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{{Short description|Republican revolution in China}}
{{About|the historical event|the Chinese television series|1911 Revolution (TV series){{!}}''1911 Revolution'' (TV series)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = 1911 Revolution<br/>{{langn|zh|辛亥革命}}
| partof            = the [[Anti-Qing sentiment|anti-Qing movements]]
| image             = Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| caption           = [[Nanjing Road]] in Shanghai after the [[#Shanghai Armed Uprising|Shanghai Uprising]], hung with the [[Five Races Under One Union]] flags used by revolutionaries in Shanghai and Northern China
| date              = {{Start date|1911|10|10|df=y}}{{snd}}{{End date|1912|2|12|df=y}}
| place             = China
| result            = Revolutionary victory
| combatant1        = {{udl|wrap=
; Monarchists
: {{Flagicon|Qing dynasty}} [[Military of the Qing dynasty|Imperial Armed Forces]]
: [[Beiyang Army]]
}}
| combatant2        = {{udl|wrap=
; Revolutionaries
: {{nwr|{{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Tongmenghui]]}}
: Provincial governments
}}
| combatant3        = 
| commander1        = {{Indented plainlist|
* {{nwr|[[Xuantong Emperor]]}}
* [[Empress Dowager Longyu]]
* [[Zaifeng, Prince Chun]]
* [[Yuan Shikai]]
* [[Ma Anliang]]
* [[Yang Zengxin]]
* [[Zhao Erfeng]]
* [[Ma Qi]]
}}
| commander2        = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Sun Yat-sen]]
* {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Huang Xing]]
* {{Flagicon image|鐵血十八星旗.svg}} [[Li Yuanhong]]
* {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Song Jiaoren]]
* {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Chen Qimei]]
* {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Cai E]]
* {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Hu Hanmin]]
}}
| commander3        = 
| strength1         = {{Flagicon|Qing dynasty}} 200,000
| strength2         = {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} 100,000
| casualties1       = {{Flagicon|Qing dynasty}} {{Est.}} 170,000
| casualties2       = {{Flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} {{Est.}} 50,000
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| c = 辛亥革命
| p = Xīnhài gémìng
| tp = Sin-hài gé-mìng
| w = {{Tonesup|Hsin1-hai4 ko2-ming4}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|x|in|1|.|h|ai|4|-|g|e|2|.|m|ing|4}}
| bpmf = ㄒㄧㄣ ㄏㄞˋ ㄍㄜˊ ㄇㄧㄥˋ
| j = san1 hoi6 gaak3 ming6
| y = Sān-hoih gaak-mihng
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|s|an|1|-|h|oi|6|-|g|aak|3|-|m|ing|6}}
| poj = Sin-hāi kek-bēng
| l = "Xinhai ([[sexagenary cycle|stem-branch]]) revolution"
| caption2 = [[Yuan Shikai]] sworn in as Provisional President of the Republic of China, in Beijing
}}
{{Republicanism sidebar}}
The '''1911 Revolution''', also known as the '''Xinhai Revolution''' or '''Hsinhai Revolution''', ended China's last [[Dynasties of China|imperial dynasty]], the [[Qing dynasty]], and led to the establishment of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC). The revolution was the culmination of a decade of agitation, revolts, and uprisings. Its success marked the collapse of the [[Monarchy of China|Chinese monarchy]], the end of over two millennia of [[Chinese Empire|imperial rule in China]] and the 267-year reign of the Qing, and the beginning of China's [[Beiyang government|early republican era]].<ref name="xb1">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Xiaobing |title=A History of the Modern Chinese Army |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8131-2438-4 |location=Lexington |pages=13, 26–27}}</ref>

The Qing had long struggled to reform the government and resist foreign aggression, but conservatives in the Qing court opposed the [[Late Qing reforms|program of reforms after 1900]] as too radical and reformers considered it too slow. Several factions, including underground [[anti-Qing sentiment|anti-Qing groups]], revolutionaries in exile, reformers who wanted to save the monarchy by modernizing it, and activists across the country debated how or whether to overthrow the Qing dynasty. The flashpoint came on 10 October 1911 with the [[Wuchang Uprising]], an armed rebellion by members of the [[New Army]]. Similar revolts then broke out spontaneously around the country, and revolutionaries in every province renounced the Qing dynasty. On 1 November 1911, the Qing court appointed [[Yuan Shikai]] (leader of the [[Beiyang Army]]) as prime minister, and he began negotiations with the revolutionaries.

In Nanjing, revolutionary forces created a [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional coalition government]]. On 1 January 1912, the [[Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)|Advisory Council]] declared the establishment of the Republic of China, with [[Sun Yat-sen]], leader of the [[Tongmenghui]], as [[President of the Republic of China]]. A brief civil war between the North and the South ended in compromise. Sun resigned in favor of Yuan, who would become president of the [[Beiyang Government|new national government]] if he could secure the abdication of the Qing emperor. The [[Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor|edict of abdication]] of the six-year-old [[Xuantong Emperor]] was promulgated on 12 February 1912. Yuan was sworn in as president on 10 March 1912.

In December 1915, Yuan [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|restored the monarchy]] and proclaimed himself the Hongxian Emperor, but the move was met with strong opposition by the population and the Army, leading to his abdication in March 1916 and the Republic's reinstatement. Yuan's failure to consolidate a legitimate central government before his death in June 1916 led to decades of [[Warlord Era|political division and warlordism]], including an [[Manchu Restoration|attempt at imperial restoration of the Qing dynasty]].

The name "Xinhai Revolution" derives from the traditional [[Chinese calendar]], where "Xinhai" ({{zhi|c=辛亥}}) is the label corresponding to 1911 according to the [[sexagenary cycle]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Xing |title=The Rise of China and the Capitalist World Order |publisher=Ashgate |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7546-7913-4 |page=91}}</ref> The governments of both [[Taiwan]] and [[China]] consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution, including [[Chinese nationalism|nationalism]], [[republicanism]], [[modernization]] of China, and [[Zhonghua minzu|national unity]]. 10 October is the [[National Day of the Republic of China]] on Taiwan, and the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution in China.

{{Revolution sidebar}}
{{Three Principles of the People|History}}

== Background ==
[[File:Da qing di guo quan tu - btv1b531099163 (06 of 37).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|1905 map of the Qing empire]]
{{Multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| header_align      = left/right/center
| footer            = [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] (left, 1835–1908), who controlled court politics for 47 years, and the [[Guangxu Emperor]] (right, 1871–1908), who ruled over the Qing dynasty from 1875 until his death
| footer_align      = left/right/center
| image1            = Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg
| width1            = 140
| image2            = Postcard of Emperor Guangxu.jpg
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{{Multiple image
| align             = right
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| header_align      = left/right/center
| footer            = [[Kang Youwei]] (left, 1858–1927) and [[Liang Qichao]] (1873–1929) who fled into exile, and [[Tan Sitong]] (right, 1865–1898) was executed. After the 1911 Revolution, Liang became Minister of Justice of the Republic of China. Kang remained a royalist and supported [[Puyi#Brief restoration (1917)|restoring]] the last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] in 1917.
| footer_align      = left/right/center
| image1            = Kang Youwei circa 1905.jpg
| width1            = 125
| image2            = MinistroDeJusticiaLiangQichao.jpg
| width2            = 122
| image3            = Tansitong.jpg
| width3            = 91
| total_width       = 400
}}

After suffering its first defeat by the West in the [[First Opium War]] in 1842, a conservative court culture constrained efforts to reform and did not want to cede authority to local officials. After its defeat in the [[Second Opium War]] in 1860, the Qing began efforts to modernize by adopting Western technologies through the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]]. In the wars against the [[Taiping Rebellion|Taiping]] (1851–1864), [[Nian Rebellion|Nian]] (1851–1868), [[Panthay Rebellion|Yunnan]] (1856–1873) and [[Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)|Dungan]] (1862–1877), the court came to rely on armies raised by local officials.{{sfn|Wang|1998|pp=106, 344}} After a generation of relative success in importing Western naval and weapons technology, defeat in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] in 1895 was all the more humiliating and convinced many of the need for institutional change.<ref name="Bevir">{{Cite book |last=Bevir |first=Mark |title=Encyclopedia of Political Theory |publisher=Sage |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4129-5865-3 |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |page=168}}</ref> The court established the [[New Army]] under [[Yuan Shikai]], and many concluded that Chinese society also needed to be modernized if technological and commercial advancements were to succeed.

In 1898, the [[Guangxu Emperor]] turned to reformers like [[Kang Youwei]] and [[Liang Qichao]], who offered a program that was inspired in large part by the [[Meiji Restoration|reforms in Japan]]. They proposed basic reform in education, military, and economy in the so-called [[Hundred Days' Reform]].<ref name="Bevir" /> The reform was abruptly canceled by a [[Wuxu Coup|conservative coup]] led by [[Empress Dowager Cixi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chang |first1=Kang-i Sun |author-link1=Kang-i Sun Chang |title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature |last2=Owen |first2=Stephen |author-link2=Stephen Owen (academic) |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-5211-1677-0 |volume=2 |page=441}}</ref> The Emperor was put under house arrest in June 1898, where he remained until his death in 1908.{{sfn|Wang|1998|pp=106, 344}} The reformers Kang and Liang exiled themselves to avoid being executed. The Empress Dowager controlled policy until her death in 1908, with support from officials such as Yuan. Attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians in the [[Boxer Rebellion]], which was encouraged by the Empress Dowager, prompted [[Eight-Nation Alliance|another foreign invasion of Beijing]] in 1900.

After the Allies imposed a [[Boxer Protocol|punitive settlement]], the Qing court carried out [[Late Qing reforms|basic fiscal and administrative reforms]], including local and provincial elections. The moves did not secure trust or wide support among political activists. Many of them like [[Zou Rong]] felt strong [[anti-Qing sentiment|anti-Manchu prejudice]] and blamed the Qing for China's troubles. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao formed the [[Progressive Party (China)|Emperor Protection Society]] in an attempt to restore the emperor,{{sfn|Wang|1998|pp=106, 344}} but others, such as [[Sun Yat-sen]] organized revolutionary groups to overthrow the dynasty rather than reform it. They could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions, or exile overseas, but created a following among [[overseas Chinese]] in North America and Southeast Asia, and within China, even in the new armies. The [[Chinese famine of 1906–1907]] was also a major contributor to the revolution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dianda |first=Bas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGKZDwAAQBAJ |title=Political Routes to Starvation: Why Does Famine Kill? |publisher=Vernon |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-6227-3508-2 |page=45 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Following the death of the Guangxu Emperor and Cixi in 1908, the throne was inherited by the two-year-old [[Xuantong Emperor]], with [[Zaifeng, Prince Chun|Prince Chun]] as a regent. The prince continued the reform path of Cixi, but conservative Manchu elements in the court opposed it, which caused further support for revolutionaries.

{{History of the Republic of China}}

== Organization ==
=== Earliest groups ===
Many revolutionaries and groups wanted to overthrow the Qing government to re-establish the Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as [[Yeung Ku-wan]]'s [[Furen Literary Society]], which was created in [[Hong Kong]] in 1890. There were 15 members, including [[Tse Tsan-tai]], who made political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first [[manhua]], and who later became one of the core founders of the ''[[South China Morning Post]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 March 2011 |title=Hong Kong played a key role in the life of Sun Yat-sen |work=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref>
[[File:Dr. Sun in London.jpg|thumb|left|Sun Yat-sen in London]]
[[Sun Yat-sen]]'s [[Revive China Society]] was established in [[Honolulu]] in 1894, the main purpose being raising funds for revolutions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lum |first1=Yansheng Ma |title=Sun Yat-sen in Hawaii |last2=Lum |first2=Raymond Mun Kong |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8248-2179-1 |location=Honolulu |pages=6–7}}</ref> The two organizations merged in 1894.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Curthoys |first1=Ann |title=Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective |last2=Lake |first2=Marilyn |publisher=ANU E-Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-920942-44-1 |location=Canberra |page=101}}</ref>

=== Smaller groups ===
The [[Huaxinghui]] (China Revival Society) was founded in 1904 by the notables [[Huang Xing]], [[Zhang Shizhao]], [[Chen Tianhua]], Sun Yat-sen, [[Song Jiaoren]], and 100 others. Its motto was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Platt |first=Stephen R. |title=Provincial Patriots: The Hunanese and Modern China |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-6740-2665-0 |page=128}}</ref>

The [[Guangfuhui]] (Restoration Society) was also founded in 1904 in Shanghai, by [[Cai Yuanpei]]. Other notable members included [[Zhang Binglin]] and Tao Chengzhang.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Goossaert |first1=Vincent |title=The Religious Question in Modern China |last2=Palmer |first2=David A. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-226-30416-8}}</ref> Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen. One of the most famous female revolutionaries was [[Qiu Jin]], who fought for [[women's rights]] and was also from the Guangfuhui.{{sfn|Wang|1998|p=287}}

The [[Gelaohui]] (Elder Brother Society) was another group, with [[Zhu De]], [[Wu Yuzhang]], Liu Zhidan ({{lang|zh|劉志丹}}) and [[He Long]]. The revolutionary group would eventually develop a strong link with the later [[Chinese Communist Party]].{{citation needed|date=June 2025}}
[[File:Sun Yat Sen together with the members of the Singapore Branch of Tongmen Hui.png|thumb|right|upright=1.13|Sun Yat-sen with members of the [[Tongmenghui]]]]

=== Tongmenghui ===
Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, the Huaxinghui, and the Guangfuhui and established the unified [[Tongmenghui]] (United League) in August 1905 in Tokyo.<ref name="chinahistvol1" /> It had loose organizations distributed across and outside China. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of the unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include [[Wang Jingwei]] and [[Hu Hanmin]]. When the Tongmenghui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenghui members were between 17 and 26 years old.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Etō | first1=Shinkichi | last2=Schiffrin | first2=Harold Z. | title=China's Republican Revolution | publisher=University of Tokyo Press | year=1994 | isbn=978-4-13-027030-4}}</ref> Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications such as the ''[[Journal of Current Pictorial]]''.<ref>Wong, Wendy Siuyi. (2001) ''Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua''. Princeton Architectural Press. New York. {{ISBN|1-5689-8269-0}}</ref>

=== Later groups ===
In February 1906, Rizhihui ({{lang|zh|日知會}}) also had many revolutionaries, including Sun Wu ({{lang|zh|孫武}}), Zhang Nanxian ({{lang|zh|張難先}}), He Jiwei and Feng Mumin.<ref>为君丘, 張運宗. (2003). 走入近代中國. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. {{ISBN|978-957-11-3175-7}}.</ref><ref>蔣緯國. (1981). 建立民國, Vol. 2. 國民革命戰史: 第1部. 黎明文化事業公司. University of California. Digitized 14 February 2011.</ref> A nucleus of attendees at the conference evolved into the Tongmenghui's establishment in Hubei.

