View source for 1998 Venezuelan presidential election

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox election
| country = Venezuela (1954)
| type = presidential
| previous_election = 1993 Venezuelan general election
| previous_year = 1993
| next_election = 2000 Venezuelan general election
| next_year = 2000
| election_date = 6 December 1998
| turnout = 63.45%

| image1 = Hugo Chávez en 1998.png
| nominee1 = '''[[Hugo Chávez]]'''
| party1 = [[Fifth Republic Movement|Fifth Republic]]
| popular_vote1 = '''3,673,685'''
| percentage1 = '''56.20%'''

| image2 = Henrique Salas Römer (cropped).png
| nominee2 = [[Henrique Salas Römer]]
| party2 = [[Project Venezuela]]
| popular_vote2 = 2,613,161
| percentage2 = 39.97%

| map_image = Mapa de las elecciones presidenciales de Venezuela de 1998.svg
| map_caption = Results by state

| title = President
| before_election = [[Rafael Caldera]]
| before_party = National Convergence
| after_election = [[Hugo Chávez]]
| after_party = Fifth Republic Movement
}}{{Politics of Venezuela}}

Presidential elections were held in [[Venezuela]] on 6 December 1998. The main candidates were [[Hugo Chávez]], a career military officer who led a [[1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts|coup d'état]] against then-president [[Carlos Andrés Pérez]] in 1992; and former [[Carabobo]] Governor [[Henrique Salas Römer]]. Both candidates represented newly formed parties, a first in a country where the main candidates always represented the parties of the bipartisanship. Chávez represented the [[Fifth Republic Movement]] (MVR), while Salas Römer represented [[Project Venezuela]]. Initially weak in the polls, Chávez ran on an anti-[[political corruption|corruption]] and anti-[[poverty]] platform, condemning the two major parties that had dominated Venezuelan politics since 1958; and began to gain ground in the polls after the previous front runners faded. Despite the fact that the major parties ([[Copei]] and [[Democratic Action (Venezuela)|Democratic Action]]) endorsed Salas Römer, Chávez was elected into his first term as [[President of Venezuela]].

A [[political realignment]], the result meant the end of the bipartisanship that had dominated the political atmosphere of the country in the last 40 years, and the beginning of the dominance of the new MVR party (later merged into the [[United Socialist Party of Venezuela]]) under the [[Bolivarian Revolution]] system that still holds political power in Venezuela as of {{Currentmonth}} {{Currentyear}}.

== Background ==
In the early 1990s the Venezuelan government's economic strength and political legitimacy was declining, with [[1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts|two coup attempts in 1992]] and the impeachment for corruption of President [[Carlos Andrés Pérez]]. The result was a turn against the traditional [[Puntofijo Pact]] parties ([[Democratic Action (Venezuela)|Democratic Action]] and [[Copei]]) in the [[1993 Venezuelan general election|1993 elections]]: [[Rafael Caldera]]'s victory in 1993 was the first time in Venezuela's democratic history that a President had been elected without the support of either of the two major parties.<ref name="McCoy" /> It was symptomatic that Caldera's election platform included pardoning those who had participated in the coup attempts, and he did so in 1994. [[Hugo Chávez]], imprisoned for his role in the February 1992 coup attempt, was among those released.

