiquirí]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23343656/wilkesbarre_times_leader_the_evening/|title=Bad Storm In Santiago|newspaper=Wilkes-Barre Times Leader, The Evening News|date=September 4, 1900|page=2|access-date=September 1, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> A telegraph from the mayor of [[Trinidad, Cuba|Trinidad]], who was asking for assistance from the [[United States Military Government in Cuba|U.S. occupation government]], indicated that the storm destroyed all crops and left many people destitute.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23344133/the_new_york_times/|title=Cyclone in Cuba|newspaper=The New York Times|date=September 7, 1900|page=1|access-date=February 14, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

===United States===
{{Deadliest United States hurricanes|align=right}}
The Great Galveston hurricane made landfall on September&nbsp;8, 1900, near [[Galveston, Texas]]. It had estimated winds of {{convert|140|mph|km/h|abbr=on|round=5}} at landfall, making the cyclone a Category 4 storm on the modern day [[Saffir–Simpson scale]].<ref name="ibtracs"/>
The hurricane caused great loss of life, with a death toll of between 6,000 and 12,000&nbsp;people;<ref name=HoT>{{cite web|author=Weems, John Edward|url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ydg02|title=Galveston Hurricane of 1900|date=March 21, 2016|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|access-date=December 13, 2018}}</ref> the number most cited in official reports is 8,000,<ref name="texashurricanehistory"/><ref name="Dead 2011">{{cite web |url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/nws-nhc-6.pdf |title=The deadliest, costliest and most intense United States tropical cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (and other frequently requested hurricane facts) |page=47 |access-date=August 10, 2011 |date=August 10, 2011 |author=National Climatic Data Center, National Hurricane Center |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref> giving the storm the third-highest number of deaths of all [[North Atlantic tropical cyclones|Atlantic hurricane]]s, after the [[Great Hurricane of 1780]] and [[Hurricane Mitch]] in [[1998 Atlantic hurricane season|1998]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.trust.org/item/20180829121620-m9it1/|publisher=[[Thomson Reuters Foundation News]]|author=Meyer, Ava|date=August 29, 2018|title=Five deadliest hurricanes as toll from Hurricane Maria raised|access-date=June 21, 2019}}</ref> The Galveston hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest [[natural disaster]] to strike the United States.<ref name="texashurricanehistory"/><ref name="Dead 2011"/> This loss of life can be attributed to the fact that officials for the Weather Bureau in Galveston brushed off the reports and they did not realize the threat.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/1900storm/644889.html|title=Deadly storm came with little warning|newspaper=Houston Chronicle|date=December 17, 2007|access-date=September 28, 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217220036/http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/1900storm/644889.html|archive-date=December 17, 2007}}</ref>

More than [[United States dollar|US$]]34&nbsp;million in damage occurred throughout the United States,<ref name=NOAAcline/><ref name="estimatedlosses">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26211580/the_houston_post/|title=Estimated Losses|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=Houston Post|page=4|access-date=February 3, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> with about US$30&nbsp;million in [[Galveston County, Texas]], alone.<ref name=NOAAcline/> If a similar storm struck in 2010, damage would total approximately US$104.33&nbsp;billion (2010&nbsp;USD), based on normalization, a calculation that takes into account changes in [[inflation]], wealth, and population.<ref name="Dead 2011"/> In comparison, the costliest United States hurricanes &ndash; [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005 and [[Hurricane Harvey]] in 2017 &ndash; both caused about US$125&nbsp;billion in damage.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/news/UpdatedCostliest.pdf|title=Costliest U.S. tropical cyclones tables updated|date=January 26, 2018|publisher=National Hurricane Center|page=2|access-date=February 3, 2019}}</ref>

The hurricane occurred before the practice of assigning official code names to tropical storms was instituted, and thus it is commonly referred to under a variety of descriptive names. Typical names for the storm include the ''Galveston hurricane of 1900'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/how-the-galveston-hurricane-of-1900-became-the-deadliest-u-s-natural-disaster|title=How the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 Became the Deadliest U.S. Natural Disaster|author=Little, Becky|publisher=The History Channel|date=April 12, 2019|access-date=May 2, 2019}}</ref> the ''Great Galveston hurricane'',<ref name="200th"/> and, especially in older documents and publications, the ''Galveston Flood''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31160166/the_anaconda_standard/|title=The Death List|page=1|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=Anaconda Standard|access-date=May 2, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> It is often referred to by Galveston locals as the ''Great Storm of 1900'' or the ''1900 Storm''.<ref name="rhor"/><ref name="stephens"/>

====Florida to Louisiana====
[[File:Galveston_hurricane_rainfall_totals_map_in_Florida_(high_quality),_September_5-7,_1900.jpg|thumb|Rainfall totals from the hurricane in Florida]]
Portions of South Florida experienced tropical storm-force winds, with a sustained wind speed of {{convert|48|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in [[Jupiter, Florida|Jupiter]] and {{convert|40|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in [[Key West]].<ref name="partagas">{{cite report|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/Partagas/1898-1900/1900_1.pdf|title=Year 1900|author=Partagás, José Fernández|pages=97, 99, 105–106|date=1997|work=[[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory]]|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=April 13, 2018|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> The hurricane left "considerable damage" in the [[Palm Beach, Florida|Palm Beach]] area, according to ''[[The New York Times]]''. Many small boats were torn from their moorings and capsized. The bulkhead of the pier was washed away, while docks and several seawalls were damaged.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/19187320/the_new_york_times/|title=Many Wrecks On Florida Coast|date=September 8, 1900|newspaper=The New York Times|page=1|access-date=April 13, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> Rainfall in the state peaked at {{convert|5.7|in|mm|abbr=on}} in [[Hypoluxo, Florida|Hypoluxo]].<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/1956NHRPreportNo3.pdf|page=248|title=National Hurricane Research Project No. 3: Rainfall Associated With Hurricanes (and Other Tropical Disturbances)|author=Schoner, R. W.|author2=Molansky, S.|date=July 1956|publisher=United States Department of Commerce|access-date=February 14, 2019}}</ref> High winds in [[North Florida]] downed telegraph lines between [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] and [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23272945/natchez_democrat/|title=Coast Storm Does Damage|newspaper=Natchez Democrat|date=September 7, 1900|page=1|access-date=August 31, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In [[Mississippi]], the city of [[Pass Christian, Mississippi|Pass Christian]] recorded winds of {{convert|58|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23273022/the_semiweekly_timesdemocrat/|title=At Pass Christian|date=September 11, 1900|newspaper=The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat|page=12|access-date=August 31, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=New Orleans, Louisiana}} {{free access}}</ref> Tides produced by the storm inundated about {{convert|200|ft|m|abbr=on}} of railroad tracks in [[Pascagoula, Mississippi|Pascagoula]] (then known as Scranton), while a quarantine station on [[Ship Island (Mississippi)|Ship Island]] was swept away.<ref name="fierce">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23273315/the_semiweekly_timesdemocrat/|title=Fierce Gale|date=September 11, 1900|newspaper=The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat|page=12|access-date=August 31, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=New Orleans, Louisiana}} {{free access}}</ref>

In [[Louisiana]], the storm produced gale-force winds as far inland as [[DeRidder, Louisiana|DeRidder]] and as far east as [[New Orleans]], with hurricane-force winds observed in [[Cameron Parish, Louisiana|Cameron Parish]]. Along the coast, storm surge inundated [[Johnson Bayou, Louisiana|Johnson Bayou]], while tides at some locations reached their highest level since the [[1875 Indianola hurricane]].<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/lahur.pdf|title=Louisiana Hurricane History|author=Roth, David M.|date=April 8, 2010|page=28|publisher=National Weather Service|access-date=September 1, 2018|location=Camp Springs, Maryland}}</ref> Winds and storm surge caused severe damage to rice crops, with at least 25% destroyed throughout the state.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23273035/the_semiweekly_timesdemocrat/|title=Rice Crop Damaged|newspaper=The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat|date=September 11, 1900|page=12|access-date=September 1, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=New Orleans, Louisiana}} {{free access}}</ref> The community of [[Pointe à la Hache, Louisiana|Pointe à la Hache]] experienced a near-total loss of rice crops.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23273064/the_semiweekly_timesdemocrat/|title=Farmers Lose Heavily|newspaper=The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat|date=September 11, 1900|page=12|access-date=September 1, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=New Orleans, Louisiana}} {{free access}}</ref> Farther east, roads were flooded by storm surge in the communities of [[Gretna, Louisiana|Gretna]] and [[Harvey, Louisiana|Harvey]] near New Orleans, leaving the streets impassable via horses. Winds downed telegraph lines in the southeastern Louisiana in the vicinity of [[Port Eads, Louisiana|Port Eads]].<ref name="fierce"/> Two men were initially presumed to have drowned after sailing away from [[Fort St. Philip]] and not returning in a timely manner,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23331679/the_timespicayune/|title=Two Lives Lost|date=September 8, 1900|page=1|newspaper=The Times-Picayune|access-date=September 1, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=New Orleans}} {{free access}}</ref> but they were both later found alive.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23343240/the_timesdemocrat/|title=The Storm Spends Its Fierce Fury|newspaper=The Times-Democrat|date=September 9, 1900|page=2|access-date=September 1, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=New Orleans}} {{free access}}</ref>