In July 1907, several members of Tongmenghui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the [[Yangtze]]. Liu Quiyi ({{lang|zh|劉揆一}}), Jiao Dafeng ({{lang|zh|焦達峰}}), Zhang Boxiang ({{lang|zh|張伯祥}}) and Sun Wu ({{lang|zh|孫武}}) established the Gongjinhui ({{lang|zh|共進會}}).<ref>饒懷民. (2006). 辛亥革命與清末民初社會/中國近代史事論叢. 中華書局 publishing. {{ISBN|978-7-1010-5156-8}}.</ref>{{sfn|Wang|1998|pp=390–391}} In January 1911, the revolutionary group Zhengwu Xueshe (振武學社) was renamed as Wenxueshe (Literary Society) ({{lang|zh|文學社}}).<ref name="mz">張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛. (2002). 晚淸民國史. Volume 5 of 中國歷史, 張 豈之. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. {{ISBN|978-9-5711-2898-6}}. pp. 178–186</ref> Jiang Yiwu ({{lang|zh|蔣翊武}}) was chosen as the leader.<ref>蔡登山. 繁華落盡──洋場才子與小報文人. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. {{ISBN|978-9-8622-1826-6}}. p. 42.</ref> Both organizations would play a major role during the Wuchang Uprising.

Many young revolutionaries supported [[anarchism in China]]. In Tokyo, [[Liu Shipei]] proposed to overthrow the Manchus and return to Chinese classical values. In [[Paris]], well-connected young intellectuals, Li Shizhen, [[Wu Zhihui]] and [[Zhang Renjie]], agreed with Sun's revolutionary program and joined the Tongmenghui, but argued that simply replacing one government with another would not be progress. They believed that fundamental cultural change and a revolution in family, gender, and social values would remove the need for government and coercion. [[Zhang Ji (Republic of China)|Zhang Ji]] and [[Wang Jingwei]] were among the anarchists, who defended assassination and terrorism as means to awaken the people to revolution, but others insisted that education was the only justifiable strategy. Important anarchists included [[Cai Yuanpei]]. Zhang Renjie gave Sun major financial help. Many of the anarchists would later assume high positions in the [[Kuomintang]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Scalapino |first1=Robert A. |url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5 |title=The Chinese Anarchist Movement |last2=Yu |first2=George T. |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, Institute of International Studies, University of California |year=1961 |location=Berkeley |ref=none}} At The Anarchist Library ([http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/robert-scalapino-and-george-t-yu-the-chinese-anarchist-movement#fn5 Free Download]). The online version is unpaginated.</ref>

=== Views ===
{{Main|Anti-Qing sentiment}}
Many revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing and anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the ethnic minority [[Manchu people|Manchu]] and the ethnic majority Han Chinese from the late [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the final years of the Ming dynasty, the last dynasty of [[Han Chinese]]. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal was "to expel the Tatar barbarians, to revive [[Names of China#Zhongguo|Zhonghua]], establish a republic, and distribute land equally among the people." ({{lang|zh|驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權}}).<ref name="chinahistvol1">計秋楓, 朱慶葆. (2001). 中國近代史, V. 1. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|978-9-6220-1987-4}}. p. 468.</ref> Many underground groups promoted the ideas of "resist Qing and restore the Ming" (反清復明), which had been around since the days of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].<ref>楊碧玉. 洪秀全政治人格之研究. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 Publishing. {{ISBN|978-9-8622-1141-0}}.</ref> Others, such as [[Zhang Binglin]], spread calls to "slay the Manchus" ({{lang|zh|興漢滅胡}}){{citation needed|date=November 2024|reason=Crossley source quotes Zhang as writing "Slay the Manchus! Slay the Manchus!" That is not an exact translation of the four-character slogan and, given the repetition, does not appear to be a quotation of the last two characters.}} and the concept of "Anti-Manchuism" ({{lang|zh|排滿主義}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crossley |first=Pamela Kyle |title=Orphan Warriors |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-691-00877-6 |pages=180–181}}</ref>

== Society and class ==
Many groups supported the 1911 Revolution, including students and intellectuals returning from abroad, participants of revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, and farmers.

===Overseas Chinese===
Assistance from the overseas Chinese was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Khoon Choy |title=Pioneers of Modern China |publisher=World Scientific |year=2005 |isbn=981-256-618-X}}</ref> The overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in funding revolutionary activities, especially the [[Southeast Asian]] Chinese of [[British Malaya]]. Many of those groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".{{sfn|Gao|2009|pp=29, 156}}

=== Emerging intellectual class ===
The Qing government established new schools and encouraged students to study abroad as part of the [[Self-Strengthening movement]]. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.{{sfn|Fenby|2008|pp=96, 106}} A new progressive class of intellectuals emerged from those students and contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, [[Song Jiaoren]], [[Hu Hanmin]], [[Liao Zhongkai]], [[Zhu Zhixin (revolutionary)|Zhu Zhixin]], and Wang Jingwei were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like [[Zou Rong]], known for writing ''Revolutionary Army'', a book in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty, and tyranny, and creating new revolutionary Han figures.{{sfn|Fenby|2008|p=109}}

Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating those organizations in preparation for uprisings they would launch; those these groups would provide most of the manpower needed to overthrow the Qing dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like [[Tiandihui|Sanhehui]] were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."<ref>''Complete works of Sun Yat-sen'' 《總理全集》 1st ed., p. 920</ref>

=== Gentry and businessmen ===
[[File:皇族內閣.png|thumb|left|[[Yikuang|Prince Qing]] with royal cabinet members]]

The gentry's strength in local politics became apparent. From December 1908, the Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a [[Prince Qing's Cabinet|cabinet]] with [[Yikuang|Prince Qing]] as [[Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet|prime minister]].{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=21}} By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from the imperial family.{{sfn|Wang|1998|p=76}}

=== Foreign supporters ===
Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. [[Miyazaki Touten]] was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and [[Ryōhei Uchida]]. [[Homer Lea]], an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Lawrence M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ksu7KibCOukC&pg=PR4 |title=Homer Lea American Soldier of Fortune |year=2010 |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]] |isbn=978-0-8131-2617-3 |location=Lexington |via=Google Books}}</ref> British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.<ref name="Laukit">{{Cite book |last=Lau |first=Kit-ching Chan |title=China, Britain and Hong Kong, 1895–1945 |publisher=[[Chinese University Press]] |year=1990 |isbn=978-9-6220-1409-1 |page=37}}</ref> Some foreigners, such as English explorer [[Arthur de Carle Sowerby]], led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.<ref name="Borst-Smith 1912">{{Cite book |last=Borst-Smith |first=Ernest F. |url=https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft |title=Caught in the Chinese Revolution |publisher=T. Fisher Unwin |year=1912}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| align             = right
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| header_align      = left/right/center
| footer            = Yuan rose to power in north China and built the [[Beiyang Army]].
| footer_align      = left/right/center
| image1            = Yuan Shikai as governor of shandong.jpg
| width1            = 110
| caption1          = [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859–1916)
| image2            = Beiyang Army.jpg
| width2            = 230
| caption2          = [[Beiyang Army]] being trained in Xiaozhan, Tianjin
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}}

The far right-wing Japanese ultra-nationalist [[Black Dragon Society]] supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus, believing that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose the takeover. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and that Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlarge the opium trade in China, while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed.<ref name="Nash1997">{{Cite book |last=Nash |first=Jay Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FIWCgAAQBAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&pg=PA99 |title=Spies: A Narrative Encyclopedia of Dirty Tricks and Double Dealing from Biblical Times to Today |publisher=M. Evans |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-4617-4770-3 |pages=99ff}}</ref> The far right-wing Japanese ultranationalist [[Gen'yōsha]] leader [[Tōyama Mitsuru]] supported anti-Manchu, anti-Qing revolutionary activities including the ones organized by Sun and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing [[Tongmenghui]] was founded and based in exile in Japan where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered.

The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. The Japanese were the ones who helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together, and there were Japanese like [[Tōten Miyazaki]] inside of the anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting.<ref name="BergèreLloyd1998">{{Cite book |last1=Bergère |first1=Marie-Claire |url=https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg |title=Sun Yat-sen |last2=Lloyd |first2=Janet |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8047-4011-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg/page/132 132] |url-access=registration}}</ref> The Black Dragon Society had very intimate, long term and influential relations with Sun Yat-sen who sometimes passed himself off as Japanese.<ref name="Horne2005">{{Cite book |last=Horne |first=Gerald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQsVCgAAQBAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&pg=PA252 |title=Race War!: White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire |year=2005 |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8147-3641-8 |page=252 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Chung2000">{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Dooeum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfkvAQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun |title=Élitist fascism: Chiang Kaishek's Blueshirts in 1930s China |year=2000 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-1166-0 |page=61 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Chung1997">{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Dooeum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_OY-AQAAIAAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun |title=A re-evaluation of Chiang Kaishek's blueshirts: Chinese fascism in the 1930s |publisher=[[University of London]] |year=1997 |page=78 |via=Google Books}}</ref> According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold the first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive the Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. The Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan in 1932.<ref name="Carlisle2015">{{Cite book |last=Carlisle |first=Rodney |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXysBwAAQBAJ&q=Black+Dragon+Society+sun&pg=PA71 |title=Encyclopedia of Intelligence and Counterintelligence |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-3174-7177-6 |page=71 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese woman, [[Kaoru Otsuki]].

=== Soldiers of the New Armies ===
The [[New Army]] was formed in 1901 after the defeat of the Qing in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]. They were launched by a decree from eight provinces. New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped. Recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions.{{sfn|Fenby|2008|pp=96, 106}} Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated the New Army.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spence |first=Jonathan D. |author-link=Jonathan Spence |title=The Search for Modern China |title-link=The Search for Modern China |publisher=W. W. Norton |year=1990 |isbn=0-3933-0780-8 |pages=250–256}}</ref>

== Prelude ==
The central foci of the uprisings were mostly connected with the Tongmenghui and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed before the Wuchang Uprising.
[[File:Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Flag of the First Guangzhou Uprising]]

=== First Guangzhou Uprising ===
In the spring of 1895, the [[Revive China Society]], based in Hong Kong, planned the {{Ill|1895 Guangzhou Uprising|zh|乙未廣州起義|lt=First Guangzhou Uprising}}. [[Lu Haodong]] was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag.{{sfn|Gao|2009|pp=29, 156}} On 26 October 1895, [[Yeung Ku-wan]] and Sun Yat-sen led [[Zheng Shiliang]] and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing to capture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the Qing government. The government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed.<ref name="z1">計秋楓, 朱慶葆. (2001). 中國近代史, Vol. 1. Chinese University Press. {{ISBN|978-9-6220-1987-4}}. p. 464.</ref> The First Guangzhou Uprising was a failure. Under pressure from the Qing government, the government of Hong Kong banned the two men from the territory for five years. Sun went into exile; and promoted revolution; and raised funds in Japan, the United States, Canada, and Britain. In 1901, following the Huizhou Uprising, Yeung Ku-wan was assassinated by Qing agents in Hong Kong. After his death, his family protected his identity by not putting his name on his tomb, just the number "6348".<ref name="scmpYkw">''South China Morning Post''. 6 April 2011. Waiting may be over at the grave of an unsung hero.</ref>

=== Independence Army Uprising ===
In 1900, after the Boxer Rebellion started, Tang Caichang ({{lang|zh|唐才常}}) and [[Tan Sitong]] of the previous [[Foot Emancipation Society]] organized the Independence Army. The Independence Army Uprising ({{lang|zh|自立軍起義}}) was planned to occur on 23 August 1900. Their goal was to overthrow Empress Dowager Cixi to establish a constitutional monarchy under the Guangxu Emperor. Their plot was discovered by the governors-general of Hunan and Hubei. About twenty conspirators were arrested and executed.{{sfn|Wang|1998|p=424}}

