View source for Aachen

{{Short description|City in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox German place
| name = Aachen
| German_name = {{lang|ksh|Oche}} <small>([[Ripuarian language|Aachen dialect]])</small>
| type = City
| image_skyline            = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/2/3/2
| total_width = 290
| align = center
| caption_align = center
| image1             = Blick auf das Rathaus und den Dom Aachens aufgenommen von St Jakob.jpg
| caption1           = View over Aachen with the [[Aachen Town Hall|town hall]] and the [[Aachen Cathedral|cathedral]]
| image2             = Aachen Cathedral night.jpg
| caption2           = [[Aachen Cathedral]] and [[:de:St. Foillan (Aachen)|St. Foillan's Church]]
| image3             = Hauptaltar mit Marienschrein - Innere des Aachener Dom - Aachen - Nordrhein-Westfalen - Deutschland (21776757089).jpg
| caption3           = Choir and apse with [[Marienschrein|Shrine of Mary]]
| image4             = Aachener Dom Kuppel und Barbarossaleuchter.jpg
| caption4           = Octagon of the [[Palatine Chapel, Aachen|Palatine Chapel]]
| image5             = Karlsschrein front side left.jpg
| caption5           = [[Shrine of Charlemagne]]
| image6             = Bust of Charlemagne.png
| caption6           = [[Bust of Charlemagne]]
| image7             = Elisenbrunnen Aachen zur blauen Stunde.jpg
| caption7           = [[:de:Elisenbrunnen|Elise's Fountain]]
| image8             = St Johann-Baptist 2.jpg
| caption8           = [[Burtscheid Abbey|St. John's Church]]
}}
| image_coa = DEU Aachen COA.svg
| image_flag = Flag de-city of Aachen.svg
| coordinates = {{coord|50|46|32|N|06|05|01|E|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| image_plan = Aachen in AC (2009).svg
| plantext = Location of Aachen within ''Städteregion Aachen''
| state = North Rhine-Westphalia
| region = Cologne
| district = Aachen
| elevation = 173
| area = 160.85
| postal_code = 52062–52080
| area_code = 0241 / 02405 / 02407 / 02408
| licence = AC / MON
| Gemeindeschlüssel = 05334002
| divisions = 
| mayor = [[Michael Ziemons]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-30 |title=Kommunalwahl 2025: Wahlergebnisse Aachen, Stadt |url=https://kwnrw25.wdr.de/public/ec/05334002.html |access-date=2025-10-22 |website=wdr.de |language=de}}</ref>
| leader_term       = 2025&ndash;30
| Bürgermeistertitel = Oberbürgermeister
| party = [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]
| ruling_party1 = [[Alliance 90/The Greens|The Greens]]
| ruling_party2 = [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/aachen/gruene-und-rote-geben-jetzt-in-aachen-die-richtung-vor_aid-79063117|title=Koalitionsvertrag: Grüne und Rote geben jetzt in Aachen die Richtung vor|first=Albrecht|last=Peltzer|date=28 October 2022|newspaper=[[Aachener Zeitung]]|accessdate=28 February 2023|archive-date=27 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327223102/https://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/aachen/gruene-und-rote-geben-jetzt-in-aachen-die-richtung-vor_aid-79063117|url-status=live}}</ref>
| ruling_party3 = 
| website = {{URL|aachen.de}} {{in lang|de}}
}}
[[File:Gewässer Euregio.svg|thumb|Location of Aachen in the Meuse (Dutch and German: ''Maas'') river system ({{pWurm}})]]

'''Aachen'''{{efn|1=<nowiki />
* Pronunciation:
** {{IPA|en|'ɑːkən|lang|audio=En-us-Aachen.ogg}} {{respell|AH|kən}}
** {{IPA|de|ˈaːxn̩|lang|De-Aachen.ogg}}
* Other names:
** {{langx|ksh|label=[[Aachen dialect]]|Oche}} {{IPA|ksh|ˈɔːxə|}}
** {{langx|nl|Aken}} {{IPA|nl|ˈaːkə(n)||nl-Aken.ogg}}
** [[French language|French]] (and historical English): ''Aix-la-Chapelle'' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|ɛ|k|s|_|l|ə|_|ʃ|ə|ˈ|p|ɛ|l}} {{respell|EKS|_|lə|_|shə|PEL}}, {{IPAc-en|US|ˌ|ɛ|k|s|_|l|ɑː|_|ʃ|ɑː|ˈ|p|ɛ|l|,_|ˌ|eɪ|k|s|_|-}} {{respell|EKS|_|lah|_|shah|PEL|,_|AYKS|_-}}; {{IPA|fr|ɛks la ʃapɛl|lang|LL-Q150 (fra)-Pamputt-Aix-la-Chapelle.wav}})}} is the [[List of cities in North Rhine-Westphalia by population|13th-largest city]] in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] and the [[List of cities in Germany by population|27th-largest city]] of Germany, with around 261,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aachen.de/DE/stadt_buerger/politik_verwaltung/pressemitteilungen/Zensus-2022.html|title=Zensus 2022: Stadt Aachen gewinnt 10.941 Einwohner*innen – 06/25/2024|website=aachen.de}}</ref>

Aachen is located at the northern foothills of the [[High Fens]] and the [[Eifel]] Mountains. It sits on the [[Wurm (Rur)|Wurm River]], a tributary of the [[Rur (river)|Rur]], and together with [[Mönchengladbach]], it is the only larger German city in the [[drainage basin]] of the [[Meuse]]. It is the westernmost larger city in Germany, lying approximately {{convert|61|km|abbr=on}} west of [[Cologne]] and [[Bonn]], directly bordering [[Belgium]] in the southwest, and the [[Netherlands]] in the northwest. The city lies in the [[Meuse–Rhine Euroregion]] and is the seat of the [[Aachen (district)|district of Aachen]] ''(Städteregion Aachen)''.

The once [[Celts|Celtic]] settlement was equipped with several {{Lang|la|[[thermae]]}} in the course of colonization by [[Roman people|Roman]] pioneers settling at the warm [[Aachen thermal springs]] around the 1st century. After the withdrawal of the Roman troops, the [[vicus]] ''Aquae Granni'' was [[Franks|Frankized]] around the 5th century. This was followed by a period of [[sedentism]] under first [[Merovingian]] and then [[Carolingian]] rule. With the completion of the Carolingian [[Palace of Aachen]] at the transition to the 9th century, Aachen was constituted as the main royal residence of the [[Frankish Empire]] ruled by [[Charlemagne]]. Because of that the city is sometimes called "cradle of Europe".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/aachen-history-meets-high-tech-at-the-cradle-of-europe/a-2324829|title=City Portrait Aachen – DW – 04/27/2007|website=dw.com}}</ref> After the [[Treaty of Verdun]], the city was within the borders of [[Middle Francia]], until it became part of [[East Francia]] after the [[Treaty of Meerssen]] (870). It subsequently was part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and was granted city rights in 1166 by Emperor [[Frederick Barbarossa]], becoming an [[imperial city]]. It served as the coronation site where 31 Holy Roman Emperors were crowned [[List of German monarchs|Kings of the Germans]] from 936 to 1531, until [[Frankfurt]] became the preferred place of coronation.

One of Germany's leading institutes of higher education in technology, the [[RWTH Aachen University]] {{Lang|de|(Rheinisch-Westfälisch Technische Hochschule Aachen)}}, is located in the city. Its university hospital [[Uniklinikum Aachen]] is Europe's largest single-building hospital. Aachen's industries include science, engineering and information technology. In 2009, Aachen was ranked eighth among cities in Germany for innovation.

The [[Aachen dialect|regional dialect]] spoken in the city is a [[Central Franconian]], [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] variant with strong [[Limburgish]] influences from the dialects in the neighbouring Netherlands. As a [[Rhenish]] city, Aachen is one of the main centres of [[carnival]] celebrations [[Carnival in Germany|in Germany]], along with [[Cologne Carnival|Cologne]] and [[Mainz carnival|Mainz]]. The [[culinary]] specialty for which the city is best known is [[Aachener Printen]], a type of [[gingerbread]].

== Etymology ==
The name ''Aachen'' is a modern descendant, like southern German {{lang|de|Ach(e)}}, {{langx|de|link=no|Aach}}, meaning "river" or "stream", from [[Old High German]] {{lang|goh|ahha}}, meaning "water" or "stream", which directly translates (and etymologically corresponds) to [[Latin]] {{lang|la|Aquae}}, referring to the springs. The location has been inhabited by humans since the [[Neolithic]] era, about 5,000 years ago, attracted to its warm [[mineral spring]]s. Latin {{lang|la|Aquae}} figures in Aachen's [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name {{lang|la|Aquae granni}}, which meant "waters of [[Grannus]]", referring to the [[Celts|Celtic]] god of healing who was worshipped at the springs.<ref name="Munro 1995" /><ref name="tourism">{{harvnb|Mielke|2013}}.</ref> This word became {{lang|wa|Åxhe}} in [[Walloon language|Walloon]] and {{lang|fr|Aix}} in French, and subsequently {{lang|fr|Aix-la-Chapelle}} to distinguish it from [[Aix-en-Provence]], after [[Charlemagne]] had his [[palatine Chapel, Aachen|palatine chapel]] built there in the late 8th century and then made the city his empire's capital.

The city is known by a variety of different names in other languages:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Language
! Name
! class="unsortable" | Pronunciation in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
|-
| [[Aachen dialect]]
| {{lang|ksh|Oche|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|ksh|ˈɔːxə|}}
|-
|[[Basque language|Basque]]
|Akisgran
|{{IPA|eu|akisɡɾan|}}
|-
| [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
| {{lang|ca|Aquisgrà|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|ca|əkizˈɣɾa|}}, {{IPA|ca-valencia|akizˈɣɾa|}}
|-
| [[Czech language|Czech]]
| {{lang|cs|Cáchy|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|cs|ˈtsaːxɪ|}}
|-
| [[Dutch language|Dutch]] / [[Low German]]
| {{lang|nl|Aken|italic=no}}<ref name="Kerner 2013">{{harvnb|Kerner|2013}}</ref>
| {{IPA|nl|ˈaːkə(n)||nl-Aken.ogg}}
|-
| [[French_language|French]]
| {{lang|fr|Aix-la-Chapelle|italic=no}}<ref name="Kerner 2013"/>
| {{IPA|fr|ɛks la ʃapɛl||LL-Q150 (fra)-Pamputt-Aix-la-Chapelle.wav}}
|-
| [[Greek language|Greek]]
| {{lang|el|Ακυίσγρανον}} ({{lang|el-Latn|Akyísgranon}})
| {{IPA|el|aciˈizɣranon|}}
|-
| [[Italian language|Italian]]
| {{lang|it|Aquisgrana|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|it|akwizˈɡraːna|}}
|-
| [[Latin]]
| {{lang|la|Aquisgrana|italic=no}},<ref name="Egger 1977 15">{{harvnb|Egger|1977|p=15}}</ref> {{lang|la|Aquae Granni|italic=no}},<ref name="Munro 1995"/> {{lang|la|Aquis Granum|italic=no}}<ref>{{harvnb|Canby|1984|p=1}}</ref>
|
|-
| [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]]
| {{lang|li|Aoke|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|li|ˈɔːkə|}}
|-
| [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]]
| {{lang|lb|Oochen|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|lb|ˈoːχən|}}
|-
|[[Occitan language|Occitan]]
|Aquisgran, Ais d'Alemanha<ref>[[Domergue Sumien]], https://web.archive.org/web/20171107022730/https://opinion.jornalet.com/lenga/blog/2381/lei-noms-dais-de-provenca-de-dacs-e-de-la-vila-dax</ref>, Ais de la Capèla, Ais dau Ren<ref>[[Bertrand de La Torre d'Auvèrnha (lingüista)]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20241005061024/http://lengo.hb-prov.fr/dico/noum_geougrafi.pdf Diciounàri prouvençau]: "Ais-de la-Capello o Ais-dòu-Ren".</ref>
|{{IPA|oci|akisˈɡɾan|}}, {{IPA|oci|ˈajs da.leˈmaɲɔ|}}, {{IPA|oci|ˈajs de la kaˈpɛlɔ|}}, {{IPA|oci|ˈajs daw ˈrɛn|}}
|-
| [[Polish language|Polish]]
| {{lang|pl|Akwizgran|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|pl|aˈkfizɡran|}}
|-
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| {{lang|pt|Aquisgrano|italic=no}}, {{lang|pt|Aquisgrão|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|pt-PT|ɐkiʒˈɣɾɐnu|lang|link=yes}}, {{IPA|pt|ɐkiʒˈɣɾɐ̃w|}}
|-
| [[Russian language|Russian]]
| {{lang|ru|Ахен}} ''(Akhen)''
| {{IPA|ru|ˈɐxʲɪn|}}
|-
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| {{lang|es|Aquisgrán|italic=no}}<ref name="Kerner 2013"/>
| {{IPA|es|akisˈɣɾan|}}
|-
| [[Walloon language|Walloon]]
| {{lang|wa|Åxhe|italic=no}}
| {{IPA|wa|ɑːç|}}
|}

== History ==
{{Further|Timeline of Aachen}}
{{see also|Free Imperial City of Aachen}}

=== Early history ===
Flint quarries on the [[Lousberg]], Schneeberg, and Königshügel, first used during [[Neolithic]] times (3000–2500 BC), attest to the long occupation of the site of Aachen, as do recent finds under the modern city's ''Elisengarten'' pointing to a former settlement from the same period. [[Bronze Age]] (around 1600 BC) settlement is evidenced by the remains of barrows (burial mounds) found, for example, on the Klausberg. During the [[Iron Age]], the area was settled by Celtic peoples<ref>{{harvnb|Schumacher|2009}}.</ref> who were perhaps drawn by the marshy Aachen basin's [[hot spring|hot sulphur springs]] where they worshipped [[Grannus]], god of light and healing.

