View source for 8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41

{{short description|German anti-aircraft gun}}
{{use mdy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2014}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2013}}
{{Infobox weapon
| name               = 8.8 cm Flak 18-36
| image              = Flak18-36(cropped).png
| image_size         = 300
| caption            = 8.8 cm Flak 36 with Flak Rohr 18 barrel at the [[Imperial War Museum]] in London
| origin             = [[Nazi Germany]]
| type               = [[Anti-aircraft warfare|Anti-aircraft gun]]
<!-- Type selection -->| is_ranged          = yes
| is_artillery       = yes
<!-- Service history -->| service            = 1936–1945 (Nazi Germany)
| used_by            = 
| wars               = {{plainlist|
*[[Spanish Civil War]]
*[[Second Sino-Japanese War]]
*[[World War II]]
*[[Vietnam War]]<ref name="auto"/>}}

<!-- Production history -->| designer           = Krupp
| design_date        = 1928
| manufacturer       = [[Krupp]], [[Rheinmetall]]
| unit_cost          = {{Reichsmark|33,600|link=yes}}<ref name="lexikon-der-wehrmacht">{{Cite web |url=http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Waffen/flugabwehrwaffen.htm |title=Fugabwehrwaffen |trans-title=Anti-aircraft weapons |website=Lexikon der Wehrmacht |language=de |access-date=May 6, 2020}}</ref>
| production_date    = 1933–1945
| number             = 21,310<ref name="lexikon-der-wehrmacht"/>
| variants           = <!-- General specifications -->
| spec_label         = Flak 36<ref name=ls>{{cite book |url=http://www.lonesentry.com/manuals/88mm-antiaircraft-gun/ |title=TM E9-369A: German 88-mm Antiaircraft Gun Materiel – Technical Manual |publisher=U.S. War Department |date=June 29, 1943 |via=Lone Sentry |access-date=23 December 2014}}</ref>
| weight             = {{cvt|7,407|kg|lb}} in mounted position
| length             = {{convert|5.791|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}
| part_length        = {{convert|4.938|m|ftin|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} ([[Caliber (artillery)|56 calibers]])
| width              = {{convert|2.3|m|ftin|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}<ref name=":0" />
| height             = {{convert|2.10|m|ftin|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} (firing)
| diameter           = 
| crew               = 10<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Jane's Pocket Book of Towed Artillery |last=Foss |first=Christopher |date=1977 |publisher=Collier |page=49 |isbn=0-02-080600-0 |location=New York |oclc=911907988}}</ref>

<!-- Ranged weapon specifications -->| cartridge          = [[Glossary of British ordnance terms#Fixed QF|Fixed QF]] 88×571mmR<ref name=":0" />
| caliber            = 88&nbsp;mm (3.46&nbsp;in)
| barrels            = One, 32 grooves with right-hand increasing twist from 1/45 to 1/30
| action             = 
| rate               = 15–20&nbsp;rpm
| velocity           = 840&nbsp;m/s (2,690&nbsp;ft/s)
| range              = {{plainlist|
*{{cvt|14,860|m|yd}} ground target
*{{cvt|8,000|m|ft}} effective ceiling}}
| max_range          = {{cvt|9,900|m|ft}} maximum ceiling
| feed               = 
| sights             = ZF.20
<!-- Artillery specifications -->| breech             = [[Rifled breech loader#History|Horizontal semi-automatic sliding block]]
| recoil             = [[Hydraulic recoil mechanism|Hydro-pneumatic]]<ref name=":0" />
| carriage           = ''Sonderanhänger'' 201 (Flak 18) and ''Sonderanhänger'' 202 (Flak 36, 37, 41)
| elevation          = −3° to +85°
| traverse           = 360°
}}

The '''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 18/36/37/41''' is a German 88{{nbs}}mm [[anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft]] and [[Anti-tank warfare|anti-tank]] [[artillery]] gun, developed in the 1930s. It was widely used by [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] throughout [[World War II]] and is one of the most recognized German weapons of the conflict. The gun was universally known as the ''Acht-acht'' ("eight-eight") by the Germans and the "eighty-eight" by the Allies.{{refn|The Allied slang for anti-aircraft fire, ''ack-ack'', does not come from the ''Acht-acht'', but is [[World War I]] [[Allied military phonetic spelling alphabets#British Army radiotelephony spelling alphabet|signalers' phonetic spelling of letters "AA"]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://diki.cwahi.net/greatwarslang.htm |title=A Dictionary of Great War Slang |first=Paul |last=Hinckley |website=Old Contemptible's Great War Website |access-date=23 December 2014|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720220235/http://diki.cwahi.net/greatwarslang.htm |archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref>|group=N}} Due to its lethality, especially as a tank killer,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/196233/flak-36-88mm-multipurpose-gun/ |title=Flak 36 88mm Multipurpose Gun |publisher=[[National Museum of the United States Air Force]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/visit/exhibitions/striking/weapons/flak |title=Striking by Night - 88-millimetre Flak gun |publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]]}}</ref> the eighty-eight was greatly feared by Allied soldiers.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.historynet.com/weapon-gis-hated-worst/ |title=The Weapon GIs Hated Worst |last=Corum |first=James S. |authorlink=James Corum |magazine=World War II Magazine |date=November 2007}}</ref>

Development of the original model led to a wide variety of guns.<ref>https://plane-encyclopedia.com/ww2/8-8-cm-flak-18-36-37/, retrieved 8/12/2022</ref> The name of the gun applies to a series of related guns, the first one officially called the '''''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 18''''', the improved '''''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 36''''', and later the '''''8.8{{nbs}}cm Flak 37'''''.{{refn|In German, the comma is used as the decimal separator, hence official punctuation was actually "8<!-- don't convert per WP:V  -->,<!-- don't convert per WP:V -->8 cm" and not "8.8 cm". The spoken version was ''Acht-komma-acht Zentimeter''.|group=N|name=comma}} Flak is a contraction of German ''Flugabwehrkanone'' (also referred to as ''Fliegerabwehrkanone'')<ref>{{cite book |title=Die deutsche Sprache als Spiegel deutscher Kultur |trans-title=The German language as a mirror of German culture |language=de |year=1923 |publisher=Frommannsche Buchhandlung |first=W. |last=Biedermann |page=38 |quote=Flak (Flugzeugabwehrkanone)}}</ref>{{refn|Also many sources say ''Flak'' is a contraction of ''Flugabwehrkanone''<ref>{{cite book |title=Oberkommando des Heeres H.Dv.481/541 – Merkblatt für die Munition der 8<!-- at least don't falsify the source title -->,<!-- just don't -->8 cm Flugabwehrkanone 18 (8,8&nbsp;cm Flak 18) und der 8,8&nbsp;cm Flugabwehrkanone 36 (8,8&nbsp;cm Flak 36) |location=Berlin |publisher=Oberkommando des Heeres |date=1942}}</ref> or ''Fliegerabwehrkanone'' or ''Flugzeug-Abwehr-Kanone''.<ref>Wilhelm Oppermann, 1928.</ref> In all cases, including the latter, the letter "k" in "Flak" was not capitalized, as it did not signify an abbreviation of the German word ''Kanone''.|group=N}} meaning "aircraft-defense cannon", the original purpose of the weapon. In English, "[[flak]]" became a generic term for ground anti-aircraft fire. [[Air defense]] units were usually deployed with either a Kommandogerät ("command device") fire control computer or a portable [[Würzburg radar]], which were responsible for its high level of accuracy against aircraft.

The versatile carriage allowed the 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak to be fired in a limited anti-tank mode when still on its wheels;<ref name=ls /> it could be completely emplaced in only two and a half minutes.<ref name=ls /> Its successful use as an improvised [[anti-tank gun]] led to the development of a tank gun based upon it: the [[8.8 cm KwK 36]], with the "KwK" abbreviation standing for ''Kampfwagen-Kanone'' (literally "battle vehicle cannon", or "fighting vehicle cannon"), meant to be placed in a [[Gun turret#Combat vehicles|gun turret]] as the tank's primary armament. This gun served as the main armament of the [[Tiger I]] heavy tank.