=== Huizhou Uprising ===
On 8 October 1900, Sun  ordered the launch of the [[Huizhou]] Uprising ({{lang|zh|惠州起義}}).{{sfn|Gao|2009|loc=Chronology section}} The revolutionary army was led by Zheng Shiliang and initially included 20,000 men, who fought for half a month. However, after Japanese Prime Minister [[Hirobumi Ito]] prohibited Sun Yat-sen from carrying out revolutionary activities in Taiwan, Zheng Shiliang had no choice but to order the army to disperse. Accordingly, the uprising also failed. The British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern participated in the uprising.<ref name="Laukit" />
{{Multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| header_align      = right
| footer            = Two important Qing figures at the time
| footer_align      = left
| image1            = Zhang Zhitong-1.jpg
| width1            = 110
| caption1          = [[Zhang Zhidong]]
| image2            = Li Hung-Chang, c. 1896.jpg
| width2            = 118
| caption2          = [[Li Hongzhang]]
}}

=== Great Ming Uprising ===
{{Main|Heavenly Kingdom of the Great Mingshun}}
A very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903 in an attempt to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" ({{lang|zh|大明順天國}}).<ref>陳錫祺. (1991). 孫中山年谱長編 Vol. 1. 中华书局. {{ISBN|978-7-1010-0685-8}}.</ref> It involved [[Tse Tsan-tai]], Li Jitang ({{lang|zh|李紀堂}}), Liang Muguang ({{lang|zh|梁慕光}}), and Hong Quanfu ({{lang|zh|洪全福}}), who had taken part in the [[Jintian uprising]] during the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] era.<ref>申友良. (2002). 报王黃世仲. 中囯社会科学出版社 publishing. {{ISBN|978-7-5004-3309-5}}.</ref>

=== Ping-liu-li Uprising ===
Ma Fuyi ({{lang|zh|馬福益}}) and [[Huaxinghui]] was involved in an uprising in the areas of [[Pingxiang]], [[Liuyang]], and [[Liling]] ({{lang|zh|萍瀏醴起義}}) in 1905. The Ping-liu-li Uprising had recruited miners as early as 1903 to rise against the Qing ruling class. After the uprising failed, Ma Fuyi was executed.<ref name="Joan1">{{Cite book |last=Judge |first=Joan |title=Print and politics: 'Shibao' and the culture of reform in late Qing China |year=1996 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-2741-9 |page=214}}</ref>

=== Beijing assassination attempt ===
Wu Yue ({{lang|zh|吳樾)}} of the Guangfuhui carried out an assassination attempt at the Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway station ({{lang|zh|正陽門車站}}) in an attack on five Qing officials on 24 September 1905.{{sfn|Wang|1998|p=287}}<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:清宮藏辛亥革命檔案公佈 清廷密追孫中山(圖)-新聞中心_中華網 |trans-title=Archives of the 1911 Revolution in the Palace Collection of the Qing Dynasty Released |url=http://big5.china.com/gate/big5/news.china.com/focus/xhgm100/11106309/20111009/16801100.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507065815/http://big5.china.com/gate/big5/news.china.com/focus/xhgm100/11106309/20111009/16801100.html |archive-date=7 May 2012 |access-date=2011-10-16 |website=China.com |language=zh}}</ref>

=== Huanggang Uprising===
The Huanggang Uprising ({{lang|zh|黃岡起義}}) was launched on 22 May 1907, in [[Chaozhou]].<ref name="Zga1">張家鳳. (2010). 中山先生與國際人士. Vol. 1. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司. {{ISBN|978-9-8622-1510-4}}. p. 195.</ref> The revolutionary party, along with Xu Xueqiu ({{lang|zh|許雪秋}}), Chen Yongpo ({{lang|zh|陳湧波}}), and Yu Tongshi ({{lang|zh|余通實}}), launched the uprising and captured Huanggang city.<ref name="Zga1" /> After the uprising began, the Qing government quickly and forcefully suppressed it. Around 200 revolutionaries were killed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 May 2011 |script-title=zh:公元1907年5月27日 黄冈起义失败 |trans-title=On May 27, 1907, the Huanggang Uprising failed. |url=http://www.baojinews.com/_info/content_190080.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407071949/http://www.baojinews.com/_info/content_190080.htm |archive-date=7 April 2012 |access-date=2011-10-16 |website=Baojinews.com |language=zh}}</ref>

=== Huizhou Qinühu Uprising, Huizhou ===
In the same year, Sun sent more revolutionaries to [[Huizhou]] to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu Uprising" ({{lang|zh|惠州七女湖起義}}).<ref name="zz1">{{lang|zh|張豈之, 陳振江, 江沛}}. (2002). {{lang|zh|晚淸民國史}}. Volume 5 of {{lang|zh|中國歷史}}. {{lang|zh|五南圖書出版股份有限公司}} publishing. {{ISBN|978-9-5711-2898-6}}. p. 177.</ref> On 2 June, Deng Zhiyu ({{Lang|zh-hant|鄧子瑜}}) and Chen Chuan ({{lang|zh|陳純}}) gathered some followers, and together they seized Qing arms in the lake, {{cvt|20|km}} from Huizhou.<ref name="z3">{{lang|zh|中国二十世紀通鉴编辑委员会}}. (2002). {{Lang|zh|中国二十世紀通鉴}}, 1901–2000, Vol. 1. [[Threadneedle Book Bureau]].</ref> They killed several Qing soldiers and attacked Taiwei ({{lang|zh|泰尾}}) on 5 June.<ref name="z3" /> The Qing army fled in disorder, and the revolutionaries exploited the opportunity, captured several towns, and defeated the Qing army once again in Bazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the number of revolutionary forces increased to two hundred men at its height. The uprising, however, ultimately failed.

=== Anqing Uprising ===
[[File:QiuJin feminist revolutionary.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|A statue to honor revolutionary [[Qiu Jin]]]]
On 6 July 1907, [[Xu Xilin]] of [[Guangfuhui]] led an uprising in [[Anqing]], [[Anhui]], which became known as the Anqing Uprising ({{lang|zh|安慶起義)}}.<ref name="mz" /> Xu, the police commissioner and the supervisor of the police academy, led an uprising that aimed to assassinate the provincial governor of Anhui, En Ming ({{lang|zh|恩銘}}).<ref name="ln1">{{Cite book |last=Lu |first=Xun |title=Capturing Chinese |publisher=Capturing Chinese |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-9842762-0-2 |page=51 |language=zh}}</ref> They were defeated after four hours of fighting. Xu was captured, and En Ming's bodyguards cut out his heart and liver and ate them.<ref name="ln1" /> His cousin [[Qiu Jin]] was executed a few days later.<ref name="ln1" />

=== Qinzhou Uprising ===
From August to September 1907, the [[Qinzhou]] Uprising occurred (欽州防城起義)<ref>鄭連根. (2009). 故紙眉批── 一個傳媒人的讀史心得. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|978-9-8622-1190-8}}. p. 135.</ref> against heavy taxation by the government. Sun sent Wang Heshun ({{lang|zh|王和順}}) there to assist the revolutionary army and captured the county in September.<ref name="xn1">辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing.</ref> They attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou but eventually had retreat to the area of Shiwandashan. Wang Heshun returned to [[Vietnam]].

=== Zhennanguan Uprising ===
On 1 December 1907, the Zhennanguan Uprising ({{lang|zh|鎮南關起事}}) took place at [[Friendship Pass|Zhennanguan]] along the Chinese-Vietnamese border. Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang ({{lang|zh|黃明堂}}) to monitor the pass, which was guarded by a fort.<ref name="xn1" /> With the assistance of supporters among the fort's defenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun, [[Huang Xing]]. and [[Hu Hanmin]] personally went to the tower to command the battle.<ref>中華民國史硏究室. (1986). 中華民國史資料叢稿: 譯稿. Volumes 1–2 of 中華民國史資料叢稿. published by 中華書局.</ref> The Qing government sent troops led by [[Long Jiguang]] and [[Lu Rongting]] to counterattack, and the revolutionaries were forced to retreat into the mountainous areas. After the uprising's failure, Sun was forced to move to Singapore due to [[Sun Yat-sen#Anti-Sun factionalism|anti-Sun sentiments]] within the revolutionary groups.<ref>Yan, Qinghuang. (2008). ''The Chinese in Southeast Asia and Beyond: Socioeconomic and Political Dimensions''. World Scientific Publishing. {{ISBN|978-9-8127-9047-7}}. pp. 182–187.</ref> He returned to the mainland only after the Wuchang Uprising.

=== Qin-Lian Uprising===
On 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-lian Uprising ({{lang|zh|欽廉上思起義}}), from a base in Vietnam and attacked the cities of [[Qinzhou]] and [[Lianzhou]], in [[Guangdong]]. The rebels continued for fourteen days but were forced to end after the revolutionaries ran out of supplies.<ref>廣西壯族自治區地方誌編纂委員會. (1994). 廣西通志: 軍事志. 廣西人民出版社 publishing. Digitized University of Michigan.  2009.</ref>

=== Hekou Uprising, Yunnan ===
In April 1908, another uprising was launched in [[Yunnan]], Hekou, called the Hekou Uprising ({{lang|zh|雲南河口起義}}). Huang Mingtang ({{lang|zh|黃明堂}}) led two hundred men from Vietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April. Other participating revolutionaries included Wang Heshun ({{lang|zh|王和順}}) and Guan Renfu ({{lang|zh|關仁甫}}). They were outnumbered and defeated by government troops, however, and the uprising failed.<ref>中国百科年鉴. (1982). 中国大百科全书出版社. University of California. Digitized 2008.</ref>

=== Mapaoying Uprising, Anhui ===
On 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising ({{lang|zh|馬炮營起義}}) was launched by the revolutionary group Yuewanghui ({{lang|zh|岳王會}}) member Xiong Chenggei ({{lang|zh|熊成基)}} in [[Anhui]].<ref>汪贵胜, 许祖范. Compiled by 程必定. (1989). 安徽近代经济史. 黄山书社. Digitized by the University of Michigan.  2007.</ref> The Yuewanghui was then of the Tongmenghui. The uprising also failed.

=== Guangzhou ===
{{Main|Second Guangzhou Uprising}}
In February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising ({{lang|zh|庚戌新軍起義}}), also known as the Guangzhou New Army Uprising ({{lang|zh|廣州新軍起義}}), took place.<ref name="yq">张新民. (1993). 中国人权辞书. 海南出版社 publishing. Digitized by University of Michigan.  2009.</ref> That involved a conflict between the citizens and local police against the New Army. After the revolutionary leader Ni Yingdian was killed by Qing forces, the remaining revolutionaries were quickly defeated, and the uprising failed.

[[File:Huanghuagang Mausoleum of 72 Martyrs.jpg|thumb|right|The memorial for the 72 martyrs]]
On 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in Guangzhou, known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising ({{lang|zh|辛亥廣州起義}}) or Yellow Flower Mound Revolt ({{lang|zh|黃花岡之役}}). It ended in disaster, as 86 bodies were found (only 72 could be identified).<ref name="gongtong1">王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No. 5 清. 中華書局. {{ISBN|9-6288-8528-6}}. pp. 195–198.</ref> The 72 revolutionaries were remembered as martyrs.<ref name="gongtong1" /> Revolutionary [[Lin Juemin]] was one of the 72. On the eve of battle, he wrote "A Letter to My Wife" ({{lang|zh|與妻訣別書}}), later to be considered a masterpiece in Chinese literature.<ref name="Langmead">{{Cite book |last=Langmead |first=Donald |title=Maya Lin |publisher=Greenwood |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-313-37853-9 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |pages=5–6}}</ref>

== Wuchang Uprising ==
[[File:鐵血十八星旗.svg|right|thumb|upright=0.9|The Iron Blood 18-star flag, used during the Wuchang Uprising]]
[[File:武昌起义.png|thumb|right|upright=0.6|Paths of the uprising]]
{{Main|Wuchang Uprising|Battle of Yangxia}}
The Literary Society ({{lang|zh|文學社}}) and the Progressive Association ({{lang|zh|共進會}}) were revolutionary organizations that involved in the uprising that began mainly by a [[Railway Protection Movement]].{{sfn|Wang|1998|pp=390–391}} In the late summer, some Hubei New Army units were ordered to neighboring Sichuan to quell the Railway Protection Movement, a mass protest against the Qing government's seizure and handover of local railway development ventures to foreign powers.<ref name="reillyt">Reilly, Thomas. (1997). ''Science and Football III'', Vol. 3. Taylor & Francis publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-4192-2160-9}}. pp. 105–106, 277–278.</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2024}} [[Eight Banner|Banner]] officers like [[Duanfang]], the railway superintendent,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Felsing |first=Robert H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EsO3AAAAIAAJ&q=Duanfang |title=The heritage of Han: the Gelaohui and the 1911 revolution in Sichuan |publisher=University of Iowa |year=1979 |page=156 |quote=The railway company's chief officer at Yichang was no longer listening to company directives and had turned company accounts over to Duanfang, Superintendent of the Chuan Han and Yue Han railroads. The situation of the Sichuanese |access-date=2012-03-02}}</ref> and [[Zhao Erfeng]] led the New Army against the Railway Protection Movement.

The New Army units of Hubei had originally been the Hubei Army, which had been trained by Qing official [[Zhang Zhidong]].<ref name="xb1" /> On 24 September, the Literary Society and Progressive Association convened a conference in Wuchang, along with sixty representatives from local New Army units. During the conference, they established a headquarters for the uprising. The leaders of the two organizations, Jiang Yiwu ({{lang|zh|蔣翊武}}) and Sun Wu ({{lang|zh|孫武}}), were elected as commander and chief of staff. Initially, the date of the uprising was to be 6 October 1911.<ref name="gongtong2">王恆偉. [2005] (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No. 6 民國. 中華書局. {{ISBN|9-6288-8529-4}}. pp. 3–7.</ref> It was postponed because of insufficient preparations.