The 25-hectare Roman spa resort town of Aquae Granni was, according to legend, founded by Grenus, under [[Hadrian]], around 124 AD. Grenus refers to the Celtic god, and it seems it was the Roman 6th Legion at the start of the 1st century AD that first channelled the hot springs into a spa at Büchel,{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}}{{efn|This audio file is Andreas Schaub explaining the archaeological record in court in ''Archäologie am Hof''.}} adding at the end of the same century the ''Münstertherme'' spa,<ref name="Anon 2013">{{harvnb|Anon|2013}}.</ref> two water pipelines, and a probable{{clarify|date=December 2016}} sanctuary dedicated to Grannus. A kind of forum, surrounded by colonnades, connected the two spa complexes. There was an extensive residential area. The Romans built bathhouses near [[Burtscheid]]. A temple precinct called ''Vernenum'' was built near the modern [[Kornelimünster/Walheim]]. Today, remains have been found of three bathhouses,<ref name="McClendon 1996">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996|p=1}}.</ref> including two fountains in the ''Elisenbrunnen'' and the Burtscheid bathhouse.

Roman civil administration in Aachen eventually broke down as the baths and other public buildings (along with most of the [[villae rusticae]] of the surrounding countryside) were destroyed around AD 375 at the start of the [[migration period]]. The last Roman coin finds are from the time of Emperor [[Gratian]] (AD 375–383). Rome withdrew its troops from the area, but the town remained populated. By 470, the town came to be ruled by the [[Ripuarian Franks]]<ref name="Coll">{{harvnb|Held|1997|p=2}}.</ref> and subordinated to their capital, [[Cologne]]. During the Roman period, Aachen was the site of a flourishing Jewish community.<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com">{{harvnb|Freimann|1906|p=301}}.</ref> 

=== Middle Ages ===
[[Pepin the Short]] had a castle residence built in the town,{{when|date=September 2024}} due to the proximity of the hot springs and also for strategic reasons as it is located between the [[Rhineland]] and northern France.<ref name="McClendon 1996a">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996a|p=1}}.</ref> [[Einhard]] mentions that in 765–766 Pepin spent both Christmas and Easter at ''Aquis villa'' ''({{lang|la|Et celebravit natalem Domini in Aquis villa et pascha similiter}})''<ref>{{harvnb|Eginhard|2012|p=10}}.</ref> ("and [he] celebrated the birth of the Lord [Christmas] in the town Aquis, and similarly Easter"), which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation as king of the [[Francia|Franks]], 768, [[Charlemagne]] came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time.{{efn|This is in dispute, as some history books state that Charlemagne was in fact born in Aachen in 742.<ref name="Merkl 2007" />}} He remained there in a mansion which he may have extended, although there is no source attesting to any significant building activity at Aachen in his time, apart from the building of the [[Palatine Chapel in Aachen|Palatine Chapel]] (since 1930, cathedral) and the [[Palace of Aachen|Palace]]. 

Charlemagne spent most winters in Aachen between 792 and his death in 814. Aachen became the focus of his court and the political centre of his empire. During the [[Carolingian]] empire, a Jewish community lived near the royal palace. In Jewish texts, the city of Aachen was called ''Aish'' or ''Ash'' (אש). In 797, Isaac, a Jewish merchant, accompanied two ambassadors of [[Charlemagne]] to the court of [[Harun al-Rashid]]. He returned to Aachen in July 802, bearing an elephant called [[Abul-Abbas]] as a gift for the emperor.<ref>{{cite news |date=21 July 2003 |title=Baghdad, Jerusalem, Aachen – On the Trail of the White Elephant |url=https://www.dw.com/en/baghdad-jerusalem-aachen-on-the-trail-of-the-white-elephant/a-923561 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218174200/https://www.dw.com/en/baghdad-jerusalem-aachen-on-the-trail-of-the-white-elephant/a-923561 |archive-date=18 February 2020 |access-date=18 February 2020 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]]}}</ref> After Charlemagne's death, he was buried in the church which he had built;<ref name="McClendon 1996a-4">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996a|p=4}}.</ref> his original tomb has been lost, while his alleged remains are preserved in the ''[[Karlsschrein]]'', the shrine where he was reburied after being declared a saint; his saintliness, however, was never officially acknowledged by the Roman Curia as such. 
[[File:Construction d Aix-la-Chapelle.jpg|thumb|right|Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by [[Jean Fouquet]]]]
[[File:Aachener Heiligtumszeigung Oelgemaelde 17Jh.jpg|thumb|150px|Presentation of the four "Great Relics" during the Aachen [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimage]], after a 17th-century painting]]
In 936, [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]] was crowned king of [[East Francia]] in the collegiate church built by Charlemagne. During the reign of [[Otto II]], the nobles revolted and the [[West Francia|West Frank]]s under [[Lothair of France|Lothair]]<ref name="dupuy">{{harvnb|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=258}}.</ref> [[Franco-German war of 978–980|raided Aachen]] in 978.<ref>{{harvnb|Kitchen|1996|p=35}}.</ref> Aachen was attacked again by [[Odo II, Count of Blois|Odo of Champagne]], who attacked the [[Palace of Aachen|imperial palace]] while [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]] was absent. Odo relinquished it and was killed afterwards.<ref>{{harvnb|Kitchen|1996|p=40}}.</ref> The palace and town of Aachen had fortifying walls built by order of Emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] between 1172 and 1176.<ref name="McClendon 1996" /> Over the next 500 years, most kings of [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]] who ruled the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were crowned in Aachen. The original audience hall built by Charlemagne was torn down and replaced by the current [[Aachen Rathaus|city hall]] in 1330.{{efn|Sources differ on the age of the [[Aachen Rathaus|city hall]], as the dates used for the construction were 1334–1349.<ref name="McClendon 1996" />}}<ref name="McClendon 1996" /> During the 13th century, many Jews converted to Christianity, as shown in the records of the [[Aachen Cathedral|Aachen Minster]] (today's Cathedral). In 1486, the Jews of Aachen offered gifts to [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] during his coronation ceremony. The last king to be crowned here was [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] in 1531.{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}}<ref name="Ranson 1998" /> 

During the [[Middle Ages]], Aachen remained a city of regional importance, due to its proximity to [[Flanders]]; it achieved a modest position in the trade in [[wool]]len cloths, favoured by imperial privilege. The city remained a [[free imperial city]], subject to the emperor only, but was politically far too weak to influence the policies of any of its neighbours. The only dominion it had was over [[Burtscheid]], a neighbouring territory ruled by a [[Benedictine]] [[abbess]], which was forced to accept that all of its traffic must pass through the "Aachener Reich". 

As an imperial city, Aachen held certain political privileges that allowed it to remain independent{{clarify|date=December 2016}} of the troubles of Europe for many years. It remained a direct vassal of the Holy Roman Empire throughout most of the Middle Ages. It was also the site of many important church councils, including the [[Council of 837]]<ref>{{harvnb|De Jong|1996|p=279}}</ref> and the [[Council of 1166]], a council convened by the [[antipope]] [[Paschal III]].{{sfn|Bayer|2000|p=?}}

==== Manuscript production ====
Aachen was an important site for the production of historical manuscripts. Under Charlemagne's purview, both the [[Aachen Gospels (Ada School)|Ada Gospels]] and the [[Coronation Gospel]]s may have been produced in Aachen.<ref name="McKitterick 1996">{{harvnb|McKitterick|1996|p=1}}.</ref> In addition, quantities of the other texts in the court library were also produced locally. During the reign of [[Louis the Pious]] (814–840), substantial quantities of ancient texts were produced at Aachen, including legal manuscripts such as the leges scriptorium group, [[patristic]] texts including the five manuscripts of the [[Bamberg Pliny Group]].<ref name="McKitterick 1996" /> Finally, under [[Lothair I]] (840–855), texts of outstanding quality were still being produced. This however marked the end of the period of manuscript production at Aachen.<ref name="McKitterick 1996" />

=== 16th–18th centuries ===
[[File:The Siege of Aachen.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Siege of Aachen (1614)|siege of Aachen]] by the Spanish Army of Flanders under Ambrogio Spinola in 1614]]
[[File:Rhein-Strom 0184a Achen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|View of Aachen in 1690]]

In 1598, following the invasion of [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] troops from the [[Spanish Netherlands|Netherlands]], [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf]] deposed all [[Protestant]] office holders in Aachen and went as far as expelling them from the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982|p=295}}.</ref> From the early 16th century, Aachen started to lose its power and influence. First the [[Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor|coronations of emperors]] were moved from Aachen to [[Frankfurt]]. This was followed by the [[European wars of religion|religious wars]] and the great fire of 1656.<ref name="eb">{{harvnb|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|2006}}.</ref> After the destruction of most of the city in 1656, the rebuilding was mostly in the [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] style.<ref name="McClendon 1996" /> The decline of Aachen culminated in 1794, when the French, led by General [[Charles Dumouriez]],<ref name="Coll" /> occupied Aachen.<ref name="Ranson 1998" />

In 1542, the Dutch [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] and physician [[Francis Fabricius]] published his study of the health benefits of the hot springs in Aachen.{{sfn|Jourdan|1821|p=92}} By the middle of the 17th century, the city had developed a considerable reputation as a spa, although this was in part because Aachen was then – and remained well into the 19th and early 20th century – a place of high-level prostitution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roos |first=Julia |date=2009 |title=Women's Rights, Nationalist Anxiety, and the "Moral" Agenda in the Early Weimar Republic: Revisiting the "Black Horror" Campaign against France's African Occupation Troops |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0008938909990069/type/journal_article |journal=Central European History |language=en |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=473–508 |doi=10.1017/S0008938909990069 |issn=0008-9389|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Traces of this hidden agenda of the city's history are found in the 18th-century guidebooks to Aachen as well as to the other spas.

The main [[Indication (medicine)|indication]] for visiting patients, ironically, was [[syphilis]]; only by the end of the 19th century had [[rheumatism]] become the most important object of cures at Aachen and Burtscheid.

Aachen was chosen as the site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|first congress of Aachen]] (often referred to as the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in English) on 2 May 1668,<ref name="dupuy1">{{harvnb|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=563}}.</ref> leading to the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|First Treaty of Aachen]] in the same year which ended the [[War of Devolution]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982a|p=70}}.</ref> The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|second congress]] ended with the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|second treaty]] in 1748, ending the [[War of the Austrian Succession]].{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}}<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982a|p=217}}.</ref> In 1789, there was a constitutional crisis in the Aachen government,<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2004|p=301}}.</ref> and in 1794 Aachen lost its status as a [[free imperial city]].<ref name="McClendon 1996" />

In 1629, the Aachen Jewish community was expelled from the city. In 1667, six Jews were allowed to return. Most of the Aachen Jewish community settled in Burtscheid. As recently as the late 18th century the Abbess of Burtscheid was still prevented from building a road linking her territory to the neighbouring estates of the [[Duchy of Jülich|duke of Jülich]]; the city of Aachen deployed its handful of soldiers to chase away road-diggers.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

=== 19th century ===
[[File:KleineSchwimmhalle.JPG|thumb|The modern Elisabethhalle pool]]
On 9 February 1801, the [[Peace of Lunéville]] removed the ownership of Aachen and the entire "left bank" of the Rhine from Germany (the [[Holy Roman Empire]]) and granted it to France.<ref name="Coll" /> In 1815, control of the town was passed to the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] through an agreement reached by the [[Congress of Vienna]].<ref name="McClendon 1996" /><ref name="Ranson 1998" /> The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|third congress]] took place in 1818, to decide the fate of occupied [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]ic France.