====Texas====
[[File:Floating wreckage, Galveston hurricane, 1900.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Floating wreckage near [[Texas City, Texas|Texas City]] – typical scene for miles along the waterfront|alt=Floating debris surrounding a boat near Texas City]]
Nearly all of the damage in the United States occurred in Texas, with the worst of it occurring in Galveston.<ref name="texashurricanehistory"/> However, many communities outside of Galveston also suffered serious damage and it caused many casualties and affected many families economically,<ref name="estimatedlosses"/> with several cities reporting a near or complete loss of all buildings or homes, including [[Alta Loma, Texas|Alta Loma]], [[Alvin, Texas|Alvin]],<ref name="elpaso">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28316468/el_paso_herald/|title=Huge Wave From the Gulf|date=September 10, 1900|newspaper=El Paso Herald|page=5|access-date=February 12, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> [[Angleton, Texas|Angleton]],<ref name="victoria"/> [[Brazoria, Texas|Brazoria]], [[Brookshire, Texas|Brookshire]],<ref name="elpaso"/> [[Chenango, Texas|Chenango]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28316599/chicago_tribune/|title=Eight Dead at Chenango|date=September 10, 1900|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|page=3|access-date=February 12, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> [[El Campo, Texas|El Campo]],<ref name="victoria">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28317264/victoria_advocate/|title=Summary of Storm News|date=September 15, 1900|newspaper=Victoria Advocate|page=2|access-date=February 12, 2019|via=Newspapers.com|location=Victoria, Texas}} {{free access}}</ref> [[Pearland, Texas|Pearland]],<ref name="elpaso"/> and [[Richmond, Texas|Richmond]].<ref name="victoria"/> Throughout Texas &ndash; in areas other than Galveston &ndash; at least $3&nbsp;million in damage occurred to cotton crops, $75,000 to telegraph and telephone poles, and $60,000 to railroads.<ref name="estimatedlosses"/>

At Alvin, {{convert|8.05|in|mm|abbr=on}} of rain fell on September&nbsp;8, the highest 24-hour total for that city in the month of September.<ref name="texashurricanehistory"/> The city suffered nine fatalities and about $50,000 in damage.<ref name="estimatedlosses"/> In [[West Columbia, Texas|West Columbia]], the storm destroyed the old capitol building of the former [[Republic of Texas]].<ref name="texashurricanehistory"/> Eight deaths occurred in the city.<ref name="estimatedlosses"/> In [[Quintana, Texas|Quintana]], the city experienced extensive damage during this storm and a flood in 1899, causing portions of the community to be abandoned.<ref name="texashurricanehistory"/> Throughout [[Brazoria County, Texas|Brazoria County]] alone, the hurricane caused nearly $200,000 in damage and 47&nbsp;deaths.<ref name="estimatedlosses"/> [[Houston]] also experienced significant damage. The hurricane wrought damage to many buildings, including a Masonic temple, a railroad powerhouse, an opera house, a courthouse, and many businesses,<ref name="houstonsuffered">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28318880/the_houston_post/|title=Houston Suffered From Storm|newspaper=Houston Post|date=September 10, 1900|page=3|access-date=February 12, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> churches, homes, hotels, and school buildings.<ref name="latimes">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28319003/the_los_angeles_times/|agency=Associated Press|title=Hhuston [sic] A Mass Of Wreckage|date=September 11, 1900|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|page=4|access-date=February 12, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> Streets were littered with branches from [[shade tree]]s and downed electrical wires, leaving several roads completely impassable to vehicles.<ref name="houstonsuffered"/> The city of Houston suffered about $250,000 in damage and two deaths,<ref name="estimatedlosses"/> one of which occurred when a man was struck by falling timber.<ref name="latimes"/> A train heading for Galveston left Houston on the morning of September&nbsp;8 at 9:45&nbsp;a.m. [[Central Time Zone|CST]] (15:45&nbsp;UTC).{{sfn|Bixel|p=20}} It found the tracks washed out, and passengers were forced to transfer to a relief train on parallel tracks to complete their journey. Even then, debris on the track slowed the train's progress to a crawl. The 95&nbsp;travelers on the train from [[Beaumont, Texas|Beaumont]] found themselves at the [[Bolivar Peninsula]] waiting for the [[ferry]] that would carry them to the island. When it arrived, the high seas forced the ferry captain to give up on his attempt to dock. The train crew attempted to return the way they had come, but rising water blocked the train's path.{{sfn|Larson|pp=99-100}} Ten refugees from the Beaumont train sought shelter at the [[Point Bolivar lighthouse]] with 190&nbsp;residents of [[Port Bolivar, Texas|Port Bolivar]] who were already there. The 85 who stayed with the train died when the [[storm surge]] overran the tops of the cars, while every person inside the lighthouse survived.<ref name="chronicle">{{Cite news|url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/1900storm/644889.html|date=August 28, 2000|title=Unimaginable devastation: Deadly storm came with little warning|author=Olafson, Steve|newspaper=Houston Chronicle|access-date=December 18, 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071217220036/http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/special/1900storm/644889.html| archive-date= December 17, 2007 | url-status= dead}}</ref>

=====Galveston=====
{{Rquote|right|First news from Galveston just received by train that could get no closer to the bay shore than {{convert|6|mi|km|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} where the prairie was strewn with debris and dead bodies. About 200&nbsp;corpses counted from the train. Large steamship stranded {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} inland. Nothing could be seen of Galveston. Loss of life and property undoubtedly most appalling. Weather clear and bright here with gentle southeast wind.
|G.L. Vaughan<br />Manager, [[Western Union]], Houston,<br /> in a telegram to the Chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau on the day after the hurricane, September 9, 1900{{sfn|Larson|p=136}} }}
[[File:1900_Galveston_hurricane_path_and_storm_surge.gif|left|thumb|215x215px|Loop of the path and [[storm surge]] associated with the 1900 Galveston hurricane]]
At the time of the 1900 hurricane, the highest point in the city of Galveston was only {{convert|8.7|ft|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name="weatherdoctor" /> The hurricane brought with it a storm surge of over {{convert|15|ft|m|abbr=on}} that washed over the entire island. Storm surge and tides began flooding the city by the early morning hours of September&nbsp;8. Water rose steadily from 3:00&nbsp;p.m. (21:00&nbsp;UTC) until approximately 7:30&nbsp;p.m. (01:30&nbsp;UTC September&nbsp;9), when eyewitness accounts indicated that water rose about {{convert|4|ft|m|abbr=on}} in just four seconds. An additional {{convert|5|ft|m|abbr=on}} of water had flowed into portions of the city by 8:30&nbsp;p.m. (02:30&nbsp;UTC September&nbsp;9).<ref name="NOAAcline" /> The cyclone dropped {{convert|9|in|mm|abbr=on}} of precipitation in Galveston on September&nbsp;8, setting a record for the most rainfall for any 24-hour period in the month of September in the city's history.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.weather.gov/hgx/climate_gls_normals_sep|title=September Normals, Means and Extremes for Galveston|date=2018|publisher=National Weather Service Houston/Galveston, Texas|access-date=December 9, 2018}}</ref>

The highest measured wind speed was {{convert|100|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} just after 6:15&nbsp;p.m. on September&nbsp;8 (00:15
&nbsp;UTC September&nbsp;9), but the Weather Bureau's [[anemometer]] was blown off the building shortly after that measurement was recorded.<ref name=weatherdoctor/> Contemporaneous estimates placed the maximum sustained wind speed at {{convert|120|mi/h|km/h|-1|abbr=on}}. However, survivors reported observing bricks, slate, timbers, and other heavy objects becoming airborne, indicating that winds were likely stronger.<ref name="almanac">{{cite web|url=https://texasalmanac.com/topics/history/galvestons-response-hurricane-1900|author=Ramos, Mary G.|title=After the Great Storm: Galveston's response to the hurricane of 1900|publisher=Texas Almanac|date=2008|access-date=December 22, 2018}}</ref> Later estimates placed the hurricane at the higher Category&nbsp;4 classification on the Saffir–Simpson scale.<ref name="ibtracs"/> The lowest recorded [[barometric pressure]] was {{convert|28.48|inHg|mbar|1|abbr=on|lk=on|order=flip}}, but this was subsequently adjusted to the storm's official lowest measured central pressure of about {{convert|936|mbar|inHg|abbr=on}}.<ref name=HoT/><ref name="ibtracs"/>
[[File:Searching for bodies, Galveston 1900.ogv|left|thumb|237px|Searching for bodies in Galveston in the aftermath of the storm of 1900. At the time this film was shot, the stench of hundreds of bodies could be smelled for miles. One body was discovered (but not filmed) while the camera crew was present.]]
Few streets in the city escaped wind damage and all streets suffered water damage,<ref name="map"/> with much of the destruction caused by storm surge. All bridges connecting the island to the mainland were washed away, while approximately {{convert|15|mi|km|abbr=on}} of railroad track was destroyed. Winds and storm surge also downed electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires. The surge swept buildings off their foundations and dismantled them. Many buildings and homes destroyed other structures after being pushed into them by the waves,<ref name="clarabarton"/> which even demolished structures built to withstand hurricanes.<ref name="almanac"/> Every home in Galveston suffered damage, with 3,636&nbsp;homes destroyed.<ref name=NOAAcline>{{cite report|author=Cline, Isaac M.|date=September 23, 1900|title=Special Report on The Galveston Hurricane of September 8, 1900|work=Weather Bureau|location=Galveston, Texas}} as archived in {{Cite journal|last=Garriott|first=Edward B.|title=West Indian Hurricane of September 1–12, 1900|journal=Monthly Weather Review|volume=28|issue=9|pages=372–374|date=September 1900|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1900.pdf|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1900)28[371b:WIHOS]2.0.CO;2|bibcode = 1900MWRv...28..371G | access-date=May 20, 2019|doi-access=free}}</ref> Approximately 10,000&nbsp;people in the city were left homeless, out of a total population of nearly 38,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/11/30/566950355/the-tempest-at-galveston-we-knew-there-was-a-storm-coming-but-we-had-no-idea|title=The Tempest At Galveston: 'We Knew There Was A Storm Coming, But We Had No Idea'|author=Burnett, John|date=November 30, 2017|publisher=NPR|access-date=December 8, 2018}}</ref> Portrait and landscape artist [[Verner Moore White]] who moved from Galveston the day before the hurricane and survived, had his studio and much of his portfolio destroyed.<ref>Baker, James Graham; Southwestern Historical Quarterly Vol CXIII; April 2010</ref> The Tremont Hotel, where hundreds of people sought refuge during the storm,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.texasarchive.org/library/index.php/Galveston_Hurricane_of_1900_-_Panoramic_View_of_Tremont_Hotel|title=Galveston Hurricane of 1900 - Panoramic View of Tremont Hotel|publisher=[[The Texas Archive of the Moving Image]]|access-date=December 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209125035/https://www.texasarchive.org/library/index.php/Galveston_Hurricane_of_1900_-_Panoramic_View_of_Tremont_Hotel|archive-date=December 9, 2018}}</ref> was severely damaged.<ref name="map"/> All public buildings also suffered damage, including city hall &ndash; which was completely deroofed &ndash;<ref name="clarabarton"/> a hospital, a city gas works, a city water works, and the [[United States Customs House and Court House (Galveston, Texas)|custom house]].<ref name="map"/> The [[Grand 1894 Opera House|Grand Opera House]] also sustained extensive damage, but was quickly rebuilt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thegrand.com/history-of-the-grand/|title=History of The Grand|publisher=The Grand 1894 Opera House|access-date=December 22, 2018|archive-date=January 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102061758/http://www.thegrand.com/history-of-the-grand/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| header            = Images of the destruction from the hurricane in [[Galveston, Texas]]
| width             = 150
| image1            = Seeking valuables in the wreckage, Galveston, Texas.jpg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| image2            = Galveston Disaster, Texas, body in the ruins on wharf.jpg
| image3            = Wrecked Negro High School Building, Galveston, Texas.jpg
| image4            = Galveston - 1900 homes.jpg
| image5            = A big tip in Galveston2.jpg
| image6            = Relief party working at Ave P and Tremont St.jpg
}}