In addition to these [[Krupp]] designs, [[Rheinmetall]] later created a more powerful anti-aircraft gun, the '''''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 41''''',<ref group=N name=comma /> which was produced in relatively small numbers. Krupp responded with another prototype of the long-barreled 8.8&nbsp;cm gun, which was further developed into the anti-tank and [[tank destroyer]] [[8.8 cm PaK 43]] gun used for the [[Elefant]] and [[Jagdpanther]], and turret-mounted [[8.8 cm KwK 43]] [[heavy tank]] gun of the [[Tiger II]].

== Development history ==
=== Background ===
[[File:88 Flak 16 3397921.jpg|thumb|left|World War I British Empire troops with a captured, German [[8.8 cm Flak 16]] anti-aircraft cannon, August 1918]]
{{Main|8.8 cm Flak 16}}
Initially, anti-aircraft artillery guns of [[World War I]] were adaptations of existing medium-[[Caliber (artillery)|caliber]] weapons, mounted to allow fire at higher angles. By 1915, the German command realized that these were useless for anything beyond deterrence, even against the vulnerable balloons and slow-moving aircraft of the period.<ref name=w>{{cite book |last=Westermann |first=Edward B. |title=Flak: German Anti-aircraft Defenses 1914–1945 |year=2005–2009 |orig-year=2001 |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |pages=19, 36–38, 44, 53, 58, 83, 90, 108, 128–129 |isbn=978-0-7006-1420-2 |series=Modern War Studies}}</ref> With the increase of aircraft performance, many armies developed dedicated AA guns with a high [[muzzle velocity]] – allowing the projectiles to reach greater altitudes. It was this muzzle velocity, combined with a projectile of high weight, that made the 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak one of the great [[List of anti-tank guns|World War II anti-tank guns]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.achtungpanzer.com/88mm-flak-series-flugabwehrkanone.htm |title=88mm Flak Series – Flugabwehrkanone |website=AchtungPanzer.com |access-date=23 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217005314/http://www.achtungpanzer.com/88mm-flak-series-flugabwehrkanone.htm |archive-date=17 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The first such German gun was introduced in 1917, using the 8.8&nbsp;cm caliber common in the ''[[Imperial German Navy|Kaiserliche Marine]]'' (navy).<ref name=w />

After losing the war, Germany had been forbidden under the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] from procuring new weapons of most types. Nevertheless, the Krupp company started the development of a new gun together with [[Bofors]] of Sweden. Krupp had the  majority ownership in [[Bofors]] since 1921. The original design was a [[Bofors_75_mm_Model_1929|75&nbsp;mm model 1929]].<ref name=w /> During the prototype phase, the army asked for a gun with considerably greater capability. The designers started again, using 88&nbsp;mm caliber.

Prototype 88s were first produced in 1928. This early model, the Flak 18, used a single-piece barrel with a length of 56 [[Caliber (artillery)|calibers]], leading to the commonly seen designation L/56.

=== First generation: Flak 18, 36 and 37 {{anchor|FlaK 18, 36 and 37}} ===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-724-0135-16, Flak-Stellung in Russland.jpg|thumb|right|8.8cm Flak 36 being emplaced, with both bogies already detached]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-635-3999-24, Deutschland, Flak-Batterie in Feuerstellung.jpg|thumb|right|German 88 mm flak gun in action against Allied bombers]]
The '''Flak 18''' was mounted on a cruciform gun carriage. A simple-to-operate "semi-automatic" loading system ejected fired shells, allowing it to be reloaded by simply inserting a new shell into a tray. The gun would then fire and recoil; during the return stroke, the empty case would be thrown backward by levers, after which a cam would engage and recock the gun. This resulted in firing rates of 15 to 20 rounds a minute, which was better than similar weapons of the era.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5EeCgAAQBAJ&dq=flak+18+firing+rate&pg=PA209 |title=Instruments of War: Weapons and Technologies That Have Changed History: Weapons and Technologies That Have Changed History |date=2015-07-28 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-3655-8 |language=en}}</ref> [[Shell (projectile)#High-explosive anti-tank|High explosive]] ammunition was used against aircraft and personnel, and [[Shell (projectile)#Armor-piercing shells|armour-piercing]] and [[high-explosive anti-tank]] against tanks and other armored vehicles.

Widespread production started with the [[Nazism|Nazi]] rise to power in 1933, and the Flak 18 was available in small numbers when Germany intervened in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. It quickly proved to be the best anti-aircraft weapon then available.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Skaarup |first=Harold A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcidHt4zzDgC&dq=flak+18+firing+rate+best+anti-aircraft+weapon+then+available&pg=PA161 |title="Ironsides": Canadian Armoured Fighting Vehicle Museums and Monuments |date=2011-08-12 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4620-3465-9 |language=en}}</ref> The flak detachment with 88s proved accurate and versatile in combat against mainly land targets, the high muzzle velocity and large caliber making it an excellent long-range anti-vehicle and anti-bunker weapon. This experience also demonstrated a number of minor problems and potential improvement opportunities.

The Flak 18's carriage allowed it to fire in an emergency when still on its wheels and without its [[outriggers]], but with a very limited traverse and elevation.<ref name=ls /> For normal emplacement, one single-[[axle]] [[bogie]] was detached from the front outrigger and one from the rear, side outriggers were then hinged from the vertical position to the ground; the total time to set up was estimated at two and a half minutes.<ref name=ls /> Both modes of operation made the gun much more suitable for fast-moving operations, the basic concept of the ''[[blitzkrieg]]''. The weight of the gun meant that only large vehicles could move it, the [[Sd.Kfz. 7]] [[half-track]] becoming a common [[artillery tractor|prime mover]].

Targeting indicators were attached to the central controller to each of the four guns of a battery, allowing for coordinated fire. Indeed, with the automatic loading system, the gun layer's job was to keep the gun barrel trained on the target area based on the signals from the controller. The loaders would keep the weapon fed with live ammunition which would fire immediately upon insertion – all while the gun layer aimed the weapon according to the data.

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-783-0109-19, Nordafrika, Zugkraftwagen mit Flak (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|North Africa, 8.8cm Flak 18 towed behind a [[Sd.Kfz. 7]], with its side outriggers lifted for transport visible behind the gun shield]]

Many of these improvements were incorporated into the '''Flak 36''', the main difference being the introduction of a new cruciform carriage, the Lafette 36. This differed from the earlier Lafette 18 in that it was a symmetrical design and used with the SdAnh 202 bogies, each with four wheels.  The Lafette 18 used the SdAnh 201 bogies which had two wheels for the forward bogie and four for the rear bogie. About this same time, the barrel was changed to the two-piece Flakrohr 36 for easier replacement of worn liners. Flak 36s were often fitted with an [[gun shield|armoured shield]] that provided limited protection for the gunners. These shields could be retro-fitted onto older Flak 18s as well.

The later model was the '''Flak 37''', which included updated instrumentation to allow the gun layers to follow directions from the single director more easily. In some sources it is mistakenly stated that the Flak 37 was not equipped for anti-armor operation. In fact all 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak guns were capable of operation in the dual role.<ref name="track-link.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.track-link.com/articles/1203 |title=Mistakes and Myths in German 8.8cm Flak Identification |first=Roy |last=Chow |date=February 6, 2012 |website=Track-link.com |access-date=8 October 2014}}</ref>

The parts of the various versions of the guns were interchangeable, and it was not uncommon for various parts to be "mixed and matched" on a particular example.

Both Flak 18 and Flak 36 had the same permanently attached fuze setter with two "Zünderstellbecher". The Flak 37/41 had the simplified fuze setter of the 8.8 cm Flak 41.