Revolutionaries intent on overthrowing the Qing dynasty had built bombs, and on 9 October, one of them accidentally exploded.<ref name="gongtong2" /> Sun had no direct part in the uprising and was traveling in the United States to recruit more support from overseas Chinese. The Qing [[Viceroy of Huguang]], Rui Cheng ({{lang|zh|瑞澂}}), tried to track down and arrest the revolutionaries.<ref name="tonsi1">戴逸, 龔書鐸. (2003) 中國通史. 清. Intelligence Press. {{ISBN|9-6287-9289-X}}. pp. 86–89.</ref> The squad leader Xiong Bingkun ({{lang|zh|熊秉坤}}) and others decided not to delay the uprising any longer and launched the revolt on 10 October 1911, at 7:00&nbsp;p.m.<ref name="tonsi1" /> The revolt was a success; the entire city of Wuchang had been captured by the revolutionaries on the morning of 11 October. That evening, they established a tactical headquarters and announced the establishment of the "Military Government of Hubei of Republic of China".<ref name="tonsi1" /> The conference chose [[Li Yuanhong]] as the governor of the temporary government.<ref name="tonsi1" /> Qing officers like the bannermen Duanfang and Zhao Erfeng were killed by the revolutionary forces.

Revolutionaries killed a German arms dealer in [[Hankou]] as he was delivering arms to the Qing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thomson |first=John Stuart |title=China Revolutionized |orig-year=1913 |year=2020 |publisher=Bobbs-Merrill |isbn=9-3539-7226-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinarevolutioni00thomuoft/page/58/mode/2up 59]}}</ref> Revolutionaries killed 2 Germans and wounded 2 other Germans at the battle of Hanyang, including a former colonel.{{Sfn|Thomson|2020|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinarevolutioni00thomuoft/page/54/mode/2up 54]}}

== Provincial uprisings ==
[[File:Qing Dynasty Map durnig Xinhai Revolution.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Map of uprisings during the 1911 Revolution]]
After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some uprisings declared restoration (光復) of Han Chinese rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2014}} Regardless of the reason for the uprising, the outcome was that all of the provinces renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the republicans.

=== Changsha ===
{{Main|Battle of Changsha (1911)}}
On 22 October 1911, the [[Hunan]] Tongmenghui were led by Jiao Dafeng ({{lang|zh|焦達嶧}}) and Chen Zuoxin ({{lang|zh|陳作新}}).<ref name="zhanged2">张创新. (2005). 中国政治制度史. 2nd ed., Tsinghua University Press. {{ISBN|978-7-3021-0146-8}}. p. 377.</ref> They headed an armed group, consisting partly of revolutionaries from [[Hongjiang]] and partly of defecting New Army units, in a campaign to extend the uprising into [[Changsha]].<ref name="zhanged2" /> They captured the city and killed the local Imperial general. They announced the establishment of the Hunan Military Government of the Republic of China and announced their opposition to the Qing Empire.<ref name="zhanged2" />

=== Shaanxi ===
On the same day, [[Shaanxi]]'s Tongmenghui, led by Jing Dingcheng ({{lang|zh|景定成}}) and Qian Ding ({{lang|zh|錢鼎}}) as well as Jing Wumu ({{lang|zh|井勿幕}}) and others including [[Gelaohui]], launched an uprising and captured [[Xi'an]] after two days of fighting.<ref name="bigxz13">{{Cite web |script-title=zh:武昌起義之後各省響應與國際調停 |url=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.hb.xinhuanet.com/zhuanti/2011-01/13/content_21859416.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521033406/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.hb.xinhuanet.com/zhuanti/2011-01/13/content_21859416.htm |archive-date=21 May 2014 |access-date=2011-10-16 |language=zh |agency=Xinhua}}</ref> The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the revolution. The Hui Muslims of Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries, and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui of Xi'an joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the Manchus.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Backhouse |first1=Edmund |url=https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp |title=Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century) |last2=Otway |first2=John |last3=Bland |first3=Percy |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1914 |edition=Repr. |page=[https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp/page/n241 209]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA779 |title=The Atlantic |publisher=Atlantic Monthly |year=1913 |volume=112 |page=779}}</ref> The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general [[Ma Anliang]] led more than twenty battalions of Hui troops to defend the Qing imperials and attacked Shaanxi, held by revolutionary Zhang Fenghui ({{lang|zh|張鳳翽}}).<ref name="fsh" /> The attack was successful, and after news arrived that Puyi was about to abdicate, Ma agreed to join the new Republic.<ref name="fsh">{{Cite book |first=Jonathan N. |last=Lipman |title=Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=1998 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA168 170] |isbn=978-0-2959-7644-0 |ol=8580403W |location=Seattle}}</ref> The revolutionaries established the "Qinlong Fuhan Military Government" and elected Zhang Fenghui, a member of the Yuanrizhi Society ({{lang|zh|原日知會}}), as new governor.<ref name="bigxz13" /> After the Xi'an Manchu quarter fell on 24 October, Xinhai forces killed all the Manchus in the city, about 20,000. Many of its Manchu defenders committed suicide, including Qing General Wenrui ({{lang|zh|文瑞}}), who threw himself down a well. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves, and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives.{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|pp=190–193}} Young Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fitzgerald |first1=Charles Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPRxAAAAMAAJ&q=manchu+girls |title=The Horizon history of China |last2=Kotker |first2=Norman |publisher=American Heritage |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-8281-0005-2 |editor-last=Kotker |editor-first=Norman |edition=Illustrated |page=365}}</ref>

The Hui General Ma Anliang abandoned the Qing cause upon the Qing abdication in the Xinhai Revolution, and the Manchu governor general Shengyun was enraged at the revolution.{{Sfn|Lipman|1998|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC&pg=PA170 170] |loc="Ma Anliang attacked Shaanxi successfully, and Yuan Shikai took the invasion seriously enough to alert eastern troops to move against him"}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shan |first=Patrick Fuliang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1JtDwAAQBAJ&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA201 |title=Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal |date=2018 |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0-7748-3781-1 |series=Contemporary Chinese Studies |page=201 |quote=On his order, Wang was executed.66 According to Yuan Shikai, the most important ... to arrest bad elements and protect the people (chubao'anliang), ...}}</ref>

Pro-revolution Hui Muslims like Shaanxi Governor Ma Yugui and Beijing Imam Wang Kuan persuaded the Qing Hui General Ma Anliang to stop fighting by telling him that Muslims not should kill one another for the sake of the Qing monarchists but side with the republican revolutionaries. Ma Anliang then agreed to abandon the Qing under the combination of Yuan Shikai's actions and those messages from other Hui.<ref name="The Muslim Midwest in Modern China">{{Cite book |last=Israeli |first=Raphael |title=The Muslim Midwest in Modern China: The Tale of the Hui Communities in Gansu (Lanzhou, Linxia, and Lintan) and in Yunnan (Kunming and Dali) |year=2017 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-5326-3754-4 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=r-tFDwAAQBAJ&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA72 71]–72|quote=This message by Wang may have contributed to breaking the resistance of Ma Anliang, who had in any case, come under strong pressure of Yuan Shikai's ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lipman |first=Jonathan Neaman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8REAQAAIAAJ&q=anliang+yuan+shikai |title=The Border World of Gansu, 1895–1935 |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1980 |pages=105, 208–209 |quote=... White Wolf and the 'Hui protector and mediator,' Ma Anliang. When Yuan Shikai died in 1916, Zhang Guangjian's control over Gansu did not decrease.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Frankel |first=James |title=Islam in China |year=2021 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-7556-3884-0 |series=Islam in Series |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JIstEAAAQBAJ&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA93 93] |quote=... thereupon supporting Yuan Shikai even when he declared himself emperor. Despite their close relationship, when his superior Ma Anliang tried to arrest ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mühlhahn |first=Klaus |title=Herrschaft und Widerstand in der 'Musterkolonie' Kiautschou: Interaktionen zwischen China und Deutschland, 1897–1914 |year=2014 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-4867-1369-5 |edition=Illustrated |volume=8 |series=Studien zur Internationalen Geschichte |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RYY_CgAAQBAJ&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA399 399] |quote=tierte Yuan Shikai in bezug auf die Boxerbewegung, daß 'Irrlehren (yaoyan) ... Revolte Ruhe und Frieden eintreten können' (chu bao nai ke anliang gaoshi). |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mueggler |first=Erik |title=The Paper Road: Archive and Experience in the Botanical Exploration of West China and Tibet |year=2011 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-5202-6902-6 |edition=Illustrated |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ruBVaZet9t8C&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA228 228] |quote=When that army's commander, Dong Fuxiang died in 1908, Ma Anliang took control ... To curb the power of these warlords, Yuan Shikai sent his subordinates to ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jowett |first=Philip |title=China's Wars: Rousing the Dragon 1894–1949 |date=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4728-0674-1 |edition=Ill.|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lxyVCwAAQBAJ&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA87 87] |quote=During the Second Revolution in 1913 he was persuaded by the southern Revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen to join the anti-Yuan Shikai rebellion.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hamrin |first=Carol Lee |title=Salt and Light, Vol. 1: Lives of Faith That Shaped Modern China |year=2009 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-6218-9291-5 |editor-last=Hamrin |editor-first=Carol Lee |series=Studies in Chinese Christianity |quote=Yuan Shikai, later to become the first President of the Republic of China, was in charge of foreign affairs (and much else) for this last decade of the ... |editor-last2=Bieler |editor-first2=Stacey}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Shan |first=Patrick Fuliang |title=Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-7748-3781-1 |series=Contemporary Chinese Studies |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E1JtDwAAQBAJ&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA201 201] |quote=On his order, Wang was executed.66 According to Yuan Shikai, the most important ... to arrest bad elements and protect the people (chubao'anliang), ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |title=China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-1368-0933-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mAZeAgAAQBAJ&dq=anliang+yuan+shikai&pg=PA144 144] |quote=... poor' and 'Down with Yuan Shikai,' the first president of the new Chinese ... Ma Anliang sent his subordinate Ma Qi to the old town of Taozhou on April ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sahay |first=R.K. |title=History of China's Military |year=2016 |publisher=Vij Books India Pvt |isbn=978-9-3860-1990-5 |edition=Illustrated |quote=... commanders such as Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Li Hongzhang and Yuan Shikai. ... Ma Anliang, Ma Fuxiang, and Ma Fuxing who commanded the Kansu Braves.}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=June 2025}}

A year before the massacre of Manchus in October 1911, an oath against Manchus had been sworn at the [[Great Goose Pagoda]] in Xi'an by the Gelaohui in 1911.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esherick |first=Joseph W. |title=Accidental Holy Land: The Communist Revolution in Northwest China |publisher=University of California Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-5203-8532-0 |edition=Illustrated |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f2hREAAAQBAJ&dq=%22couple+of+schools+in+xi%27an+and+sanyuan%22&pg=PA29 29], 197 |doi=10.1525/luminos.117 |s2cid=244639814}}</ref> Manchu banner garrisons were slaughtered in Nanjing, Zhenjiang, Taiyuan, Xi'an, Fuzhou and Wuchang{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=187}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Xue |title=Making Local China: A Case Study of Yangzhou, 1853–1928 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-6439-0894-0 |series=Berliner China-Studien |volume=56 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wYSFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 237]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Shan |first=Patrick Fuliang |title=Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-7748-3781-1 |series=Contemporary Chinese Studies |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E1JtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 151]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Witchard |first=Anne |title=Lao She in London |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-9-8881-3960-6 |edition=Illustrated |series=RAS China in Shanghai series of China Monographs |volume=1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pfKhnQNR4wMC&pg=PA18 18]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Harper |first=Tim |title=Underground Asia: Global Revolutionaries and the Assault on Empire |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-6747-2461-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eXoWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 141]}}</ref> The Manchu quarter was located in the northeastern part of Xi'an and walled off, and the Hui Muslim quarter was located in the northwestern part of Xi'an but did not have walls separating it from the Han parts. The southern part of Xi'an was entirely Han.<ref>{{Cite book |title=China's Millions, Issues 79–90 |publisher=Morgan and Scott |year=1882 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah5CAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA113 113]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Broomhall |first=Marshall |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbB4faUT540C&dq=the+southern+half+of+si-an+fu+is+entirely+chinese,+but+the+northern+is+a+mixture,&pg=PA201 |title=The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey, Vol. 678–679 |publisher=Morgan at Scott |year=1907 |series=The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey, Marshall Broomhall |page=201}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WofBpey7AkEC&q=the+southern+half+of+si-an+fu+is+entirely+chinese,+but+the+northern+is+a+mixture, |title=The Chinese Empire |page=201}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxdCAQAAMAAJ&dq=mohammedan+general+china+si-an&pg=PA18 |title=China's Millions |publisher=China Inland Mission |year=1902 |volume=28 |page=18}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2024}} Xi'an had the biggest Manchu banner garrison quarter by area before its destruction.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schinz |first=Alfred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhcRYkz-I3YC&dq=the+garrisons+at+Xi%E2%80%99an,+Taiyuan,+Zhenjiang&pg=PA354 |title=The Magic Square: Cities in Ancient China |publisher=Edition Axel Menges |year=1996 |isbn=3-9306-9802-1 |edition=Ill. |page=354}}</ref>