By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation had swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the remains of the city's medieval constitution were kept in place until 1801, when Aachen became the "[[Prefectures in France|chef-lieu]] du [[Roer (department)|département de la Roer]]" in Napoleon's [[First French Empire]]. In 1815, after the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] took over within the new [[German Confederation]]. The city was one of its most socially and politically backward centres until the end of the 19th century.{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}} Administered within the [[Rhine Province]], by 1880 the population was 80,000. Starting in 1838, the railway from [[Cologne]] to [[Belgium]] passed through Aachen.<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982b|p=11}}.</ref> The city suffered extreme overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions until 1875, when the medieval fortifications were abandoned as a limit to building and new, better housing was built in the east of the city, where sanitary drainage was easiest. In December 1880, the [[Trams in Aachen|Aachen tramway network]] was opened, and in 1895 it was electrified.<ref>{{harvnb|Van der Gragt|1968|p=137}}.</ref> In the 19th century and up to the 1930s, the city was important in the production of railway locomotives and carriages, iron, pins, [[sewing needle|needles]], buttons, tobacco, woollen goods, and silk goods.

=== 20th century ===
====World War II====
{{further|Battle of Aachen}}

[[File:111-adc-2447.webm|thumb|upright=1.2|thumbtime=06:42|start=00:08|Films shot on 13, 14 and 15 October 1944 in Aachen by US forces]]
After [[World War I]], Aachen was occupied by the Entente until 1930, along with the rest of German territory west of the Rhine.<ref name="Ranson 1998" /> Aachen was one of the locations involved in the [[Rhenish Republic]]. On 21 October 1923, an armed mob took over the city hall. Similar actions took place in [[Mönchengladbach]], [[Duisburg]], and [[Krefeld]]. This republic lasted about a year.<ref>{{harvnb|Holborn|1982b|p=614}}.</ref> 

Aachen was heavily damaged during [[World War II]]. According to [[Jörg Friedrich (author)|Jörg Friedrich]] in ''The Fire'' (2008), two Allied air raids on 11 April and 24 May 1944 "radically destroyed" the city. The first killed 1,525, including 212 children, and bombed six hospitals. During the second, 442 aircraft hit two railway stations, killed 207, and left 15,000 homeless. The raids destroyed [[Eilendorf (Aachen)|Aachen-Eilendorf]] and [[Burtscheid|Aachen-Burtscheid]].<ref>{{harvnb|Friedrich|2008|p=[https://archive.org/details/firebombingofger00frie/page/117 117]}}.</ref>

The city and its fortified surroundings were besieged from 12 September to 21 October 1944 by the US 1st Infantry Division<ref name="Stanton 2006">{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p=76}}.</ref> with the 3rd Armored Division assisting from the south.<ref>{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p=51}}.</ref> Around 13 October the US 2nd Armored Division, coming from the north, and got as close as [[Würselen]],<ref>{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p=50}}.</ref> while the 30th Infantry Division completed the encirclement of Aachen on 16 October 1944.<ref>{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p=109}}.</ref> With reinforcements from the US 28th Infantry Division<ref>{{harvnb|Stanton|2006|p=105}}.</ref> the battle continued involving direct assaults through the heavily defended city, which forced the German garrison to surrender on 21 October 1944.<ref name="Stanton 2006" />

Aachen was the first German city to be captured by the Western Allies, and its residents welcomed the soldiers as liberators.<ref name="baker2004">{{harvnb|Baker|2004|p=37}}.</ref> What remained of the city was destroyed—in some areas completely—during the fighting,{{sfn|Bridgwater|Aldrich|1968}} mostly by American [[artillery]] fire and demolitions carried out by the [[Waffen-SS]] defenders. Damaged buildings included medieval churches of and the [[Aachen Rathaus|Rathaus]] (city hall), although [[Aachen Cathedral]] was largely unscathed. 4,000 inhabitants remained in the city; the rest had followed evacuation orders. Its first Allied-appointed mayor, [[Franz Oppenhoff]], was assassinated by an SS commando unit.

==== Expulsion of Aachen Jews ====
[[File:View of the old synagogue in Aachen after its destruction during Kristallnacht 02, refreshed.jpg|thumb|View of the {{ill|Old Synagogue (Aachen)|lt=Old Synagogue|de|Alte Synagoge (Aachen)|fr|Ancienne synagogue d'Aix-la-Chapelle (1862-1938)|id|Sinagoge Tua Aachen}} after its destruction on [[Kristallnacht]], November 1938]]
On 16 May 1815, the [[Jewish community]] of the city offered an homage in its synagogue to the Prussian king, [[Friedrich Wilhelm III]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (AACHEN) - JewishEncyclopedia.com |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1019-aix-la-chapelle-aachen |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> In 1862, a large synagogue was built, later called the {{ill|Old Synagogue (Aachen)|lt=Old Synagogue|de|Alte Synagoge (Aachen)|fr|Ancienne synagogue d'Aix-la-Chapelle (1862-1938)|id|Sinagoge Tua Aachen}}. By 1933, 1,345 Jews lived in the city. On ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' in 1938, the synagogue was destroyed. By the onset of [[World War II]] in 1939, many Jews had emigrated or were arrested, and only 782 remained in the city. At the end of the war in 1945, only 62 Jews lived in the city. As of 2003, 1,434 Jews were again living in Aachen. 

=== 21st century ===
The city of Aachen has developed into a technology hub as a by-product of hosting one of the leading [[Institute of Technology|universities of technology]] in Germany with the [[RWTH Aachen]] (Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule), known especially for mechanical engineering, automotive and manufacturing technology as well as for its research and academic hospital [[Klinikum Aachen]], one of the largest medical facilities in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fries |first=Dr.-Ing. Thomas-Peter |title=XFEM 2009 |url=http://www.xfem2009.rwth-aachen.de/MainContents/AboutAachen.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517103903/http://www.xfem2009.rwth-aachen.de/MainContents/AboutAachen.php |archive-date=2021-05-17 |access-date=2025-06-20 |website=www.xfem2009.rwth-aachen.de}}</ref>

== Geography ==
[[File:Klinikum-Aachen-from-Vaalserberg.JPG|thumb|View towards Aachen at the foothills of the [[High Fens]], with the [[Uniklinikum Aachen|university hospital]] visible, from the [[Vaalserberg]], the highest elevation in Aachen and of the European part of the Netherlands.]]
[[File:Rurverlauf.JPG|thumb|Physiogeographical location of Aachen]]

Aachen is located in the middle of the [[Meuse–Rhine Euroregion]], close to [[Vaalserberg#Three-Country Point|the border tripoint of Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium]]. The town of [[Vaals]] in the Netherlands lies nearby at about {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=on}} from Aachen's city centre, while the Dutch city of [[Heerlen]] and [[Eupen]], the capital of the [[German-speaking Community of Belgium]], are both located about {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=on}} from Aachen city centre. Aachen lies near the head of the open valley of the [[Wurm (Rur)|Wurm]] (which today flows through the city in canalised form), part of the larger basin of the [[Meuse]], and about {{convert|30|km|0|abbr=on}} north of the [[High Fens]], which form the northern edge of the [[Eifel]] uplands of the [[Rhenish Massif]].

The maximum dimensions of the city's territory are {{convert|21.6|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=on}} from north to south, and {{convert|17.2|km|frac=8|abbr=on}} from east to west. The city limits are {{convert|87.7|km|frac=8|abbr=on}} long, of which {{convert|23.8|km|frac=8|abbr=on}} border Belgium and {{convert|21.8|km|frac=8|abbr=on}} the Netherlands. The highest point in Aachen, located in the far southeast of the city, lies at an elevation of {{convert|410|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level. The lowest point, in the north, and on the border with the Netherlands, is at {{convert|125|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

=== Climate ===
As the westernmost city in Germany<ref name="Munro 1995">{{harvnb|Munro|1995|p=1}}.</ref> (and close to the Low Countries), Aachen and the surrounding area belongs to a [[Temperate climate|temperate]] [[Oceanic climate|climate zone]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Cfb]]), with humid weather, mild winters, and warm summers. Because of its location north of the [[Eifel]] and the [[High Fens]] and its subsequent prevailing westerly weather patterns, rainfall in Aachen (on average 805&nbsp;mm/year) is comparatively higher than, for example, in [[Bonn]] (with 669&nbsp;mm/year). Another factor in the local weather forces of Aachen is the occurrence of [[Foehn winds]] on the southerly air currents, which results from the city's geographic location on the northern edge of the Eifel.

Because the city is surrounded by hills, it suffers from [[inversion (meteorology)|inversion-related]] smog. Some areas of the city have become [[urban heat island]]s as a result of poor heat exchange, both because of the area's natural geography and from human activity. The city's numerous cold air corridors, which are slated to remain as free as possible from new construction, therefore play an important role in the urban climate of Aachen.<ref>{{harvnb|Aachen Department of Environment|2013}}.</ref>

The January average is
{{convert|3.0|°C|0|abbr=on}}, while the July average is {{convert|18.5|°C|0|abbr=on}}. Precipitation is almost evenly spread throughout the year.

The city's oceanic climate provides comparably mild winters: While Aachen falls within the coldest extents covered by [[Hardiness zone|USDA plant hardiness zone]] 8b in the 1991–2020 period, having an average yearly minimum of −9.22&nbsp;°C (15.4&nbsp;°F), the Canadian city of [[Regina, Saskatchewan]] which is located at a similar latitude but at the heart of the North American landmass, far away from the sea's moderating effects, is classified as being in zone 3a.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Natural Resources Canada |title=Canada's Plant Hardiness Site |url=http://planthardiness.gc.ca/?m=1&lang=en |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=planthardiness.gc.ca}}</ref>

In the 1991–2020 period, the record latest freeze (at 2 m above ground) of spring occurred on April 28th and the record first fall freeze on October 13th.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wetter und Klima - Deutscher Wetterdienst - Leistungen - Frühester / spätester Frost |url=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/frost_termine/frosttermine.html#buehneTop |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=www.dwd.de}}</ref> The average last freeze date for the 1991-2020 period is April 6th, though it varies significantly from year to year and by location<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rückblick für Aachen - WetterKontor |url=https://www.wetterkontor.de/de/wetter/deutschland/rueckblick.asp?id=1&datum0=01.04.2024&datum1=30.04.2024&jr=2025&mo=4&datum=04.09.2025&t=4&part=1 |access-date=2025-09-04 |website=www.wetterkontor.de}}</ref> (note that the climate station was relocated in 2011)

The Aachen weather station has recorded the following extreme values:<ref name=sklima/>
* Highest Temperature {{convert|38.6|C|F}} on [[2019_European_heatwaves#Germany|25 July 2019]].
* Warmest Minimum {{convert|24.5|C|F}} on 29 July 1947.
* Coldest Maximum {{convert|-12.8|C|F}} on 22 January 1940.
* Lowest Temperature {{convert|-20.4|C|F}} on 11 January 1945.<ref name=wetterzentrale/>
* Highest Daily Precipitation {{convert|98.7|mm|in|abbr=on}} on 14 July 2021.
* Wettest Month {{convert|232.2|mm|in|abbr=on}} in July 2021.
* Wettest Year {{convert|1121.1|mm|in|abbr=on}} in 1966.
* Driest Year {{convert|530.5|mm|in|abbr=on}} in 1959.
* Earliest Snowfall: 4 November 1941.
* Latest Snowfall: 30 April 1938.
* Longest annual sunshine: 2,128.4 hours in 2003.
* Shortest annual sunshine: 1,277.4 hours in 1981.