=== Second generation: Flak 41 {{anchor|FlaK 41}} ===
[[File:8.8 cm Flak 41 1.jpg|thumb|right|8.8 cm Flak 41 at [[United States Army Ordnance Museum|US Army Ordnance Museum]]]]

As early as 1939 the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' asked for newer weapons with even better performance, to address the problems of defending against attack by high-flying aircraft. Rheinmetall responded with a new 88&nbsp;mm design with a longer cartridge and a longer barrel.<ref name=norris>{{cite book |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zAnFlaDTfdEC&pg=PA15 |title=88 Mm FlaK 18/36/37/41 & PaK 43, 1936–1945: 1936–45 |isbn=978-1-84176-341-5 |last1=Norris |first1=John |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |date=2002-01-01}}</ref>

A prototype was ready in early 1941<ref name=norris /> leading to the designation '''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 41'''. The new gun fired a {{convert|9.4|kg|lb|sigfig=1|adj=on}} shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,000&nbsp;m/s (3,280&nbsp;ft/s), giving it an effective ceiling of {{convert|11300|m|ft|sp=us}} and a maximum of {{convert|14700|m|ft|sp=us}}, which [[General der Flakartillerie]] Otto Wilhelm von Renz said to be "almost equal to the [[12.8 cm FlaK 40|128-mm]]."<ref name=w /> It featured a lower silhouette on its turntable mounting than did the 8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37 on its [[pedestal]] mounting. The barrel was at first a three-section one with a length of 74 calibers, and then redesigned to dual-section with a length of 72 calibers.<ref name=norris /> Improvements in reloading raised the firing rate, with 20 to 25 rounds a minute being quoted.<ref name=w />

{{cn span |text=Its combat debut was in North Africa where the first fifty were quickly introduced. Due to the harsh environment and teething problems with the new weapons system, they faced many problems.|date=March 2025}}  Later, the guns were almost exclusively used in Germany where they could be properly maintained and serviced. The Flak 41 had the disadvantage of complexity, and was prone to problems with ammunition, empty cases often jamming on extraction. Because of the high cost and complexity of this weapon, the Germans manufactured relatively few of them, 556 in all. The first deliveries were made in early 1943<ref name=norris /> and, as of August 1944, only 157 were fielded; with 318 in January 1945.<ref name=Gander />

[[File:Flak (1944).webm|thumb|''"Flak"'' (1944) de-classified official U.S. War-Department training film reel.]]
Given very low production numbers and ongoing problems with the Flak 41, attempts were made to install the Flak 41 barrel onto other guns' chassis. During 1942 tests were made using the Flak 41 barrel and Flak 37 chassis but these identified that the chassis could not take the strain even when strengthened. Work then continued using a Flak 37 barrel re-chambered for the Flak 41 round and with a [[muzzle brake]].  After other parts were strengthened this functioned as desired. The resulting piece was 74 calibers long (78 with the muzzle brake). Problems with the multi-part barrel construction of the Flak 37 were encountered and a new barrel based on the monoblock construction of the Flak 18 was designed. Production was cancelled after approximately only 13 units were built as the resources required to build these were similar to those needed to produce a true Flak 41 and those were simply no longer available at the time.<ref name=Gander />

A further attempt was made to use a Flak 41 barrel on an existing mount from the [[10.5 cm FlaK 38|10.5 cm FlaK 39]]. The resulting unit outperformed the 105&nbsp;mm original and was called the 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 39/41. However, production did not take place as no Flak 41 barrels were available.<ref name= Gander>{{cite book |last1=Gander |first1=Terry |title=German 88 |publisher=Sword and Pen |isbn=978-1-84884-832-0 |date=2012-07-19}}</ref>   
{{Clear}}

== Production history ==
Thousands of 88&nbsp;mm guns were produced throughout the war in various models and mounts.

{|class="wikitable" width=75% style="text-align:right;"
|+ Heavy flak production numbers
! || pre-war || 1939 || 1940 || 1941 || 1942 || 1943 || 1944 || 1945 || Total
|-
! 8.8&nbsp;cm<br/>Flak 18/36/37<br/><ref name="lexikon-der-wehrmacht" /><ref name=sv>{{Cite web |title=German Weapon and Ammunition Production |url=http://orbat.com/site/sturmvogel/GermWeapProd.html |website=Orbat.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614075846/http://orbat.com/site/sturmvogel/GermWeapProd.html |archive-date=2011-06-14}}</ref>
| 2,459 || 183 || 1,130 || 1,998 || 3,052 || 4,712 || 6,482 || 738 || '''20,754'''
|-
! 8.8&nbsp;cm<br/>Flak 41<ref name=w />
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 48 || 122 || 290 || 96? || '''556'''
|-
! [[10.5 cm FlaK 38|10.5 cm<br/>Flak 38/39]]<ref name=sv />
| ? || 38 || 290 || 509 || 701 || 1,220<ref name=w /> || 1,331<ref name=w /> || 92 || more than '''4,181'''
|-
! [[12.8 cm Flak 40]]<br/>(including<br/>Flakzwilling&nbsp;40/2)<br/><ref name=w /><ref name=sv />
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 65 || 298 || 664 || 98 || '''1,125'''
|}

Compared to other artillery types, German industry built for example, 570 heavy (caliber 88–128&nbsp;mm) flak guns, 1,020 field artillery pieces (caliber 75–210&nbsp;mm), and 1,300 tank guns, anti-tank guns, plus self-propelled guns in December 1943.

== Combat history ==
{{quote|[American troops] knew that the greatest single weapon of the war, the [[Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bomb]] excepted, was the German 88&nbsp;mm flat-trajectory gun, which brought down thousands of bombers and tens of thousands of soldiers. The Allies had nothing as good, despite one of them designating itself the world's greatest industrial power.|[[Paul Fussell]], 1989<ref name="fussell198908">{{Cite magazine |last=Fussell |first=Paul |date=August 1989 |title=The Real War 1939-1945 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1989/08/the-real-war-1939-1945/306374/ |magazine=The Atlantic |language=en-US |access-date=2019-07-10}}</ref><ref name="fussell1989">{{Cite book |title=Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War |last=Fussell |first=Paul |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-19-503797-9 |pages=267–268 |lccn=89002875 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/wartimeunderstan00paul/page/267}}</ref>}}

=== German use ===
The 88&nbsp;mm was used in two main roles: as a mobile heavy anti-aircraft and as an anti-tank gun.  Other uses included firing in support of the troops at the front and as a more static anti-aircraft gun for [[Defence of the Reich|home defence]].

==== Anti-aircraft defense of the Reich ====
[[File:Kommandogerat 40 director helsinki 2.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Kommandogerät 40]]'', the rangefinder and mechanical analog computer for directing anti-aircraft guns, Manege Military Museum, Helsinki, Finland (2006)
]]{{See also|Defence of the Reich}}
After 1935, the anti-aircraft defense of Germany was controlled by the ''[[Luftwaffe]]''.<ref name=w /> By the beginning of [[World War II]] the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s anti-aircraft artillery employed 6,700 light (2&nbsp;cm and 3.7&nbsp;cm) and 2,628 heavy flak guns. Of the latter, a small number were [[10.5 cm FlaK 38|10.5 cm Flak 38s or 39s]], the majority were 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 18s, 36s or 37s.<ref name=w /> This was twice as many heavy AA guns as RAF Fighter Command had at the time, with France and the United States having even fewer.<ref name=w /><!-- It would be useful to compare the number of heavy guns employed for AA defence by Allied and Axis. During Blitz, during Barbarossa, etc? -->

Throughout the entire war, the majority of 88&nbsp;mm guns were used in their original anti-aircraft role.<ref name=w />

The guns were usually equipped with a ''Kommandogerät'' system, which was an analog gunnery computer. The ''Kommandogerät'' systems were introduced starting in 1925, and the ''Kommandogerät'' p40 was the standard system during the majority of the war. It allowed extremely precise fire, and would even take into account how far away the guns were from one another and the aiming crew, cancelling out the offset and aiming all weapons at the same point. This allowed multiple guns to be aimed precisely at the same target by a single command crew of five men, instead of requiring trained crews on each gun.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nijboer |first=Donald |date=2019 |title=German Flak Defences vs Allied Heavy Bombers: 1942–45 |location=New York City |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-47283-671-7}}</ref>

Radar aiming systems were also developed to complement these systems. The [[Würzburg radar]] series of radars was produced in the thousands and used widely. It allowed general area fire without line of sight, but had poor accuracy compared to the visual systems. This resulted in the Giant Würzburg, which had sufficient accuracy to precisely control guns without direct visual contact.

