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{{Short description|Adjusting to a new cultural environment}}
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'''Acculturation''' refers to the psychological, social, and cultural transformation that takes place through direct contact between two cultures, wherein one or both engage in adapting to dominant cultural influences without compromising their essential distinctiveness.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Phillip Kottak |first=Conrad |title=Window on Humanity: A Concise Introduction to General Anthropology with Powerweb |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-07-325893-5 |page=445 |language=en |quote=The exchange of cultural features that results when groups come into continuous firsthand contact; the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct.}}</ref> It occurs when an individual acquires, adopts, or adjusts to a new cultural environment as a result of being placed into another culture or when another culture is brought into contact.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Redfield |first1=Robert |last2=Linton |first2=Ralph |last3=Herskovits |first3=Melville J. |date=1936 |title=Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=149–152 |doi=10.1525/aa.1936.38.1.02a00330 |jstor=662563 |issn=0002-7294}}</ref> This balancing process can result in a mixed society with prevailing and blended features or with splintered cultural changes, depending on the sociopolitical atmosphere. Individuals from other cultures work toward fitting into a more prevalent culture by selectively integrating aspects of the dominant culture, such as its [[Cultural trait|cultural traits]] and [[Social norm|social norms]], while still holding onto their original cultural values and traditions.<ref name=":7" /> The impacts of acculturation are experienced differently at various levels by both the adoptees of the mainstream culture and the hosts of the source culture. Outcomes can include [[marginalization]], respectful coexistence, destructive tensions, integration, and cultural evolution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/acculturation-definition-3026039|title=Understanding Acculturation|last1=Cole|first1=Nicki Lisa|last2=Cole|first2=Ph D. Nicki Lisa|website=ThoughtCo|access-date=2018-12-09|last3=journalist|first3=Ph D. is a freelance|last4=California|first4=has taught a range of sociology courses at the University of|last5=Barbara|first5=Santa|last6=College|first6=Pomona}}</ref>

==Levels and dynamics==
At a group level, acculturation often results in changes to culture, religious practices, health care, and other social institutions. There are also significant ramifications on the food, clothing, and language of those becoming introduced to the overarching culture.

At the individual level, the process of acculturation refers to the socialization process by which foreign-born individuals blend the values, customs, norms, cultural attitudes, and behaviors of the overarching host culture. This process has been linked to changes in daily [[behavior]], as well as numerous changes in [[Psychology|psychological]] and physical well-being. As [[enculturation]] is used to describe the process of first-culture learning, acculturation can be thought of as second-culture [[learning]].

Under natural circumstances which are common in daily life encountered today, acculturation automatically takes a long time spanning several generations. Physical force can be seen in some instances of acculturation, which can cause it to occur more rapidly, but it is not a main component of the process. More commonly, the process occurs through constant [[Peer pressure|pressure]] and consistent exposure to the more prevalent host culture.

Scholars in different disciplines have developed more than 60 theories of acculturation, though many lack academic rigour in their proposals.<ref name="Rudmin" /> Active academic focus on the concept of acculturation began in 1918.<ref name="Rudmin">{{cite journal | last=Rudmin | first=Floyd W. | s2cid=144987871 | title=Critical history of the acculturation psychology of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. | journal=Review of General Psychology | year=2003 | volume=7 | issue=1 | page=3 | doi=10.1037/1089-2680.7.1.3}}
</ref> As it has been approached from the fields of [[psychology]], [[anthropology]], and [[sociology]] at different times, numerous theories and definitions have emerged to describe elements of the acculturative process. Despite definitions and evidence that acculturation is a two-way process of change, theory and research have dealt mainly with the minorities' adaptations and changes such as [[immigrants]], [[refugees]], and [[indigenous people]] in response to their contact with the dominant majority. Contemporary research has primarily focused on the various strategies of acculturation within societies, the factors influencing the acculturation process and the individuals involved, and the development of interventions aimed at facilitating smoother transitions.

==Historical approaches==
The history of [[Western world|Western civilization]], and in particular the histories of Europe and the United States, are largely defined by patterns of acculturation.

One of the most notable forms of acculturation is [[imperialism]], the most common progenitor of direct cultural change. Although these cultural changes may seem simple, the combined results are both robust and complex, impacting both groups and individuals from the original culture and the host culture.  Acculturation with dominance has been researched by sociologists, anthropologists, and historians virtually only, mostly in a colonialism context, due to the dispersal of western European people all over the world over the last five centuries.<ref>Nutini, Hugo G. "Acculturation". In [[David Carrasco|Davíd Carrasco]] (ed.). ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures''. : Oxford University Press, 2001</ref>

The first psychological theory of acculturation was proposed in [[W.I. Thomas]] and [[Florian Znaniecki]]'s 1918 study, ''[[W.I. Thomas#The Polish Peasant in Europe and America|The Polish Peasant in Europe and America]]''. From studying Polish immigrants in Chicago, they illustrated three forms of acculturation corresponding to three personality types: Bohemian (adopting the host culture and abandoning their culture of origin), Philistine (failing to adopt the host culture but preserving their culture of origin), and creative-type (able to adapt to the host culture while preserving their culture of origin).<ref>{{cite book | last=Thomas | first=William Isaac |author2=Znaniecki, Florian | title=The Polish peasant in Europe and America: monograph of an immigrant group | year=1919 | publisher=The University of Chicago Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akchAQAAMAAJ&pg=GBS.PA1}}</ref> In 1936, Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits provided the first widely used definition of acculturation as:
{{blockquote|Those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups...under this definition acculturation is to be distinguished from...[[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilation]], which is at times a phase of acculturation.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Redfield | first=Robert |author2=Linton, Ralph|author3= Herskovits, Melville J. | title=Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation | journal=American Anthropologist | year=1936 | volume=38 | issue=1 | pages=149–152 | doi=10.1525/aa.1936.38.1.02a00330 | jstor=662563| doi-access=free }}</ref>}}