Three schools and [[St. Mary's University (Galveston, Texas)|St. Mary's University]] were nearly destroyed. Many places of worship in the city also received severe damage or were completely demolished.<ref name="map" /> Of the 39&nbsp;churches in Galveston, 25&nbsp;experienced complete destruction, while the others received some degree of damage.<ref name="pdp" /> During the storm, the St. Mary's Orphans Asylum, owned by the [[Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word]], was occupied by 93&nbsp;children and 10&nbsp;[[Religious sister (Catholic)|sisters]]. As tides began approaching the property, the sisters moved the children into the girl's dorm, as it was newer and sturdier. Realizing they were under threat, the sisters had the children repeatedly sing [[Queen of the Waves]] to calm them. As the collapse of the building appeared imminent, the sisters used a clothesline to tie themselves to six to eight children. The building eventually collapsed. Only three of the children and none of the sisters survived.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.1900storm.com/orphanage.html|title=The Sisters of Charity Orphanage|newspaper=Galveston County Daily News|access-date=December 9, 2018}}</ref> The few buildings that survived, mostly solidly built mansions and houses along the [[Strand National Historic Landmark District|Strand District]], are today maintained as tourist attractions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.galveston.com/downtowntour/|title=The Strand|publisher=Galveston.com & Company, Inc|access-date=February 14, 2019}}</ref>[[File:Galvestonmap1900hurricane.png|thumb|256x256px|Map illustrating the devastation in Galveston|alt=A map illustrating the devastation in Galveston. There is a dark shaded arch-area, demarcating total destruction in that region of the city|left]]

Early property damage estimates were placed at $25&nbsp;million.<ref name="map"/> However, itemized estimates from 1901 based on assessments conducted by the ''Galveston News'', the Galveston chamber of commerce, a relief committee, and multiple insurance companies indicated that the storm caused just over $17&nbsp;million in damage throughout Galveston, including about $8.44&nbsp;million to residential properties, $500,000 to churches, $656,000 to wharves and shipping properties, $580,000 to manufacturing plants, $397,000 to mercantile buildings, $1.4&nbsp;million to store merchandise, $670,000 to railroads and telegraph and telephone services, $416,000 to products in shipment, $336,000 to municipality properties, $243,000 to county properties, and $3.16&nbsp;million to United States government properties. The total also included $115,000 in damage to schools and approximately $100,000 in damage to roads.<ref name="pdp">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26369120/pittsburgh_daily_post/|title=The Property Loss|date=March 10, 1901|newspaper=Pittsburgh Daily Post|page=20|access-date=December 20, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

The area of destruction &ndash; an area in which nothing remained standing after the storm &ndash; consisted of approximately {{convert|1900|acres|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} of land and was arc-shaped, with complete demolition of structures in the west, south, and eastern portions of the city, while the north-central section of the city suffered the least amount of damage.<ref name="map">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26052143/the_houston_post/|title=Map of Galveston, Showing Destruction By The Storm|date=September 27, 1900|newspaper=Houston Post|page=7|access-date=December 8, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In the immediate aftermath of the storm, a {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|30|ft|m|abbr=on}} wall of debris was situated in the middle of the island.<ref name="clarabarton">{{cite web|url=http://rockarch.org/publications/conferences/turner.pdf|title=Clara Barton and the Formation of Public Policy in Galveston, 1900|author=Turner, Elizabeth Hayes|publisher=[[University of Houston–Downtown]]|pages=3–5|access-date=December 8, 2018|archive-date=June 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617153924/http://www.rockarch.org/publications/conferences/turner.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> As severe as the damage to the city's buildings was, the death toll was even greater. Because of the destruction of the bridges to the mainland and the telegraph lines, no word of the city's destruction was able to reach the mainland at first.<ref name="NYT bridges">{{Cite news|title=Galveston May be Wiped Out By Storm |newspaper=The New York Times|date=September 9, 1900|page=1|access-date=May 20, 2019|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31761433/the_new_york_times/|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> 
[[File:Galveston - 1900 bodies.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Many who died had their corpses piled onto carts for [[burial at sea]].|alt=A horse and buggy transporting bodies]]
On the morning of September&nbsp;9, one of the few ships at the Galveston wharfs to survive the storm, the ''Pherabe'', set sail and arrived in [[Texas City, Texas|Texas City]] on the western side of Galveston Bay with a group of messengers from the city. When they reached the telegraph office in Houston early on September&nbsp;10, a short message was sent to Texas [[Governor of Texas|Governor]] [[Joseph D. Sayers]] and U.S. President [[William McKinley]]: "I have been deputized by the mayor and Citizen's Committee of Galveston to inform you that the city of Galveston is in ruins." The messengers reported an estimated five hundred dead; this was initially considered to be an exaggeration.{{sfn|Ousley|p=276}} The citizens of Houston knew a powerful storm had blown through and had prepared to provide assistance. Workers set out by rail and ship for the island almost immediately. Rescuers arrived to find the city completely destroyed.<ref name="sullivan"/>
[[File:1900_Galveston_hurricane_rainfall_totals_2,_September_8-10,_1900.jpg|thumb|289x289px|Rainfall totals from the hurricane in Texas through September 8–10, 1900]]
A survey conducted by the Morrison and Fourmy Company in early 1901 indicated a population loss of 8,124, though the company believed that about 2,000&nbsp;people left the city after the storm and never returned. On this basis, the death toll is no less than 6,000,{{sfn|Larson|p=160}} while estimates range up to 12,000.<ref name="HoT"/> It is believed 8,000&nbsp;people—20% of the island's population—had lost their lives.<ref name="sullivan">{{cite news|author1=Sullivan, Brian K.|author2=Korose, Tom|title=Hurricane Ike Set to Slam Texas Coast; Thousands Flee|publisher=Bloomberg News|date=September 12, 2008|location=New York}}</ref> Most had [[drowning|drowned]] or been crushed as the waves pounded the [[debris]] that had been their homes hours earlier.{{sfn|Coe|p=28}} A number of fatalities also occurred after strong winds turned debris into projectiles.<ref name=NOAAcline/> Many survived the storm itself but died after several days being trapped under the wreckage of the city, with rescuers unable to reach them. The rescuers could hear the screams of the survivors as they walked on the debris trying to rescue those they could.{{sfn|Coe|p=28}} More people were killed in this single storm than the total of those killed in at least the next two deadliest tropical cyclones that have struck the United States since.{{sfn|Larson|p=146}} The Galveston hurricane of 1900 remains the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history.<ref name="texashurricanehistory"/> The disaster did not even spare the buried dead; a number of coffins, including reportedly that of actor-playwright [[Charles Francis Coghlan]] who had died in Galveston the previous year, were washed out of the local cemetery to sea by the tidal storm surge.<ref>Charles Coghian's Body Missing. -  New York Times - 25 September 1900;  pg. 2;</ref>