On 22 October 1911, the revolutionaries were led by students of the military academy who overcame the guards at the gates of Xi'an and shut them. They secured the arsenal, slaughtered all Manchus at their temple, and then stormed and slaughtered the Manchus in the Manchu banner quarter of the city. The Manchu quarter was set on fire, burning many Manchus alive. Many Manchus had stored gunpowder in their houses, which exploded from the fire, causing even more deaths. For three days, Manchu men, women and children alike were slaughtered. Only after that were Manchu women and girls spared, while Manchu men and boys continued to be slaughtered. Many Manchus committed suicide by overdosing on opium and throwing themselves into wells. It was estimated that between 10,000 and 20,000 Manchus were slaughtered.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Borst-Smith |first=Ernest F. |url=https://archive.org/details/caughtinchineser00borsuoft/page/n25/mode/2up |title=Caught in the Chinese revolution: a record of risks and rescue |publisher=T. Fisher Unwin |year=1912 |location=London |pages=18–21}}</ref>

Ma Anliang was ordered to attack the revolutionaries in Shaanxi by the [[Booi Aha|baoyi bondservant]] Chang Geng and Manchu Shengyun.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lipman |first=Jonathan Neaman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8REAQAAIAAJ&q=ma+anliang+shengyun |title=The Border World of Gansu, 1895–1935 |publisher=Stanford University |year=1980 |page=184 |quote=Sheng Yun, a Manchu, and Chang Geng, a life bondservant of the Qing house, agreed that an attack had to be undertaken swiftly, so Ma was... Chang needed the Hui, and that meant trusting the loyalty of Ma Anliang and Ma Fuxiang.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JT9BAQAAMAAJ&q=ma+anliang+shengyun |title=National Review: Zhongguo Gong Lun Xi Bao, Vol. 14 |year=1913 |page=251 |quote=... will enter the Ministry of Commerce which will be A Peking telegram also states that Sheng Yun, the reorganized... where is alleged to be coTsen Chun – hsuan. operating with General Ma An – liang in stirring up The " Peking Jih ...}}</ref>

Eastern soldiers of the new republic were mobilized by Yuan Shikai when the attack against Shaanxi began by Ma Anliang, but news of the abdication of the Qing Emperor reached Ma Anliang before he attacked Xi'an. That made Ma end all military operations and change his allegiance to the Republic of China. All pro-Qing military activity in the northwest was then put to an end.{{Sfn|Lipman|1998|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC&pg=PA170 170]}}

Yuan Shikai managed to induce Ma to not attack Shaanxi after the Gelaohui took over the province and to accept the Republic of China under his presidency in 1912. During the [[National Protection War]] in 1916 between republicans and Yuan's monarchy, Ma readied his soldiers and informed the republicans that he and the Muslims would stick to Yuan until the end.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Teichman |first=Eric |url=https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft/page/120/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Travels of a Consular officer in North West China; with original maps of Shensi and Kansu and illus. by photographs |date=1921 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=120–122}}</ref> Yuan Shikai ordered Ma Anliang to block Bai Lang (White Wolf) from going into Sichuan and Gansu by blocking Hanzhong and Fengxiangfu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSo-AQAAMAAJ&q=ma+an+liang+sianfu |title=The National Review, China: Literary and educational supplement, Vol. 15 |publisher=National Review |year=1914 |page=482 |quote=General Ma An-liang to take his Muhammadan requesting that the disbandment be postponed troops to Fenghsiangfu and... also that all latter reached Sianfu by forced marches from asking for information regarding the statements ....}}</ref>

The Protestant Shensi mission operated a hospital in Xian.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keyte |first=J. C. |url=https://archive.org/download/MN41760ucmf_1/MN41760ucmf_1.pdf |title=Andrew Young of Shensi :Adventure in Medical Missions |publisher=The Carey Press |year=1924 |location=London |page=vi}}</ref> Some American missionaries were reported killed in Xi'an.{{Sfn|Thomson|2020|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinarevolutioni00thomuoft/page/64/mode/2up 64]}} A report claimed Manchus massacred missionaries in the suburbs of Xi'an.{{Sfn|Thomson|2020|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinarevolutioni00thomuoft/page/46/mode/2up 46]}} Missionaries were reported killed in Xi'an and Taiyuan.{{Sfn|Thomson|2020|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinarevolutioni00thomuoft/page/53/mode/2up 53]}} Shaanxi joined the revolution on October 24.{{Sfn|Thomson|2020|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinarevolutioni00thomuoft/page/37/mode/2up 37]|loc=On October 24th, ancient Singan the capital of the northwestern province of Shensi, the original capital of China, where the empress dowager, Tse Hsi}} Sheng Yun was governor of Shaanxi in 1905.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSlCAQAAMAAJ&dq=mohammedan+shen-si+shengyun&pg=PA206 |title=Japan Weekly Mail |year=1905 |page=206 |quote=That degradation of H. E. Sheng Yun, Governor of Shensi, a Peking correspondent, writing about the recent was delayed some three hours. A telegram was received on Feb. 18th in Japanese adventurers should be serving with to ihe post ...}}</ref>{{Sfn|Lipman|1998|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC&pg=PA263 263]}}{{sfn|Thomson|2020|pages=71, 449}}

Some Gansu Hui, led by [[Ma Fuxiang]], joined the republicans. General Ma Fuxiang did not participate with Ma Anliang in the battles with Shaanxi revolutionaries and refused to join the Qing Manchu Shengyun and Changgeng in their attempts to defend the Qing before their abdication, but the independence of Gansu from Qing control was jointly declared by non-Muslim gentry with Hui Muslim Ma Fuxiang.{{Sfn|Lipman|1998|pages=171–172}}

===Jiujiang===
[[File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg|right|thumb|upright=0.9|Flag used by naval fleet during the Jiujiang Uprising<ref>{{Cite web |title=中華民國海軍 – 旗海圖幟 |url=https://www.globalflag.idv.tw/wg/haijun.htm |access-date=2024-05-19}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2024}}]]
On 23 October, [[Lin Sen]], Jiang Qun ({{lang|zh|蔣群}}), Cai Hui ({{lang|zh|蔡蕙}}), and other members of the Tongmenghui in the province of [[Jiangxi]] plotted a revolt of New Army units.<ref name="zhanged2" /><ref name="zhong1911-ch12">伍立杨. (2011). 中国1911 (辛亥年). {{ISBN|978-7-5313-3869-7}}. Chapter 连锁反应 各省独立.</ref> A Qing naval fleet also revolted against the state, which solidified victory in the Wuchang Uprising.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:辛亥革命中的九江起义(3) |url=http://www.xhgmw.com/html/xiezhen/licheng/2014/0715/593_3.html |access-date=2024-05-19 |publisher=xhgmw.com |language=zh}}</ref> After they achieved victory, they announced their independence. The Jiujiang Military Government was then established.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" />

===Shanxi===
On 29 October, [[Yan Xishan]] of the New Army led an uprising in [[Taiyuan]], the capital city of the province of [[Shanxi]].<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>蒋顺兴, 李良玉. (1990). 山西王阎锡山/中华民国史丛书. Edition reprint. 河南人民出版社, 1990.</ref> The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907–1985 |page=102}}</ref> They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi ({{lang|zh|陸鍾琦}}).<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:山西辛亥革命官僚階層——巡撫陸鍾琦之死_辛亥革命前奏_辛亥革命网 |url=http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405102736/http://big5.xhgmw.org/archive-52883.shtml |archive-date=5 April 2012 |access-date=2011-10-16 |publisher=Big5.xhgmw.org |language=zh}}</ref> They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor.<ref name="bigxz13" />

===Kunming===
On 30 October, Li Genyuan ({{lang|zh|李根源}}) of the Tongmenghui in [[Yunnan]] joined with [[Cai E]], Luo Peijin ({{lang|zh|羅佩金}}), [[Tang Jiyao]], and other officers of the New Army to launch the [[Double Ninth Festival|Double Ninth]] Uprising ({{lang|zh|重九起義}}).<ref>中共湖南省委員會. (1981). 新湘評論, Issues 7–12. 新湘評論雜誌社.</ref> They captured [[Kunming]] the next day, established the Yunnan Military Government, and chose Cai E as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" />

===Nanchang===
On 31 October, the [[Nanchang]] branch of the Tongmenghui-led New Army units in a successful uprising. They established the Jiangxi Military Government.<ref name="zhanged2" /> [[Li Liejun]] was elected as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Li declared [[Jiangxi]] as independent and launched an expedition against Qing official Yuan Shikai.<ref name="Langmead" />

===Shanghai===
[[File:Chen Qi-mei.png|thumb|right|upright=0.7|[[Chen Qimei]], military governor of Shanghai]]
On 3 November, Shanghai's Tongmenghui and Guangfuhui and merchants led by [[Chen Qimei]], Li Pingsu ({{lang|zh|李平書}}), Zhang Chengyou ({{lang|zh|張承槱}}), Li Yingshi ({{lang|zh|李英石}}), Li Xiehe ({{lang|zh|李燮和}}), and [[Song Jiaoren]] organized an armed rebellion in Shanghai.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> They received support from local police officers.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> The rebels captured the Jiangnan Workshop on the 4th and captured Shanghai soon afterward. On 8 November, they established the Shanghai Military Government and elected Chen Qimei as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> He would eventually become one of the founders of the [[four big families of the Republic of China]], along with some of the most well-known families of the era.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:"四大家族"后人:蒋家凋零落寞 宋、孔、陈家低调 |url=http://www.chinanews.com.cn/cul/news/2007/12-11/1101653.shtml |access-date=2011-10-16 |publisher=Chinanews.com.cn |language=zh}}</ref>

=== Guizhou ===
On 4 November, Zhang Bailin ({{lang|zh|張百麟}}) of the revolutionary party in [[Guizhou]] led an uprising, along with New Army units and students from the military academy. They immediately captured [[Guiyang]], established the Great Han Guizhou Military Government, and chose Yang Jincheng ({{lang|zh|楊藎誠}}) and Zhao Dequan ({{lang|zh|趙德全}}) as respectively the chief and vice governor.<ref>张玉法, 中央硏究院. 近代史硏究所. (1985). 民国初年的政党. 中央硏究院近代史硏究所 Publishing.</ref>

===Zhejiang ===
Also on 4 November, revolutionaries in [[Zhejiang]] urged the New Army units in [[Hangzhou]] to launch an uprising.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Zhu Rui ({{lang|zh|朱瑞}}), Wu Siyu ({{lang|zh|吳思豫}}), Lu Gongwang ({{lang|zh|吕公望}}) and others of the New Army captured the military supplies workshop.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Other units, led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and Yin Zhirei ({{lang|zh|尹銳志}}), captured most of the government offices.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /> Eventually, Hangzhou was under the control of the revolutionaries, and the constitutionalist Tang Shouqian ({{lang|zh|湯壽潛}}) was chosen as the military governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" />

===Jiangsu===
On 5 November, [[Jiangsu]] constitutionalists and gentry urged Qing Governor Cheng Dequan ({{lang|zh|程德全}}) to declare independence and established the Jiangsu Revolutionary Military Government with Cheng himself as the governor.<ref name="zhong1911-ch12" /><ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:辛亥百年蘇州光復一根竹竿挑瓦革命 |url=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/sz.xinhuanet.com/2011-10/10/content_23855051.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521034915/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/sz.xinhuanet.com/2011-10/10/content_23855051.htm |archive-date=21 May 2014 |access-date=2011-10-16 |language=zh |agency=Xinhua}}</ref> Unlike some other cities, anti-Manchu violence began after the restoration on 7 November in [[Zhenjiang]]. Qing General Zaimu ({{lang|zh|載穆}}) agreed to surrender, but because of a misunderstanding, the revolutionaries were unaware that their safety was guaranteed. The Manchu quarters were ransacked, and an unknown number of Manchus were killed. Zaimu, feeling betrayed, committed suicide.{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=194}} This is regarded as the Zhenjiang Uprising ({{lang|zh|鎮江起義}}).<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:辛亥革命大事記_時政頻道_新華網 |url=http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2011-04/20/c_121987093.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521034919/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2011-04/20/c_121987093.htm |archive-date=21 May 2014 |access-date=2011-11-17 |agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:温馨提示 |url=http://www.xinhai.org/shi/191107129.htm |language=zh}}</ref>

===Anhui===
Members of [[Anhui]]'s Tongmenghui also launched an uprising on that day and laid siege to the provincial capital. The constitutionalists persuaded [[Zhu Jiabao]], the Qing governor of Anhui, to declare independence.<ref>國立臺灣師範大學. 歷史學系. (2003). Bulletin of historical research, Issue 31. 國立臺灣師範大學歷史學系 publishing.</ref>

===Guangxi===
On 7 November, the [[Guangxi]] political department decided to secede from the Qing government and declared Guangxi's independence. Qing Governor Shen Bingkun ({{lang|zh|沈秉堃}}) was allowed to remain, but [[Lu Rongting]] soon became the new governor.<ref name="xn1" /> Lu Rongting would later rise to prominence during the Warlord Era, and his bandits controlled Guangxi for more than a decade.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lary |first=Diana |title=Warlord Soldiers: Chinese Common Soldiers 1911–1937 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-13629-7 |page=64}}</ref> Under leadership of [[Huang Shaohong]], the Muslim law student [[Bai Chongxi]] was enlisted into a Dare to Die unit to fight as a revolutionary.<ref name="BoormanHoward1967">{{Cite book |last1=Boorman |first1=Howard L. |url=https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor |title=Biographical Dictionary of Republican China |last2=Howard |first2=Richard C. |last3=Cheng |first3=Joseph K. H. |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-2310-8957-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict01boor/page/51 51] |quote=pai ch'ung-hsi dare to die. |url-access=registration}}</ref>