Long before efforts toward racial and cultural integration in the United States arose, the common process was [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. In 1964, [[Milton Gordon]]'s book ''Assimilation in American Life'' outlined seven stages of the assimilative process, setting the stage for literature on this topic. Later, Young Yun Kim authored a reiteration of Gordon's work, but argued cross-cultural adaptation as a multi-staged process. Kim's theory focused on the unitary nature of psychological and social processes and the reciprocal functional personal environment interdependence.<ref name="kim2005">Kim, Young Yun (2005). Adapting to a New Culture. In Gudykunst, W (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication. [[Thousand Oaks, California]]: Sage Publications.</ref>  Although this view was the earliest to fuse micro-psychological and macro-social factors into an integrated theory, it was clearly focused on assimilation rather than racial or ethnic integration. In Kim's approach, assimilation is unilinear and the sojourner must conform to the majority group culture in order to be "communicatively competent."  According to Gudykunst and Kim (2003)<ref>Gudykunst, W. & Kim, Y. Y. Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication, 4th ed. New York: McGraw Hill.</ref> the "cross-cultural adaptation process involves a continuous interplay of deculturation and acculturation that brings about change in strangers in the direction of assimilation, the highest degree of adaptation theoretically conceivable."  This view has been heavily criticized, since the biological science definition of [[adaptation]] refers to the random mutation of new forms of life, not the convergence of a monoculture (Kramer, 2003).

In opposition to Gudykunst and Kim's adaptive development, Eric M. Kramer developed his Cultural Fusion theory (2011,<ref>Kramer, E. M. (2011). Preface. In Croucher, S. M. & Cronn-Mills, D., ''[http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2011-Praface%20for%20Religious%20Misperceptions.pdf Religious misperceptions: The case of Muslims and Christians in France and Britain] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062147/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2011-Praface%20for%20Religious%20Misperceptions.pdf |date=2012-04-26 }}''. (pp. v-xxxi). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.</ref> 2010,<ref name="Kramer5" /> 2000a,<ref name="Kramer6" /> 1997a,<ref name="Kramer5">Kramer, E. M. (2010). Immigration. In R. L. Jackson, II (Ed.), ''[http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2010-immigration.pdf Encyclopedia of identity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062215/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2010-immigration.pdf |date=2012-04-26 }}''. (pp. 384-389). Thousand Oaks: Sage.</ref><ref name="Kramer3">Kramer, E. M. (1997). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KVrFXryPLfcC Modern/Postmodern: Off the Beaten Path of Antimodernism]''. Westport, CT: Praeger.</ref> 2000a,<ref name="Kramer6">Kramer, E. M. (2000). Cultural fusion and the defense of difference. In M. K. Asante & J. E. Min (Eds.), ''[http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2000-cultural%20fusion-proof.pdf Socio-cultural Conflict between African and Korean Americans] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062234/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2000-cultural%20fusion-proof.pdf |date=2012-04-26 }}'' (pp. 182-223). New York: University Press of America.</ref><ref name="Kramer4">Kramer, E. M. (Contributing Editor). (2003). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=x9-yOGSyKrYC The Emerging Monoculture: Assimilation and the "Model Minority"]''. Westport, CT: Praeger.</ref> 2011,<ref name="Kramer2">Kramer, E. M. (2011). Preface. In Croucher, S. M. & Cronn-Mills, D., ''[http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2011-Praface%20for%20Religious%20Misperceptions.pdf Religious Misperceptions: The case of Muslims and Christians in France and Britain] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062147/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2011-Praface%20for%20Religious%20Misperceptions.pdf |date=2012-04-26 }}'' (pp. vii-xxxii). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.</ref> 2012<ref name="DAD">Kramer, E. M. (in press). Dimensional accrual and dissociation: An introduction. I In J. Grace (Ed.), ''Comparative Cultures and Civilizations (Vol. 3)''. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.</ref>) maintaining clear, conceptual distinctions between assimilation, adaptation, and integration. According to Kramer, assimilation involves [[conformity]] to a pre-existing form. Kramer's (2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2003, 2009, 2011) theory of Cultural Fusion, which is based on systems theory and [[hermeneutics]], argues that it is impossible for a person to unlearn themselves and that by definition, "growth" is not a zero-sum process that requires the disillusion of one form for another to come into being but rather a process of learning new languages and cultural repertoires (ways of thinking, cooking, playing, working, worshiping, and so forth). That is, in Kramer's view, one does not need to unlearn a language to learn another language, or unlearn who he or she is to learn new patterns of dancing, cooking, speaking, etc. Kramer disagrees with Gudykunst and Kim (2003) in saying that this commingling of language and culture generates cognitive complexity, or being able to switch between cultural repertoires. In short, Kramer says that learning is expansion, not unlearning.