The financial costs associated with anti-aircraft cannon were substantial, especially when compared with [[fighter aircraft]].<ref name=w /> For example, in January 1943 – at a time when Germany was desperately fighting to [[Battle of Stalingrad|regain the strategic initiative]] in the East and was also facing a heavy bombing campaign in the West – expenditures on anti-aircraft defenses were {{Reichsmark|39 million|link=yes}}, whereas all the remaining weapons and munitions production amounted to {{Reichsmark|93 million}} (including {{Reichsmark|20 million}} of the navy budget and only nine million of the aircraft-related budget).<ref name=w />

By August 1944, there were 10,704 Flak 18, 36 and 37 guns in service, now complemented also by the 10.5&nbsp;cm Flak 38 and 39, and the formidable [[12.8 cm Flak 40]], owing to the increase in US and British bombing raids during 1943 and 1944.

==== Support of ground troops ====
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B21685, Russland, Flak bei Panzerabwehr.jpg|thumb|An 88&nbsp;mm gun in a [[direct fire]] role, USSR, 1942]]
The 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak performed well in its original role of an anti-aircraft gun and it proved to be a superb anti-tank gun as well.{{r|fussell198908}} An American tanker who survived losing three tanks wrote to [[Detroit Tank Arsenal|Chrysler]] after [[V-E Day]] that "an 88 sure makes quick work of them. They go through them just like they were a piece of paper".<ref name="stout1946">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/tanmightyfi00stou/page/n129 |title=Tanks are Mighty Fine Things |last=Stout |first=Wesley W. |publisher=Chrysler Corporation |year=1946 |pages=117 |access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref> Its success was due to its versatility: the standard anti-aircraft platform allowed gunners to depress the muzzle below the horizontal, unlike most of its contemporaries. As the war  progressed, it was becoming increasingly clear that existing anti-tank weapons were unable to pierce the armor of heavier enemy tanks and ground commanders began increasingly to use the 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak against tanks.

Similarly to the anti-aircraft role, as an anti-tank weapon the 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak was tactically arranged into batteries, usually four guns to each. The higher-level tactical unit was usually a mixed anti-aircraft battalion (''gemischte Flak-Abteilung'').{{refn|The light anti-aircraft battalion usually did not deploy any 8.8 cm Flaks, the heavy battalions were rarely used in practice.|group=N}} It totaled 12 such guns on average, supplemented by light guns.

The German [[Condor Legion]] made extensive use of the 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 18 in the Spanish Civil War, where its usefulness as an anti-tank weapon and general artillery piece exceeded its role as an anti-aircraft gun. For the [[Battle of France]] in 1940, the army was supported by eighty-eights deployed in twenty-four mixed flak battalions.<ref name=w /> The 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak was used against heavily armored tanks such as the [[Char B1]] ''bis'' and [[Matilda II]], whose frontal armour could not be penetrated by the standard light 3.7&nbsp;cm anti-tank gun. The 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak was powerful enough to penetrate over 84&nbsp;mm of armor at a range of 2&nbsp;km, making it an unparalleled anti-tank weapon during the early days of the war and still formidable against all but the heaviest tanks at the end.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.panzerworld.net/armourpenetration |title=Armor Penetration Table: Pzgr. 39 ammunition against a 30-degree sloped steel plate |first=Christian |last=Ankerstjerne |website=Panzerworld.net}}</ref> [[Erwin Rommel]]'s use of the gun to blunt the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|British counterattack at Arras]] ended any hope of a breakout from the encirclement of May 1940. In the entire Battle of France, the weapon destroyed 152 tanks and 151 bunkers.<ref name=w />  The Battle of France also saw the introduction of vehicle-mounted 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 18s, the so-called "Bunkerknacker" on the [[Sd.Kfz. 8]] heavy tractor.

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-724-0135-13, Schwere Flak in Russland.jpg|thumb|Manhandling an 88 on the Russian front]]
During the [[North African campaign]], Rommel made the most effective use of the weapon, as he lured tanks of the British [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]] into traps by baiting them with apparently retreating German panzers. A mere two flak battalions destroyed 264 British tanks in 1941.<ref name=w /> Repeated high tank loss from well-placed 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak guns in the battles of [[Halfaya Pass]] earned it the nickname "Hellfire Pass". Later in that theater, in the [[Battle of Kasserine Pass#Faïd Pass|Battle of Faid]] in [[Tunisia]], Rommel camouflaged many 8.8&nbsp;cm Flaks (with additional 7.5&nbsp;cm Pak 40s and 5&nbsp;cm Pak 38s) in vegetation-filled areas. Inexperienced U.S. tankers and commanders rushed into a valley at Faid only to be obliterated.  When the U.S. Army's [[M4 Sherman]] tanks pursued, concealed German guns picked them off at ranges far beyond those of their [[75 mm Gun M2/M3/M6|75&nbsp;mm]] guns.

For [[Operation Barbarossa]], the invasion of the Soviet Union, Germany deployed the 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak in 51 mixed AA battalions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.operationbarbarossa.net/OBTCMS/Part-V/German-Deployment-matrix.pdf |title=Chapter V-4: The Order of Battle (OOB) of German Land Combat Units from 22nd June to 4th July 1941 |first=Nigel |last=Askey |date=March 2011 |website=OperationBarbarossa.net |access-date=2011-07-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317165842/http://www.operationbarbarossa.net/OBTCMS/Part-V/German-Deployment-matrix.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-17}}</ref> They were mostly<ref name=w /> ''Luftwaffe''-subordinated units attached to the ''Heer'' at corps or army level, with approximately one battalion per corps.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sturmvogel.orbat.com/BarbarossaOB.html |title=Barbarossa Order of Battle |website=Orbat.com |access-date=23 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418223937/http://sturmvogel.orbat.com/BarbarossaOB.html |archive-date=18 April 2012}}</ref> The weapon saw continuous use on the eastern front. The appearance of the outstanding [[T-34]] and the later [[Kliment Voroshilov tank|KV]] tanks shocked the German panzer crews and anti-tank teams, who could only penetrate the Soviet tanks' armor at extremely close range on the order of 200 yards when using the standard [[3.7 cm KwK 36|37 mm]] and [[5 cm KwK 38|50 mm]] guns, while the Russian 76&nbsp;mm gun was effective out to 1000 yards.<ref>{{cite book |last=Macksey |first=Kenneth |author-link=Kenneth Macksey |date=1971 |title=Tank Warfare |location=St Albans |publisher=Panther |isbn=978-0-58604-302-8}}</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-496-3469-24, Flak-Stellung in Frankreich.jpg|thumb|88 with crew, France, 1944]]