By 1998 the economic crisis had grown even worse. Per capita GDP was at the same level as 1963, down a third from its 1978 peak; the purchasing power of the average salary was a third of its 1978 level.<ref>Kelly, Janet, and Palma, Pedro (2006), "The Syndrome of Economic Decline and the Quest for Change", in McCoy, Jennifer and Myers, David (eds, 2006), ''The Unraveling of Representative Democracy in Venezuela'', [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]. p. 207</ref> In 1995 real wages were below the levels attained in 1950,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bases cuantitativas de la economía venezolana 1830-1995 {{!}} Fundación Empresas Polar |url=https://bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org/publicaciones/libros/bases-cuantitativas-de-la-econom%25C3%25ADa-venezolana-1830-2002/ |access-date=2025-11-12 |website=bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org}}</ref> and between 1995 and 1998 they had declined by four percent per year. The percentage of households below the poverty line had risen from 20% in 1980/81 to 56% in the 1998–2000 period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Márquez |first=Gustavo |last2=Álvarez |first2=Carola |date=1996-12-01 |title=Poverty and the Labor Market in Venezuela: 1982-1995 |url=https://publications.iadb.org/en/poverty-and-labor-market-venezuela-1982-1995 |journal=IDB Publications |language=English |doi=10.18235/0008782}}</ref> In 1998 40% of the population under the age of 17 was suffering from malnutrition and 76% lived in poverty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1998 Human Rights Report - Venezuela |url=https://1997-2001.state.gov/global/human_rights/1998_hrp_report/venezuel.html |access-date=2025-11-12 |website=United States Department of State}}</ref> According to CENDA data, in the same year 85% of households lived in poverty, including 45% in extreme poverty. For decades, protests, shortages and mismanagement had been occurring more and more frequently, highlighting the progressive economic deterioration of the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pérez |first=Cécil Gerardo |date=2017-05-24 |title=¿Éramos felices y no lo sabíamos? |url=https://www.aporrea.org/actualidad/a246612.html |access-date=2025-11-12 |website=Aporrea |language=es}}</ref>

=== Chávez's participation ===
For a number of years after his 1994 release from prison, Chávez maintained a position against participation in elections, believing them a fixed game which merely legitimated the established order.<ref name="Jones202" /> This led to a split with his colleague [[Francisco Arias Cárdenas]], who left the [[MBR-200]].<ref name="Jones202">Jones (2008:202-4)</ref> In the early years after his release, Chávez considered the possibility of another coup attempt, but with the prospects appearing slim, some advisers, notably [[Luis Miquilena]], urged him to reconsider his scepticism of the elections, arguing that Chávez could potentially win so convincingly that the establishment would not be able to deny him victory.<ref name="Jones202" /> To find out whether this was the case, Chávez set up teams of psychologists, sociologists, university professors and students to carry out a survey. With their support, grassroots members of the Bolivarian movement polled tens of thousands of people across the country. The results showed that 70% of respondents supported Chávez running for the presidency – and 57% said they would vote for him.<ref name="Jones202" /> Support for the electoral route was strengthened when Arias Cárdenas, as a candidate for [[Radical Cause]], won the Governorship of [[Zulia]] State in the [[1995 Venezuelan regional elections|December 1995 regional elections]].<ref name="Jones202" /> Despite this, the MBR-200 remained divided over electoral participation, and spent a year debating the issue in local, regional and national assemblies. A national congress on 19 April 1997 took from 9 am until 2 am the next day to reach a conclusion, ultimately deciding to launch Chávez' candidacy. Some members of the movement resigned in protest, holding too much at stake.<ref name="Jones202" /> In July 1997 Chávez registered the new [[Fifth Republic Movement]] with the National Electoral Council (the name had to be changed as Venezuelan law did not permit parties to use [[Simón Bolívar]]'s name).<ref name="Jones202" /> The international media took little interest, citing opinion polls showing 8% support for Chávez.<ref name="Jones202" />

==Electoral process==
The 1998 elections were the first to be carried out with a non-partisan [[National Electoral Council (Venezuela)|National Electoral Council]].<ref name="McCoy99" /> Traditionally poll workers had been provided by the parties, but in this election "a lottery was set up to draft 300,000 registered voters as poll workers".<ref name="McCoy99" /> The elections also saw "the world's first automated voting system, which featured a single integrated electronic network that was supposed to transmit the results from the polling stations to central headquarters within minutes."<ref name="McCoy99" /> Whilst Venezuela had traditionally provided election observers to other Latin American countries, the uncertainty of the new system and the possibility of handover to a non-traditional party raised the stakes in terms of demonstrating that the elections would be fair, and Venezuela invited international election observers for the first time.<ref name="McCoy99" /> The [[Organization of American States]], [[European Union]], [[Carter Center]] and [[International Republican Institute]] all sent delegations.<ref name="McCoy99" />