==Conceptual models==

=== Theory of Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation ===

Although different acculturation models can be differentiated, the most complete models take into account change occurring in both groups as well as among the members of these interacting groups.<ref name="Berry2003">{{cite book | author=Berry, J. W. | chapter=Conceptual approaches to acculturation | editor-last=Chun | editor-first=Kevin M. | editor2=Organista, Pamela Balls | editor3=Marín, Gerardo | title=Acculturation: Advances in Theory, Measurement, and Applied Research | url=https://archive.org/details/acculturationadv00chun | url-access=limited | date=January 2003 | publisher=AmericanPsychological Association | isbn=978-1-55798-920-8 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/acculturationadv00chun/page/n29 17]–37}}</ref> To understand acculturation at the group level, one must first look at the nature of both cultures before coming into contact with one another. A useful approach is Eric Kramer's{{Sfnm|Kramer|1988|Kramer|1992|Kramer|1997a|Kramer|2003|Kramer|2011|Kramer|2012}} theory of Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation (DAD). Two fundamental premises in Kramer's DAD theory are the concepts of [[hermeneutics]] and semiotics, which infer that identity, meaning, communication, and learning all depend on differences or variance. According to this view, total assimilation would result in a monoculture void of personal identity, meaning, and communication.{{Sfnm|Kramer|1992|Kramer|1997a|Kramer|2003}} Kramer's DAD theory also utilizes concepts from several scholars, most notably [[Jean Gebser]] and [[Lewis Mumford]], to synthesize explanations of widely observed cultural expressions and differences.

Kramer's theory identifies three communication styles (''idolic'', ''symbolic'', or ''signalic'') in order to explain [[cultural differences]]. In this theory, there is no single means of communication automatically better, and no last word on intercultural conflict presented. Kramer presents three connected theories instead: the theory Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation, the Cultural Fusion Theory{{Sfnm|Kramer|1997a|Kramer|2010|Kramer|2000a|Kramer|2003|Kramer|2011|Kramer|2012}} and the Cultural Churning Theory.{{Sfnm|Kramer|1997a|Kramer|2003|Kramer|2011|Kramer|2012}}

For instance, according to Kramer's DAD theory, a statue of a god in an ''idolic'' community is god, and stealing it is a highly punishable offense.{{Sfnm|Kramer|1992|Kramer|1997a|Kramer|2003|Kramer|2011|Kramer|2012}} For example, many people in India believe that statues of the god [[Ganesh]] – to take such a statue/god from its temple is more than theft, it is blasphemy. ''Idolic'' reality involves strong emotional identification, where a holy relic does not simply symbolize the sacred, ''it is'' sacred. By contrast, a [[crucifix|Christian crucifix]] follows a ''symbolic'' nature, where it represents a symbol of God. Lastly, the ''signalic'' modality is far less emotional and increasingly dissociated.

Kramer refers to changes in each culture due to acculturation as ''co-evolution''.{{sfn|Kramer|2009}} Kramer also addresses what he calls the ''qualities of out vectors'' which address the nature in which the former and new cultures make contact.{{sfn|Kramer|2010}} Kramer uses the phrase "interaction potential" to refer to differences in individual or group acculturative processes. For instance, the process of acculturation varies significantly in the case of individuals who were immigrating to the host nation as refugees or immigrants. Furthermore, this process encompasses the importance of how hospitable the host society is to the newcomer, how welcoming the host is toward accommodating and acquainting the newcomer, and how their interaction affects the host and the newcomer.

===Fourfold models===
[[File:Acculturation_forms.svg|thumb|The four essential (paradigm) forms of acculturation]]

The fourfold model is a bilinear model that categorizes acculturation strategies along two dimensions. The first dimension concerns the retention or rejection of an individual's minority or native culture (i.e. "Is it considered to be of value to maintain one's identity and characteristics?"), whereas the second dimension concerns the adoption or rejection of the dominant group or host culture. ("Is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships with the larger society?") From this, four acculturation strategies emerge.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last=Berry | first=John W. | title=Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation | journal=[[Applied Psychology (journal)|Applied Psychology]] | year=1997 | volume=46 | issue=1 | page=10 | doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x}}</ref>

*'''[[Cultural assimilation|Assimilation]]''' occurs when individuals adopt the cultural norms of a dominant or host culture, over their original culture. Sometimes it is [[forced assimilation|forced]] by governments.
*'''[[Racial separation|Separation]]''' occurs when individuals reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin. Separation is often facilitated by immigration to [[ethnic enclaves]].
*'''[[Racial integration|Integration]]''' occurs when individuals can adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin. Integration leads to, and is often synonymous with [[biculturalism]].
*'''[[Marginalization]]''' occurs when individuals reject both their culture of origin and the dominant host culture.

Studies suggest that individuals' respective acculturation strategy can differ between their private and public life spheres.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Arends-Tóth | first=Judit |author2=van de Vijver, Fons J. R. | title=Domains and dimensions in acculturation: Implicit theories of Turkish–Dutch | journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations | date=February 2004 | volume=28 | issue=1 | pages=19–35 | doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2003.09.001| url=https://zenodo.org/record/889950 }}</ref> For instance, an individual may reject the values and norms of the [[dominant culture]] in their private life (separation), whereas they might adapt to the [[dominant culture]] in public parts of their life (i.e., integration or assimilation).

===Predictors of acculturation strategies===
The fourfold models used to describe individual attitudes of immigrants parallel models used to describe group expectations of the larger society and how groups should acculturate.<ref name="SamBerry">{{cite journal|last=Sam|first=David L.|author2=Berry, John W.|date=1 July 2010|title=Acculturation When Individuals and Groups of Different Cultural Backgrounds Meet|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|volume=5|issue=4|pages=472–81|doi=10.1177/1745691610373075|pmid=26162193|s2cid=220262608 }}
</ref> In a [[melting pot]] society, in which a harmonious and homogenous culture is promoted, assimilation is the endorsed acculturation strategy. In [[Racial segregation|segregationist]] societies, in which humans are separated into racial, ethnic and/or religious groups in daily life, a separation acculturation strategy is endorsed. In a [[Multiculturalism|multiculturalist]] society, in which multiple cultures are accepted and appreciated, individuals are encouraged to adopt an integrationist approach to acculturation. In societies where cultural exclusion is promoted, individuals often adopt [[marginalization]] strategies of acculturation.