The 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak in the anti-tank role was arguably most effective in the flat and open terrain of [[Libya]], Egypt and the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|eastern front]]. The less open terrain in [[Operation Torch|Italy]] and Northern France was less suitable for long-range AT guns. The success of the German anti-tank weapons caused the Allies to take steps to defend against it in new tank designs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carruthers |first=Bob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8hdvBQAAQBAJ&dq=flak+18+The+success+of+the+German+anti-tank+weapons+caused+the+Allies+to+take+steps+to+defend+against+it+in+new+tank+designs&pg=PA22 |title=German Tank Hunters |date=2013-01-19 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-78159-132-1 |language=en}}</ref> On July 18 and 19 1944 a [[Luftwaffe]] 8.8&nbsp;cm anti-aircraft battery was re-purposed by then Major [[Hans von Luck]] to attack British tanks near Cagny taking part in [[Operation Goodwood]]. Twenty tanks were destroyed by these guns within the first few seconds and at least 40 tanks were knocked out by 8.8&nbsp;cm Flaks during the engagement.<ref>{{cite book |last=von Luck |first=Hans |author-link=Hans von Luck |date=1989 |title=Panzer Commander |location=New York City |publisher=Dell Books |pages=193–198 |isbn=0-440-20802-5}}</ref> Just as important, the success of the 8.8&nbsp;cm Flaks spawned the development of dedicated 8.8&nbsp;cm caliber PAKs (see below) which were even more adept at anti-tank mission due to their lower silhouette design.  By February 1945, there were 327 heavy anti-aircraft batteries facing the Red Army, which was 21 percent of those used for anti-aircraft defense.<ref name=w />

==== Coastal defence ====
On 14 September 1942, Flak-Abt. I./43 (Major Wegener) employed these guns against a commando landing raid called [[Operation Agreement]] by the British [[Royal Navy]] near [[Tobruk]]. Between them,  Italian 155&nbsp;mm (6-inch) shore batteries and aerial attack, the destroyer {{HMS|Sikh|F82|6}} was so severely damaged that she sank while being towed by {{HMS|Zulu|F18|6}}.

=== Use by other armed forces ===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Serbian Army Flak carriage with two 262mm rocket tubes .jpg|thumb|The 1993's [[Serbian Army]] modification with two 262&nbsp;mm [[M-87 Orkan|M-87]] launch tubes]] -->

==== Italy ====
In June 1939 [[Italy]] had credits of about [[Italian lira|Lit.]]300 million  with [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] for the sale of processed materials, therefore the ''Ministro della Guerra'' (Ministry of War) proposed that these credits be paid with the sale of 50 batteries of 8.8 Flak (88/55 in the Italian nomenclature), equal to 300 guns with relative ammunition. While the proposal was accepted in principle, the German authorities stated that they did not have that quantity of pieces available, so they paid off the debt in part with 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak and partly with the 7.5&nbsp;cm ''kanon'' (75/50 in the Italian name).<ref name="Cappellano p. 211.">Cappellano 1998, p. 211.</ref> In the proposal presented by the German authorities, the Italian supply of mechanical parts for anti-aircraft guns and anti-tank guns was also envisaged, so the production of components for artillery was started in the workshops  [[Gio. Ansaldo & C.|Ansaldo]] in ([[Genoa]] and [[Pozzuoli]]) and [[OTO Melara|OTO]].<ref name="Cappellano p. 216.">Cappellano 1998, p. 216.</ref> The batteries were supplied complete with a Zeiss firing station Mod. 36 and related auxiliary equipment.

The batteries began arriving in Italy a few days after Italy entered the war, and were initially assigned in part to the ''Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale'' (Voluntary Militia for National Security, MACA), for the protection of the Italian main cities and partly sent in [[Libya]], for the protection of ports. Some groups were subsequently assigned to mobile motorcycle sections. However it was immediately evident that the ''[[Regio Esercito]]'' (Italian Royal Army) did not have at its disposal a [[Artillery tractor|tractor]] with characteristics suitable for towing this piece, given that the task was entrusted to [[Lancia 3Ro]], without all-wheel drive. At the end of 1940, 44 pieces and relative firing stations were available.  Starting from October 1942, several batteries, while remaining in German possession, were used by Italian personnel (officers and troops) for the protection of military infrastructures and cities, this practice was further intensified in 1943, reaching more than 100 batteries.<ref name="Cappellano p. 217.">Cappellano 1998, p. 217.</ref>  In addition to the cannons that arrived for the canals established in 1940, in 1943, 24 pieces and their tractors were transferred to Italy intended for equipping the ''1ª Divisione corazzata "M"'' (1st Armored Division "M"). The 88/55 in the ''Regio Esercito'' was used in its natural role, that is, as an anti-aircraft weapon, its use as an anti-tank cannon was limited to the theaters of Northern Africa (Libya and Tunisia) and only for a few ''gruppi autocampali'' (self-transported field artillery groups).

==== China ====
In 1937, the [[Chinese Nationalist Government]] imported 20 Flak 18 guns and used them to defend the fortifications along the [[Yangtze River]]. The Flak 18s were extensively deployed during the all-aerial combat of the [[Bombing of Chongqing|Battle of Chongqing and Chengdu]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-22 |title=In Defense of The Chongqing Sky: Chinese Anti-Aircraft Units Operating German Anti-Aircraft Guns in 1941 |url=https://3g.163.com/dy/article/EAS58MGD0515974E.html/ |language=zh |access-date=2020-12-08|website=网易 NetEase |quote=In March 1941, Carl Mydans, photographer of the American magazine "Life", captured many images of China's wartime capital of Chongqing, which was brutally bombed for years by the Japanese.  Through his photos, the world caught a glimpse of how Chinese soldiers and civilians dealt with and suffered under the massive round-the-clock terror bombing campaign by the Imperial Japanese ... these are some of the photos of the Chinese elite anti-aircraft artillery units.}}</ref>

==== Finland ====
[[File:8.8cm Flak-37 at Vauttaniemi, Lauttasaari island, near Helsinki, Finland.jpg|thumb|88mm Flak-37, Lauttasaari, Helsinki, Finland]]In 1943–1944 Finland bought 90 8.8&nbsp;cm FlaK 37 cannons from Germany and they were used for air defence of largest cities in Finland. These cannons played an important role against Soviet air raids in Helsinki in [[Bombing of Helsinki in World War II|February 1944]]. After the war these cannons remained in Finnish use as AA-guns until 1977 and after that as coastal guns until the early 2000s.<ref name="88mm Flak 37 JP" /> The gun had nickname ''Rämäpää'' ("Reckless") after the manufacturer's initials RMB. Several of the Finnish guns survive in museums and as memorials.<ref name="88mm Flak 37 JP">{{cite web |title=88 ItK/37 RMB and 88 ItK/37 RMBK "Rämäpää" &#124; Finnish Army 1918–1945: AntiAircraft Guns Part 3 |url=https://www.jaegerplatoon.net/AA_GUNS3.htm#88ItK37 |website=Jaegerplatoon.net |access-date=December 23, 2014}}</ref>

==== Spain ====
Four batteries (16 guns) of 88&nbsp;mm guns (Flak 18) initially reached Spain as AA with the [[Condor Legion]] in 1936, but it was soon used as anti-tank, anti-bunker and even for counterbattery fire. More guns were sent later, and some 88&nbsp;mm guns were also supplied to Spanish army units. At the end of the war the Spanish Army was using all of the Flak 18 guns sent, some 52 units.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

Initially, the Flak 18 batteries were deployed to protect the airfields and logistics bases of the German Condor legion. The scarcity of artillery among the Nationalist forces and the general low proficiency of the Spanish gun crews forced the usage of the Flak 18 gun in a variety of roles, including as an artillery piece and as an anti-tank gun. Given appropriate ammunition it proved quite capable in both roles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/wwIIspec/number10.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925172316/http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/wwIIspec/number10.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 25, 2012 |title=U.S. Military Intelligence Report: German Anti-Aircraft Artillery |page=37 |date=February 8, 1943 |access-date=February 4, 2015}}</ref> The war in Spain, with its wildly fluctuating front lines and the presence of Russian tanks, forced the Germans to employ the Flak 18 guns in a direct fire mode against ground targets. By the end of the war the 88&nbsp;mm guns had performed far more missions as an anti-tank and direct-fire Field Artillery gun than as an anti-aircraft gun. During the war German 88&nbsp;mm guns were involved in 377 combat engagements, only 31 were against enemy aircraft.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}} The use of the 88&nbsp;mm in direct support of the infantry brought the gun crews in close proximity to the enemy and made the crews susceptible to infantry fire. Casualties among the legion's 88&nbsp;mm gun batteries in the Spanish Civil War were second only to those among the bomber pilots.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

In early 1937 in the fighting around Malaga, a battery of 88&nbsp;mm guns was assigned to support an infantry brigade. Bad weather grounded the main bomber force, but the assault succeeded, mainly because of the concentrated and accurate fire of the supporting 88&nbsp;mm guns.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}} Flak 18 batteries were used by the nationalist army at the [[Battle of Ebro]], both for [[direct fire]] against pillboxes and also for [[indirect fire]] in the advance towards Barcelona.