===Fujian===
[[File:连江光复会旧址.jpg|thumb|right|One of the old buildings occupied by the [[Guangfuhui]] in [[Lianjiang County]], Fujian]]
In November, members of [[Fujian]]'s branch of the Tongmenghui, along with Sun Daoren ({{lang|zh|孫道仁}}) of the New Army, launched an uprising against the Qing army.<ref name="gli">国祁李. (1990). 民国史论集, Volume 2. 南天書局 publishing.</ref><ref>(1979). 傳記文學, Volume 34. 傳記文學雜誌社 Publishing. University of Wisconsin– Madison. Digitized 11 April 2011.</ref> The Qing viceroy, Song Shou ({{lang|zh|松壽}}), committed suicide.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deng |first=Zhicheng |publisher=Zhonghua shuju |year=1988 |isbn=978-7-101-00390-1 |volume=5 |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:中華二千年史 |author-mask=Deng Zhicheng (鄧之誠)}}. (1983), Volume 5, Part 3, Issue 1. 中華書局. {{ISBN|978-7-1010-0390-1}}.</ref> On 11 November, the entire Fujian province declared independence.<ref name="gli" /> The Fujian Military Government was established, and Sun Daoren was chosen as the military governor.<ref name="gli" />

===Guangdong ===
Near the end of October, [[Chen Jiongming]], Deng Keng ({{lang|zh|鄧鏗}}), Peng Reihai ({{lang|zh|彭瑞海}}), and other members of Guangdong's Tongmenghui organized local militias to launch the uprising in [[Huazhou, Guangdong|Huazhou]], [[Nanhai District|Nanhai]], [[Shunde District|Sunde]] and [[Sanshui District|Sanshui]] in Guangdong Province.<ref name="bigxz13" /><ref>广东省中山图书馆. (2002). 民国广东大事记. 羊城晚报出版社 Publishing. {{ISBN|978-7-8065-1206-7}}.</ref> On 8 November, after being persuaded by [[Hu Hanmin]], General Li Zhun ({{lang|zh|李準}}) and Long Jiguang ({{lang|zh|龍濟光}}) of the Guangdong Navy agreed to support the revolution.<ref name="bigxz13" /> The Qing [[viceroy of Liangguang]], Zhang Mingqi ({{lang|zh|張鳴岐}}), was forced to discuss with local representatives a proposal for Guangdong's independence.<ref name="bigxz13" /> They decided to declare it the next day. Chen Jiongming then captured [[Huizhou]]. On 9 November, Guangdong declare d its independence and established a military government.<ref name="qiuf">徐博东, 黄志萍. (1987). 丘逢甲傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|978-9-8622-1636-1}}. p. 175.</ref> They elected Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming as Chief and Vice-Governor.<ref>居正, 羅福惠, 蕭怡. (1989). 居正文集, Volume 1. 華中師範大學出版社 publishing. Digitized by University of California. 15 December 2008.</ref> [[Qiu Fengjia]] is known to have helped make the declaration of independence more peaceful.<ref name="qiuf" /> It was unknown at the time if representatives from the European colonies of [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] and [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] would be ceded to the new government.{{Clarify|date=August 2017}}

=== Shandong ===
On 13 November, after being persuaded by the revolutionary [[Ding Weifen]] and several other officers of the New Army, the Qing governor of [[Shandong]], [[Sun Baoqi]], agreed to secede from the Qing government and declared Shandong's independence.<ref name="bigxz13" />

=== Ningxia ===
On 17 November, [[Ningxia]] Tongmenghui launched the Ningxia Uprising ({{lang|zh|寧夏會黨起義}}). The revolutionaries sent [[Yu Youren]] to [[Zhangjiachuan County|Zhangjiachuan]] to meet the Dungan [[Sufi]] master [[Ma Yuanzhang]] to persuade him not to support the Qing. However, Ma did not want to endanger his relationship with the Qings. He sent the eastern [[Gansu]] Muslim militia under the command of one of his sons to help [[Ma Qi]] fight the Ningxia Gelaohui.<ref name="Cambridge University Press Archive">{{Cite book |ol=7625604W |title=Travels of a Consular Officer in North-West China |publisher=Cambridge University Press Archive |date=1921 |page=[https://archive.org/details/consularoffic00teicuoft/page/188 188] |quote=ma fu hsiang mongol an-liang.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Lipman|1998|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA182 182]–183}}

Ma Anliang, Changgeng, and Shengyun failed to capture Shaanxi from the revolutionaries. In Ningxia, Qing forces were attacked by both Hui Muslim Gelaohui and Han Gelaohui members, and Hui General Ma Qi and Ma Yuanzhang were in the Qing forces fighting against them, Hoverver, Ma Yuanzhang defected to the republicans after Ma Anliang had given up on the Qing.{{Sfn|Lipman|1998|pages=181–182}} However, the Ningxia Revolutionary Military Government was established on 23 November.<ref name="bigxz13" /> Some revolutionaries involved included Huang Yue ({{lang|zh|黃鉞}}) and Xiang Shen ({{lang|zh|向燊}}), who gathered New Army forces at Qinzhou ({{lang|zh|秦州}}).<ref>粟戡时, 同明, 志盛, 雪云. (1981). 湖南反正追记. 湖南人民出版社.</ref><ref>辛亥革命史地圖集. (1991). 辛亥革命武昌起義紀念館. 中國地圖出版社.</ref>

=== Sichuan  ===
On 21 November, [[Guang'an]] organized the Great Han [[Shu Han|Shu]] Northern Military Government.<ref name="bigxz13" /><ref>中國地圖出版社. (1991). 辛亥革命史地圖集. 中國地圖出版社 publishing.</ref>

On 22 November, [[Chengdu]] and [[Sichuan]] declared independence. By the 27th, the [[Great Han Sichuan Military Government]] had been established, headed by revolutionary Pu Dianzun ({{lang|zh|蒲殿俊}}).<ref name="bigxz13" /> The Qing official [[Duanfang]] would also be killed.<ref name="bigxz13" />

=== Nanjing ===
[[File:An episode in the revolutionary war in China, 1911 - the battle at the Ta-ping gate at Nanking. Wellcome L0040002.jpg|thumb|1911 battle at Ta-ping gate, Nanjing. Painting by T. Miyano.]]
On 8 November, supported by the Tongmenghui, Xu Shaozhen ({{lang|zh|徐紹楨}}) of the New Army announced an uprising in Molin Pass ({{lang|zh|秣陵關}}), {{cvt|30|km}} away from [[Nanjing]]. Xu Shaozhen, Chen Qimei and other generals decided to form a united army under Xu to strike Nanjing together. On 11 November, the united army headquarters was established in Zhenjiang.

Between 24 November and 1 December, under the command of Xu Shaozhen, the united army captured Wulongshan ({{lang|zh|烏龍山}}), Mufushan ({{lang|zh|幕府山)}}), Yuhuatai ({{lang|zh|雨花臺)}}), Tianbao ({{lang|zh|天保城)}}) among other Qing army strongholds. On 2 December, Nanjing was captured by the revolutionaries after the Battle of Nanjing.<ref name="bigxz13" /> On 3 December, revolutionary Su Liangbi led troops in a massacre of a large number of Manchus. Shortly afterward, he was arrested, and his troops were disbanded.{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=198}}

=== Dihua and Yili Uprising ===
{{Main|Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang}}
In [[Xinjiang]] on 28 December, Liu Xianzun ({{lang|zh|劉先俊}}) and revolutionaries started the Dihua Uprising ({{lang|zh|迪化起義}}).<ref name="doizung">{{Cite book |publisher=Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica |year=1993 |isbn=978-957-671-150-3 |location=Taipei |language=zh |script-title=zh:近代中國歷史人物論文集}}</ref> This was led by more than 100 members of Gelaohui.<ref name="hkcna">{{Cite web |script-title=zh:新疆伊犁辛亥革命打破清王朝西遷夢 |url=http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324093710/http://www.hkcna.hk/content/2011/1007/115710.shtml |archive-date=24 March 2020 |access-date=2011-10-23 |publisher=Hkcna.hk |language=zh}}</ref> This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the Yili Uprising ({{lang|zh|伊犁起義}}) with {{Ill|Feng Temin|zh|馮特民}} began.<ref name="doizung" /><ref name="hkcna" /> Qing governor {{Ill|Yuan Dahua|zh|袁大化}} (袁大化) fled and submitted his resignation to [[Yang Zengxin]] because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.<ref name="yz">{{Cite book |last=Millward |first=James A. |title=Eurasian Crossroads |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-231-13924-3 |location=New York |pages=168, 440}}</ref>

On 8 January, a new Yili government was established for the revolutionaries. Some Chinese historians now believe that contributed to the Qing dynasty's fall because it prevented the Qing's plan to flee to the west.<ref>{{Cite web |date=Oct 7, 2011 |title=Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang: Qing Dynasty's plan of moving westward shattered |url=http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2011/10-07/3370038.shtml |website=[[China News Service]]}}</ref><ref name="hkcna" /> The revolutionaries would be defeated at [[Jinghe County|Jinghe]] in January and February;<ref name="yz" /><ref name="wamu">{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Andrew D. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=yuan+ta-hua+time&pg=PA139 |title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 |publisher=Cambridge University Press Archive |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-5212-5514-1 |page=376 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Eventually, the abdication to come would make Yuan Shikai recognize Yang Zengxin's rule and appoint him Governor of Xinjiang, and the province join the republicans.<ref name="yz" /> Eleven more former Qing officials would be assassinated in [[Barköl Kazakh Autonomous County|Zhenxi]], [[Karashahr]], [[Aksu, Xinjiang|Aksu]], [[Kucha]], [[Luntai]], and [[Kashgar]] in April and May 1912.<ref name="yz" />

The revolutionaries printed new multilingual media.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klimeš |first=Ondřej |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&q=%E6%BC%A2%E8%92%99%E5%9B%9E%E7%BA%8F%E5%93%88&pg=PA83 |title=Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c. 1900–1949 |publisher=Brill |year=2015 |isbn=978-9-0042-8809-6 |pages=83ff}}</ref>

== Territorial uprisings ==
=== Tibet ===
{{Main|Xinhai Lhasa turmoil|Tibet (1912–1951)}}
In 1905, the Qing sent [[Zhao Erfeng]] to Tibet to retaliate against [[1905 Tibetan Rebellion|rebellions]].<ref name="Blondeau">{{Cite book |last1=Blondeau |first1=Anne-Marie |title=Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions |last2=Buffetrille |first2=Katia |last3=Jing |first3=Wei |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-5202-4464-1 |page=230}}</ref> By 1908, Zhao was appointed [[List of Qing imperial residents in Tibet|imperial resident]] in [[Lhasa]].<ref name="Blondeau" /> Zhao was beheaded in December 1911 by pro-Republican forces.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grunfeld |first=A. Tom. |title=The Making of Modern Tibet |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-5632-4714-9 |edition=2nd |page=63}}</ref> The bulk of the area historically known as [[Kham]] was now claimed to be the [[Xikang|Xikang Administrative District]], created by the republican revolutionaries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ma |first=Rong |title=Population and Society in Contemporary Tibet |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-962-209-202-0 |page=48}}</ref>

By the end of 1912, the last Qing troops were forced out of Tibet through India. [[Thubten Gyatso]], the 13th [[Dalai Lama]], returned to Tibet in January 1913 from [[Sikkim]], where he had been residing. When the new Chinese government apologized for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama to his former position, he replied he was not interested in Chinese ranks, Tibet had never been subordinated to China, Tibet was an independent country, and he was assuming the spiritual and political leadership of Tibet. That has many read the reply as a formal declaration of independence. The Chinese side ignored the response, and Tibet had thirty years free of interference from China until 1951. Tibet is still ruled by China.<ref name="Mayhew">{{Cite book |last1=Mayhew |first1=Bradley |title=Tibet |last2=Kohn |first2=Michael |publisher=St. Martin's |year=2005 |isbn=1-74059-523-8 |page=32}}</ref>

=== Outer Mongolia ===
{{Main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia}}
At the end of 1911, Outer Mongolian took action with an armed revolt against Qing authorities but was unsuccessful. The independence movement that took place was not limited to Outer Mongolia but was a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.<ref name="Onon">{{Cite book |last1=Onon |first1=Urgungge |title=Asia's First Modern Revolution |last2=Pritchatt |first2=Derrick |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-08390-5 |location=Leiden |pages=38–40, 79 |year=1989}}</ref> On 29 December 1911, [[Bogd Khan]] became the ruler of the Bogd Khanate. [[Inner Mongolia]] became a contested terrain between the Bogd Khanate and China.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seminar |first=International Association for Tibetan Studies. |title=The Mongolia-Tibet Interface |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-04-15521-3 |location=Leiden |language=bo |chapter=The Mongolia-Tibet interface: opening new research terrains in Inner Asia}}</ref>

In general, Russia supported the [[Mongolian Revolution of 1911|independence of Outer Mongolia]] (including [[Tannu Uriankhai]]) during the time of the 1911 Revolution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |title=Chinese Foreign Policy: pragmatism and strategic behavior |date=2004 |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0-7656-1284-7 |location=Armonk, NY |page=207}}</ref>

Tibet and Outer Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty. In 1919, the Republic of China [[Occupation of Mongolia|regained Outer Mongolia]] but lost it again in 1921. China, a member of the [[United Nations]], has officially recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia since 1949. Taiwan opened a cultural representative office and economy as part of its recognition of Mongolia in 2002.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}

===Tannu Uriankhai secession===
{{Main|Uryankhay Republic}}

==Change of government==
[[File:Seal for the provisional government president of Republic of China 20050807.jpg|thumb|right|Presidential seal of the provisional government of the Republic of China]]

===North: Qing Court final transformation attempt===
On 1 November 1911, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as Prime Minister of the imperial cabinet, replacing [[Yikuang|Prince Qing]].{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=183}} On 3 November, after a proposition by [[Cen Chunxuan]] from the {{Ill|Constitutional Monarchy Movement (China)|lt=Constitutional Monarchy Movement|zh|立憲運動}}, the Qing court passed the [[Nineteen Articles]], which turned the Qing from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tung |first=William L. |title=The Political Institutions of Modern China |publisher=Springer |year=1968 |isbn=978-90-247-0552-8 |page=18}}</ref>{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=228}} On 9 November, [[Huang Xing]] even cabled Yuan Shikai and invited him to join the Republic.<ref name="pompl">{{Cite book |last=Pomerantz-Zhang |first=Linda |title=Wu Tingfang (1842–1922) |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-962-209-287-7 |pages=207–209}}</ref> The changes were too late, and the Emperor was about to forced to abdicate.