Attitudes towards acculturation, and thus the range of acculturation strategies available, have not been consistent over time. For example, for most of American history, policies and attitudes have been based around established ethnic hierarchies with an expectation of one-way assimilation for predominantly White [[European immigrants]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Fredrickson, G.M. | year=1999 | chapter-url=http://www.uhd.edu/academic/colleges/humanities/english/documents/Frederickson.pdf | chapter=Models of American Ethnic Relations: A Historical Perspective | editor1-first=D. | editor1-last=Prentice | editor2-first=D. | editor2-last=Miller | title=Cultural divides: The social psychology of inter-group contact | pages=23–45 | location=New York | publisher=Russell Sage | access-date=2011-12-04 | archive-date=2012-02-18 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218174755/http://www.uhd.edu/academic/colleges/humanities/english/documents/Frederickson.pdf }}</ref> Although the notion of [[cultural pluralism]] has existed since the early 20th century, the recognition and promotion of [[multiculturalism]] did not become prominent in America until the 1980s. Separatism can still be seen today in autonomous religious communities such as the [[Amish]] and the [[Hutterites]]. Direct environment also affects the availability, advantage, and choice of various acculturation strategies. Since immigrants settle in unequal segments of society, immigrants to lower-ranked economic and ethnic hierarchies may face restricted social mobility and membership in a disadvantaged group.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Zhou | first=Min | title=Segmented Assimilation: Issues, Controversies, and Recent Research on the New Second Generation | journal=International Migration Review | year=1997 | jstor=2547421 | volume=31 | issue=4 | pages=975–1008 | doi=10.2307/2547421| pmid=12293212 }}</ref> It is accounted for by the Segmented Assimilation theory, under which the case when immigrant groups or individuals assimilate into the society of the host nation to its various segments' culture. One's entry into the upper class, middle class, or lower class is also highly dependent on the socioeconomic status of the last generation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Waters|first1=Mary C.|last2=Tran|first2=Van C.|last3=Kasinitz|first3=Philip|last4=Mollenkopf|first4=John H.|date=2010-07-01|title=Segmented Assimilation Revisited: Types of Acculturation and Socioeconomic Mobility in Young Adulthood|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=33|issue=7|pages=1168–1193|doi=10.1080/01419871003624076|issn=0141-9870|pmc=2882294|pmid=20543888}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Min|date=1997|title=Segmented Assimilation: Issues, Controversies, and Recent Research on the New Second Generation|journal=The International Migration Review|volume=31|issue=4|pages=975–1008|doi=10.2307/2547421|jstor=2547421|pmid=12293212|issn=0197-9183}}</ref>

On a broad scale study, involving immigrants in 13 immigration-receiving countries, the experience of discrimination was positively related to the maintenance of the immigrants' ethnic culture.<ref name=berry2006>{{cite journal | last=Berry | first=John W. |author2=Phinney, Jean S.|author3= Sam, David L.|author4= Vedder, Paul | title=Immigrant Youth: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation | journal=Applied Psychology | year=2006 | volume=55 | issue=3 | pages=303–332 | doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x | hdl=1887/16610 | s2cid=34215198 | url=http://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2012/6943/pdf/Berry_Phinney_Sam_Vedder_Immigrant_youth.pdf}}</ref> That is, immigrant communities that retain their culture values and practices are more likely to be discriminated against compared to those that make sacrifices in their culture. Additional research has also shown that the acculturation process and strategy of immigrants can largely be determined by how accepting of acculturation preference among the host society members is.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zagefka |first1=Hanna |last2=González |first2=Roberto |last3=Brown |first3=Rupert |date=June 2011 |title=How minority members' perceptions of majority members' acculturation preferences shape minority members' own acculturation preferences: Evidence from Chile: Predicting minority members' acculturation preferences |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1348/014466610X512211 |journal=British Journal of Social Psychology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=216–233 |doi=10.1348/014466610X512211|pmid=21545455 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The degree of intergroup and interethnic contact has also been shown to influence acculturation preferences between groups,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hässler |first1=Tabea |last2=González |first2=Roberto |last3=Lay |first3=Siugmin |last4=Lickel |first4=Brian |last5=Zagefka |first5=Hanna |last6=Tropp |first6=Linda R. |last7=Brown |first7=Rupert |last8=Manzi Astudillo |first8=Jorge |last9=Bernardino |first9=Michelle |date=March 2019 |title=With a little help from our friends: The impact of cross-group friendship on acculturation preferences |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejsp.2383 |journal=European Journal of Social Psychology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=366–384 |doi=10.1002/ejsp.2383 |issn=0046-2772|url-access=subscription }}</ref> support for multilingual and multicultural maintenance of minority groups,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ubalde |first1=Josep |last2=Janés |first2=Judit |last3=Senar |first3=Fernando |last4=Lapresta |first4=Cecilio |date=2023-11-08 |title=People in contact, languages in contact. A multi-group analysis of the effects of interethnic contact on acculturation attitudes |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01434632.2023.2277241 |journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development |volume=46 |issue=7 |language=en |pages=2048–2061 |doi=10.1080/01434632.2023.2277241 |s2cid=265196239 |issn=0143-4632|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and openness towards multiculturalism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Verkuyten |first1=Maykel |last2=Martinovic |first2=Borja |date=2006-01-01 |title=Understanding multicultural attitudes: The role of group status, identification, friendships, and justifying ideologies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147176705000714 |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.05.015 |s2cid=56235559 |issn=0147-1767}}</ref> Greater comprehension towards out-groups, empathy, building community, lessening prejudice and social distance, and changing good intentions and action assist in the creation of improved interethnic and intercultural relations through intergroup contact.