Following the Spanish Civil War, more Flak 36 models arrived in 1943 (88 guns 88/56&nbsp;mm Flak-36) and since 1943 they were manufactured under license in Trubia under the denomination FT 44 (about 200 guns).{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

==== Allied ====
The Flak 36 guns were briefly issued in late 1944 to the American Seventh Army as captured weapons. The 79th Field Artillery Battalion (Provisional) was formed from personnel of the 79th and 179th Field Artillery Groups to fire captured German artillery pieces at the height of an ammunition shortage. Similarly, the 244th Field Artillery Battalion was temporarily equipped with a miscellany of captured German 88&nbsp;mm guns and 105&nbsp;mm and 150&nbsp;mm howitzers. By December 31, 1944, the 244th Field Artillery Battalion had fired a total of 10,706 rounds through captured German weapons.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://244thfieldartillerybattalion.com/history-1944-december |title=History: December 1944 |website=244th Field Artillery Battalion |access-date=23 December 2014}}</ref>

==== France ====
In March 1945, [[France]] equipped its 401st, 403rd and 407 Anti-Aircraft artillery regiment with captured German 8.8 guns, associated with British [[GL Mk. I radar|GL Mk. II]] and [[GL Mk. III radar|GL Mk. III]] radars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Petit |first=Jean-Pierre |title=Chapitre 7 - Les FTA françaises dans la Reconquête |url=https://artillerie.asso.fr/basart/article.php3?id_article=744 |access-date=2020-07-17 |website= Base de données Artillerie |language=fr}}</ref> The guns remained in service with second-line units until 1953 and then were used for training for a few years.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Petit |first=Jean-Pierre |title=Chapitre 9 - Équipements et recherches techniques d'après-guerre, en France |url=https://artillerie.asso.fr/basart/article.php3?id_article=746 |access-date=2020-07-17 |website= Base de données Artillerie |language=fr}}</ref>

==== Yugoslavia ====
During the [[Yugoslav wars]] in the 1990s, various Flak guns were used, mainly by the naval artillery of the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA). The Yugoslav Army (VJ) also used Flak carriages mounted with double 262&nbsp;mm rocket launch tubes from the [[M-87 Orkan]] [[multiple rocket launcher|MLRS]], instead of the 88&nbsp;mm gun. It was capable of deploying cluster bombs, as well as anti-personnel and anti-tank mines, at up to 50&nbsp;km. Only a few were built in mid-1993, the entire project was generally regarded as unsuccessful.<ref>"Kalibar" No. 106, August 2005</ref>

==== Greece ====
Greece had at least 24 guns (8.8) that were used against the [[Regia Aeronautica]] during the Italian invasion of Greece in 1940. Later these guns were used against the invading German forces in April 1941.

==== Vietnam ====
Beginning in 1954 the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] received a number of Flak 88s from the Soviet Union. These cannons were used against US fighter jets in the early 60s.

== Comparison with similar anti-aircraft guns ==
The Flak 18/36/37 was roughly comparable to its Italian and [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] counterparts. As an anti-aircraft gun it fired a 9.2 kilogram (20&nbsp;lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840&nbsp;m/s to an effective ceiling of 8,000 meters,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Askey |first=Nigel |date=2014 |title=Operation Barbarossa: the Complete Organisational and Statistical Analysis, and Military Simulation Volume IIB |publisher=Lulu Publishing |page=90 |isbn=978-1-31241-326-9}}</ref> with a maximum ceiling of 9900 meters.<ref name=ls /> While this was potent against US daylight raids, which generally flew at altitudes of {{convert|6,400| to| 7,600|m|abbr=on}}, some aircraft were able to fly higher than the gun's effective ceiling. Some flak batteries used guns worn out from firing beyond their operational lives, which typically limited their effective ceiling to {{convert|7,470|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westermann |first=Edward B. |date=2001 |title=Flak: German Anti Aircraft Defenses 1914–45 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |page=293 |isbn=978-0-70061-420-2}}</ref>

In comparison, the British [[QF 3.7-inch AA gun|QF 3.7-inch (94 mm) Mark III]] fired a {{convert|13|kg|lb|abbr=on}} projectile at 790&nbsp;m/s (2,600&nbsp;ft/s) to an effective ceiling of {{convert|10600|m|ft|sp=us}}, the American [[90 mm M1]] fired a {{convert|10|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} shell at 820&nbsp;m/s (2,700&nbsp;ft/s) to the same height, the Soviet [[85 mm air defense gun M1939 (52-K)]] fired a {{convert|9.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Anti-aircraft guns |last1=Chamberlain|first1=Peter|date=1975|page=63|publisher=Arco Pub. Co|last2=Gander |first2=Terry|isbn=0668038187|location=New York|oclc=2000222}}</ref> projectile at 792 m/s (2,598 ft/s) to an effective ceiling of 10,500 metres (34, 448 ft) and the Italian [[Cannone da 90/53]] fired a 10.33&nbsp;kg projectile at 830&nbsp;m/s to an effective ceiling of {{convert|12000|m|ft|sp=us}}. The [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] weapons' capabilities were augmented by the introduction of [[proximity fuze]]s. The Allies' and Italian weapons were heavier and less mobile, with the Allied weapons being almost useless for ground fire until numerous modifications were carried out.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}}

While the US and Italian 90&nbsp;mm were also used as anti-tank guns – the American gun being in use on their [[M36 tank destroyer]] and [[M26 Pershing]] heavy tank, the 85mm Soviet gun being fitted to the [[SU-85]], later [[T-34 variants#Tanks|models]] of the [[T-34]] and the stopgap [[KV-85]] and [[IS tank family#KV-85/IS-85/IS-1|IS-1]] heavy tanks – their use was considerably more limited than the German 88 due to German tanks being primarily used defensively by 1944 and the Allies operating dedicated AT guns (both as mobile AT guns and tank cannons); such as the [[Ordnance QF 17-pounder]] in British service and the [[76 mm gun M1]] in American service.

== Related developments ==
=== 8.8 cm KwK 36 ===
{{Main|8.8 cm KwK 36}}

The KwK 36 (abbreviation of ''{{Lang|de|Kampfwagenkanone}} 36'') was a tank gun developed and built by [[Krupp]] in parallel to the Flak 36, with which it shared ammunition and ballistics. It was the main armament of the [[Tiger I]] [[heavy tank]].

=== 8.8 cm PaK 43 and KwK 43 ===
{{Main|8.8 cm Pak 43|8.8 cm KwK 43}}
[[File:PaK43-41 base borden military museum 4.jpg|thumb|The PaK 43/41 used an intermediate split-trail mount with gun shield, instead of the [[cruciform]] mount]]

At the time that Rheinmetall developed the Flak 41, Krupp tried to compete with their '''8.8&nbsp;cm Gerät 42''' proposal, which was not accepted for production as an anti-aircraft gun. Krupp continued development, resulting in the [[8.8 cm PaK 43]] anti-tank gun and the related 8.8&nbsp;cm [[KwK 43]] tank gun.

The PaK 43 (an abbreviation of ''Panzerjägerkanone 43''<ref>''D 2030 – 8,8&nbsp;cm Panzerjägerkanone 43/2 (L/71)'', Beschreibung, 28 January 1944. Berlin.</ref><ref>''D97/1+ Gerätliste'', Oberkommando des Heeres, Heereswaffenamt, s.45, Berlin 1.7.43</ref>) used a new cruciform mount with the gun much closer to the ground, making it far easier to hide and harder to hit. It was also provided with a much stronger and more angled armour shield to provide better protection to the crew. In addition to the towed version, there were also self-propelled versions of the PaK 43 gun, including the lightly armored ''[[Nashorn]]'', and the strongly armored, fully casemate-enclosed ''[[Elefant]]'' and ''[[Jagdpanther]]'' tank destroyers.