{{Weather box|width=auto
|location = Aachen (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1891–present{{efn|Temperature data for Aachen have been recorded since 1891. The weather station data used from 1 January 1891 to 31 March 2011 came from Aachen weather station, and temperature data from 1 April 2011 to the present are from {{ill|Aachen-Orsbach|de|Orsbach}}.}})	
|metric first = Y	
|single line = Y
|Jan record high C = 16.2
|Feb record high C = 20.5
|Mar record high C = 24.5
|Apr record high C = 30.0
|May record high C = 34.2
|Jun record high C = 36.6
|Jul record high C = 38.6
|Aug record high C = 37.2
|Sep record high C = 34.3
|Oct record high C = 26.9
|Nov record high C = 22.1
|Dec record high C = 17.6
|year record high C = 38.6
|Jan avg record high C = 12.5
|Feb avg record high C = 13.9
|Mar avg record high C = 18.5
|Apr avg record high C = 23.3
|May avg record high C = 26.8
|Jun avg record high C = 30.4
|Jul avg record high C = 32.4
|Aug avg record high C = 31.9
|Sep avg record high C = 27.0
|Oct avg record high C = 22.5
|Nov avg record high C = 16.5
|Dec avg record high C = 12.7
|year avg record high C = 34.1
|Jan high C = 5.7
|Feb high C = 6.8
|Mar high C = 10.6
|Apr high C = 14.7
|May high C = 18.5
|Jun high C = 21.4
|Jul high C = 23.7
|Aug high C = 23.3
|Sep high C = 19.4
|Oct high C = 14.8
|Nov high C = 9.4
|Dec high C = 5.6
|year high C = 14.5
|Jan mean C = 3.2
|Feb mean C = 3.8
|Mar mean C = 6.6
|Apr mean C = 10.0
|May mean C = 13.8
|Jun mean C = 16.6
|Jul mean C = 18.7
|Aug mean C = 18.3
|Sep mean C = 14.8
|Oct mean C = 10.8
|Nov mean C = 6.7
|Dec mean C = 3.3
|year mean C = 10.5
|Jan low C = 0.8
|Feb low C = 1.2
|Mar low C = 3.4
|Apr low C = 5.8
|May low C = 9.3
|Jun low C = 12.0
|Jul low C = 14.4
|Aug low C = 14.0
|Sep low C = 11.2
|Oct low C = 7.7
|Nov low C = 4.4
|Dec low C = 1.2
|year low C = 7.1
|Jan avg record low C = -6.9
|Feb avg record low C = -5.8
|Mar avg record low C = -2.9
|Apr avg record low C = -0.6
|May avg record low C = 3.0
|Jun avg record low C = 6.8
|Jul avg record low C = 9.4
|Aug avg record low C = 9.4
|Sep avg record low C = 6.2
|Oct avg record low C = 1.2
|Nov avg record low C = -1.9
|Dec avg record low C = -5.1
|year avg record low C = -9.2
|Jan record low C = -20.4
|Feb record low C = -20.2
|Mar record low C = -11.9
|Apr record low C = -4.8
|May record low C = -1.3
|Jun record low C = 1.8
|Jul record low C = 5.8
|Aug record low C = 3.4
|Sep record low C = 0.0
|Oct record low C = -5.7
|Nov record low C = -8.9
|Dec record low C = -16.5
|year record low C = -20.4
|precipitation colour = green	
|Jan precipitation mm = 64.3
|Feb precipitation mm = 63.4
|Mar precipitation mm = 59.3
|Apr precipitation mm = 53.5
|May precipitation mm = 65.0
|Jun precipitation mm = 70.0
|Jul precipitation mm = 79.0
|Aug precipitation mm = 80.6
|Sep precipitation mm = 68.1
|Oct precipitation mm = 66.1
|Nov precipitation mm = 66.6
|Dec precipitation mm = 74.4
|year precipitation mm = 811.4
|unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm	
|Jan precipitation days = 17.0
|Feb precipitation days = 16.5
|Mar precipitation days = 16.4
|Apr precipitation days = 13.5
|May precipitation days = 15.9
|Jun precipitation days = 14.6
|Jul precipitation days = 15.3
|Aug precipitation days = 14.4
|Sep precipitation days = 14.1
|Oct precipitation days = 15.1
|Nov precipitation days = 18.2
|Dec precipitation days = 18.2
|year precipitation days = 189.6
|Jan snow depth cm = 4.6
|Feb snow depth cm = 5.4
|Mar snow depth cm = 1.7
|Apr snow depth cm = 0.4
|May snow depth cm = 0
|Jun snow depth cm = 0
|Jul snow depth cm = 0
|Aug snow depth cm = 0
|Sep snow depth cm = 0
|Oct snow depth cm = 0
|Nov snow depth cm = 0.7
|Dec snow depth cm = 4.3
|year snow depth cm = 9.8
|unit snow days = 1.0 cm
|Jan snow days = 5.5
|Feb snow days = 5.1
|Mar snow days = 1.2
|Apr snow days = 0.1
|May snow days = 0
|Jun snow days = 0
|Jul snow days = 0
|Aug snow days = 0
|Sep snow days = 0
|Oct snow days = 0
|Nov snow days = 1.1
|Dec snow days = 3.8
|year snow days = 17.1
|humidity colour = green
|Jan humidity = 82.1	
|Feb humidity = 80.1
|Mar humidity = 74.9
|Apr humidity = 68.9
|May humidity = 70.3
|Jun humidity = 70.5
|Jul humidity = 70.7
|Aug humidity = 72.1
|Sep humidity = 77.4
|Oct humidity = 80.7
|Nov humidity = 83.7
|Dec humidity = 84.8
|year humidity = 76.4
|Jan sun = 68.3
|Feb sun = 75.0
|Mar sun = 126.2
|Apr sun = 168.7
|May sun = 194.9
|Jun sun = 207.9
|Jul sun = 208.1
|Aug sun = 196.9
|Sep sun = 151.3
|Oct sun = 121.5
|Nov sun = 68.0
|Dec sun = 52.5
|year sun = 1634.3
|source 1 = [[NOAA]]<ref name=NOAA>{{cite web
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230914163046/https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Germany/CSV/Aachen_10501.csv
|archive-date = 14 September 2023
|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Germany/CSV/Aachen_10501.csv
|title = Aachen Climate Normals 1991–2020
|publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
|access-date = 15 September 2023}}</ref>
|source 2 = Data derived from [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]]<ref>{{harvnb|Federal Ministry of Transport, Building, and Urban Development|2013}}.</ref><ref name=wetterzentrale>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.wetterzentrale.de/extremes_mon.php?station=3&maand=1&country=1&order=1&extreem=X_TX
|title = Extremwertanalyse der DWD-Stationen, Tagesmaxima, Dekadenrekorde, usw.
|publisher = DWD
|language = de
|access-date = 9 December 2023}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.wetterzentrale.de/extremes_mon.php?station=15000&maand=1&country=1&order=1&extreem=X_TX
|title = Extremwertanalyse der DWD-Stationen, Tagesmaxima, Dekadenrekorde, usw.
|publisher = DWD
|language = de
|access-date = 10 December 2023}}</ref><ref name=sklima>{{cite web 
|url = http://sklima.de/datenbank_auswertung.php?tab=2
|title = Monatsauswertung 
|website = sklima.de 
|publisher = SKlima 
|language = de 
|access-date = 27 October 2024}}</ref>
| date = May 2013
}}

== Geology ==
[[File:Aachen Felsen St.Adalbert.JPG|thumb|Layered [[sandstone]] and [[claystone]] [[formation (stratigraphy)|formation]] from the [[Devonian]] period below St. Adalbert Church in Aachen]]

The geology of Aachen is very structurally heterogeneous. The oldest occurring rocks in the area surrounding the city originate from the [[Devonian]] period and include [[carboniferous]] [[sandstone]], [[greywacke]], [[claystone]] and [[limestone]]. These formations are part of the [[Rhenish Massif]], north of the High Fens. In the [[Pennsylvanian (geology)|Pennsylvanian]] subperiod of the [[Carboniferous]] geological period, these rock layers were narrowed and folded as a result of the [[Variscan orogeny]]. After this event, and over the course of the following 200 million years, this area has been continuously flattened.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Ernest Masson|editor1-last= Healy|editor1-first= David |year=2012 |title=Faulting, Fracturing and Igneous Intrusion in the Earth's Crust |issue=367 |volume=367 |publisher=Geological Society of London |isbn=978-1-86239-347-9 |issn=0305-8719}}</ref>

During the [[Cretaceous]] period, the ocean penetrated the continent from the direction of the [[North Sea]] up to the mountainous area near Aachen, bringing with it clay, sand, and chalk deposits. While the clay (which was the basis for a major [[pottery]] industry in nearby [[Raeren]]) is mostly found in the lower areas of Aachen, the hills of the [[Aachen Forest]] and the [[Lousberg]] were formed from upper Cretaceous sand and chalk deposits. More recent sedimentation is mainly located in the north and east of Aachen and was formed through [[Tertiary (period)|Tertiary]] and [[Quaternary]] river and wind activities.

Along the major [[thrust fault]] of the [[Variscan orogeny]], there are over 30 [[thermal spring]]s in Aachen and [[Burtscheid]]. Additionally, the subsurface of Aachen is traversed by numerous [[active fault]]s that belong to the Rurgraben fault system, which has been responsible for numerous earthquakes in the past, including the 1756 [[Düren]] earthquake<ref name="duerenEQ">{{harvnb|University of Cologne, Seismological Station Bensberg|2013}}.</ref> and the [[1992 Roermond earthquake]],<ref name="Roermond">{{harvnb|Geological Survey of North Rhine-Westphalia|2013}}.</ref> which was the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the [[Netherlands]].

== Demographics ==
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Largest groups of foreign residents
|-
! Nationality
! Population (30.06.2024)<ref>{{cite web |title= Melderegisterauswertung Stand 31.12.2024 |url=https://www.aachen.de/de/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/statistische_daten/rechts_bevoelkerung.pdf}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flag|Turkey}}
| 6,745
|-
| {{Flag|China}}
| 4,365
|-
| {{Flag|Ukraine}}
| 3,998
|-
| {{Flag|Syria}}
| 3,751
|-
| {{Flag|India}}
| 3,662
|-
| {{Flag|Romania}}
| 2,369
|-
| {{Flag|Bulgaria}}
| 1,786
|-
| {{Flag|Romania}}
| 1,836
|-
| {{Flag|Poland}}
| 1,745
|-
| {{Flag|Greece}}
| 1,542
|-
| {{Flag|Morocco}}
| 1,495
|-
|}
Aachen had 245,885 inhabitants as of 31 December 2015, of whom 118,272 were female, and 127,613 were male.<ref name="Zensus 2011">{{cite web |url=http://www.it.nrw.de/statistik/a/daten/bevoelkerungszahlen_zensus/zensus_rp3_dez15.html |last=Information und Technik Nordrhein-Westfalen |title=Bevölkerung im Regierungsbezirk Köln |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408003047/https://www.it.nrw.de/statistik/a/daten/bevoelkerungszahlen_zensus/zensus_rp3_dez15.html |archive-date=8 April 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

At the end of 2009, the foreign-born residents of Aachen made up 13.6 percent of the total population.<ref name="StatJahrbuch2009">{{harvnb|City of Aachen|2012}}.</ref> A significant portion of foreign residents are students at the [[RWTH Aachen University]].

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Population
|-
| 1994
| 246,570<ref name="Cohen">{{harvnb|Cohen|1998|p=1}}.</ref>
|-
| 2007
| 247,740<ref name="Merkl 2007" />
|-
| 2011
| 238,665<ref name="Zensus 2011" />
|-
| 2014
| 243,336<ref name="Zensus 2011" />
|-
| 2015
| 245,885<ref name="Zensus 2011" />
|}

[[File:Age structure aachen vs germany.svg|thumb|120px|Age distribution of Aachen's population next to Germany's (2014)]]

=== Dialect ===
Aachen is at the western end of the [[Benrath line]] that divides [[High German languages|High German]] to the south from the rest of the [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] speech area to the north.<ref name="Anon 2013"/> Aachen's local dialect is called ''Öcher Platt'' and belongs to [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]].

== Boroughs ==

The city is divided into seven administrative districts, or boroughs, each with its own district council, district leader, and district authority. The councils are elected locally by those who live within the district, and these districts are further subdivided into smaller sections for statistical purposes, with each sub-district named by a two-digit number.

The districts of Aachen, including their constituent statistical districts, are:
* [[Aachen-Mitte]]: 10 Markt, 13 Theater, 14 Lindenplatz, 15 St. Jakob, 16 Westpark, 17 Hanbruch, 18 Hörn, 21 [[Ponttor]], 22 Hansemannplatz, 23 [[Soers]], 24 Jülicher Straße, 25 Kalkofen, 31 Kaiserplatz, 32 Adalbertsteinweg, 33 Panneschopp, 34 [[Rothe Erde]], 35 Trierer Straße, 36 [[Frankenberger Viertel|Frankenberg]], 37 [[Forst (Aachen)|Forst]], 41 Beverau, 42 [[Burtscheid]] Kurgarten, 43 Burtscheid Abbey, 46 Burtscheid Steinebrück, 47 Marschiertor, 48 Hangeweiher
* [[Brand (Aachen)|Brand]]: 51 Brand
* [[Eilendorf (Aachen)|Eilendorf]]: 52 Eilendorf
* [[Haaren (Aachen)|Haaren]]: 53 Haaren (including [[Verlautenheide]])
* [[Kornelimünster/Walheim]]: 61 [[Kornelimünster]], 62 [[Oberforstbach]], 63 [[Walheim (Aachen)|Walheim]]
* [[Laurensberg]]: 64 [[Vaalserquartier]], 65 Laurensberg
* [[Richterich]]: 88 Richterich

Regardless of official statistical designations, there are 50 neighbourhoods and communities within Aachen, here arranged by district:
[[File:AC SO Stadtbezirke overview named small.png|thumb|Aachen districts and quarters]]
* Aachen-Mitte: Beverau, Bildchen, [[Burtscheid]], Forst, Frankenberg, Grüne Eiche, Hörn, Lintert, [[Ponttor|Pontviertel]], [[Preuswald]], Ronheide, Rosviertel, Rothe Erde, Stadtmitte, Steinebrück, West
* [[Brand (Aachen)|Brand]]: Brand, Eich, [[Freund (Aachen)|Freund]], Hitfeld, Niederforstbach
* [[Eilendorf (Aachen)|Eilendorf]]: Eilendorf, Nirm
* [[Haaren (Aachen)|Haaren]]: Haaren, Hüls, Verlautenheide
* [[Kornelimünster/Walheim]]: [[Friesenrath]], [[Hahn (Aachen)|Hahn]], Kitzenhaus, Kornelimünster, [[Krauthausen (Aachen)|Krauthausen]], [[Lichtenbusch]], [[Nütheim]], Oberforstbach, [[Sief]], [[Schleckheim]], Schmithof, Walheim
* [[Laurensberg]]: Gut Kullen, Kronenberg, Laurensberg, [[Lemiers]], Melaten, [[Orsbach]], [[Seffent]], Soers, Steppenberg, Vaalserquartier, [[Vetschau (Aachen)|Vetschau]]
* [[Richterich]]: [[Horbach (Aachen)|Horbach]], Huf, Richterich

=== Neighbouring communities ===
The following cities and communities border Aachen, clockwise from the northwest:
[[Herzogenrath]], [[Würselen]], [[Eschweiler]], [[Stolberg (Rhineland)|Stolberg]] and [[Roetgen]] (which are all in the [[Aachen (district)|district of Aachen]]); [[Raeren]], [[Kelmis]] and [[Plombières]] ([[Liège Province]] in Belgium) as well as [[Vaals]], [[Gulpen-Wittem]], [[Simpelveld]], [[Heerlen]] and [[Kerkrade]] (all in [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg Province]] in the Netherlands).