There is variation in preferred and ideal acculturation approaches among most people in different aspects of their lives. For instance, among immigrants, it is easier and preferable to acculturate towards the host nation's views of politics and government, as compared to acculturation of new beliefs in terms of religion, principles, values, and tradition.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Navas | first=Marisol |author2=García, María C.|author3= Sánchez, Juan|author4= Rojas, Antonio J.|author5= Pumares, Pablo|author6= Fernández, Juan S. | title=Relative Acculturation Extended Model (RAEM): New contributions with regard to the study of acculturation | journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations | date=January 2005  | volume=29 | issue=1 | pages=28–29 | doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.04.001| s2cid=143660561 | url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/7545101 }}</ref>

== Digitally mediated acculturation ==
While acculturation has historically been conceptualized as the result of direct, face-to-face intercultural contact, the proliferation of digital technology has introduced a new dimension to the process. Researchers have proposed the concept of ''digitally mediated acculturation'' to describe how digital technologies—such as the internet, social media, and mobile phones—impact the experiences and outcomes of acculturation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stuart |first=Jaimee |last2=Ward |first2=Colleen |last3=Karl |first3=Johannes Alfons |last4=Musizvingoza |first4=Ronald |date=2025-06-10 |title=Intercultural contact in the digital age: A review of emerging research on digitally mediated acculturation |url=https://advances.in/psychology/10.56296/aip00036/ |journal=advances.in/psychology |language=en |volume=2 |pages=e299122 |doi=10.56296/aip00036 |issn=2976-937X}}</ref>

This perspective does not replace traditional models but suggests that digital acculturation runs concurrently with offline, proximal acculturation. Cyberspace is treated as a legitimate social space where individuals form identities, negotiate belonging, and interact with both home and host cultures simultaneously.

This digital context introduces unique opportunities and challenges for different groups:

* '''Forced migrants:''' For refugees and asylum seekers, mobile phones act as critical tools for safety, navigation, and maintaining social connections during their migration journeys. However, they also introduce risks such as surveillance, misinformation, and the psychological stress of constant connectivity.
* '''International students:''' Social media is used to build both "bonding social capital" (maintaining ties with their home culture) and "bridging social capital" (forming new connections in the host culture). This can support psychological adjustment, but may also increase stress if it hinders engagement with the host society.
* '''Digital diasporas:''' Migrant communities can use online networks to maintain transnational identities, build global connections, and engage in homeland politics. This online activity influences their sense of belonging and integration within their new country of settlement.

This framework suggests that modern acculturation involves navigating new digital stressors as well as new avenues for culture learning and social support. It allows migrants to be "virtually present" in a host society before they arrive and to remain "virtually present" in their home society long after they have departed.

==Acculturative stress==
Population migration on a large scale all over the world has driven acculturation studies, and how it is impacting health through altering stress, health care utilization, and definitions of health.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> The effects of acculturation on physical health is thought to be a major factor in the [[immigrant paradox]], which argues that first generation immigrants tend to have better health outcomes than non-immigrants.<ref name=":3" /> Even though this phrase has been popularized, most academic literature contends otherwise, or that the immigrants are in better health than the host culture counterparts.<ref name=":3" />

One prominent explanation for the negative health behaviors and outcomes (e.g. [[substance abuse|substance use]], [[low birth weight]]) associated with the acculturation process is the ''acculturative stress theory''.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Ausubel | first=David P. | title=Acculturative Stress in Modern Maori Adolescence | journal=Child Development | date=December 1960 | jstor=1126010 | volume=31 | issue=4 | pages=617–631 | doi=10.2307/1126010| pmid=13685218 }}</ref> [[Acculturative stress]] refers to the stress response of immigrants in response to their experiences of acculturation.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name="berry2006" /> Stressors may be but are not restricted to learning stresses of a second language, preserving the native tongue, reconciling oppositional cultural values, and brokering between host vs. native acceptable social behaviors. Acculturative stress can manifest in many ways, including but not limited to anxiety,<ref name="Da Silva 213–236">{{Cite journal|last1=Da Silva|first1=Nicole|last2=Dillon|first2=Frank R.|last3=Rose Verdejo|first3=Toni|last4=Sanchez|first4=Mariana|last5=De La Rosa|first5=Mario|date=February 2017|title=Acculturative Stress, Psychological Distress, and Religious Coping Among Latina Young Adult Immigrants|journal=The Counseling Psychologist|volume=45|issue=2|pages=213–236|doi=10.1177/0011000017692111|issn=0011-0000|pmc=5636182|pmid=29033462}}</ref> depression, substance abuse, and other forms of mental and physical maladaptation.<ref>{{cite book | author=Berry, J.W. | chapter=Stress perspectives on acculturation | editor-first=D.L. | editor-last=Sam | editor2-first=J.W. | editor2-last=Berry | title=The Cambridge Handbook of Acculturation Psychology | location=Cambridge | year=2006 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-84924-1 | pages=43–57}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |author=Davis |author2=Carlo |author3=Schwartz |author4=Unger |author5=Zamboanga |author6=Lorenzo-Blanco |author7=Martinez |s2cid=22674591 |date=2016|title=The longitudinal associations between discrimination, depressive symptoms, and prosocial behaviors in US Latino/a recent immigrant adolescents.|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|volume=45 |issue=3|pages=457–470|doi=10.1007/s10964-015-0394-x|pmid=26597783|pmc=11194831 }}</ref> Stress caused by acculturation has been heavily documented in phenomenological research on the acculturation of a large variety of immigrants.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Skuza | first=Jennifer A. | s2cid=143876583 | title=Humanizing the Understanding of the Acculturation Experience with Phenomenology | journal=Human Studies | date=1 December 2007 | volume=30 | issue=4 | pages=451–463 | doi=10.1007/s10746-007-9073-6}}</ref> This research has shown that acculturation is a "fatiguing experience requiring a constant stream of bodily energy," and is both an "individual and familial endeavor" involving " consisting of "enduring loneliness caused by seemingly insurmountable language barriers.".<ref name="Da Silva 213–236"/>