All versions were able to penetrate about 200&nbsp;mm (7.9 inches) of armour at 1,000&nbsp;m (3280 feet), allowing it to defeat the armor of any contemporary tank.

The main armament of the [[Tiger II]] heavy tank, the [[8.8 cm KwK 43|KwK 43 tank gun]], was the PaK 43 adapted for tank use, and it was considered for the [[Panther II]] tank.

== Versions ==
=== Guns using the 88×571R mm cartridge ===
[[File:2001gun88mmwiki.jpg|thumb|right|An 8.8cm Flak 37 on display at the [[Imperial War Museum]], Duxford, Great Britain.]]
* '''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 18''' Had a new semi-automatic breech, making it a rapid fire gun. It entered production in Germany in 1933 and used the ''Sonderanhänger'' 201 trailer. its weight was seven tonnes. Its rate of fire was 15 to 20 rounds per minute. It was later fitted with a gun shield to protect the crew when engaging ground targets. It was produced by Krupp.
** '''Mod 1938 II''': Approximately 50 guns were modified so a single man could adjust the elevation and traverse.
* '''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 36''' Entered service 1936–37. It used the redesigned trailer ''Sonderanhänger'' 202 which enabled a faster time into action from the move. The ''SdAnh'' 202 had twin wheels on two similar carriages. It could engage ground targets from the traveling position. Its weight was seven tonnes. Its rate of fire was 15 to 20 rounds per minute. It was produced by Krupp. It was subsequently fitted with a shield to protect the crew when engaging ground targets.
* '''8.8&nbsp;cm KwK 36''': The main gun of the [[Tiger I]] (PzKw VI ''Ausf''. E)  tank. Despite its lineage, some{{who|date=January 2021}} classify it as a parallel development with very similar specifications rather than a derivative of the Flak 36.
* '''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 37''': It was an updated version of the Flak 36, the main difference being ''Übertragungser'' 37 (a data transmission system). It was produced by Krupp.

=== Guns using the 88×855R mm cartridge ===
* '''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 41''': This was a weapon developed and produced by Rheinmetall-Borsig to be used with an 855&nbsp;mm cartridge case.<ref name="cartridge">{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Anthony G. |title=78-100 mm Calibre Cartridges |url=http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/ammotable10.htm |work=Ammunition Data Tables |access-date=30 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124062607/http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/ammotable10.htm |archive-date=24 November 2011}}</ref> It was fitted to the existing ''Sonderanhänger'' 202 as standard and entered service in 1943. The barrel was at first designed as three-section with a length of 74 calibers, and then redesigned to dual-section with a length of 72 calibers.<ref name=norris />
* '''8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 37/41''': This weapon was an attempt to allow the Flak 18/36/37 family to fire the more powerful round of the Flak 41. Only 13 built.

== Users ==
* {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Bulgaria}}
* {{flagcountry|Republic of China (1912–1949)}}
* {{flagcountry|Independent State of Croatia}}
* {{flagcountry|Finland}}
* {{flag|French Fourth Republic|name=France}}
* {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
* {{flagcountry|North Vietnam}}<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |url=https://www.historynet.com/13703647.htm |title=The Rise of North Vietnam's Air Defenses |last=Schuster |first=Carl O. |date=2016-07-27 |website=HistoryNet |language=en-US |access-date=2020-01-06}}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Greece}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Hungary}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}
* {{flagcountry|Slovak Republic (1939–1945)}}<ref>{{cite web |title=ztráty slovenské armády v letech 1939 - 1944 – Druhá světová válka – druhasvetova.com |url=https://druhasvetova.com/?p=armada/slovensko/Ztraty_slovenske_armady_v_letech_1939-1944 |website=druhasvetova.com |access-date=7 August 2024 |language=Czech}}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|Spanish State}}

== Surviving examples ==
The following museums include 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak guns in their collections.

{{flag|Brazil}}

{{div col}}<!-- default width is 30em -->
* Museu de Armas, Veículos e Máquinas Andrea Matarazzo, Bebedouro/SP.
* Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras (AMAN), Resende/RJ
* 1º Grupo de Artilharia Antiaérea (1º GAAAe) Vila Militar, Rio de Janeiro/RJ
* Monumento Nacional dos Mortos da Segunda Guerra Mundial, Two Guns
* Museu Militar Conde de Linhares
{{div col end}}{{div col}}
;{{flag|Argentina}}
* National Naval Museum of [[Tigre, Buenos Aires|Tigre]]

;{{flag|Australia}}
* [[Australian Armour and Artillery Museum]], Cairns
* [[Royal Australian Armoured Corps Memorial and Army Tank Museum]], [[Puckapunyal]]
* [[Australian War Memorial]], Canberra

;{{flag|Austria}}
* [[Heeresgeschichtliches Museum]], Vienna

;{{flag|Belgium}}
* [[Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History]], Brussels.

;{{flag|Canada}}
* [[Canadian War Museum]], Ottawa.
* The Ontario Regiment Museum, [[Oshawa]].
* Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston (PAK 43 and Flak 37).

;{{flag|Denmark}}
* [[Danish War Museum]], Copenhagen.

;{{flag|Finland}}
* Ilmatorjuntamuseo, [[Hyrylä]]
* Kuivasaari Artillery Museum, Helsinki
* Kauppi forest, on top of Tuomikallio as a memorial, Tampere
* Lohtaja, army training area square - [https://www.google.com/maps/place/64%C2%B003'03.9%22N+23%C2%B025'23.6%22E/@64.0510883,23.4210193,473m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x0:0x0!7e2!8m2!3d64.0510865!4d23.4232084 map link]

;{{flag|France}}
* [[Le Grand Blockhaus]], [[Batz-sur-Mer]]
* Le Grand Bunker "Musée du Mur de l´Atlantique", [[Ouistreham]]
* Overlord Museum, [[Colleville-sur-Mer]]
* Musée DDay Omaha, [[Vierville-sur-Mer]]
* [[Airborne Museum (Sainte-Mère-Église)|Airborne Museum]], [[Sainte-Mère-Église]]
* [[Musée de la Résistance bretonne]], Saint-Marcel, Morbihan(Flak 18)
* Musée du Débarquement, Arromanches-les-Bains
* Musée des blindés, Saumur

;{{flag|Germany}}
* [[Deutsches Panzermuseum]], [[Munster, Lower Saxony|Munster]]
* [[Aviation Museum Hannover-Laatzen]]
* [[Wehrtechnische Studiensammlung]] Koblenz
* Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, Berlin-Gatow
* Deutsches Technikmuseum, Berlin

;{{flag|India}}
* [[Cavalry Tank Museum, Ahmednagar]]

;{{flag|Netherlands}}
* [[Overloon War Museum]], Overloon
* [[Atlantikwall-Museum]], Hook of Holland
* Bevrijdende Vleugels Museum, Best

;{{flag|New Zealand}}
* The Vintage Aviator (privately owned by [[Peter Jackson]]), [[Masterton]]

;{{flag|Norway}}
* [[Trondenes Fort]], [[Harstad Municipality|Harstad]]
* [[Fredriksvern]], [[Stavern]]
;{{flag|Poland}}
*[[:pl:Muzeum Obrony Wybrzeża w Świnoujściu|Coastal Defence Museum in Świnoujście]], Świnoujście
* Muzeum Śląskie (Silesian Museum), Katowice, Poland

;{{flag|Romania}}
* [[National Military Museum, Romania]], Bucharest

;{{flag|Serbia}}
* [[Military Museum, Belgrade]], Belgrade

;{{flag|Slovenia}}
* [[Pivka Military Museum]], Pivka

;{{flag|South Africa}}
* [[South African Museum of Military History]] Johannesburg