== Politics ==
=== Mayor ===
[[File:AC SO Dr. Michael Ziemons I.jpg|thumb|Michael Ziemons (CDU) 2025]]
The current mayor of Aachen is [[Michael Ziemons]] of the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]], who was elected in 2025. The most recent mayoral election was held on 14 September 2025, with a runoff held on 28 September, and the results were as follows:

{{election table}}
! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate
! rowspan=2| Party
! colspan=2| First round
! colspan=2| Second round
|-
! Votes
! %
! Votes
! %
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Christian Democratic Union of Germany}}| 
| align=left| Michael Ziemons
| align=left| [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christian Democratic Union]]
| 43,860
| 40.6
| 50,692
| 56.0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alliance 90/The Greens}}| 
| align=left| [[Sibylle Keupen]]
| align=left| [[Alliance 90/The Greens]]
| 35,587
| 32.9
| 39,781
| 44.0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Germany}}| 
| align=left| Michael Servos
| align=left| [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]]
| 13,213
| 12.2
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|The Left (Germany)}}| 
| align=left| Ellen Begolli
| align=left| [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
| 4,146
| 3.8
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance}}|
| align=left| Kirill Karasev
| align=left| [[Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance]]
| 3,253
| 3.0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Free Democratic Party (Germany)}}| 
| align=left| Wulf Pabst
| align=left| [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]]
| 2,262
| 2.1
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Volt Germany}}|
| align=left| Alexandra Radermacher
| align=left| [[Volt Germany]]
| 1,593
| 1.5
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Independent politician}}| 
| align=left| Jörg Polzin
| align=left| [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| 1,553
| 1.4
|-
|
| align=left| Ute Haupts
| align=left| Independent Voters' Association Aachen
| 1,519
| 1.4
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Die PARTEI}}| 
| align=left| Xenia Lehmann
| align=left| [[Die PARTEI]]
| 1,189
| 1.1
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 108,175
! 99.2
! 90,473
! 99.3
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 840
! 0.8
! 613
! 0.7
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 102,818
! 100.0
! 91,086
! 100.0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 185,023
! 59.0
! 184,943
! 49.3
|-
| colspan=7| Source: City of Aachen<ref>{{cite web | url=https://wahlen.regioit.de/1/km2025/05334002/praesentation/index.html | title=Kommunalwahlen 2025 in Aachen| date=2025-09-28| access-date=2025-10-22| language=de }}</ref>
|}

=== City council ===
The Aachen city council governs the city alongside the mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 14 September 2025, and the results were as follows:

{{election table}}
! colspan=2| Party
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Christian Democratic Union of Germany}}| 
| align=left| [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU)
| 35,591
| 32.9
| {{increase}} 8.0
| 22
| {{increase}} 8
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alliance 90/The Greens}}| 
| align=left| [[Alliance 90/The Greens]] (Grüne)
| 30,175
| 27.9
| {{decrease}} 6.2
| 18
| {{decrease}} 2
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Germany}}| 
| align=left| [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD)
| 14,525
| 13.4
| {{decrease}} 4.9
| 9
| {{decrease}} 2
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alternative for Germany}}| 
| align=left| [[Alternative for Germany]] (AfD)
| 8,388
| 7.7
| {{increase}} 4.0
| 5
| {{increase}} 3
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|The Left (Germany)}}| 
| align=left| [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]] (Die Linke)
| 8,302
| 7.7
| {{increase}} 3.1
| 5
| {{increase}} 2
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Volt Europa}}| 
| align=left| [[Volt Europa#Germany|Volt Germany]] (Volt)
| 3,301
| 3.1
| {{decrease}} 0.7
| 2
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Free Democratic Party (Germany)}}| 
| align=left| [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]] (FDP)
| 2,906
| 2.7
| {{decrease}} 2.3
| 2
| {{decrease}} 1
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance}}|
| align=left| [[Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance]] (BSW)
| 1,888
| 1.7
| New
| 1
| New
|-
| 
| align=left| Independent Voters' Association Aachen (UWG)
| 1,792
| 1.7
| {{increase}} 0.1
| 1
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Die PARTEI}}| 
| align=left| [[Die PARTEI]] (PARTEI)
| 1,432
| 1.3
| {{decrease}} 0.9
| 1
| ±0
|-
| colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey| 
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Independent politician}}|
| align=left| Independent Polzin
| 58
| 0.1
| New
| 0
| New
|-
! colspan=2| Valid votes
! 108,358
! 99.4
! 
! 
! 
|-
! colspan=2| Invalid votes
! 656
! 0.6
! 
! 
! 
|-
! colspan=2| Total
! 109,014
! 100.0
! 
! 66
! {{increase}} 8
|-
! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout
! 185,023
! 58.9
! {{increase}} 5.5
! 
! 
|-
| colspan=7| Source: City of Aachen<ref>{{cite web | url=https://wahlen.regioit.de/1/km2025/05334002/praesentation/index.html | title=Kommunalwahlen 2025 in Aachen| date=2025-09-15| access-date=2025-10-22| language=de }}</ref>
|}

== Main sights ==

=== Cathedral ===
{{Main|Aachen Cathedral}}

[[File:Aachen Germany Imperial-Cathedral-01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Aachen Cathedral]]

Aachen Cathedral was erected on the orders of [[Charlemagne]]. Construction began ''c.'' AD 796,{{sfn|Bayer|2000|p=?}} and it was, on completion ''c.'' 798,<ref name="McClendon 1996a-2">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996a|p=2}}.</ref> the largest cathedral north of the [[Alps]]. It was modelled after the [[Basilica of San Vitale]], in [[Ravenna]], Italy,<ref name="Ranson 1998" /> and was built by [[Odo of Metz]].{{sfn|Bayer|2000|p=?}} Charlemagne also desired for the chapel to compete with the [[Lateran Palace]], both in quality and authority.<ref name="Gaehde 1996" /> It was originally built in the [[Carolingian architecture|Carolingian]] style, including marble covered walls, and mosaic inlay on the dome.<ref name="McClendon 1996a-3">{{harvnb|McClendon|1996a|p=3}}.</ref> On his death, Charlemagne's remains were interred in the cathedral and can be seen there to this day. The cathedral was extended several times in later ages, turning it into a curious and unique mixture of building styles. The throne and gallery portion date from the [[Ottonian dynasty|Ottonian]], with portions of the original [[opus sectile]] floor still visible.<ref name="McClendon 1996a-3" /> The 13th century saw gables being added to the roof, and after the fire of 1656, the dome was rebuilt. Finally, a [[Choir (architecture)|choir]] was added around the start of the 15th century.<ref name="McClendon 1996a-4" />

After [[Frederick Barbarossa]] [[Canonisation|canonised]] Charlemagne in 1165 the chapel became a [[Pilgrimage|destination for pilgrims]].<ref name="McClendon 1996a-4" /> For 600 years, from 936 to 1531, Aachen Cathedral was the church of coronation for 30 German kings and 12 queens. The church built by Charlemagne is still the main attraction of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|City of Aachen|2013}}.</ref> In addition to holding the remains of its founder, it became the burial place of his successor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]]. In the upper chamber of the gallery, Charlemagne's marble throne is housed.<ref name="Young">{{harvnb|Young|Stetler|1987|p=273}}.</ref> Aachen Cathedral has been designated as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aachen |title=Aachen {{!}} Germany |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=26 July 2017 |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808091015/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aachen |url-status=live }}</ref>

Most of the marble and columns used in the construction of the cathedral were brought from Rome and [[Ravenna]], including the [[sarcophagus]] in which Charlemagne was eventually laid to rest.<ref name="Gaehde 1996">{{harvnb|Gaehde|1996|p=4}}.</ref> A bronze bear from [[Gaul]] was placed inside, along with an equestrian statue from Ravenna, believed to be [[Theodric]], in contrast to a wolf and a statue of [[Marcus Aurelius]] in the [[Capitoline]].<ref name="Gaehde 1996" /> Bronze pieces such as the doors and railings, some of which have survived to present day, were cast in a local foundry. Finally, there is uncertainty surrounding the bronze pine cone in the chapel, and where it was created. Wherever it was made, it was also a parallel to a piece in Rome, this in [[Old St. Peter's Basilica]].<ref name="Gaehde 1996" />

=== Cathedral Treasury ===
{{Main|Aachen Cathedral Treasury}}
[[File:Aachen Germany Domschatz Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cross of Lothair]], Aachen Cathedral Treasury]]

Aachen Cathedral Treasury has housed, throughout its history, a collection of liturgical objects. The origin of this [[church treasure]] is in dispute as some say Charlemagne himself endowed his chapel with the original collection, while the rest were collected over time. Others say all of the objects were collected over time, from such places as [[Jerusalem]] and [[Constantinople]].<ref name="Gaehde 1996" /> The location of this treasury has moved over time and was unknown until the 15th century when it was located in the Matthiaskapelle (St. Matthew's Chapel) until 1873, when it was moved to the Karlskapelle (Charles' Chapel). From there it was moved to the Hungarian Chapel in 1881 and in 1931 to its present location next to the Allerseelenkapelle (Poor Souls' Chapel).<ref name="Gaehde 1996" /> Only six of the original [[Carolingian Empire|Carolingian]] objects have remained, and of those only three are left in Aachen: the [[Aachen Gospels (Ada School)|Aachen Gospels]], a [[diptych]] of Christ, and an early [[Byzantine silk]]. The [[Coronation Gospels]] and a [[St. Stephen's Purse|reliquary burse]] of [[St. Stephen]] were moved to [[Vienna]] in 1798 and the [[Talisman of Charlemagne]] was given as a gift in 1804 to [[Josephine Bonaparte]] and subsequently to [[Rheims Cathedral]].<ref name="Gaehde 1996" /> 210 documented pieces have been added to the treasury since its inception, typically to receive in return legitimisation of linkage to the heritage of Charlemagne. The [[Lothar Cross]], the [[Gospels of Otto III]] and multiple additional Byzantine silks were donated by [[Otto III]]. Part of the [[Aachen Cathedral#Pala d'Oro|Pala d'Oro]] and a covering for the [[Aachen Gospels (Ada School)|Aachen Gospels]] were made of gold donated by [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]].<ref name="Gaehde 1996" /> [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] donated the candelabrum that adorns the dome and also once "crowned" the [[Karlsschrein|Shrine of Charlemagne]], which was placed underneath in 1215. [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] donated a pair of reliquaries. [[Louis XI]] gave, in 1475, the crown of [[Margaret of York]], and, in 1481, another arm reliquary of Charlemagne. [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] and [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] both gave numerous works of art by [[Hans von Reutlingen]].<ref name="Gaehde 1996" /> Continuing the tradition, objects continued to be donated until the present, each indicative of the period of its gifting, with the last documented gift being a chalice from 1960 made by [[Ewald Mataré]].<ref name="Gaehde 1996" />

=== Rathaus ===
{{Main|Aachen Rathaus}}

[[File:Aachen BW 2016-07-09 11-56-24.jpg|thumb|Aachen Rathaus seen from the south]]
The Aachen Rathaus, (English: Aachen City Hall or Aachen Town Hall) dated from 1330,<ref name="Merkl 2007">{{harvnb|Merkl|2007|p=2}}</ref> lies between two central squares, the ''Markt'' (marketplace) and the ''Katschhof'' (between city hall and cathedral). The coronation hall is on the first floor of the building. Inside one can find five frescoes by the Aachen artist [[Alfred Rethel]] which show legendary scenes from the life of Charlemagne, as well as Charlemagne's signature. Also, precious replicas of the [[Imperial Regalia]] are kept here.<ref name="Young" />

Since 2009, the city hall has been a station on the ''Route Charlemagne'', a tour programme by which historical sights of Aachen are presented to visitors. At the city hall, a museum exhibition explains the history and art of the building and gives a sense of the historical coronation banquets that took place there. A portrait of [[Napoleon]] from 1807 by [[Louis-André-Gabriel Bouchet]] and one of his wife [[Joséphine de Beauharnais|Joséphine]] from 1805 by [[Robert Lefèvre]] are viewable as part of the tour.