One of the disparities with respect to risk for acculturative stress is degree of willingness, or migration status, and it can be greatly different if one immigrates into a country as a voluntary immigrant, refugee, asylum seeker, or sojourner. According to several studies,<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Berry2003" /><ref name="SamBerry" /><ref name=":2" /> voluntary migrants experience roughly 50% less acculturative stress than refugees, making this an important distinction.<ref name=":1" /> According to Schwartz (2010), there are four main categories of migrants: 
# ''Voluntary immigrants:'' those that leave their country of origin to find employment, economic opportunity, advanced education, marriage, or to reunite with family members that have already immigrated.
# ''Refugees:'' those who have been involuntarily displaced by persecution, war, or natural disasters. 
# ''Asylum seekers:'' those who willingly leave their native country to flee persecution or violence.
# ''Sojourners:'' those who relocate to a new country on a time-limited basis and for a specific purpose. It is important to note that this group fully intends to return to their native country.
This form of entry differentiation is significant, yet acculturative stress also varies extensively within and between ethnic groups.  A great deal of previous academic work has been undertaken with Asian and Latino/a immigrants, but more needs to be done regarding the influence of acculturative stress on other ethnic immigrant groups. Among [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|U.S. Latinos]], higher levels of adoption of the American host culture has been associated with negative effects on health behaviors and outcomes, such as increased risk for depression and discrimination, and increased risk for low self-esteem.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lara|first=Marielena|author2=Gamboa, Cristina|author3=Kahramanian, M. Iya|author4=Morales, Leo S.|author5=Hayes Bautista, David E.|date=21 April 2005|title=Acculturation and Latino Health in the United States: A Review of the Literature and its Sociopolitical Context|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|volume=26|issue=1|pages=367–97|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144615| doi-access=free|pmid=15760294|pmc=5920562}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Lueck & Wilson|date=2011|title=Acculturative stress in Latino immigrants: The impact of social, socio-psychological and migration-related factors.|journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations|volume=35|issue=2|pages=186–195|doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.11.016}}</ref> Other studies have found greater levels of acculturation are associated with greater sleep problems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ormiston |first1=Cameron K. |last2=Lopez |first2=Diana |last3=Ishino |first3=Francisco A. Montiel |last4=McNeel |first4=Timothy S. |last5=Williams |first5=Faustine |date=October 2022 |title=Acculturation and depression are associated with short and long sleep duration among Mexican Americans in NHANES 2005-2018 |journal=Preventive Medicine Reports |volume=29 |article-number=101918 |doi=10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101918 |issn=2211-3355 |pmc=9309403 |pmid=35898195}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ormiston |first1=Cameron K. |last2=Lopez |first2=Diana |last3=Montiel Ishino |first3=Francisco A. |last4=McNeel |first4=Timothy S. |last5=Williams |first5=Faustine |date=2024 |title=Acculturation and depression increase trouble sleeping in Mexican immigrant adults |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=19 |issue=10 |article-number=e0311288 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0311288 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmid=39423189|pmc=11488701 |bibcode=2024PLoSO..1911288O }}</ref>However, others also say "experiencing relief and protection in relationships" and "feeling worse and then feeling better about oneself with higher competencies" in the process of acculturation. Again, these variations may be relate to the age of the immigrant, the manner in which a migrant has departed from his or her home country, and the manner in which a migrant is accepted by source and destination cultures.<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1007/0-387-26238-5_12|chapter=Acculturative Stress|title=Handbook of Multicultural Perspectives on Stress and Coping|series=International and Cultural Psychology|year=2006|last1=Berry|first1=John W.|pages=287–298|isbn=978-0-387-26236-9}}</ref> In Belgium, when minority adolescents experienced discrimination, their adoption of the majority culture proespectively predicted less school adaptation and functioning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jasini |first1=Alba |last2=Cochez |first2=Anouck |last3=Mesquita |first3=Batja |date=2025-08-21 |title=The paradoxical effect of emotional acculturation in discriminatory contexts: school adjustment of immigrant minority youth |journal=Advances.in/Psychology |language=en |volume=2 |pages=e229104 |doi=10.56296/aip00039 |issn=2976-937X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Recent research has compared the acculturative processes of documented Mexican-American immigrants and [[undocumented immigrants in the United States|undocumented]] Mexican-American immigrants and found significant differences in their experiences and levels of acculturative stress.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |author=Cobb |author2=Xie |author3=Meca |author4=Schwartz |s2cid=22501934 |date=2016|title=Acculturation, Discrimination & Depression Among Undocumented Latino/as in the United States|journal = Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology|volume=23 |issue=2|pages=258–268|doi=10.1037/cdp0000118|pmid=27429063}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7819&context=dissertations|title=Acculturative Stress and Adaptability Levels Between Documented versus Undocumented Hispanic College Students}}</ref> Both groups of Mexican-American immigrants faced similar risks for depression and discrimination from the host (Americans), but the undocumented group of Mexican-American immigrants also faced discrimination, hostility, and exclusion by their own ethnic group (Mexicans) because of their unauthorized legal status. These studies highlight the complexities of acculturative stress, the degree of variability in health outcomes, and the need for specificity over generalizations when discussing potential or actual health outcomes.