====Midwest====
After moving northward from Texas into Oklahoma, the storm produced winds of near {{convert|30|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} at [[Oklahoma City]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/4150721/the_leavenworth_times/|title=Storm Reached Oklahoma|date=September 11, 1900|newspaper=Leavenworth Times|page=8|access-date=September 3, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> The extratropical remnants of the cyclone then re-intensified to the equivalence of a tropical storm and continued to strengthen,<ref name="ibtracs"/> bringing strong winds to the [[Midwestern United States]]. High winds in [[Missouri]] toppled a brick wall under construction in [[St. Joseph, Missouri|St. Joseph]], killing a man and severely injuring another.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23386427/st_louis_postdispatch/|title=One Killed at St. Joseph|date=September 12, 1900|newspaper=St. Louis Post-Dispatch|page=2|access-date=September 3, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In [[Illinois]], particularly hard hit was the city of [[Chicago]], which experienced wind gusts up to {{convert|84|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref name="partagas"/> Thousands of dollars in damage occurred to roofs, trees, signs, and windows. Several people were injured and two deaths occurred in the city, one from a live wire and the other was a drowning after a boat capsized in [[Lake Michigan]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23386841/st_louis_postdispatch/|title=Chicago Badly Damaged|date=September 12, 1900|newspaper=St. Louis Post-Dispatch|page=2|access-date=September 3, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In Wisconsin, many weather stations in the northern and central portions of the state recorded at least {{convert|1|in|mm|abbr=on}} of rainfall, including a peak total of {{convert|4.25|in|mm|abbr=on}} in [[Shawano, Wisconsin|Shawano]].<ref name="CD_190009">{{cite report|last1=Wilson |first1=W. M. |title=Report for September, 1900 |series=Climatological Data |date=September 1900 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=3–4 |url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-93283579-6649-4407-A6F2-ACFE68A1F461.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609202237/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-93283579-6649-4407-A6F2-ACFE68A1F461.pdf|archive-date=June 9, 2020 |accessdate=April 12, 2023 |publisher=Climate and Crop Service of the Weather Bureau|via=National Centers for Environmental Information |location=Milwaukee, Wisconsin }}</ref> Heavy rains fell in parts of [[Minnesota]]. The [[Minneapolis–Saint Paul]] area recorded {{convert|4.23|in|mm|abbr=on}} of precipitation over a period of 16&nbsp;hours. Farther north, several washouts occurred, especially in the northern areas of the state. A bridge, along with a few train cars, were swept away during a washout in [[Cold Spring, Minnesota|Cold Spring]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27925827/st_louis_postdispatch/|title=Twin Cities Visited|date=September 12, 1900|newspaper=St. Louis Dispatch|page=2|access-date=February 2, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>
[[File:Galveston_hurricane_weather_map_9-11-1900_(980124).jpg|thumb|Weather Bureau map of the storm over the Midwestern United States on September 11]]
In [[Michigan]], the storm produced winds around {{convert|60|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} at [[Muskegon, Michigan|Muskegon]]. Tides from Lake Michigan were the highest in several months. According to ''[[The Times Herald]]'', the city of [[Marshall, Michigan|Marshall]] experienced "the severest windstorm of the season", which uprooted trees and damaged several buildings. Throughout the state, winds left at least $12,000 in losses to peach orchards, with many peach trees uprooted. Significant losses to apples and pears also occurred.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/23332064/the_times_herald/|title=Storm in Michigan|date=September 12, 1900|newspaper=The Times Herald|page=8|access-date=February 2, 2019|via=Newspapers.com|location=Port Huron, Michigan}} {{free access}}</ref> Rough seas in [[Lake Erie]] resulted in several maritime incidents offshore [[Ohio]]. The ''John B. Lyon'', a {{convert|255|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} steamer, capsized about {{convert|5|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of [[Conneaut, Ohio|Conneaut]]. Fourteen out of sixteen crew members drowned. A survivor suggested that the ship being overloaded may have been a factor in its sinking. About {{convert|10|mi|km|abbr=on}} farther north, the schooner ''Dundee'' sank, causing at least one death. In another incident nearby, the steamer ''City of Erie'', with about 300&nbsp;passengers aboard, was hit by a wave that swept over the [[Bastion|bulwark]]s. The engine slowed and the steamers later reached safety in Canada with no loss of lives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ohioshipwrecks.org/ShipwreckDetail.php?AR=4&Wreck=10|title=Explore Shipwrecks: John B. Lyon|publisher=Ohio State University's Sea Grant College Program|access-date=November 18, 2018|archive-date=August 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831024552/http://ohioshipwrecks.org/ShipwreckDetail.php?AR=4&Wreck=10|url-status=dead}}</ref> In [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]], strong winds disrupted telegraph services. Winds also blew water out of parts of the [[Maumee River]] and [[Maumee Bay]] to such an extent that they were impassable by vessels due to low water levels. A number of vessels were buried in mud several feet deep, while about 20&nbsp;others were beached.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25493896/the_cincinnati_enquirer/|title=Water Driven from Toledo Harbor and Vessels Stuck in the Mud|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=The Cincinnati Enquirer|page=2|access-date=November 18, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

====New York====
[[File:1900hurricanebuffalo.png|thumb|right|A destroyed iron works in Buffalo|alt=Image showing a building damaged so badly that only the corner remained standing]]
Of the many cities in New York affected by the remnants of the hurricane, [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] was among the hardest hit. There, winds peaked at {{convert|78|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}, downing hundreds of electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires,<ref name="great storm">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855320/buffalo_courier/|title=Great Damage By The Storm In Buffalo|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=Buffalo Courier|page=7|access-date=January 31, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> while numerous trees toppled and some branches fell onto roadways. An oil derrick blew away and landed on the roof of a house, crushing the roof and nearly killing the occupants.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855761/buffalo_courier/|title=Lifted Derricp [sic] From The Ground|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=Buffalo Courier|page=7|access-date=January 31, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> A newly built iron works building was virtually destroyed, causing a loss of about $10,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855761/buffalo_courier/|title=New Cast House Was Blown Down|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=Buffalo Courier|page=7|access-date=January 31, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> At the [[Pan-American Exposition]], the storm damaged several structures, including part of the government building, while two towers were destroyed. Losses at the exposition alone were conservatively estimated at $75,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855841/buffalo_courier/|title=Exposition's Loss Hard to Estimate|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=Buffalo Courier|page=7|access-date=January 31, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> One death occurred in Buffalo after a woman inadvertently touched a downed electrical wire obscured by debris.<ref name="great storm"/> Several nearby resorts received extensive damage. At [[Woodlawn Beach State Park|Woodlawn Beach]], several dozens of small boats and a pier were destroyed. Nearly all vessels owned by the Buffalo Canoe Club suffered severe damage or destruction at [[Crystal Beach, New York|Crystal Beach]]. A toboggan slide and a restaurant were also destroyed. Losses in Crystal Beach reached about $5,000. Heavy crop losses occurred over western New York, with fallen apples and peaches completely covering the ground at thousands of acres of orchards. Losses reportedly ranged in the hundreds of thousands of dollars.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27855997/buffalo_courier/|title=Havoc Caused at Nearby Resorts|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=Buffalo Courier|page=7|access-date=January 31, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

The rapidly moving storm was still exhibiting winds of {{convert|65|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} while passing well north of New York City on September&nbsp;12.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Course of the Hurricane|work=The New York Times|page=14|access-date=February 3, 2019|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27960541/the_new_york_times/ | date=September 13, 1900 |via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that pedestrian-walking became difficult and attributed one death to the storm. A sign pole, snapped by the wind, landed on a 23-year-old man, crushing his skull and killing him instantly, while two others were knocked unconscious. Awnings and signs on many buildings broke and the canvas roofing at the Fire Department headquarters was blown off.<ref name="NY"/> Closer to the waterfront, along the [[Battery Park|Battery seawall]], waves and tides were reported to be some of the highest in recent memory of the fishermen and sailors. Spray and debris were thrown over the wall, making walking along the waterfront dangerous. Small craft in [[New York Harbor]] were thrown off course and tides and currents in the [[Hudson River]] made navigation difficult.<ref>{{cite news|work=The New York Times|title=The Water High at The Battery|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28309789/the_new_york_times/|page=14|access-date=February 11, 2019|date=September 13, 1900|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In [[Brooklyn]], ''The New York Times'' reported that trees were uprooted, signs and similar structures were blown down, and yachts were torn from moorings with some suffering severe damage.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Storm in Brooklyn|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28309905/the_new_york_times/|page=14|access-date=February 11, 2019| date=September 13, 1900|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> Because of the direction of the wind, [[Coney Island]] escaped the fury of the storm, though a bathing pavilion at [[Bath Beach, Brooklyn|Bath Beach]] suffered damage from wind and waves.<ref name="NY">{{Cite news|title=City swept by high winds|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/27960657/the_new_york_times/|page=14|access-date=February 3, 2019| date=September 13, 1900 |via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

====New England====
In [[Connecticut]], winds gusted up to about {{convert|40|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. The apple crops, already endangered by drought conditions, suffered severe damage, with ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' noting that there was, "hardly an apple left on a tree in the entire state".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25517568/the_boston_globe/|title=Connecticut Fruit Crop Gone|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 19, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In the town of [[Orange, Connecticut|Orange]], twelve large tents at a [[fair]] were ripped. At another fair in [[New Milford, Connecticut|New Milford]], fifteen tents collapsed, forcing closure of the fair.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25520086/hartford_courant/|title=Wind Broke Up Fairs|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 14, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 19, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> Along the coast, the storm produced abnormally high tides, with tides reaching their highest heights in six years at [[Westbrook, Connecticut|Westbrook]]. Water reached the [[Bulkhead (barrier)|bulkhead]]s and remained there for several hours.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25520181/hartford_courant/|title=The Storm at Westbrook|newspaper=Hartford Courant|date=September 14, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 19, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In [[Rhode Island]], the storm left damage in the vicinity of [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]]. Telegraph and telephone services were interrupted, but not to such a large extent. Some small crafts in [[Narragansett Bay]] received damage, while apple orchards experienced slight losses.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25520977/the_boston_globe/|title=Damage at Providence|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 19, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