As before, the city hall is the seat of the mayor of Aachen and of the city council, and annually the [[Charlemagne Prize]] is awarded there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karlspreisverleihung - Der Internationale Karlspreis zu Aachen |url=https://www.karlspreis.de/en/events/ceremony |access-date=2025-11-15 |website=www.karlspreis.de}}</ref>

=== Other sights ===
The ''Grashaus'', a late medieval house at the ''Fischmarkt'', is one of the oldest non-religious buildings in central Aachen. It hosted the city archive, and before that, the Grashaus was the city hall until the present building took over this function.

The ''Elisenbrunnen'' is one of the most famous sights of Aachen. It is a neo-classical hall covering one of the city's famous fountains. It is just a minute away from the cathedral. Just a few steps in a south-easterly direction lies the 19th-century [[Theater Aachen|theatre]].

Also of note are two remaining city gates, the ''[[Ponttor]]'' (Pont gate), {{convert|1/2|mi|m|order=flip|abbr=off}} northwest of the cathedral, and the ''Marschiertor'' (marching gate), close to the central railway station. There are also a few parts of both medieval city walls left, most of them integrated into more recent buildings, but some others still visible. There are even five towers left, some of which are used for housing.

[[St. Michael's Church, Aachen]] was built as a church of the Aachen [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] Collegium in 1628. It is attributed to the Rhine [[mannerism]], and a sample of a local [[Renaissance architecture]]. The rich façade remained unfinished until 1891, when the architect Peter Friedrich Peters added to it. The church is a [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] church today, but the building is used also for concerts because of its good acoustics.

The synagogue in Aachen, which was destroyed on the [[Night of Broken Glass]] ([[Kristallnacht]]), 9 November 1938, was reinaugurated on 18 May 1995.<ref>{{harvnb|American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise|2013}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Knufinke|2013}}.</ref> One of the contributors to the reconstructions of the synagogue was [[Jürgen Linden]], the Lord Mayor of Aachen from 1989 to 2009.

There are numerous other notable churches and [[monastery|monasteries]], a few remarkable 17th- and 18th-century buildings in the particular [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] style typical of the region, a synagogue, a collection of statues and monuments, park areas, cemeteries, among others. Among the museums in the town are the [[Suermondt-Ludwig Museum]], which has a fine sculpture collection and the [[Aachen Museum of the International Press]], which is dedicated to newspapers from the 16th century to the present.<ref name="EB">{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|pp=1–2}}.</ref> The area's industrial history is reflected in dozens of 19th- and early 20th-century manufacturing sites in the city.

<gallery>
File:Aachen Grashaus.jpg|Grashaus
File:Aachen elisenbrunnen blau.jpg|Elisenbrunnen in Aachen
File:Aachen Theatre.jpg|Aachen Theatre
File:Aachen Neues Kurhaus.jpg|Neues Kurhaus
File:CarolusThermen01.JPG|Carolus Thermen, thermal baths named after [[Charlemagne]]
File:Aachen-SomeBoulevard.JPG|A statue commemorating [[David Hansemann]]
</gallery>

== Economy ==
[[File:Aachen Ford-Entwicklungszentrum.jpg|thumb|[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] Research Center, Aachen]]
Aachen is the administrative centre for the coal-mining industries in neighbouring places to the northeast.<ref name="McClendon 1996" />

Products manufactured in Aachen include electrical goods, [[Aachen fine cloth|fine woolen]] textiles, foodstuffs (chocolate and candy), glass, machinery, rubber products, furniture, metal products.<ref name="Cohen" /> Also in and around{{clarify|reason=don't want "around." Want stuff that is in the city. If there is a metro article, "around" can go there|date=October 2013}} Aachen chemicals, plastics, cosmetics, and needles and pins are produced.<ref name="Ranson 1998">{{harvnb|Ranson|1998|p=45}}.</ref> Though once a major player in Aachen's economy, today glassware and textile production make up only 10% of total manufacturing jobs in the city.<ref name="Kerner 2013" /> There have been a number of spin-offs from the university's [[Information technology|IT]] technology department.

=== Electric vehicle manufacturing ===
[[File:2016-12-10-Post Streetscooter-9409.jpg|thumb|StreetScooter ''Work'' as DHL delivery van (2016)]]

In June 2010, Achim Kampker, together with Günther Schuh, founded a small company to develop electric powered light utility vehicles; in August 2014, it was renamed [[StreetScooter]] GmbH. This started as a privately organised research initiative at the [[RWTH Aachen University]], before becoming the independent company in Aachen. Kampker was also the founder and chairman of the European Network for Affordable and Sustainable Electromobility. In May 2014, the company announced that the city of Aachen, the city council Aachen and the savings bank Aachen had ordered electric vehicles from the company. In late 2014, approximately 70 employees were manufacturing 200 vehicles annually in the premises of the [[Waggonfabrik Talbot]], the former Talbot/Bombardier plant in Aachen.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhl.com/en/press/releases/releases_2014/group/dpdhl_acquires_streetscooter_gmbh.html |title=Deutsche Post DHL acquires StreetScooter GmbH |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=9 December 2014 |website=DHL |access-date=26 March 2017 |archive-date=13 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513071648/http://www.dhl.com/en/press/releases/releases_2014/group/dpdhl_acquires_streetscooter_gmbh.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In December 2014 [[DHL Group]] purchased the StreetScooter company from Günther, operating it as a wholly owned subsidiary.<ref>[http://www.dpdhl.com/de/presse/pressemitteilungen/2014/deutsche_post_dhl_uebernimmt_streetscooter_gmbh.html Deutsche Post DHL übernimmt StreetScooter GmbH] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320123908/http://www.dpdhl.com/de/presse/pressemitteilungen/2014/deutsche_post_dhl_uebernimmt_streetscooter_gmbh.html |date=20 March 2018 }} 9.</ref>

In 2015, Günther founded a new electric vehicle company, [[e.GO Mobile]], which started producing the e.GO Life electric passenger car and other vehicles in April 2019.

By April 2016, StreetScooter announced that it would produce 2000 of its electric vans, branded the Work, in Aachen by the end of the year, and would be scaling up to manufacture approximately 10,000 Works annually, starting in 2017, also in Aachen.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/unternehmen/der-tausendste-elektro-streetscooter-der-deutschen-post-14401894.html |title=Streetscooter – Der tausendste Elektro-Transporter der Post |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=23 August 2016 |newspaper=Faz.net |publisher=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung GmbH |access-date=26 March 2017 |quote=Die Post will ihren gesamten Fuhrpark auf Elektro-Autos umstellen. Bis dahin dauert es noch. Einen wichtigen Schritt hat das Unternehmen nun aber gemacht. |archive-date=20 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320234429/http://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/unternehmen/der-tausendste-elektro-streetscooter-der-deutschen-post-14401894.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At the time, this target would make it the largest electric light utility vehicle manufacturer in Europe, surpassing [[Renault]]'s smaller [[Renault Kangoo|Kangoo Z.E.]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Weiss |first=Richard |date=24 March 2017 |title=Even Germany's post office is building an electric car |url=http://www.therecord.com/news-story/7207920-even-germany-s-post-office-is-building-an-electric-car/ |work=Waterloo Region Record |location=Kitchener, Ontario |access-date=26 March 2017 |archive-date=20 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020035708/https://www.therecord.com/news-story/7207920-even-germany-s-post-office-is-building-an-electric-car/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Culture ==
[[File:Aachen Rosenmontag 2009.jpg|thumb|Aachen is also famous for its [[carnival]] (Karneval, Fasching), in which families dress in colourful costumes.]]
* In 1372, Aachen became the first coin-minting city in the world to regularly place an [[Anno Domini]] date on a general circulation [[coin]], a [[groschen]].
* The [[Scotch Club]] in Aachen was the first [[discothèque]] in Germany, opened from 19 October 1959 until 1992. Klaus Quirini as DJ Heinrich was the first DJ ever.{{cn|date=June 2024}}
* The thriving Aachen [[black metal]] scene is among the most notable in Germany, with such bands as [[Nagelfar]], [[The Ruins of Beverast]], Graupel and Verdunkeln.
* The local speciality of Aachen is an originally hard type of sweet bread, baked in large flat loaves, called ''[[Aachener Printen]]''. Unlike ''[[Lebkuchen]]'', a German form of [[gingerbread]] sweetened with honey, ''Printen'' use a syrup made from sugar. Today, a soft version is sold under the same name which follows an entirely different recipe.
* Asteroid [[274835 Aachen]], discovered by amateur astronomer [[Erwin Schwab]] in 2009, was named after the city.<ref name="MPC-object" /> The official {{MoMP|274835|naming citation}} was published by the [[Minor Planet Center]] on 8 November 2019 ({{small|[[Minor Planet Circulars|M.P.C.]] 118221}}).<ref name="MPC-Circulars-Archive" />
* [[Kammerchor Carmina Mundi]], a professional chamber choir

== Education ==
[[File:Aachen RWTH Hauptgebaeude.jpg|thumb|left|The main building of RWTH Aachen University]]
[[File:Aachen-ElegantStreet.JPG|thumb|right|Typical Aachen street with early 20th-century [[Gründerzeit]] houses]]
[[File:Typical Aachen street with early 20th-century Gründerzeit houses (2).JPG|thumb|Another example of Aachen early 20th-century Gründerzeit houses]]

[[RWTH Aachen|RWTH Aachen University]], established as Polytechnicum in 1870, is one of [[German Universities Excellence Initiative|Germany's Universities of Excellence]] with strong emphasis on technological research, especially for electrical and mechanical engineering, computer sciences, physics, and chemistry. The university clinic attached to the RWTH, the [[Klinikum Aachen]], is the biggest single-building hospital in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Aachen Institute for Advanced Study in Computational Engineering Science|2009}}.</ref> Over time, a host of software and computer industries have developed around the university. It also maintains a [[botanical garden]] (the [[Botanischer Garten Aachen]]).

[[FH Aachen]], Aachen University of Applied Sciences (AcUAS) was founded in 1971. The AcUAS offers a classic engineering education in professions such as [[mechatronics]], construction engineering, mechanical engineering or electrical engineering. German and international students are educated in more than 20 international or foreign-oriented programmes and can acquire German as well as international degrees (Bachelor/Master) or ''Doppelabschlüsse'' (double degrees). Foreign students account for more than 21% of the student body.

The Katholische Hochschule Nordrhein-Westfalen – Abteilung Aachen (Catholic University of Applied Sciences Northrhine-Westphalia – Aachen department)<ref>{{harvnb|Catholic University of Applied Sciences|2014}}.</ref> offers its some 750 students a variety of degree programmes: social work, childhood education, nursing, and co-operative management. It also has the only programme of study in Germany especially designed for mothers.<ref>{{harvnb|Catholic University of Applied Sciences|2014a}}.</ref>

The {{Lang|de|[[Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln]]|italic=no}} ([[Cologne University of Music]]) is one of the world's foremost performing arts schools and one of the largest music institutions for higher education in Europe<ref>{{harvnb|Academy of Music and Dance Cologne|2014}}.</ref> with one of its three campuses in Aachen.<ref>{{harvnb|Academy of Music and Dance Cologne|2014a}}.</ref> The Aachen campus substantially contributes to the Opera/Musical Theatre master's programme by collaborating with the [[Theater Aachen]] and the recently established musical theatre chair through the Rheinische Opernakademie.

The [[German Army]]'s technical school ''(Ausbildungszentrum Technik Landsysteme)'' is located in Aachen.<ref name="MeerOpitz1998">{{harvnb|Van der Meer|Richter|Opitz|1998|p=718}}.</ref>

== Sports ==
[[File:Tivoli-Ost-Tribüne.JPG|thumb|left|[[New Tivoli]], home ground of [[Alemannia Aachen]]]]

The annual [[CHIO Aachen|CHIO]] (short for the French term ''Concours Hippique International Officiel'') is the biggest [[equestrianism|equestrian]] meeting of the world and among horsemen is considered to be as prestigious for equitation as the tournament of [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] for tennis. Aachen hosted the [[2006 FEI World Equestrian Games]].