The automated vote system enabled the Electoral Council to announce the results within 2.5 hours of the polls closing.<ref name="McCoy99" /> After corroborating the results with the Carter Center, the losing candidate conceded several hours later.<ref name="McCoy99" />

==Campaign==
The campaign was dominated by independent candidates, as the electorate completed the turn against the establishment parties begun in 1993. In the final poll of the year in December 1997 [[Irene Sáez]], a former beauty queen ([[Miss Universe]] 1981<ref>''[[St. Petersburg Times]]'', 21 July 1981, "[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=8vMNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NHsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5862,5134717 Miss Venezuela Chosen World's Most Beautiful]", p3A</ref>) and mayor of the [[Caracas]] district of [[Chacao Municipality|Chacao]], reached almost 70% as an independent candidate.<ref name="McCoy">McCoy, Jennifer (2006), "From Representative to Participatory Democracy?", in McCoy, Jennifer and Myers, David (eds, 2006), ''The Unraveling of Representative Democracy in Venezuela'', [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]. p. 276</ref> However, despite spending millions of dollars on publicity, she fell below 15% within six months, as the public became increasingly sceptical of her readiness for the presidency, and as she lost credibility as an anti-establishment candidate after accepting the endorsement of COPEI.<ref name="McCoy" /> The other early leading candidate, the former Democratic Action leader [[Claudio Fermín]], reached 35% in December 1997, but fell to 6% by April 1998.<ref name="McCoy99">McCoy, Jennifer (1999), "Chavez and the End of "Partyarchy" in Venezuela", ''Journal of Democracy'', 10(3), pp. 64–77</ref>

During 1998, it then became increasingly clear that the campaign was a race between Salas Römer and Chávez. Salas Römer, the governor of [[Carabobo]] and leader of the new Project Venezuela party, appeared a credible candidate as Sáez lost ground,<ref name="McCoy" /> and reached 21% in the polls in August 1998.<ref name="McCoy99" /> However at the same time, Chávez's own campaign gained ground as he established himself with the electorate. From around 5% in September 1997 to over 10% in late February 1998,<ref name="Jones">Jones, Bart (2008), ''Hugo! The Hugo Chavez Story from Mud Hut to Perpetual Revolution'', London: [[The Bodley Head]], p. 215</ref> Chávez registered 30% in polls taken in May 1998; by August he was registering 39%.{{ref|carter1}}

The Chávez platform comprised three basic pledges.{{ref|va3}} First to begin his presidency by abolishing Venezuela's old ''[[puntofijismo]]'' political system of two-party [[patronage]], and opening up political power to independent and third parties. Second, to end corruption. Third, to eradicate poverty in Venezuela. In working to gain the trust of voters, Chávez drafted an agenda that drew heavily on his interpretation of [[Bolivarianism]].<ref name="Guillermo">{{cite journal |last=Guillermo Prieto|first=Alma |date=6 October 2005 |title=Don't Cry for Me, Venezuela |journal=New York Review of Books |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/18302}}</ref>{{ref|va3}} Chávez also utilized his [[charismatic authority|charisma]] and flamboyant public speaking style—noted for its abundance of [[colloquialism]]s and [[ribaldry|ribald]] manner—on the campaign trail to help win the trust and favor of a primarily poor and [[working class]] following.<ref name="Guillermo"/><ref name="McCoy_Trinkunas_1999_49">{{harvnb|McCoy|Trinkunas|1999|p=49}}.</ref> On one occasion, he threatened to "fry" the heads of his opponents.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/venezuela/article222712665.html |title=Coup Leader Elected President |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=6 December 1998 |website=[[Miami Herald]] |language=en |access-date=10 December 2018}}</ref>