Lightning produced by the storm ignited several brush fires in [[Massachusetts]], particularly in the southeastern portions of the state, with winds spreading the flames. In [[Plymouth, Massachusetts|Plymouth]] and other nearby towns, some residents evacuated from the fires by boat. Most cottages around the Big Long, [[Gallows Pond|Gallows]],<ref name="neartomany"/> [[Halfway Pond (Massachusetts)|Halfway]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25659306/the_boston_globe/|title=Death Near to Many|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=2|access-date=November 24, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> and [[Little Long Pond (Plymouth, Massachusetts)|Little Long]] ponds were reduced to burning coals.<ref name="neartomany">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25659072/the_boston_globe/|title=Death Near to Many|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=1|access-date=November 24, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In [[Everett, Massachusetts|Everett]], orchards in the Woodlawn section suffered complete losses of fruit. Two wooden frame building were demolished, while winds also toppled fences throughout the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25834569/the_boston_globe/|title=Everett Was Hit Hard|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 30, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> Winds damaged many telephone and electric wires in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]. A lineman sent to fix the electrical wires nearly died when a pole snapped during a fierce wind gust. Orchards in the city suffered near complete loss and many shade trees were also damaged. At least a few chimneys toppled and several others were left leaning. A bathhouse at [[Harvard University]] lost a portion of its tin roof and its copper [[cornice]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25835585/the_boston_globe/|title=Many Accidents in Cambridge|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 30, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> At [[Cape Cod]], a wind speed of {{convert|45|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} was observed at [[Highland Light]] in [[North Truro, Massachusetts|North Truro]]. Waves breached the sand dunes at multiple locations along the cape, with water sweeping across a county road at Beach Point in North Truro. A number of fishing boats sank and several fish houses received severe damage.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25834972/the_boston_globe/|title=Water Sweeps High on The Cape|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 30, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> One man drowned in a lake near [[Andover, Massachusetts|Andover]] while canoeing during the storm.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31638896/the_boston_globe/|title=Joseph W. Smith Drowned|date=September 14, 1900|newspaper=The Boston Globe|page=7|access-date=May 17, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

Strong winds in [[Vermont]] generated rough seas in [[Lake Champlain]]. Early reports indicated that a schooner sunk near Adams Ferry with no survivors,<ref name="sunk">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25523260/the_burlington_free_press/|title=Schooner Sunk|date=September 13, 1900|newspaper=The Burlington Free Press|page=1|access-date=November 19, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> but the vessel was later found safely anchored at [[Westport, New York]].<ref name="chelsea">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25523242/the_chelsea_herald/|title=Damage From Wind Storm|date=September 20, 1900|newspaper=The Chelsea Herald|page=5|via=Newspapers.com|access-date=November 19, 2018|location=Randolph, Vermont}} {{free access}}</ref> According to a man near the lake, all water from the New York portion of the lake was blown to the Vermont side, crashing ashore in waves as high as {{convert|15|to|20|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="sunk"/> In the state capital of [[Montpelier, Vermont|Montpelier]], several large trees at the [[Vermont State House|state house]] were uprooted. Within Montpelier and vicinity, farmers suffered some losses to apples and corn. Telephone and telegraph services were almost completely cut off. In [[Vergennes, Vermont|Vergennes]], a number of telephone wires snapped, while many apples, pears, and plums were blown off the trees. Additional damage to fruit and shade trees occurred in [[Middlebury, Vermont|Middlebury]] and [[Winooski, Vermont|Winooski]].<ref name="chelsea"/> The city of [[Burlington, Vermont|Burlington]] experienced its worst storm in many years. Winds downed all telephone and telegraph wires, whereas many trees had severe damage. Some homes were deroofed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25523475/montpelier_evening_argus/|title=Storm Strikes in Burlington|date=September 12, 1900|newspaper=Montpelier Evening Argus|page=1|access-date=November 19, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

In [[New Hampshire]], the storm left wind damage in the city of [[Nashua, New Hampshire|Nashua]]. Winds tore roofs off a number of buildings, with several roofs landing on the streets or telephone wires. Chimneys in each section of the city collapsed; many people narrowly escaped injury or death. In Nashua and the nearby cities of [[Brookline, New Hampshire|Brookline]] and [[Hollis, New Hampshire|Hollis]], thousands of dollars in losses occurred to apple crops, described as "practically ruined".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25630296/the_boston_globe/|title=Roofs Flying In Air|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 23, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> The city of [[Manchester, New Hampshire|Manchester]] was affected by "one of the most furious windstorms which visited this city in years". Telephone and telegraph communications were nearly completely out for several hours, while windows shattered and trees snapped. Street railway traffic experienced delays.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25630526/the_boston_globe/|title=Manchester Feels Its Fury|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=3|access-date=November 23, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> In [[Maine]], the storm downed trees and chimney and caused property damage in the vicinity of [[Biddeford, Maine|Biddeford]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31401801/the_boston_globe/|title=Biddeford Feels the Wind|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 13, 1900|page=3|access-date=May 9, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

===Canada===
{{Deadliest Canada hurricanes}}
From September&nbsp;12–September&nbsp;14, the extratropical remnants of the Galveston hurricane affected six [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian provinces]], resulting in severe damage and extensive loss of life. In [[Ontario]], storm surge in [[Lake Ontario]] ranged from {{convert|8|to|10|ft|m|abbr=on}}, wreaking havoc on vessels, beaching several boats, destroying a number of boats, and setting some others adrift. Many other vessels canceled or postponed their departures. Winds reached as high as {{convert|77|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in [[Toronto]], breaking windows throughout the city. A fire broke out at a flour mill in [[Paris, Ontario|Paris]], and the flames were fanned by the storm, resulting in $350,000 in damage to the mill and 50&nbsp;other stores and offices. High winds downed electrical, telegraph, and telephone lines in many areas. Total crop damage in Ontario alone amounted to $1&nbsp;million. Impact to crops was particularly severe at [[St. Catharines]], where many apple, peach, pear, and plum orchards were extensively damaged, with a loss of thousands of dollars. One person died in [[Niagara Falls, Ontario|Niagara Falls]], when a man attempted to remove debris from a pump station, but he was swept away into [[Niagara River|the river]] instead. Maximum rainfall in Canada reached 3.9&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;mm) in [[Percé, Quebec]].<ref name="ECC"/>
[[File:Galveston_hurricane_weather_map_9-12-1900_(531208).jpg|thumb|Weather Bureau map of the storm as an extratropical cyclone moving into Canada on September 12]]
In [[Nova Scotia]], damage was reported in the [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] area. A plethora of fences and trees fell over, while windows shattered and a house under construction collapsed. Two schooners were driven ashore at [[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] and a brigantine was also beached at [[Cape Breton Island]]. Another schooner, known as ''Greta'', capsized offshore Cape Breton Island near [[Low Point Lighthouse|Low Point]], with the fate of the crew being unknown. On [[Prince Edward Island]], a few barns, a windmill, and a lobster factory were destroyed. Falling trees downed about 40&nbsp;electrical wires. A house suffered damage after its own chimney fell and collapsed through the roof. Strong winds also tossed a boxcar from its track. A bridge and wharf at [[St. Peters Bay, Prince Edward Island|St. Peters Bay]] were damaged. Fruit crops were almost entirely ruined throughout Prince Edward Island. The majority of loss of life in Canada occurred due to numerous shipwrecks off the coasts of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]], [[Newfoundland]], and Prince Edward Island. The overall death toll in Canadian waters is estimated to be between 52 and 232, making this at least the eighth deadliest hurricane to affect Canada. The large discrepancy between the fatality figures is due to the fact that many people were reported missing. Thus, the exact number of deaths is unknown.<ref name="ECC">{{cite web|title=1900-1|url=https://www.ec.gc.ca/hurricane/default.asp?lang=En&n=A386676E-1|date=November 20, 2009|publisher=Environment and Climate Change Canada|access-date=May 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313113844/https://www.ec.gc.ca/hurricane/default.asp?lang=En&n=A386676E-1|archive-date=March 13, 2013}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
{{Costliest U.S. Atlantic hurricanes by wealth normalization}}
The city of Galveston was effectively obliterated.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/weather/09/12/galveston.1900/#cnnSTCText|title=Hurricane destroyed Galveston in 1900|publisher=CNN|author=Wildmoon, K. C.|date=September 8, 2008|access-date=October 5, 2016}}</ref> With the city in ruins and railroads to the mainland destroyed, the survivors had little to live on until relief arrived. On September&nbsp;9, Galveston city officials established the Central Relief Committee for Galveston Storm Sufferers (CRC), chaired by Mayor Walter C. Jones. The CRC was composed of subcommittees for specific aspects of relief efforts, including burial of the deceased, correspondence, distribution of food and water, finances, hospitalization and rehabilitation for the injured, and public safety.<ref name="clarabarton"/>

The dead bodies were so numerous that burying all of them was impossible. Initially, bodies were collected by "dead gangs" and then given to 50&nbsp;African American men &ndash; who were forcibly recruited at gunpoint &ndash; to load them onto a barge. About 700&nbsp;bodies were taken out to sea to be dumped. However, after gulf currents washed many of the bodies back onto the beach, a new solution was needed. [[Funeral pyre]]s were set up on the beaches, or wherever dead bodies were found, and burned day and night for several weeks after the storm. The authorities passed out free whiskey to sustain the distraught men conscripted for the gruesome work of collecting and burning the dead.<ref name="vanriper">{{cite web|url=http://ultimatehistoryproject.com/galveston-hurricane-1900.html|title=The Great Galveston hurricane of 1900|author=Van Riper, A. Bowdoin|publisher=The Ultimate History Project|access-date=February 16, 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207221607/http://ultimatehistoryproject.com/galveston-hurricane-1900.html|archivedate=December 7, 2013}}</ref>