The local [[Association football|football]] team [[Alemannia Aachen]] had a short run in Germany's [[Bundesliga|first division]], after its promotion in 2006. However, the team could not sustain its status and is now back in the third division. The stadium [[Old Tivoli|"Tivoli"]], opened in 1928, served as the venue for the team's home games and was well known for its incomparable atmosphere throughout the whole of the second division.<ref name="GdawietzLeroi2007">{{harvnb|Gdawietz|Leroi|2008|p=28}}.</ref> Before the old stadium's demolition in 2011, it was used by amateurs, whilst the Bundesliga Club held its games in the new stadium "Neuer Tivoli" – meaning [[New Tivoli]]—a couple of metres down the road. The building work for the stadium which has a capacity of 32,960, began in May 2008 and was completed by the beginning of 2009.

The Ladies in Black women's volleyball team (part of the "PTSV Aachen" sports club since 2013) has played in the first German volleyball league (DVL) since 2008.

In June 2022, the local basketball club BG Aachen e.V. was promoted to the 1st regional league.

== Transport ==
[[File:Aachen Hauptbahnhof 10-2017.jpg|thumb|[[Aachen Central Station]]]]

=== Rail ===
Aachen's railway station, the [[Aachen Central Station|Hauptbahnhof]] (Central Station), was constructed in 1841 for the [[Cologne–Aachen high-speed railway|Cologne–Aachen railway line]]. In 1905, it was moved closer to the city centre. It serves main lines to Cologne, [[Aachen–Mönchengladbach railway|Mönchengladbach]] and [[HSL 3|Liège]] as well as branch lines to [[Heerlen]], [[Alsdorf]], [[Stolberg (Rhineland)|Stolberg]] and [[Eschweiler]]. [[Intercity-Express|ICE high speed trains]] from [[Brussels]] via [[Cologne]] to [[Frankfurt am Main]] and [[Eurostar]] trains from Paris to Cologne also stop at Aachen Central Station. Four [[Regional-Express|RE]] lines and two [[Regionalbahn|RB]] lines connect Aachen with the [[Ruhr]]gebiet, Mönchengladbach, Spa (Belgium), [[Düsseldorf]] and the [[Siegerland]]. The ''[[Euregiobahn]]'', a regional railway system, reaches several minor cities in the Aachen region.

There are four smaller stations in Aachen: ''[[Aachen West station|Aachen West]]'', ''[[Aachen Schanz station|Aachen Schanz]]'', ''[[Aachen-Rothe Erde station|Aachen-Rothe Erde]]'' and ''[[Eilendorf station|Eilendorf]]''. Slower trains stop at these. Aachen West has gained in importance with the expansion of [[RWTH Aachen University]].

===Intercity bus stations===
There are two stations for [[intercity bus service]]s in Aachen: [[Aachen West station]], in the north-west of the city, and Aachen Wilmersdorfer Straße, in the north-east.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.travelinho.com/en/travel/aachen|last=Travelinho|title=Aachen: Stations|access-date=10 February 2019|archive-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301054922/http://www.travelinho.com/en/travel/aachen|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Public transport ===
[[File:OecherLongWajong1.JPG|thumb|right|[[Bi-articulated bus]] of the city's transit authority ASEAG, at the [[Klinikum Aachen|university hospital]] bus stop]]

The first horse tram line in Aachen opened in December 1880. After electrification in 1895, it attained a maximum length of {{convert|213.5|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=off}} in 1915, thus becoming the fourth-longest tram network in Germany. Many tram lines extended to the surrounding towns of [[Herzogenrath]], [[Stolberg (Rheinland)|Stolberg]], [[Alsdorf]] as well as the Belgian and Dutch communes of [[Vaals]], [[Kelmis]] (then ''Altenberg'') and [[Eupen]]. The Aachen tram system was linked with the [[Vicinal tramway|Belgian national interurban tram system]]. Like many tram systems in Western Europe, the Aachen tram suffered from poorly maintained infrastructure and was so deemed unnecessary and disrupting for car drivers by local politics. On 28 September 1974, the last line 15 (Vaals–Brand) operated for one last day and was then replaced by buses. A proposal to reinstate a tram/light rail system under the name ''Campusbahn'' was dropped after a referendum.

Today, the ASEAG (''Aachener Straßenbahn und Energieversorgungs-AG'', literally "Aachen Tram and Power Supply Company") operates a {{convert|1240.8|km|mi|adj=mid|-long|frac=8}} bus network with 68 bus routes. Because of the location at the border, many bus routes extend to Belgium and the Netherlands. Lines 14 to Eupen, Belgium and 44 to Heerlen, Netherlands are jointly operated with [[Société Régionale Wallonne du Transport|Transport en Commun]] and [[Veolia Transport Nederland]], respectively. ASEAG is one of the main participants in the Aachener Verkehrsverbund (AVV), a tariff association in the region. Along with ASEAG, city bus routes of Aachen are served by private contractors such as Sadar, Taeter, Schlömer, or [[DB Regio Bus]]. Line 350, which runs from [[Maastricht]], also enters Aachen.

=== Roads ===
Aachen is connected to the [[Autobahn]] [[Bundesautobahn 4|A4]] (west-east), [[Bundesautobahn 44|A44]] (north-south) and A544 (a smaller motorway from the A4 to the ''Europaplatz'' near the city centre). There are plans to eliminate traffic jams at the Aachen road interchange.

=== Airport ===
[[Maastricht Aachen Airport]] {{airport codes|MST|EHBK}} is the main airport of Aachen and [[Maastricht]]. It is located around {{convert|15|nmi|km mi|abbr=off}} northwest of Aachen. There is a shuttle-service between Aachen and the airport. However, the airport only offers limited European destinations. The nearest major international airports are [[Cologne Bonn Airport]], located {{convert|88|km|0|abbr=on}} east and [[Düsseldorf Airport]], located {{convert|97.1|km|0|abbr=on}} northeast of Aachen.

Recreational aviation is served by the (formerly military) [[Aachen Merzbrück Airfield]].

== Charlemagne Prize ==
{{main|Charlemagne Prize}}

[[File:Angela Merkel, Karlspreisverleihung 2008 - 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Chancellor of Germany]] [[Angela Merkel]], wearing the Charlemagne Prize awarded to her in 2008]]

Since 1950, a committee of Aachen citizens annually awards the Charlemagne Prize ({{langx|de|link=no|Karlspreis}}) to personalities of outstanding service to the unification of Europe. It is traditionally awarded on [[Ascension Day]] at the [[Aachen Rathaus|City Hall]]. In 2016, the Charlemagne Award was awarded to [[Pope Francis]].

The International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen was awarded in the year 2000 to US president [[Bill Clinton]], for his special personal contribution to co-operation with the states of Europe, for the preservation of peace, freedom, democracy and [[human rights in Europe]], and for his support of the enlargement of the European Union. In 2004, [[Pope John Paul II]]'s efforts to unite Europe were honoured with an "Extraordinary Charlemagne Medal", which was awarded for the only time ever.

==Literature==
Aix is the destination in [[Robert Browning]]'s poem "[[How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix]]", which was published in ''[[Dramatic Romances and Lyrics]]'', 1845.<ref>James F. Loucks, and Andrew M. Satuffer, eds. ''Robert Browning's Poetry: Authoritative Texts. Criticism''. Norton, 2nd ed. 1979.</ref> The poem is a first-person narrative told, in breathless galloping meter, by one of three riders; an urgent midnight errand to deliver "the news which alone could save Aix from her fate".

==Notable people==
{{main|List of people from Aachen}}

==Twin towns – sister cities==
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany}}
Aachen is [[Sister city|twinned]] with:<ref>{{cite web|title=Städtepartnerschaften|url=http://www.aachen.de/DE/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/staedtepartnerschaften/index.html|website=aachen.de|publisher=Aachen|language=de|access-date=2019-11-23|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101050613/http://www.aachen.de/DE/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/staedtepartnerschaften/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Montebourg]], France (1960){{efn|Twinning started by then independent municipality [[Walheim]], now continued by borough Aachen-Kornelimünster/Walheim.<ref>{{cite web |title=Montebourg – Frankreich |url=http://www.aachen.de/de/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/staedtepartnerschaften/montebourg/index.html |access-date=3 November 2016 |archive-date=1 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801135233/https://www.aachen.de/de/stadt_buerger/aachen_profil/staedtepartnerschaften/montebourg/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Reims]], France (1967)
*{{flagicon|UK}} [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]], England (1979)
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Spain (1985)
*{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Ningbo]], China (1986)
*{{flagicon|GER}} [[Naumburg (Saale)|Naumburg]], Germany (1988)
*{{flagicon|USA}} [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington County]], United States (1993)
*{{flagicon|TUR}} [[Sarıyer]], Istanbul, Turkey (2013)
*{{flagicon|RSA}} [[Cape Town]], South Africa (2017)
*{{flagicon|UKR}} [[Chernihiv]], Ukraine (2023)
{{div col end}}

===Former twin towns===
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Kostroma]], Russia (2005, suspended since March 2022)

== See also ==
{{Portal|Germany|Europe|Geography}}
* [[Aachen (district)]]
* [[Aachen Prison]]
* [[Aachen tram]]
* {{ill|Liège–Aachen Baroque furniture|de|Aachen-Lütticher Möbelstil}}
* [[Aachener]]
* [[Aachener Chronik]]
* [[Aachener Bachverein]]
* [[Computermuseum Aachen]]
* [[Council of Aachen]]
* [[List of mayors of Aachen]]
* [[Maastricht Aachen Airport]]
* [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (disambiguation)]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name="MPC-object">{{cite web
|title = (274835) Aachen
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=274835
|access-date = 21 November 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="MPC-Circulars-Archive">{{cite web
|title = MPC/MPO/MPS Archive
|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/MPCArchive_TBL.html
|access-date = 21 November 2019
|archive-date = 7 October 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007190852/https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/MPCArchive_TBL.html
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