Researchers have only recently discovered that there is an additional level of complexity in this field, in the form that survey data have grouped different ethnic groups together or have misidentified an ethnic group. In generalization, there can be the loss or blurring of subtlety and nuance in terms of the acculturation experience or acculturative stress of an individual or group. For example, much of the scholarly literature on this topic uses [[United States Census|U.S. census]] data. The Census incorrectly labels [[Arab Americans|Arab-Americans]] as Caucasian or "White".<ref name=":3" /> By doing so, this data set omits many factors about the Muslim Arab-American migrant experience, including but not limited to acculturation and acculturative stress. This is of particular importance after the events of [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001]], since Muslim Arab-Americans have faced increased prejudice and discrimination, leaving this religious ethnic community with an increased risk of acculturative stress.<ref name=":3" /> Research focusing on the adolescent Muslim Arab American experience of acculturation has also found that youth who experience acculturative stress during the identity formation process are at a higher risk for low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |author=Goforth |author2=Pham |author3=Chun |author4=Castro-Olivo |author5=Yosai |date=2016|title=Association of acculturative stress, Islamic practices, and internalizing symptoms among Arab American adolescents.|journal=School Psychology Quarterly|volume=31 |issue=2|pages=198–212|doi=10.1037/spq0000135 |pmid=27243243 }}</ref>

Some researchers argue that education, social support, hopefulness about employment opportunities, financial resources, family cohesion, maintenance of traditional cultural values, and high [[socioeconomic status]] (SES) serve as protections or mediators against acculturative stress. Previous work shows that limited education, low SES, and underemployment all increase acculturative stress.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name="Rudmin" /><ref name="SamBerry" /> Since this field of research is rapidly growing, more research is needed to better understand how certain subgroups are differentially impacted, how stereotypes and biases have influenced former research questions about acculturative stress, and the ways in which acculturative stress can be effectively mediated.

== Other outcomes ==

===Culture===
When individuals of a specific culture find themselves in contact with another culture (host) which is mainly more set up in the region where they live, elements of the host culture will most likely be appropriated and blended with elements of the people's native culture. In cases of extended contact, cultures have shared and mixed food, music, dances, attire, implements, and technologies. This type of cultural exchange is attributed to selective acculturation, which is the act of preserving cultural content by learning about the way those individuals use language, religious belief, and family norms.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Does selective acculturation work? Cultural orientations, educational aspirations and school effort among children of immigrants in Norway |doi=10.1080/1369183X.2019.1602471 |doi-access=free |last=Friberg |first=Jon Horgen |date=10 Apr 2019|journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies|volume=45 |issue=15 |pages=2844–2863 }}</ref> Cultural exchange can either occur naturally through extended contact, or more quickly though [[cultural appropriation]] or [[cultural imperialism]].

Cultural appropriation is the process of adopting specific elements of one culture by members a different cultural group. It can include the introduction of forms of dress or personal adornment, music and art, religion, language, or behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Schneider | first=Arnd | title=On 'appropriation': A critical reappraisal of the concept and its application in global art practices | journal=Social Anthropology | year=2003 | volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=215–229 | article-number=S0964028203000156 | doi=10.1017/S0964028203000156 | doi-broken-date=17 October 2025 }}</ref> These elements are typically imported into the existing culture, and may have wildly different meanings or lack the subtleties of their original cultural context. Because of this, cultural appropriation for financial gain is oftentimes condemned, and has sometimes been termed "cultural theft".

Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another, usually occurring in situations in which assimilation is the dominant strategy of acculturation.<ref>{{cite book | last=Alexander | first=Victoria | title=Sociology of the Arts: Exploring Fine and Popular Forms | date=31 January 2003 | publisher=Wiley | isbn=978-0-631-23040-3 | chapter=The Cultural Diamond – The Production of Culture | page=162}}</ref> Cultural imperialism can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general attitude regarding cultural superiority.

===Language===
{{Further|Language shift}}
In some instances, acculturation results in the adoption of another country's language, which is then modified over time to become a new, distinct, language. For example, [[Hanzi#Reform|Hanzi]], the written language of Chinese language, has been adapted and modified by other nearby cultures, including: [[Japan]] (as [[kanji]]), [[Korea]] (as [[hanja]]), and [[Vietnam]] (as [[chữ Hán]]). [[Jews]], often living as ethnic minorities, developed distinct languages derived from the common languages of the countries in which they lived (for example, [[Yiddish]] from [[High German languages|High German]] and [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]] from [[Old Spanish language|Old Spanish]]). Another common effect of acculturation on language is the formation of pidgin languages. [[Pidgin]] is a mixed language that has developed to help communication between members of different cultures in contact, usually occurring in situations of trade or colonialism.<ref>{{cite book | last=Todd | first=Loreto | title=Pidgins and Creoles | year=1990 | publisher=Routledge | location=London | isbn=978-0-415-05311-2}}</ref> For example, [[Pidgin English]] is a simplified form of English mixed with some of the language of another culture. Some pidgin languages can develop into [[creole language]]s, which are spoken as a first language.