;{{flag|Spain}}
* Museo Histórico Militar, [[A Coruña]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lasegundaguerra.com/viewtopic.php?t=3271 |title=Cañones para Hitler en A Coruña: el Monte de San Pedro |website=La Segunda Guerra.com |access-date=23 December 2014}}</ref>
* Flak 36 in [[Historical Military Museum of Cartagena (Spain)]]
* Museo Histórico Militar de [[Valencia]]

;{{flag|United Kingdom}}
* [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]], Duxford
* [[Imperial War Museum]], London
* [[Royal Armouries]], [[Fort Nelson, Hampshire]]
* [[Muckleburgh Collection]], Norfolk
* [[German Occupation Museum]], Guernsey

;{{flag|United States}}
* Virginia War Museum, Newport News, Virginia. One 76&nbsp;mm hole in outrigger.
* [[United States Army Air Defense Artillery Museum]], Fort Sill, Oklahoma. (Flak 18, Flak 36, Flak 37, Flak 41, 8.8&nbsp;cm Flak M39(r))
* [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]], Dayton, Ohio<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/196233/flak-36-88mm-multipurpose-gun/ |title=Flak 36 88&nbsp;mm Multipurpose Gun |website=National Museum of the United States Air Force |access-date=5 August 2015}}</ref>
* The Flying Heritage Collection, Everett, Washington
* [[Military Aviation Museum]] Virginia Beach, Virginia (Flak 37 in working condition)
* Palm Springs Air Museum, Palm Springs, California
* National WWII Museum, New Orleans, Louisiana
* 2-FlaK 37, Private collection, J Bostek, Michigan www.709th.org
* Indiana Military Museum, Vincennes, Indiana, received from United Kingdom October 22, 2020 and being restored.
* The [[Texas Air Museum]] in [[Slaton, Texas]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://thetexasairmuseum.org/exhibits/ | title=Exhibits – Texas Air Museum }}</ref>
* American Heritage Museum, Hudson, Massachusetts 
{{div col end}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="210" style="text-align:left">
File:Flak 8.8 cm.jpg|8.8 cm Flak 37 on the fortification mount. Exhibit of Coastal Defence Museum in Świnoujście, Poland.
</gallery>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:FLAK36-37L56.jpg|Flak 37 gun at the [[Deutsches Panzermuseum]], Munster, Germany
File:8,8-cm-Flugabwehrkanone 37.8.8 cm anti-aircraft cannon 37.JPG|Flak 37 gun at the Anti-aircraft Museum in [[Hyrylä]], Finland
File:88 mm AT shell Wings over Wine Country 2007.JPG|8.8&nbsp;cm High-explosive shell
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-443-1574-26, Nordafrika, Flakgeschütz.jpg|Flak 36 gun in position at Bir Hakeim, North Africa, June 1942
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-635-3999-24, Deutschland, Flak-Batterie in Feuerstellung.jpg|Flak 36 battery in firing position, Germany, 1943
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-356-1845-08, Frankreich, Radar an der Kanalküste.jpg|[[Würzburg radar|FuMG 39 "Würzburg" radar]] at an anti-aircraft position on the [[Atlantic Wall]], France, 1942
File:8.8 cm Flak in Spain.jpg|8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 37 in Madrid, Spain
File:8.8 cm Flak.jpg|8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 37 in Tampere, Finland
File:8.8 cm Flak 2.jpg|8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 37 in Tampere, Finland
File:8.8 cm Flak 36 U.S. Army Armor & Cavalry Collection.jpg|8.8&nbsp;cm Flak 36 at the [[U.S. Army Armor & Cavalry Collection]]
File:FLAK 88 in Slaton, TX.jpg|Flak 88mm at the [[Texas Air Museum]] in [[Slaton, Texas]].
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Flak tower]]
* [[8.8 cm SK C/30 naval gun]]: contemporary German Navy dual purpose anti-surface and anti-aircraft gun
* [[8.8 cm KwK 36]]: the main gun of Tiger 1 tank, based on the anti-aircraft gun

=== Weapons of comparable role, performance and era ===
* [[Bofors 75&nbsp;mm Model 1929]]: 75&nbsp;mm and 80&nbsp;mm Swedish gun developed alongside the 88 at Bofors
* [[QF 3.7-inch AA gun]]: contemporary British anti-aircraft gun, firing a heavier ({{convert|28|lb|kg}}) shell
* [[Cannone da 90/53]]: contemporary Italian anti-aircraft gun
* [[90 mm Gun M1/M2/M3|90 mm Gun M1]]: contemporary US anti-aircraft gun
* [[85 mm air defense gun M1939 (52-K)]]: contemporary Soviet anti-aircraft gun

== References ==
===Explanatory notes===
{{reflist|group=N}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book |last=Cappellano |first=Filippo |date=1998 |title=Le artiglierie del Regio Esercito nella Seconda Guerra Mondiale |language=it |location=Parma |publisher=Albertelli |isbn=8887372039}}
*{{cite book |last=Chant |first=Christopher |date=2001 |title=Artillery of World War II |location=London, UK |publisher=Brown Partworks |isbn=1-84044-088-0}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |last=Gander |first=Terry |title=German 88: The Most Famous Gun of the Second World War |date=19 October 2009 |publisher=Pen and Sword Books Ltd |isbn=978-1848840409}}
*{{cite book |last1=Gander |first1=Terry |first2=Peter |last2=Chamberlain |title=Weapons of the Third Reich: An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939–1945 |location=New York City |publisher=Doubleday |date=1979 |isbn=0-385-15090-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Ian V. |title=German Artillery of World War Two |edition=2nd corrected |location=Mechanicsville, Penn. |publisher=Stackpole Books |date=1997 |isbn=1-85367-480-X}}
*{{cite book |authorlink=Janusz Piekałkiewicz |last=Piekalkiewicz |first=Janusz |others=translated by Edward Force |title=The German 88 Gun in Combat: The Scourge of Allied Armor |publisher=Schiffer Military History |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-88740-341-5}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/the-88mm-gun-the-weapon-nazi-germany-used-destroy-everything-21581 The 88mm Gun: The Weapon Nazi Germany Used to Destroy Everything]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030117011324/http://wnet.suomi.net/kotisivu/harri.kaarre/88series.html History of the 88&nbsp;mm series of guns]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060327181851/http://efour4ever.com/88.htm US Military Intelligence document on the 88&nbsp;mm gun]}}
* [http://www.lonesentry.com/new88mm/index.html The New 88 and Its Carriages]
*Detailed examination of the effect of 88&nbsp;mm FlaK on B-17 and B-24 bombers: {{cite web|url= http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/woundblstcs/chapter10.htm |title= Directional Density of Flak Fragments and Burst Patterns at High Altitudes |last= Palmer |first= Allan |year= 1962 |editor-last= Heaton |editor-first= Leonard D. |editor-last2= Beyer |editor-first2= James C. |department= |website= U.S. Army Medical Department Office of Medical History |access-date= |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://archive.today/http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/woundblstcs/chapter10.htm |archive-date= 2012-12-12}}
* [http://www.lexpev.nl/downloads/tme9369agerman88mmgun.pdf Technical Manual German 88&nbsp;mm Antiaircraft Gun Materiel – US War Department, 29 June 1943] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213211821/http://www.lexpev.nl/downloads/tme9369agerman88mmgun.pdf |date=February 13, 2021 }}
* [http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Vorschriften/Flak88.pdf Extract from "Handbuch für den Flakartilleristen" – Die 8.8 cm – Flak 1939]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:8.8 Cm Flak 18 36 37 41}}
[[Category:88&nbsp;mm artillery]]
[[Category:World War II anti-aircraft guns]]
[[Category:World War II anti-tank guns of Germany]]
[[Category:Anti-aircraft guns of Germany]]
[[Category:Krupp]]
[[Category:Rheinmetall]]
[[Category:Military equipment introduced in the 1930s]]