The two traditional main parties hoped that 8 November [[1998 Venezuelan parliamentary election|parliamentary]] and [[1998 Venezuelan regional election|regional elections]] would give them a boost, a month ahead of 8 December presidential elections, but the poll remained a two-horse race.<ref name="McCoy99" /> At this point polls generally showed Chávez with a 6–12-point lead over Salas Römer's approximately 38% poll numbers, though in some polls he exceeded that margin.<ref name="McCoy99" /> Both COPEI and Democratic Action now sought to endorse Salas Römer (he was reluctant to accept). COPEI persuaded its candidate (Sáez) to resign, but Democratic Action's candidate, Alfaro Ucero, refused to do so, triggering an electoral crisis as the National Electoral Council had to rule on whether the Democratic Action ballot slot belonged to the party or the candidate.<ref name="McCoy99" /> Salas Römer agreed to accept the endorsement of COPEI and Democratic Action regional and local parties, and sought to maintain a distance to the parties' national leadership.<ref name="McCoy99" /> In the end, it was not enough, and Chávez won a substantial majority, and won 17 of 23 states.<ref name="McCoy99" />

==Results==
[[File:Logo MVR.jpg|thumb|right|Mural of [[Fifth Republic Movement]] (MVR) logo]]

{{Election results
|cand1=[[Hugo Chávez]]|party1=[[Fifth Republic Movement]]|votes1=3673685
|cand2=[[Henrique Salas Römer]]|party2=[[Project Venezuela]]|votes2=2613161
|cand3=[[Irene Sáez]]|party3=[[Integration, Representation and New Hope]]|votes3=184568
|cand4={{ill|Luis Alfaro Ucero|es}}|party4=[[Authentic Renewal Organization]]|votes4=27586
|cand5={{ill|Miguel Rodríguez Fandeo|es}}|party5={{ill|Opening for National Participation|es|Movimiento Apertura (Venezuela)}}|votes5=19629
|cand6={{ill|Alfredo Ramos (politician)|es|Alfredo Ramos|lt=Alfredo Ramos}}|party6=[[Radical Cause]]|votes6=7275
|cand7={{ill|Radamés Muñoz León|es}}|party7=New Way|votes7=2919
|cand8=Oswaldo Sujú Raffo|party8=Sovereign Front|votes8=2901
|cand9=[[Alejandro Peña Esclusa]]|party9=Venezuelan Labour Party|votes9=2424
|cand10=Domenico Tanzi|party10=Complementary Participation|votes10=1900
|cand11={{ill|Ignacio Quintana (politician)|lt=Ignacio Quintana|es|Ignacio Quintana}}|party11={{ill|National Opinion|es|Opinión Nacional}}|votes11=1256
|invalid=450987
|electorate=11013020
|source=[http://www.cne.gob.ve/web/documentos/estadisticas/e006.pdf  CNE]
}}

==Reactions==
===Domestic===
Following his victory, Chávez promised that he would not devalue the [[Bolivar (currency)|bolivar]] and that [[currency controls]] would not be created.<ref name=":0" /> Salas Römer reacted to the results stating "I not only accept the victory of my adversary but wish him luck, lots of luck, because his luck will be that of Venezuela".<ref name=":0" /> Some [[Chavismo|Chávez supporters]] reacted to his election by saying that they would accept an [[authoritarian]] government under Chávez if he decided to utilize such form of government.<ref name=":0" />

===International===
The [[United States]] reacted cautiously, with American Ambassador [[John Maisto]] stating that "With respect to what we know about Mr. Chavez's platform, we will have to see what his policies are, in fact, and see whom he will appoint to key positions".<ref name=":0" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite report |last1=Trinkunas |first1=Harold |last2=McCoy |first2=Jennifer |title=Observation of the 1998 Venezuelan Elections |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/1151.pdf |website=The Carter Center |access-date=8 January 2021 |location=Atlanta, GA |page=[http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/1151.pdf#page=50 49] |date=February 1999 |language=en |ref={{harvid|McCoy|Trinkunas|1999}}}}

{{Rafael Caldera}}
{{Topics related to Hugo Chávez}}
{{Venezuelan elections}}

[[Category:Presidential elections in Venezuela]]
[[Category:1998 elections in South America|Venezuela]]
[[Category:1998 in Venezuela|Presidential]]
[[Category:Hugo Chávez]]
[[Category:Bolivarian Revolution]]
[[Category:December 1998 in South America|Venezuela]]