With thousands dead and roughly 2,000&nbsp;survivors leaving the city and never returning according to a Morrison and Fourmy Company survey, Galveston initially experienced a significant population decline.{{sfn|Larson|p=160}} Between 1907 and 1914, [[Congregation B'nai Israel (Galveston, Texas)|Congregation B'nai Israel]] rabbi [[Henry Cohen (rabbi)|Henry Cohen]] and philanthropist [[Jacob Schiff]] spearheaded the [[Galveston Movement]]. Cohen, Schiff, and others created the movement to draw Jewish immigrants away from the crowded area along the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] and toward cities farther west, such as Galveston. Although approximately 10,000&nbsp;Jewish immigrants arrived in Galveston during this period, few settled in the city or the island, but about one-fourth of them remained in Texas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isjl.org/texas-galveston-encyclopedia.html|title=Encyclopedia of Southern Jewish Communities – Galveston, Texas |publisher=Goldring/Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life|access-date=May 17, 2019}}</ref> The [[1910 United States census|1910 Census]] reported a population of 36,891&nbsp;people in Galveston. Although a decline from the 1900&nbsp;Census, the population loss of thousands of people was nearly reversed.<ref name="census2015">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/history/www/homepage_archive/2015/september_2015.html|title=U.S. Census Bureau History: 1900 Galveston Hurricane|date=September 2015|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=May 17, 2019}}</ref>

In the months prior to the hurricane, valet Charles F. Jones and lawyer [[Albert T. Patrick]] began conspiring to murder wealthy businessman [[William Marsh Rice]] in order to obtain his wealth. Patrick fabricated Rice's [[Will and testament|legal will]] with the assistance of Jones. Rice's properties in Galveston suffered extensive damage during the storm. After being informed of the damage, Rice decided to spend $250,000, the entire balance of his checking account, on repairing his properties. With the duo realizing that they would fail to obtain Rice's wealth, Patrick convinced Jones to kill Rice with [[chloroform]] as he slept. Immediately after murdering Rice, Jones forged a large check to Patrick in Rice's name. However, Jones misspelled Patrick's name on the check, arousing suspicion and eventually resulting in their arrests and convictions. Rice's estate was used to open an institute for higher learning in Houston in 1912, which was named [[Rice University]] in his honor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.heritagesociety.org/william-marsh-rice|title=William March Rice and His Legacy|publisher=The Historical Society at Sam Houston Park|access-date=May 16, 2019}}</ref>

===Rebuilding===
[[File:Survived the 1900 Galveston Storm Plaque.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A plaque placed on buildings in Galveston to indicate which structures survived the 1900 hurricane|alt=A building with a plaque reading "1900 Storm Survivor", with the year 2000 at the top and 1900 again at the bottom]]
Survivors set up temporary shelters in surplus [[United States Army]] tents along the shore. They were so numerous that observers began referring to Galveston as the "White City on the Beach".{{sfn|Bixel|pp=70-71}} In the first two weeks following the storm, approximately 17,000 people resided in these tents, vacant storerooms, or public buildings.<ref name="woc"/> Others constructed so-called "storm lumber" homes, using salvageable material from the debris to build shelter.{{sfn|Bixel|pp=70-71}} The building committee, with a budget of $450,000, opened applications for money to rebuild and repair homes. Accepted applicants were given enough money to build a cottage with three {{convert|12|by|12|ft|m|abbr=on}} rooms. By March 1901, 1,073 cottages were built and 1,109 homes had been repaired.<ref name="woc">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28399431/pittsburgh_daily_post/|title=Work of Committees|date=March 10, 1901|newspaper=Pittsburgh Daily Post|page=20|access-date=February 14, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref>

[[Winifred Bonfils]], a young journalist working for [[William Randolph Hearst]], was the first reporter on the line at the hurricane's ground zero in Galveston. She delivered an exclusive set of reports and Hearst sent relief supplies by train.{{sfn|Kramarae|p=343}} By September&nbsp;12, Galveston received its first post-storm mail. The next day, basic water service was restored, and [[Western Union]] began providing minimal telegraph service.{{sfn|Bixel|p=74}} Within three weeks of the storm, cotton was again being shipped out of the port.{{sfn|Bixel|p=76}}

A number of cities, businesses, organizations, and individuals made monetary donations toward rebuilding Galveston. By September&nbsp;15, less than one week after the storm struck Galveston, contributions totaled about $1.5&nbsp;million. More than $134,000 in donations poured in from New York City alone. Five other major cities &ndash; [[St. Louis]], [[Chicago]], [[Boston]], [[Pittsburgh]], and [[Philadelphia]] &ndash; had also donated at least $15,000 by September&nbsp;15.<ref name="somerelief"/> By state, the largest donations included $228,000 from [[New York (state)|New York]], $67,000 from Texas, $56,000 from Illinois, $53,000 from Massachusetts, and $52,000 from Missouri. Contributions also came from abroad, such as from Canada, Mexico, France, Germany, England, and South Africa,<ref name="almanac"/> including $10,000 each from [[Liverpool]] and Paris. [[Andrew Carnegie]] made the largest personal contribution, $10,000, while an additional $10,000 was donated by [[Carnegie Steel Company|his steel company]].<ref name="somerelief">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26534743/some_of_the_contributions_to_the/|title=Some of the Contributions to the Relief Fund|newspaper=The Topeka Daily Capital|date=September 15, 1900|page=1|access-date=February 14, 2019|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> 
{{quote box |width=30em | bgcolor=#ACE1AF |align=left|quote=It was one of those monstrosities of nature which defied exaggeration and fiendishly laughed at all tame attempts of words to picture the scene it had prepared. The churches, the great business houses, the elegant residences of the cultured and opulent, the modest little homes of laborers of a city of nearly forty thousand people; the center of foreign shipping and railroad traffic lay in splinters and debris piled twenty feet above the surface, and the crushed bodies, dead and dying, of nearly ten thousand of its citizens lay under them.|source=[[Clara Barton]], founder of the [[American Red Cross]], after viewing the destruction in Galveston<ref name="clarabarton"/>}}

[[Clara Barton]], the founder and president of the [[American Red Cross]] and famous for her responses to crises in the latter half of the 19th century, responded to the disaster and visited Galveston with a team of eight Red Cross workers. This would be the last disaster that Barton responded to, as she was 78 years old at the time and would retire in 1904. After Barton and the team observed the catastrophe, the Red Cross set up a temporary headquarters at a four-story warehouse in the commercial district. Her presence in Galveston and appeals for contributions resulted in a substantial amount of donations. Overall, 258 barrels, 1,552 pillow cases, and 13 casks of bedding, clothing, crockery, disinfectants, groceries, hardware, medical supplies, and shoes were received at the warehouse, while $17,341 in cash was donated to the Red Cross. Contributions, both monetary gifts and supplies, were estimated to have reached about $120,000.<ref name="clarabarton"/>

Before the hurricane of 1900, Galveston was considered to be a beautiful and prestigious city and was known as the "[[Ellis Island]] of the West" and the "[[Wall Street]] of the Southwest".<ref name="s-g"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/07/29/Galveston-was-The-Ellis-Island-of-the-West/2969680760000/|title=Galveston was 'The Ellis Island of the West'|work=United Press International|author=Dittrick, Paula|date=July 29, 1991|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref> However, after the storm, development shifted north to Houston, which reaped the benefits of the [[petroleum|oil]] boom, particularly after the discovery of oil at [[Spindletop]] on January&nbsp;10, 1901.{{sfn|Larson|p=161}} The dredging of the [[Houston Ship Channel]] began by 1909,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rhh11|title=Houston Ship Channel|author=Sibley, Marilyn M.|date=March 28, 2017|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|access-date=May 18, 2019}}</ref> which opened in 1914, ending Galveston's hopes of regaining its former status as a major commercial center.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/governors/rising/sayers-galv.html|title=J.H.W. Stele to Sayers, September 11–12, 1900|date=March 30, 2011|publisher=Texas State Library and Archives Commission|access-date=February 2, 2019|archive-date=November 17, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117083321/http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/governors/rising/sayers-galv.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Galveston city government was reorganized into a [[City commission government|commission government]] in 1901, a newly devised structure wherein the government is made of a small group of commissioners, each responsible for one aspect of governance. This was prompted by fears that the existing city council would be unable to handle the problem of rebuilding the city. The apparent success of the new form of government inspired about 500 cities across the United States to adopt a commission government by 1920. However, the commission government fell out of favor after World War I, with Galveston itself switching to [[council–manager government]] in 1960.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/moc01|title=Commission Form of Government|author=Rice, Bradley R.|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|date=June 12, 2010|access-date=December 29, 2018}}</ref>