===South: Provisional Government in Nanking===
{{Main|Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)}}
On 28 November 1911, Wuchang and [[Hanyang District|Hanyang]] had fallen back to the Qing army. For their safety, the revolutionaries convened their first conference at the British Concession in [[Hankou]] on 30 November.<ref name="ksliew">{{cite book | last=Liew | first=K. S. | title=Struggle for Democracy | publisher=University of California Press | location=Berkeley | year=1971 | isbn=978-0-520-01760-3 |pages=131–136}}</ref> By 2 December, the revolutionary forces were able to [[#Nanking Uprising|capture Nanking in the uprising]]; and the revolutionaries decided to make it the site of the new provisional government.<ref>{{cite book | last=Wu | first=Yuzhang | title=Recollections of the Revolution of 1911 | publisher=Minerva | publication-place=Honolulu | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-89875-531-2 |page=132}}</ref> At the time, Beijing was still the Qing capital.

===North–South Conference===
[[File:Nanbeihetan 1911.png|thumb|right|[[Tang Shaoyi]], left. Edward Selby Little, middle. [[Wu Tingfang]], right.]]
On 18 December, the {{Ill|North–South Conference|zh|南北議和}} was held in Shanghai to discuss issues in the north and the south.<ref name="liwanhon">李雲漢. (1996). 中國近代史. 三民書局 publishing. {{ISBN|978-9-5714-0669-5}}.</ref> The reluctance of foreign financiers to give financial support to the Qing government or the revolutionaries contributed to both sides agreeing to start negotiations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moazzin |first=Ghassan |year=2020 |title=Investing in the New Republic: Multinational Banks, Political Risk, and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-history-review/article/investing-in-the-new-republic-multinational-banks-political-risk-and-the-chinese-revolution-of-1911/AFBD8E1FD66001F37563AC1ADEF44ED9 |journal=Business History Review |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=507–534 |doi=10.1017/S0007680520000276 |issn=0007-6805 |s2cid=229609499|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Yuan Shikai selected [[Tang Shaoyi]] as his representative.<ref name="liwanhon" /> Tang left Beijing for Wuhan to negotiate with the revolutionaries.<ref name="liwanhon" /> The revolutionaries chose [[Wu Tingfang]].<ref name="liwanhon" /> With the intervention of six foreign powers, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Russia, Japan, and France, Tang Shaoyi and Wu Tingfang began to negotiate a settlement at the British concession.<ref>中央硏究院近代史硏究所. (1971). 中央硏究院近代史硏究所集刊, Volume 2. Digitized on 2 August 2007 from the University of California.</ref>

The foreign businessman Edward Selby Little (李德立) acted as the negotiator and facilitated the peace agreement.<ref>存萃學社. 周康燮. (1971). 辛亥革命研究論集: 1895–1929, Vol. 1. 崇文書店 publishing. Digitized on 16 August 2007 by the University of Michigan.</ref> They agreed that Yuan Shikai would force the Qing emperor to abdicate in exchange for the southern provinces' support of him as President of the Republic. After considering the possibility that the new republic might be defeated in a civil war or by foreign invasion, Sun agreed to Yuan's proposal to unify China under Yuan Shikai's Beijing government. Further decisions were made to let the Emperor rule over his small court in the [[New Summer Palace]]. He would be treated as a ruler of a separate country and have expenses of several million [[taels]] in silver.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Feng |first=Youlan |title=The Hall of Three Pines |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8248-2220-0 |location=Honolulu |page=45 |translator-last=Denis C. |translator-first=Mair}}</ref>

==Establishment of the Republic==
[[File:1912Jimingxiaoling2.jpg|thumb|right|Sun Yat-sen and other members of the [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|Government of the Republic of China]] visited the mausoleum of the [[Hongwu Emperor]] of the [[Ming dynasty]], 15 February 1912]]

===Republic of China declared and national flag issued===
[[1911 Republic of China provisional presidential election|On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected]] as the first [[List of leaders of the Republic of China|provisional president]], and 1 January 1912 was set as the [[Epoch (reference date)|first day]] of the First Year of the Republic of China.<ref name="Well">{{Cite book |last=Welland |first=Sasha Su-Ling |title=A Thousand Miles of Dreams |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7425-5314-9 |page=87}}</ref> On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the Provisional Vice-president.<ref>Yu Weichao Yu. (1997). ''A Journey into China's Antiquity: Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty''. Vol. 4. Morning Glory Publishers. {{ISBN|978-7-5054-0514-1}}.</ref>

During and after the 1911 Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with a [[taijitu]].<ref name="fitzj">{{cite book | last=Fitzgerald | first=John | title=Awakening China | publisher=Stanford University Press | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-8047-3337-3|page=180}}</ref> Others in competition included [[Lu Haodong]]'s [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] flag. [[Huang Xing]] preferred a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of [[Five Races Under One Union]].<ref name="fitzj" /> The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.<ref name="newlight10-92">劉煒. 陳萬雄. 張債儀. (2002) Chinese civilization in a new light 中華文明傳真#10 清. Commercial press publishing company. {{ISBN|9-6207-5316-X}}. pp. 92–93</ref> The red represented Han, the yellow represented Manchus, the blue for [[Mongols]], the white for [[Islam in China|Muslims]], and the black for [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]].<ref name="fitzj" /><ref name="newlight10-92" /> Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated [[racial integration]] to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Hsiao-ting |title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-58264-3 |location=London |page=7}}</ref>

===Donghuamen Incident===
On 16 January, while returning to his residence, Yuan was ambushed in a bomb attack that was organized by the Tongmenghui in {{Ill|Donghuamen|zh|東華門}}, Beijing.<ref name="gg">邵建. (2008). 胡適前傳. 秀威資訊科技股份有限公司 publishing. {{ISBN|978-9-8622-1008-6}}. p. 236.</ref> Eighteen revolutionaries were involved. About ten guards died, but Yuan himself was not seriously injured.<ref name="gg" /> He sent a message to the revolutionaries the next day that pledged his loyalty and asked them not to organize any more assassination attempts against him.

===Abdication of the Emperor===
{{Main|Puyi#Abdication}}
[[File:Qingtuiweizhaoshu.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Imperial edict for abdication]]
[[Zhang Jian (politician)|Zhang Jian]] drafted an abdication proposal, which was approved by the Provisional Senate. On 20 January, [[Wu Tingfang]] of the Nanking Provisional Government officially delivered the Imperial Edict of Abdication to Yuan Shikai for the abdication of Puyi.{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=228}} On 22 January, Sun Yat-sen announced that he would resign the presidency in favor of Yuan Shikai if the latter supported the Emperor's abdication.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boorman |first=Howard L. |title=Biographical Dictionary of Republican China |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-231-08957-9 |volume=3 |location=New York}}</ref> Yuan then pressured [[Empress Dowager Longyu]] with the threat that the imperial family's lives would not be spared if abdication did not come before the revolutionaries reached Beijing, but if the Emperor agreed to abdicate, the provisional government would honor the terms proposed by the imperial family.

On 3 February, Longyu gave Yuan full permission to negotiate the abdication terms of the Qing emperor. Yuan then drew up his own version and forwarded it to the revolutionaries on 3 February.{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=228}} His version consisted of three sections, instead of two.{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=228}} On 12 February, after they were pressured by Yuan and other ministers, Puyi (age six) and Empress Dowager Longyu accepted Yuan's terms of abdication.<ref name="Well" />

===Capital location debate===
{{See also|History of Beijing}}
As a condition for ceding leadership to Yuan, Sun insisted that the provisional government remain in Nanjing. On 14 February, the Provisional Senate initially voted 20–5 for making Beijing the capital over Nanjing, with two votes going for Wuhan and one for Tianjin. The Senate majority wanted to secure the peace agreement by taking power in Beijing. Zhang Jian and others reasoned that having the capital in Beijing would check against Manchu restoration and [[Outer Mongolia (1911–1919)|Mongol secession]]. However, Sun and [[Huang Xing]] argued for Nanjing to balance against Yuan's power base in the north. [[Li Yuanhong]] presented Wuhan as a compromise. The next day, the Provisional Senate voted again, this time 19–6, for Nanjing, with two votes for Wuhan.

Sun sent a delegation led by Cai Yuanpei and Wang Jingwei to persuade Yuan to move to Nanjing. Yuan welcomed the delegation and agreed to accompany the delegates back to the south. Then on the evening of 29 February, [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)#Northern transition#Dong'anmen Gate incident|riots and fires]] broke out all over the city. They were allegedly started by disobedient troops of [[Cao Kun]], a loyal officer of Yuan. The disorder gave Yuan a pretext to stay in the north to guard against unrest. On 10 March, Yuan was inaugurated in Beijing as the Provisional President of the Republic of China. On 5 April, the Provisional Senate in Nanjing voted to make Beijing the capital of the Republic and convened in Beijing at the end of the month.<ref name="Xinhai.org p. 2">{{Cite web |script-title=zh:温馨提示 |url=https://dnspod.qcloud.com/static/webblock.html?d%3Dwww.xinhai.org |access-date=2021-12-30 |website=dnspod.qcloud.com |language=zh}}</ref>

==Republican Government in Beijing==
{{Main|Beiyang government}}
[[File:Yuan Shikai sworn in as Provisional President - 10 March 1912.jpg|thumb|right|Yuan Shikai swearing in as the Provisional President in Beijing]]
On 10 March 1912, Yuan Shikai was sworn as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China in Beijing.<ref>Fu, Zhengyuan. (1993). ''Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics: Zhengyuan Fu''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5214-4228-2}}. p. 154.</ref> The [[1912 Republic of China National Assembly elections|first National Assembly election]] took place according to the [[Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China|Provisional Constitution]]. While in Beijing, the Kuomintang was formed on 25 August 1912.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hsueh |first=Chun-tu |title=Huang Hsing and the Chinese Revolution |year=1961 |isbn=978-0-8047-0031-3}} Hsueh, Chun-tu. Xue, Jundu. (1961). ''Huang Hsing and the Chinese revolution''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-0031-3}}.</ref> The Nationalists held the majority of seats after the election. [[Song Jiaoren]] was elected as premier. However, Song was assassinated in Shanghai on 20 March 1913 under a secret order by Yuan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fu |first=Zhengyuan |title=Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-521-44228-2 |pages=153–154}}</ref>

==Proposed Han monarchy==
Some advocated that an ethnic Han be installed as Emperor of China, either a descendant of Confucius who held the noble title of the [[Duke Yansheng|Duke of Yansheng]],<ref name="Woodhouse2004">{{Cite book |last=Woodhouse |first=Eiko |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4TfPJpJRV_0C&pg=PA113 |title=The Chinese Hsinhai Revolution: G. E. Morrison and Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1897–1920 |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-1343-5242-5 |pages=113ff}}</ref><ref name="Spence1982">{{Cite book |last=Spence |first=Jonathan D. |author-link=Jonathan Spence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DwgvjqO5ivUC&pg=PP84 |title=The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution |publisher=Penguin |year=1982 |isbn=978-1-1011-7372-5 |page=84 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="HuLiu1983">{{Cite book |last1=Hu |first1=Shêng |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MmwKAQAAIAAJ&q=If+we+want+to+bring+order |title=The 1911 Revolution: A Retrospective After 70 Years |last2=Liu |first2=Danian |publisher=New World |year=1983 |page=55 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyM-AQAAMAAJ&q=The+dificulty+lay |title=The National Review, China |year=1913 |page=200 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzRDAQAAIAAJ&q=That+being+the+case,+the+abdicated+Ch'ing+emperor+or+even+%22+the+Holy+Duke+%22+(Yen-sheng+kung+ft |title=Monumenta Serica |publisher=H. Vetch |year=1967 |page=67 |via=Google Books}}</ref> or a descendant of the [[House of Zhu|Ming imperial family]] who had the title of the [[Marquis of Extended Grace]].<ref name="Kent1912">{{Cite book |last=Kent |first=Percy Horace Braund |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941 |title=The Passing of the Manchus |date=1912 |publisher=E. Arnold |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95941/page/n438 382] ff}}</ref><ref name="Aldrich2008">{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=M.A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMMvxX67FpIC&q=Marquis+of+Extended+Grace&pg=PA176 |title=The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-9-6220-9777-3 |page=176 |via=Google Books}}</ref> The Duke of Yansheng was proposed as a candidate for emperorship by [[Liang Qichao]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |title=Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-6772-6 |edition=Rev. |page=74}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2024}}

The Han hereditary aristocratic nobility, like the Duke of Yansheng, was retained by the new Republic of China, and the title's holders continued to receive their pensions.