}} <!-- end of reflist -->

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* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Freimann |first=A. J. |editor-last=Singer |editor-first=Isidore |encyclopedia=The Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Aix-La-Chapelle (Aachen) |year=1906 |publisher=KTAV Publishing House |location=New York, NY |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2-aachen |volume=1: Aach – Apocalyptic Lit. |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=30 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030073344/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2-aachen |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Friedrich |first=Jörg |title=The Fire: The Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8lRAAAAcAAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0231133814 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Gaehde |first=Joachim E. | editor1-last = Turner | editor1-first = Jane | editor2-last = Brigstocke | editor2-first = Hugh |encyclopedia=The Dictionary of Art |volume=1: A to Anckerman |publisher=Grove |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-19-517068-7 |lccn=96013628 |title=Aachen: Buildings: Palatine Chapel: Sculpture and Treasury |year=1996 |pages=4–5 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gdawietz |first1=Gregor |last2=Leroi |first2=Roland |title=Von Aachen bis Bielefeld – Vom Tivoli zur Alm |trans-title=From Aachen to Bielefeld – From Tivoli to the Pasture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sT9xfNP948AC&pg=PA28 |year=2008 |publisher=Meyer + Meyer Fachverlag |location=Aachen, Germany |language=de |isbn=978-3-89899-315-9 }}
* {{cite web |author=Geological Survey of North Rhine-Westphalia |url=http://www.gd.nrw.de/zip/l_yroer.pdf |access-date=9 February 2014 |year=2013 |trans-title=Earthquake in Roermond on 13 April 1992 |language=de |title=Erdbeben bei Roermond am 13. April 1992 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194510/http://www.gd.nrw.de/zip/l_yroer.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Held |first=Colbert C. | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard |encyclopedia=Collier's Encyclopedia |title=Aachen |edition=1st |year=1997 |publisher=P. F. Collier |volume=I: A to Ameland |location=New York, NY }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Hoiberg |editor-first=Dale H. |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Aachen |edition=15th |year=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |volume=I: A-Ak – Bayes |location=Chicago, IL |isbn=978-1-59339-837-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/1 1–2] |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Holborn |first=Hajo |title=A History of Modern Germany |volume=1: The Reformation |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |year=1982 |orig-year=1959 |isbn=0-691-00795-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng00hajo }}
* {{cite book |last=Holborn |first=Hajo |title=A History of Modern Germany |volume=2: 1648–1840 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |year=1982a |orig-year=1964 |isbn=0-691-00796-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng00hajo }}
* {{cite book |last=Holborn |first=Hajo |title=A History of Modern Germany |volume=3: 1840–1945 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |year=1982b |orig-year=1969 |isbn=0-691-00797-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng00hajo }}
* {{cite book |last=Jourdan |first=Antoine Jacques Louis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4OI-AAAAcAAJ |title=Dictionnaire des Sciences Médicales: Biographie Médicale |date=1821 |publisher=C. L. F. Panckoucke |editor-last=Panckoucke |editor-first=Charles-Louis-Fleury |volume=4 |location=Paris |language=fr |trans-title=Dictionary of Medical Sciences: Medical Biography }}
* {{cite web |last=Kerner |first=Maximillian |url=http://www.aachen.de/EN/sb/aachen_and_europe/index.html |title=Aachen and Europe |year=2013 |access-date=9 February 2014 |website=City of Aachen |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218065543/http://www.aachen.de/en/sb/aachen_and_europe/index.html |archive-date=18 February 2014 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kitchen |first=Martin |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-45341-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521453417 }}
* {{cite web |last=Knufinke |first=Ulrich |title=Aachen: Synagoge und Gemeindezentrum Synagogenplatz |trans-title=Aachen: Synagogue and community centre Synagogenplatz |url=http://www.zentralratdjuden.de/de/topic/387.html?synagogueId=50 |publisher=Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland |access-date=9 February 2014 |year=2013 |archive-date=10 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110043113/http://www.zentralratdjuden.de/de/topic/387.html?synagogueId=50 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=McClendon |first=Charles B. | editor1-last = Turner | editor1-first = Jane | editor2-last = Brigstocke | editor2-first = Hugh |encyclopedia=The Dictionary of Art |volume=1: A to Anckerman |publisher=Grove |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-19-517068-7 |lccn=96013628 |title=Aachen |year=1996 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=McClendon |first=Charles B. | editor1-last = Turner | editor1-first = Jane | editor2-last = Brigstocke | editor2-first = Hugh |encyclopedia=The Dictionary of Art |volume=1: A to Anckerman |publisher=Grove |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-19-517068-7 |lccn=96013628 |title=Aachen: Buildings |year=1996a |pages=1–4 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=McKitterick |first=Rosamond D. | editor1-last = Turner | editor1-first = Jane | editor2-last = Brigstocke | editor2-first = Hugh |encyclopedia=The Dictionary of Art |volume=1: A to Anckerman |publisher=Grove |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-19-517068-7 |lccn=96013628 |title=Aachen: Centre of Manuscript Production |year=1996 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Merkl |first=Peter H. | editor-last = Kobasa | editor-first = Paul A. |encyclopedia=World Book |title=Aachen |edition=1st |year=2007 |publisher=World Book Inc. |volume=I: A |location=Chicago, IL |isbn=978-0-7166-0107-4 }}
* {{cite web |last=Mielke |first=Rita |url=http://www.aachen.de/en/ts/100_taking_a_cure/100_99/index.html |title=History of Bathing |year=2013 |access-date=9 February 2014 |website=City of Aachen |archive-date=17 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140217174852/http://www.aachen.de/en/ts/100_taking_a_cure/100_99/index.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Munro |editor-first=David |title=Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of the World |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=0-19-866184-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00munr }}
* {{cite web |last=Pecinovský |first=Jindřich |url=http://www.mestokladno.cz/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=6506&id=1401504&query=partnersk%C3%A1+m%C4%9Bsta&p1=955 |title=Partnerská města Kladna |trans-title=Partner of Kladno |date=1 December 2009 |language=cs |access-date=9 February 2013 |archive-date=12 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212193111/https://www.mestokladno.cz/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=6506&id=1401504&query=partnersk%C3%A1+m%C4%9Bsta&p1=955 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Ranson | editor-first = K. Anne |encyclopedia=Academic American Encyclopedia |title=Aachen |edition=First |year=1998 |publisher=Grolier Incorporated |volume=I: A – Ang |location=Danbury, CT |isbn=0-7172-2068-0 }}
* {{cite web |author=RWTH Aachen University |url=http://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/root/Die_RWTH/~emq/Exzellenzinitiative/lidx/1/ |title=Excellence Initiative |access-date=9 February 2014 |year=2013 |publisher=RWTH Aachen University |archive-date=24 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124120523/http://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/root/Die_RWTH/~emq/Exzellenzinitiative/lidx/1/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |author=RWTH Aachen University |url=http://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/root/Die_RWTH/Profil/~bure/Internationalisierung/ |title=Internationalisierung |trans-title=Internationalisation |publisher=Aachen University |date=31 May 2016 |access-date=4 September 2016 |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308153019/http://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/root/Die_RWTH/Profil/~bure/Internationalisierung/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Schäfer |first1=Burkhard |last2=Schäfer |first2=Sibylle |url=http://www.david-garrett.com/us/about/ |year=2010 |title=Biography David Garrett |website=David Garrett |access-date=10 April 2014 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103103856/http://www.david-garrett.com/us/about/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite AV media |last=Schaub |first=Andreas |year=2013 |title=Andreas Schaub explains the archaeological record in court in Archäologie am Hof. City of Aachen |medium=Audio |language=de |url=http://www.archaeologie-aachen.de/DE/Mediathek/Audio/zeitreise_rundgang/zeitreise_hof.mp3 |access-date=9 February 2014 |format=MP3 |archive-date=29 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929015424/http://www.archaeologie-aachen.de/DE/Mediathek/Audio/zeitreise_rundgang/zeitreise_hof.mp3 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |last=Schmetz |first=Oliver |title=Bestürzung über Nazi-Attacke auf Synagoge |trans-title=Dismay over Nazi attack on synagogue |url=http://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/aachen/bestuerzung-ueber-nazi-attacke-auf-synagoge-1.376814 |work=[[Aachener Zeitung]] |year=2011 |access-date=9 February 2014 |archive-date=10 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110043035/http://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/aachen/bestuerzung-ueber-nazi-attacke-auf-synagoge-1.376814 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last=Schumacher |first=Wolfgang |language=de |title=Keltisches Glas und eine römische Villa im Elisengarten |trans-title=Celtic glass and a Roman villa in Elisengarten |date=23 January 2009 |url=https://www.aachener-zeitung.de/nrw-region/keltisches-glas-und-eine-roemische-villa-im-elisengarten_aid-27264035 |access-date=9 February 2014 |website=Aachener Nachrichten }}
* {{cite news |url=http://spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/a-898941.html |last=Der Spiegel |title=Karlspreis-Trägerin Grybauskaite: Macht eure Hausaufgaben! |newspaper=Der Spiegel |trans-title=Charlemagne Prize winner Grybauskaite: Does your homework! |date=9 May 2013 |location=Hamburg |language=de |access-date=4 September 2016 }}
* {{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Shelby L. |title=World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939–1946 |publisher=Stackpole Books |edition=2nd |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8117-0157-0 |location=Mechanicsburg, PA |orig-year=1984 }}
* {{cite web |author=University of Cologne, Seismological Station Bensberg |url=http://www.seismo.uni-koeln.de/meldung/dueren/index.htm |access-date=9 February 2014 |year=2013 |title=Zum 250. Jahrestag des Dürener Erdbebens |trans-title=The 250th Anniversary of the Düren earthquake |language=de |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331090828/http://www.seismo.uni-koeln.de/meldung/dueren/index.htm |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Van der Gragt |first=F. |title=Europe's Greatest Tramways Network |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nh8VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA137 |year=1968 |publisher=E. J. Brill |asin=B000MOT6T0 |location=Leiden, Netherlands }}
* {{cite book | editor1-last = Van der Meer | editor1-first = Willemina | editor2-last = Richter | editor2-first = Elisabeth | editor3-last = Opitz | editor3-first = Helmut | title = World guide to special libraries | volume = 2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=amvhAAAAMAAJ | year = 1998 | publisher = K G Saur Verlag Gmbh & Co | edition = 4th | isbn = 978-3-598-22249-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Peter H. | editor-last = Black| editor-first = Jeremy |title=From Reich to Revolution: German History, 1558–1806 |series=European History in Perspective |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Hampshire, UK |year=2004 |isbn=0-333-65244-4 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last = Young | editor1-first = Margaret Walsh | editor2-last = Stetler | editor2-first = Susan L. |encyclopedia=Cities of the World |edition=3rd |volume=3: Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East |publisher=Gale Research Company |location=Detroit, MI |year=1987 |isbn=0-8103-2541-1 |title=Aachen |chapter=Germany, Federal Republic of }}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{See also|Timeline of Aachen#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Aachen}}
* {{cite book |last=Hunt |first=Frederick Knight |author-link=Frederick Knight Hunt |publisher=Jeremiah How |location=London, UK |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/rhineitssceneryh00huntrich#page/76/mode/2up |title=The Rhine: Its Scenery, and Historical and Legendary Associations |chapter=Interchapter – Aix-la-Chapelle |year=1845 |pages=77–83 |lccn=04028368}}
* {{cite book |last=Murray |first=John |publisher=John Murray and Son |location=London, UK |title=A Hand-book for Travellers on the Continent: Being a Guide Through Holland, Belgium, Prussia, and Northern Germany, and Along the Rhine, from Holland to Switzerland |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=TPkRAAAAYAAJ&rdid=book-TPkRAAAAYAAJ&rdot=1 |edition=5th |orig-year=1837 |pages=216–222 |year=1845 |lccn=14015908}}
* {{cite book |last=Baedeker |first=Karl |publisher=Karl Baedeker, Publishers |location=Leipzig, Germany |title=The Rhine, including the Black Forest & the Vosges |series=Baedeker's Guide Books |year=1911 |edition=17th |pages=12–15 |lccn=11015867 |orig-year=1868|ol=6532082M }}
* {{cite book |last=Bischoff |first=Bernhard |title=Mittelalterliche Studien |language=de | trans-title = Medieval Studies |pages=149–186 |chapter=Die Hofbibliothek Karls des Grossen [The Court Library of Charlemagne] and Die Hofbibliothek unter Ludwig dem Frommen [The Court Library under Louis the Pious] |volume=III |year=1981 |location=Stuttgart, Germany |publisher=A. Hiersemann}}
* {{cite book | editor1-last = Braunfels | editor1-first = Wolfgang | editor2-last = Schnitzler | editor2-first = H. |title=Karl der Grosse: Lebenswerk und Nachleben |language=de | trans-title = Charlemagne: Lifetime and Legacy |lccn=66055599 |year=1966 |publisher=L. Schwann |location=Düsseldorf, Germany}}
* {{cite book |last=Cüppers |first=von Heinz |title=Aquae Granni: Beiträge zur Archäologie von Aachen: Rheinische Ausgrabungen |location=Cologne, Germany |publisher=Rheinland-verlag |year=1982 |isbn=3-7927-0313-0 |lccn=82178009 | trans-title = Aquae Granni: Contributions to Archaeology of Aachen: Excavations of the Rhineland |language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Faymonville |first=D. |title=Die Kunstdenkmäler der Stadt Aachen |language=de | trans-title = The Monuments of the City of Aachen |location=Düsseldorf, Germany |year=1916 |publisher=L. Schwann}}
* {{cite book |last=Grimme |first=Ernst Günther |title=Der Aachener Domschatz |language=de | trans-title = The Aachen Cathedral Treasury |year=1972 |location=Düsseldorf, Germany |publisher=L. Schwann |lccn=72353488 |series=Aachener Kunstblätter [Written Works on Aachen]}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaemmerer |first=Walter |title=Geschichtliches Aachen: Von Werden und Wesen einer Reichsstadt |language=de |location=Aachen, Germany |year=1955 | trans-title = History of Aachen: From Will and Essence of an Imperial City |lccn=56004784 |publisher=M. Brimberg}}
* {{cite book |last=Koehler |first=Wilhelm Reinhold Walter |title=Die karolingischen Miniaturen |language=de | trans-title = The Carolingian Miniatures |location=Berlin, Germany |publisher=B. Cassirer |lccn=57050855 |volume=II-IV |year=1958}}
* {{cite journal |last=McKitterick |first=Rosamond |title=Carolingian Uncial: A Context for the Lothar Psalter |journal=The British Library Journal |volume=16 |issue=1 |year=1990 |pages=1–15 |publisher=British Library |url=http://www.bl.uk/eblj/1990articles/pdf/article1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.bl.uk/eblj/1990articles/pdf/article1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live }}
* Rice, Eric, ''Music and Ritual at Charlemagne's Marienkirche in Aachen.'' Kassel: Merseburger, 2009.

== External links ==
{{Wikivoyage|Aachen}}
{{Commons}}
* {{Official website}} {{in lang|de}}

{{Districts of Aachen |state=collapsed}}
{{Cities and towns in Aachen (district) |state=collapsed}}
{{Cities in Germany}}
{{Germany districts North Rhine-Westphalia}}
{{Free Imperial Cities}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Aachen| ]]
[[Category:Aachen (district)]]
[[Category:Belgium–Germany border crossings]]
[[Category:Catholic pilgrimage sites]]
[[Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:1st century]]
[[Category:Free imperial cities]]
[[Category:Jewish German history]]
[[Category:Matter of France]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 1st century]]
[[Category:Rhineland]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Germany]]
[[Category:765]]
[[Category:Spa towns in Germany]]