===Protection===
[[File:No. 3, Sea Wall, From West of Rapid Fire Battery, Fort Crockett - NARA - 278143.jpg|thumb|[[Seawall]], Galveston district|alt=An image of the Galveston Seawall under construction]]
To prevent future storms from causing destruction like that of the 1900 hurricane, many improvements to the island were made. The city of Galveston hired a team of three engineers to design structures for protection from future storms &ndash; [[Alfred Noble (engineer)|Alfred Noble]], [[Henry Martyn Robert]], and H. C. Ripley.<ref name="finest hour">{{cite news|url=http://1900storm.com/rebuilding/index.lasso|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010216174355/http://1900storm.com/rebuilding/index.lasso|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 16, 2001|title=Post-storm rebuilding considered 'Galveston's finest hour'|author=Smith, Michael A.|newspaper=Galveston County Daily News|access-date=February 16, 2019}}</ref> The three engineers recommended and designed a seawall. In November&nbsp;1902, residents of Galveston overwhelmingly approved a bond referendum to fund building a seawall, passing the measure by a vote of 3,085&ndash;21.<ref name="vanriper"/> The first {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on}} of the [[Galveston Seawall]], {{convert|17|ft|m|abbr=on}} high, were built beginning in 1902 under the direction of Robert.<ref name="rosenbergseawall"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fro96|title=Robert, Henry Martyn|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|author=Kline, Charles R.|date=June 15, 2010|access-date=June 22, 2019}}</ref> In July 1904, the first segment was completed, though construction of the seawall continued for several decades, with the final segment finished in 1963.<ref name="rosenbergseawall">{{cite web|url=http://www.gthcenter.org/exhibits/seawall/index.html|title=Seawall|date=October 21, 2004|publisher=Galveston and Texas History Center, Rosenberg Library|access-date=December 29, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321004941/http://www.gthcenter.org/exhibits/seawall/index.html|archive-date=March 21, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> Upon completion, the seawall in its entirety stretched for more than {{convert|10|mi|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="nps"/>

Another dramatic effort to protect Galveston was its raising, also recommended by Noble, Robert, and Ripley, and similar to the earlier [[raising of Chicago]] and [[Sacramento, California]]. Approximately {{convert|15000000|cuyd|abbr=on}} of sand was dredged from the Galveston shipping channel to raise the city, some sections by as much as {{convert|17|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="finest hour"/> Over 2,100&nbsp;buildings were raised in the process of pumping sand underneath,<ref name=lasso/> including the 3,000-[[short ton|st]] (2,700-[[Tonne|t]]) St. Patrick's Church.<ref name="almanac"/> According to historian David G. McComb, the grade of about 500&nbsp;blocks had been raised by 1911.<ref name="finest hour"/> The seawall was listed among the [[National Register of Historic Places]] on August&nbsp;18, 1977,<ref name="nps">{{cite web|url=https://atlas.thc.state.tx.us/NR/pdfs/77001443/77001443.pdf|title=Galveston Seawall|publisher=National Park Service|date=August 18, 1977|pages=1, 5|access-date=February 16, 2019}}</ref> while the seawall and raising of the island were jointly named a [[List of Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks|National Historical Civil Engineering Landmark]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] on October 11, 2001.<ref>{{cite conference|url=https://ascelibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.1061/40594(265)55|doi=10.1061/40594(265)55|date=May 16, 2012|author=Bartee, Clark|conference=Third National Congress on Civil Engineering History and Heritage (October 10–13, 2001)|title=Galveston Seawall and Grade Raising Project Located on the Gulf of Mexico, Galveston Island, Texas|publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers|access-date=February 16, 2019|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In 1915, a storm similar in strength and track to the 1900 hurricane struck Galveston. The [[1915 Galveston hurricane|1915 storm]] brought storm surge up to {{convert|12|ft|m|abbr=on}}, testing the integrity of the new seawall. Although 53&nbsp;people on [[Galveston Island]] lost their lives in the 1915 storm, this was a great reduction from the thousands who died in 1900.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Frankenfield, H. C.|title=The Tropical Storm of August 10, 1915|journal=Monthly Weather Review|volume=43|issue=8|date=August 1915|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1915.pdf|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1915)43<405:TTSOA>2.0.CO;2|bibcode = 1915MWRv...43..405G|page=410|access-date=May 17, 2019|location=Washington, D. C.|doi-access=free}}</ref> Other powerful tropical cyclones would test the effectiveness of the seawall, including Hurricane Carla in 1961, [[Hurricane Alicia]] in 1983, and [[Hurricane Ike]] in 2008. Carla primarily caused severe coastal flood-related damage to structures unprotected by the seawall.<ref name="texashurricanehistory">{{cite report|url=https://www.weather.gov/media/lch/events/txhurricanehistory.pdf|title=Texas Hurricane History|author=Roth, David M.|publisher=National Weather Service|date=January 6, 2010|page=47|access-date=December 29, 2018|location=Camp Springs, Maryland}}</ref> Following Hurricane Alicia, the Corps of Engineers estimated that the seawall prevented about $100&nbsp;million in damage.<ref name="census2015"/> Despite the seawall, Ike left extensive destruction in Galveston due to storm surge, with preliminary estimates indicating that up to $2&nbsp;billion in damage occurred to beaches, dwellings, hospitals, infrastructure, and ports.<ref>{{cite report|chapter-url=https://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazard/hurricane/2008/ike/impact_report.pdf|title=Hurricane Ike Impact Report|date=December 2008|chapter=Chapter III – Economic Environment|page=35|publisher=[[Federal Emergency Management Agency]]|access-date=December 29, 2018}}</ref> Damage in Galveston and surrounding areas prompted [[Ike Dike|proposals for improvements to the seawall]], including the addition of floodgates and more seawalls.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-30/houston-eyes-designer-bonds-in-quest-for-15-billion-storm-wall|title=Houston Eyes Designer Bonds to Pay for $15 Billion Ike Dike|author=Kaskey, Jack|date=August 30, 2018|publisher=Bloomberg News|access-date=December 29, 2018|location=New York}}</ref>

===Open Era and beyond===

In [[historiography]], the hurricane and the rebuilding afterward divide what is known as the ''Golden Era'' (1875–1900) from the ''[[Open Era of Galveston|Open Era]]'' (1920–1957) of Galveston. The most important long-term impact of the hurricane was to confirm fears that Galveston was a dangerous place to make major investments in shipping and manufacturing operations; the economy of the Golden Era was no longer possible as investors fled.{{sfn|Hardwick|p=13}} However, the city experienced a significant economic rebound beginning in the 1920s, when [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] and lax law enforcement opened up new opportunities for [[organized crime|criminal enterprises]] related to gambling and [[rum-running|bootlegging]] in the city. Galveston rapidly became a prime [[resort]] destination enabled by the ''open'' [[vice]] businesses on the island. This new entertainment-based economy brought decades-long prosperity to the island.<ref>{{cite report|chapter-url=http://galvestontx.gov/DocumentCenter/Home/View/79|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219095447/http://galvestontx.gov/DocumentCenter/Home/View/79|archive-date=February 19, 2017|title=City of Galveston Hazard Mitigation Plan|chapter=Section 3 Context|page=4|date=April 13, 2011|access-date=May 2, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

To commemorate the hurricane's 100th anniversary in 2000, the 1900 Storm Committee was established and began meeting in January 1998. The committee and then-Mayor of Galveston, Roger Quiroga, planned several public events in remembrance of the storm, including theatrical plays, an educational fundraising luncheon, a candlelight memorial service, a [[5K run]], the rededication of a commemorative Clara Barton plaque, and the dedication of the Place of Remembrance Monument.<ref name="100th events">{{cite news|url=http://1900storm.com/calendar.html|title=100th anniversary calendar of events|newspaper=Galveston County Daily News|access-date=December 22, 2018}}</ref> At the dedication of the Place of Remembrance Monument, the [[Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word]] sang "[[Queen of the Waves]]" and placed 10&nbsp;roses and 90&nbsp;other flowers around the monument to commemorate the 10&nbsp;nuns and 90&nbsp;children who perished after the hurricane destroyed the St. Mary's Orphans Asylum.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/19338041/longview_newsjournal/|title=Galveston marks anniversary of disaster|agency=Associated Press|date=September 9, 2000|newspaper=Longview News-Journal|page=4|access-date=December 22, 2018|via=Newspapers.com|location=Longview, Texas}} {{free access}}</ref> Speakers at the candlelight memorial service included U. S. Senator [[Kay Bailey Hutchison]], who was born in Galveston; Administrator of the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] [[D. James Baker]]; and [[CBS Evening News]] anchor [[Dan Rather]], who gained fame for his coverage during [[Hurricane Carla]] in 1961.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26423318/el_paso_times/|title=Hurricane's victims honored throughout the city|agency=Associated Press|author=Babineck, Mark|date=September 9, 2000|newspaper=El Paso Times|page=16|access-date=December 22, 2018|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> ''[[The Daily News (Texas)|The Daily News]]'' published a special 100th anniversary commemorative edition newspaper on September&nbsp;3, 2000.<ref name="100th events"/>

The last reported survivor of the Galveston hurricane of 1900, Maude Conic of [[Wharton, Texas]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpasogop.org/NewsLetter/Vol1Issue1/OldestLivingRepub.htm|title=Oldest living Texas Republican celebrates 113th birthday|publisher=El Paso County Republican Party|date=September 2001|access-date=May 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919075733/http://www.elpasogop.org/NewsLetter/Vol1Issue1/OldestLivingRepub.htm|archive-date=September 19, 2008 }}</ref> died November&nbsp;14, 2004, at the claimed age of 116, although the [[1900 United States census|1900 census]] and other records indicate she was about 10&nbsp;years younger than that.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grg.org/Adams/G2.HTM|title=Table of False and Exaggerated Claims|publisher=[[Gerontology Research Group]]|access-date=May 2, 2019|archive-date=July 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724224019/https://grg.org/Adams/G2.HTM|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Galveston Historical Foundation maintains the Texas Seaport Museum at Pier 21 in the port of Galveston. Included in the museum is a documentary titled ''The Great Storm'', that gives a recounting of the 1900 hurricane.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galvestonhistory.org/1900_great_storm_theater.asp|publisher=Galveston Historical Foundation|title=Pier 21 Theater: The Great Storm|access-date= May 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622024319/http://www.galvestonhistory.org/1900_Great_Storm_Theater.asp|archive-date=June 22, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galvestonhistory.org/The_Great_Storm.asp|publisher=Galveston Historical Foundation|title=The Great Storm|access-date=May 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831153846/http://www.galvestonhistory.org/The_Great_Storm.asp|archive-date=August 31, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Texas|Tropical cyclones}}
*[[History of Galveston, Texas]]
*[[Hurricane Laura]] (2020) — Took a nearly identical track in 2020.
*''[[Isaac's Storm]]'' – Erik Larson's non-fiction book recounting the hurricane and the life of Galveston meteorologist Isaac Cline
*"[[Wasn't That a Mighty Storm]]" – An American folk song about the 1900 Galveston hurricane, later popularized by musicians such as [[Eric Von Schmidt]] and [[Tom Rush]]
*''[[A Weekend in September]]'' - Nonfiction book about the hurricane