A plan backed by foreign bankers was reportedly in place to declare the Duke of Yansheng as Emperor of China if the revolutionaries' republican cause failed.{{sfn|Thomson|2020|page=61]}}

== Legacy ==
=== Social influence ===
{{New Culture Movement|expanded=Background}}
After the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, particularly in Beijing, where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence. Imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled with the Manchu's imperial power.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 October 2011 |title=Sun Yatsen and the 1911 Revolution |url=https://www.chinafile.com/library/sinica-podcast/sun-yat-sen-and-xinhai-revolution |access-date=14 March 2017 |publisher=Sinica}}</ref> Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like ''A Short History of Slaves'' ({{lang|zh|奴才小史}}) and ''The Biographies of Avaricious Officials and Corrupt Personnel'' ({{lang|zh|貪官污吏傳}}) by Laoli ({{lang|zh|老吏}}).{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=266}}<ref name="ckd">{{Cite web |last=Theobald |first=Ulrich |date=28 September 2011 |title=Chinese Literature: Man-Qing yeshi 滿淸野史 |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature//Poetry/manqingyeshi.html |access-date=2011-11-17 |publisher=chinaknowledge.de}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2024}}

During the abdication of the last Emperor, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" ({{lang|zh|滿漢一家}}.{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=266}} People started exploring and debating with themselves on the root cause of their national weakness. The new search of identity was the [[New Culture Movement]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tanner |first=Harold M. |title=China: A History |publisher=Hackett |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60384-204-4 |publication-place=Indianapolis |page=123}}</ref> Manchu culture and [[Manchu language|language]], on the contrary, became virtually extinct by 2007.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lague |first=David |date=16 March 2007 |title=China's Manchu speakers struggle to save language |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/world/asia/16iht-manchu.4935046.html |access-date=2011-11-17 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

Unlike revolutions in the West, the 1911 Revolution did not restructure society. Most participants in the 1911 Revolution were military personnel, traditional  bureaucrats, and local gentries. Those people still held regional power after the 1911 Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the [[standard of living]]. The writer [[Lu Xun]] commented in 1921 during the publishing of ''[[The True Story of Ah Q]]'', ten years after the 1911 Revolution, that basically nothing had changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".{{sfn|Fenby|2008|p=143}} Economic problems were not addressed until the governance of [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] in Taiwan and [[Mao Zedong]] on the mainland.<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Neill |first=Mark |date=4 July 2010 |title=Who is the Father of China? |url=https://www.scmp.com/article/718832/who-father-china |access-date= |website=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref>

The 1911 Revolution mainly got rid of [[feudalism]] ([[fengjian]]) from the late imperial period. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]].<ref name="Yanjia">{{Cite book |last=Yan |first=Jiaqi |title=Toward a Democratic China |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8248-1501-1 |location=Honolulu |pages=189, 251 |translator-last=Hong |translator-first=David S. K. |translator-last2=Mair |translator-first2=Denis C.}}</ref> The effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution caused the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners to be driven into deep poverty. Manchu men were too impoverished to marry, Han men married Manchu women, and the Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and practicing Manchu traditions.{{sfn|Rhoads|2017|p=270}}

===Historical significance===
The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and four thousand years of monarchy.<ref name="xb1" /> Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The 1911 Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. In 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the comrades still need to strive for the future." ({{lang|zh|革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力}}).<ref>陸韻葭. (2006). 上海玩全指南. Travelcom press. {{ISBN|978-9-8671-4313-6}}. p. 49.</ref>

Since the 1920s, both Chinas have seen the 1911 Revolution quite differently.<ref name="scmpr">South China morning post. 29 March 2011. Replacing chairman Mao with Sun Yat-sen.</ref> Both recognize Sun Yat-sen as the [[Father of the Nation]], but in Taiwan, "Father of the Republic of China" is meant. In Mainland China, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a precondition for the communist state that's was founded in 1949. Mainland China views Sun's work as the first step toward the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly-independent state, which expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power. The father of Communist China is seen as [[Mao Zedong]].<ref name="scmpr" /> In 1954, [[Liu Shaoqi]] was quoted as saying that the "1911 Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people."<ref>{{Cite web |title=1911 |url=http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405215327/http://source.takungpao.com/history/history_news_content.asp?news_id=144612 |archive-date=2012-04-05 |access-date=2011-11-17 |publisher=Takungpao.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 2011 |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617143143/http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/151935/230642/230643/15697798.html |archive-date=17 June 2012 |access-date=2011-11-17 |website=People's Daily |language=zh |script-title=zh:劉少奇談辛亥革命（摘要）}}</ref> [[Zhou Enlai]] pointed out that the "1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 4,000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 December 2008 |script-title=zh:王志昆講重慶辛亥革命：為什麼兵不血刃，一次成功_重慶_重慶站_鳳凰網 |url=http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714132042/http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/cq.city.ifeng.com/detail-1_2011_09/24/86579_0.shtml |archive-date=14 July 2012 |access-date=2011-11-17 |publisher=Big5.ifeng.com |language=zh}}</ref>

===Modern evaluation===
A change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally-positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but [[Zhang Shizhao]] was quoted as arguing, "When talking about the 1911 Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Shizhao |publisher=Wenhui chubanshe |year=2000 |isbn=978-7-8053-1543-0 |volume=8 |location=Shanghai |page=341 |language=zh |script-title=zh:章士釗全集 |script-chapter=zh:孫、黃遺劄密詮 |author-mask=Zhang Shizhao (章士釗) |orig-date=1962}}</ref>

The degree of success of democracy gained by the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, for sixty years, the Nationalists controlled all five branches of the government, and none was independent.<ref name="scmpjul4">{{Cite news |last=O'Neill |first=Mark |date=4 July 2010 |title=Who is the Father of China? |work=South China morning post}}</ref> [[Yan Jiaqi]], the founder of the [[Federation for a Democratic China]], has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there that now democratize the region.<ref name="Yanjia" />

Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised in mainland Chinese. For example, the former Chinese Premier [[Wen Jiabao]] once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights, but he led a [[2011 crackdown on dissidents in the People's Republic of China|2011 crackdown]] against the peaceful [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests|Chinese jasmine protests]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pomfret |first=James |date=27 June 2011 |title=China's Wen calls for greater democracy, reforms |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-china-democracy-idUSTRE75Q50S20110627 |access-date=2011-11-17 |work=Reuters}}</ref> Others, such as [[Qin Yongmin]] of the [[Democracy Party of China]], who was imprisoned for twelve years, do not praise the 1911 Revolution.<ref name="geo">{{Cite web |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |url=http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111115817/http://www.geo.tv/10-9-2011/87338.htm |archive-date=11 November 2011 |access-date=2011-11-17 |publisher=GEO.tv}}</ref><ref name="hrichina">{{Cite web |date=29 November 2010 |title=Democracy Activist Qin Yongmin Released from Prison after 12-Year Sentence |url=http://www.hrichina.org/content/4879 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031040822/http://hrichina.org/content/4879 |archive-date=31 October 2011 |access-date=2011-11-17 |publisher=Human Rights in China}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2024}} Qin said that the revolution only replaced one dictator with another and that Mao is not an emperor but worse than the emperor.<ref name="geo" /><ref name="hrichina" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2011 |title=China grapples with revolutionary past, 100 years on |url=http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171019145917/https://thewest.com.au/?r=https://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/lifestyle/a/-/lifestyle/10429558/china-grapples-with-revolutionary-past-100-years-on |archive-date=19 October 2017 |access-date=2011-11-17 |website=[[The West Australian]] |publisher=Yahoo! News}}</ref>

=== Media ===
One of Japan's earliest film companies ([[M. Pathe]], owned by Sun supporter [[Shōkichi Umeya]]) documented the success of the revolution beginning with the Wuchang uprising and leading to Sun's inauguration. It produced three documentary films that covered the revolution.<ref name=":Qian">{{Cite book |last=Qian |first=Ying |title=Revolutionary Becomings: Documentary Media in Twentieth-Century China |year=2024 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-2312-0447-7 |location=New York |page=1}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|China}}
* [[1911 (film)|''1911'' (film)]]
* ''[[The Battle for the Republic of China]]''
* [[Republic of China Armed Forces]]
* [[Republic of China calendar]]
* [[National Revolutionary Army]]
* [[Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions]]
* [[Qiu Jin]]
* [[Monarchy of China]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fenby |first=Jonathan |title=The Penguin History of Modern China |publisher=A. Lane |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7139-9832-0 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gao |first=James Zheng |title=Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949) |publisher=Scarecrow |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8108-4930-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rhoads |first=Edward J. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-2959-9748-3 |series=Studies on Ethnic Groups in China}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wang |first=Ke-wen |title=Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8153-0720-4}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dingle |first=Edwin J. |author-link=Edwin Dingle |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasrevolution00ding |title=China's Revolution: 1911–1912: A Historical and Political Record of the Civil War |publisher=The Commercial Press |year=1912}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kent |first=Percy Horace Braund |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924021495258 |title=The passing of the Manchus |publisher=[[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold]] |year=1912 |location=London}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=Louise |last2=Zhou |first2=Lili |year=2011 |title=Gender and the 'Virtue of Violence': Creating a New Vision of Political Engagement through the 1911 Revolution |journal=[[Frontiers of History in China]] |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=485–504 |doi=10.1007/s11462-011-0138-8 |issn=1673-3401}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Esherick |first=Joseph W. |date=June 2012 |title=Reconsidering 1911: Lessons of a sudden revolution |journal=Journal of Modern Chinese History |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1080/17535654.2012.670511 |issn=1753-5654}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esherick |first=Joseph |url=https://archive.org/details/reformrevolution0000unse |title=Reform and revolution in China: the 1911 revolution in Hunan and Hubei |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-5200-3084-8 |series=Michigan studies on China |location=Berkeley |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Fenby |first=Jonathan |date=October 2011 |title=The Birth of China's Tragedy |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/birth-chinas-tragedy |url-access=registration |magazine=[[History Today]] |pages=29–35 |volume=61 |issue=10}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fung |first=Edmund S. K. |url=https://archive.org/details/militarydimensio0000fung |title=The military dimension of the Chinese revolution: the new army and its role in the revolution of 1911 |publisher=[[University of British Columbia Press]] |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-7748-0129-4 |location=Vancouver}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Goldstein |first1=Melvyn C. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv |title=A history of modern Tibet. Vol. 1: 1913–1951: the demise of the Lamaist state / Melvyn C. Goldstein with the help of Gelek Rimpoche |last2=Rimpoche |first2=Gelek |publisher=University of California Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-5200-7590-0 |volume=1 |location=Berkeley |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hsieh |first=Winston |url=https://archive.org/details/chinesehistoriog0000unse |title=Chinese historiography on the revolution of 1911: a critical survey and a selected bibliography |year=1975 |publisher=[[Hoover Institution Press]] |isbn=978-0-8179-3341-8 |location=Stanford, CA}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Lawrence Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUMsUsv74NcC |title=Homer Lea: American soldier of fortune |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8131-2616-6 |series=American warriors |location=Lexington}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ma |first=L. E. |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionariesm0000male |title=Revolutionaries, monarchists, and Chinatowns: Chinese politics in the Americas and the 1911 revolution |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8248-1239-3 |location=Honolulu}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Mitter |first=Rana |year=2011 |title=1911: The Unanchored Chinese Revolution |journal=[[The China Quarterly]] |volume=208 |pages=1009–1020 |doi=10.1017/S0305741011001123 |issn=0305-7410}}
* {{Cite book |last=Paulès |first=Xavier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGTiEAAAQBAJ |title=The Republic of China: 1912 to 1949 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-5095-5259-7 |translator-last=Lightfoot |translator-first=Lindsay}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rankin |first=Mary Backus |url=https://archive.org/details/eliteactivismpol0000rank |title=Elite activism and political transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8047-1321-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rhoads |first=Edward J. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-2959-8040-9 |series=Studies on ethnic groups in China |location=Seattle}}
* {{Cite book |last=Shan |first=Patrick Fuliang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1JtDwAAQBAJ |title=Yuan Shikai: a reappraisal |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-7748-3778-1 |series=Contemporary Chinese studies |location=Vancouver}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Shinkichi |first1=Eto |title=China's republican revolution |last2=Schiffrin |first2=Harold Z. |publisher=[[University of Tokyo Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-4-1302-7030-4 |editor-last=Etō |editor-first=Shinkichi |editor-last2=Schiffrin |editor-first2=Harold Z.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wright |first=Mary Clabaugh |author-link=Mary C. Wright |url=https://archive.org/details/chinainrevolutio0000unse |title=China in revolution: the first phase 1900–1913 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-3000-1460-0 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Mary Clabaugh |location=New Haven, CT |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Young |first=Ernest P. |title=The presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and dictatorship in early republican China |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-4720-8995-6 |series=Michigan studies on China |location=Ann Arbor}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=George T. |date=October 1991 |title=The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-pdf/31/10/895/72130/2645062.pdf |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |volume=31 |issue=10 |pages=895–904 |doi=10.2307/2645062 |issn=0004-4687 |jstor=2645062}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zheng |first=Xiaowei |title=The politics of rights and the 1911 Revolution in China |date=2018 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-9667-5}} [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Xuduo_Zhao/publication/331888420_Review_of_%27The_Politics_of_Rights_and_the_1911_Revolution_in_China%27/links/5d53219092851c93b62e53f7/Review-of-The-Politics-of-Rights-and-the-1911-Revolution-in-China.pdf Online review].
{{Refend}}

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[[Category:1911 Revolution| ]]
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