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book|author1=Bixel, Patricia Bellis|author2=Turner, Elizabeth Hayes|title=Galveston and the 1900 Storm|year=2000|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin, Texas|isbn=978-0-292-70884-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMDRBwXnU4EC|ref={{sfnRef|Bixel}}}}
*{{Cite book|title=Braman's Information About Texas |last=Braman|first=D. E. E.|year=1857 |publisher=J. B. Lippincott & Co.|chapter=Description of Counties|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |url=https://archive.org/details/bramansinformat00bramgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/bramansinformat00bramgoog/page/n51 46] |ref={{sfnRef|Braman}}}}
*{{cite book|title=When the Heavens Frowned|chapter=Chapter IV: The Galveston Hurricane|publisher=Firebird Press|location=New York City, New York|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojtkQ3srH8gC&pg=PA49|author=Cline, Joseph|date=1946|isbn=978-1-56554-783-4|ref={{sfnRef|Cline}}}}
*{{Cite book|author=Coe, Fanny E.|title=Heroes of Everyday Life|chapter=The Telegraph Operator|year=1911|url=https://archive.org/details/heroeseverydayl00coegoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/heroeseverydayl00coegoog/page/n42 28]|isbn=978-1164668466|publisher=Ginn and Co.|location=University of California|ref={{sfnRef|Coe}}}}
*{{cite book|author=Frank, Neil L.|chapter=Chapter 5. The Great Galveston Hurricane of 1900|title=Hurricane! Coping with Disaster: Progress and Challenges Since Galveston, 1900|volume=55|publisher=American Geophysical Union|date=2003|url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/booksales/hurricane/Chapter_05galveston.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325121125/http://www.agu.org/pubs/booksales/hurricane/Chapter_05galveston.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 25, 2009|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|isbn=978-0875902975|ref={{sfnRef|Frank}}}}
*{{Cite book|title=Story Of The Galveston Flood|author=Green, Nathan C.|year=1900 |publisher=R. H. Woodward Company|chapter=Chapter VIII|location=Baltimore, Maryland|isbn=978-1596057661|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LewTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA126|ref={{sfnRef|Green}}}}
*{{cite book|title=[[Mythic Galveston: reinventing America's third coast]]|last=Hardwick|first=Susan Wiley|year=2002|publisher=[[JHU Press]]|location=Baltimore, Maryland|page=[https://archive.org/details/mythicgalvestonr0000hard/page/13 13]|chapter=Introduction|isbn=0-8018-6887-4|ref={{sfnRef|Hardwick}}}} - [https://archive.org/details/mythicgalvestonr0000hard Read online], registration required
*{{Cite book|author1=Kramarae, Cheris |author2=Treichler, Paula A. |author3=Russo, Ann |title=Amazons, Bluestockings and Crones|url=https://archive.org/details/amazonsbluestock0000kram|url-access=registration |year=1992|location=Kitchener, Ontario|publisher=Pandora|isbn=978-0-04-440863-5|ref={{sfnRef|Kramarae}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Larson| first = Erik | author-link = Erik Larson (author)| year = 1999| edition = 1st| url = https://epdf.pub/isaacs-storm-a-man-a-time-and-the-deadliest-hurricane-in-historyca808414ea5a7d84c694d8a8c46f107332033.html | title = Isaac's Storm: A Man, A Time, and the Deadliest Hurricane in History | publisher = Crown Publishers | location = New York City, New York| isbn = 978-0-609-60233-1 |ref={{sfnRef|Larson}}}}
*{{Cite book|title=Galveston in Nineteen Hundred: The Authorized and Official Record |last=Ousley |first=Clarence |year=1900 |publisher=William C. Chase |location=Atlanta, Georgia |url=https://archive.org/details/galvestoninninet00ousl|ref={{sfnRef|Ousley}}}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite web|title=1900 Storm|work=The 1900 Storm 1900storm.com|url=http://www.1900storm.com/ |publisher=Galveston Newspapers, Inc.|access-date=December 18, 2007}}
*{{cite book|author1=Greene, Casey Edward |author2=Kelly, Shelly Henley|year=2000|title=Through a Night of Horrors: Voices from the 1900 Galveston Storm|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=978-1-58544-228-7}}
*{{Cite book|title=Galveston: The Horrors Of A Stricken City |last=Halstead |first=Murat |year=1900 |publisher=American Publishers' Association |url=https://archive.org/details/galvestonhorror00halsgoog |access-date=July 15, 2009}}
*{{cite web|author=Lienhard, John H.|url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi865.htm |title=Raising Galveston|work=The Engines of Our Ingenuity|publisher=University of Houston|access-date=December 18, 2007}}
*{{Cite journal|last=McGee |first=W. J. |date=October 1900 |title=The Lessons Of Galveston |journal=[[National Geographic (magazine)|The National Geographic Magazine]] |volume=XI |issue=10 |pages=377–383 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4OAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA377 |access-date=July 15, 2007 }}
*{{Cite journal|author=Moore, Willis L. |date=October 1900 |title=The Weather Bureau and the Gulf Storms |journal=The National Magazine |volume=XIII |issue=1 |pages=542–546 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9o7NAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542 |access-date=July 15, 2009 }}
*{{Cite book|title=Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, 1900–1901|volume=1 |last=Moore |first=Willis L. |year=1901 |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau (Government Printing Office) |location=Washington |pages=9–10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8F4UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT16 |access-date=July 15, 2007}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Ousley |first=Clarence |date=October 1900 |title=Thrilling Experiences In The Galveston Storm |journal=The National Magazine |volume=XIII |issue=1 |pages=533–542 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9o7NAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA533 |access-date=July 15, 2009 }}
*{{cite book|author=Weems, John Edward|year=1957|title=Weekend in September|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=978-0-89096-390-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/weekendinseptemb0000weem}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Galveston hurricane of 1900.ogg|date=June 17, 2005}}
*[https://archive.today/20110716132022/http://www.startribune.com/blogs/oldnews/archives/28 Sept. 11, 1900: Galveston wiped out] Wire service account published in the Minneapolis Tribune
*[https://texasarchive.org/taxonomy/term/116427 Galveston Hurricane of 1900] Texas Archive of the Moving Image
*[http://texashistory.unt.edu/young/educators/galveston/index.shtml Galveston 1900: Storm of the Century] Primary Source Adventure, a lesson plan hosted by [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ The Portal to Texas History]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101123010404/http://gthcenter.org/exhibits/storms/1900/index.html The 1900 Storm] – manuscripts, photographs, and other archival holdings from the Galveston and Texas History Center at the [[Rosenberg Library]] – including [https://web.archive.org/web/20110102060030/http://www.gthcenter.org/exhibits/storms/1900/victims/stormvic.htm a list of victims]
*[http://texashistory.unt.edu/permalink/meta-pth-24651:1 ''The early history of Galveston, by Dr. J. O. Dyer''], published 1916, hosted by the *[http://texashistory.unt.edu/ Portal to Texas History]
*[http://texashistory.unt.edu/permalink/meta-pth-26719:1 ''The great Galveston disaster, containing a full and thrilling account of the most appalling calamity of modern times including vivid descriptions of the hurricane''], published 1900, hosted by the [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ Portal to Texas History]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8c_OeFacRQw When Weather Changed History - Galveston Hurricane] – A Weather Channel documentary about the 1900 Galveston hurricane
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-HQMoD6L3M The Deadliest Hurricane in History: A Storm of Unimaginable Magnitude] – Erik Larson speaking at the Texas State Capitol Complex about his book, ''Isaac's Storm'', and about the hurricane itself
*{{Handbook of Texas|id=galveston-hurricane-of-1900|name=1900 Galveston hurricane}}

{{Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes}}
{{Galveston, Texas|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1900 Galveston Hurricane}}
[[Category:Cape Verde hurricanes]]
[[Category:1900 Galveston hurricane| ]]
[[Category:1900 in Texas|Galveston hurricane]]
[[Category:1900 meteorology|Galveston hurricane]]
[[Category:1900 natural disasters in the United States|Galveston hurricane]]
[[Category:1900s Atlantic hurricane seasons]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes]]
[[Category:History of Galveston, Texas|Hurricane]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Texas]]
[[Category:August 1900 in the United States|Galveston hurricane]]
[[Category:September 1900 in the United States|Galveston hurricane]]
[[Category:August 1900 in North America|Galveston hurricane]]
[[Category:September 1900 in North America|Galveston hurricane]]
[[Category:1900 in Canada|Galveston hurricane]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in Canada]]
[[Category:Hurricanes in the United States]]
[[Category:1900 disasters in Canada|Galveston hurricane]]