Language plays a pivotal role in cultural heritage, serving as both a foundation for group identity and a means for transmitting culture in situations of contact between languages.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fishman |first1=Joshua A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7oAUeUVtc58C&q=Handbook+of+Language+and+Ethnic+Identity |title=Handbook of Language & Ethnic Identity |last2=García |first2=Ofelia |last3=Press |first3=Oxford University |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-537492-6 |language=en}}</ref> Language acculturation strategies, attitudes and identities can also influence the sociolinguistic development of languages in bi/multilingual contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ubalde |first1=Josep |last2=Alarcón |first2=Amado |last3=Lapresta |first3=Cecilio |date=2017-09-01 |title=Evolution and determinants of language attitudes among Catalan adolescents |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147176716301833 |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |volume=60 |pages=92–103 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.07.003 |issn=0147-1767|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Michel |first1=Andrea |last2=Titzmann |first2=Peter F. |last3=Silbereisen |first3=Rainer K. |date=2012-03-01 |title=Language shift among adolescent ethnic German immigrants: Predictors of increasing use of German over time |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147176711000988 |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=248–259 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.10.002 |issn=0147-1767|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lou |first=Nigel Mantou |date=2021-11-01 |title=Acculturation in a postcolonial context: Language, identity, cultural adaptation, and academic achievement of Macao students in Mainland China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147176721001577 |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |volume=85 |pages=213–225 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.10.004 |issn=0147-1767|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Food===
Acculturation impacts eating habits and intake at various levels. Studies have confirmed that dietary habits are precarious and consumed in secret, and change is a slow process. Learning to eat new food relies on the accessibility of indigenous ingredients, preparation simplicity, and price; thus, an immediate adjustment is expected to take place.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kittler|last2=Sucher|first1=Pamela|first2=Kathryn P.|title=Food and Culture|year=2008|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-495-11541-0}}</ref> Food acculturation aspects include food preparation, presentation, and consumption. Various societies prepare, present, and consume food differently. If one is exposed to another society for a long time, one is likely to learn aspects of the "host" society's food culture and apply them to oneself. In situations like these, acculturation is greatly dependent on general food information, or the information regarding the particular foods various cultures generally consume, the media, and social interaction. It makes various cultures interact with each other, and as a result, some of their elements blend and also become more acceptable to the people of each of the involved cultures.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2013-12-03|title=Influence of Acculturation on Foodways among Ethnic Groups and Common Acceptable Food|journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|language=en|volume=105|pages=438–444|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.046|issn=1877-0428|last1=Ishak|first1=Noriza|last2=Zahari|first2=Mohd Salehuddin Mohd.|last3=Othman|first3=Zulhan|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Controversies and debate==
===Definitions===
Anthropologists have made a semantic distinction between group and individual levels of acculturation. In such instances, the term ''[[transculturation]]'' is used to define individual foreign-origin acculturation, and occurs on a smaller scale with less visible impact. Scholars making this distinction use the term "acculturation" only to address large-scale cultural transactions. Acculturation, then, is the process by which migrants gain new information and insight about the norms and values of their culture and adapt their behaviors to the host culture.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sorrells | first=Kathryn | title=Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice | location=Thousand Oaks, California | year=2013 | publisher=Sage | isbn=978-1-4129-2744-4 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/interculturalcom0000sorr }}</ref>

===Recommended models===
Research long assumed that the integrationist model of acculturation leads to the most favorable psychological outcomes<ref>{{cite journal | last=R | first=E. J. |author2=Okazaki, Sumie|author3= Saw, Anne | title=Bicultural self-efficacy among college students: Initial scale development and mental health correlates | journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology | year=2009 | volume=56 | issue=2 | pages=211–226 | doi=10.1037/a0015419}}</ref> and marginalization to the least favorable,<ref name=berry2006 /> despite some early criticism.<ref name="Rudmin" /><ref name="Kunst 2013 225–241">{{cite journal |last=Kunst |first=Jonas R. |author2=Sam, David L. |year=2013 |title=Expanding the margins of identity: A critique of marginalization in a globalized world. |url=https://www.academia.edu/3992738 |journal=International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=225–241 |doi=10.1037/ipp0000008}}</ref> Although a correlational [[meta-analysis]] of the acculturation literature<ref>
{{cite journal | last=Nguyen | first=Angela-MinhTu D. |author2=Benet-Martínez, Verónica | title=Biculturalism Unpacked: Components, Measurement, Individual Differences, and Outcomes | journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass | year=2007 | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=101–114 | doi=10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00029.x}}</ref> and a large-scale study led by [[John W. Berry (psychologist)|John W. Berry]] (2006) found that integration correlated with better psychological and sociocultural adaptation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berry |first1=John W. |last2=Phinney |first2=Jean S. |last3=Sam |first3=David L. |last4=Vedder |first4=Paul |date=2006 |title=Immigrant Youth: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation |url=https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x |journal=Applied Psychology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=303–332 |doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x |issn=1464-0597|hdl=1887/16610 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> recent longitudinal meta-analyses find no support for a meaningful causal relationship.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Bierwiaczonek |first1=Kinga |last2=Kunst |first2=Jonas R. |date=2021-09-01 |title=Revisiting the Integration Hypothesis: Correlational and Longitudinal Meta-Analyses Demonstrate the Limited Role of Acculturation for Cross-Cultural Adaptation |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/09567976211006432 |journal=Psychological Science |language=en |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=1476–1493 |doi=10.1177/09567976211006432 |pmid=34415205 |issn=0956-7976|hdl=10852/87417 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Critically, given the high heterogeneity in effect, the association between integration and adaptation can be expected to be negative almost 30% of the time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bierwiaczonek |first1=Kinga |last2=Cheung |first2=Mike W. -L. |last3=Kunst |first3=Jonas R. |date=2023-03-01 |title=Revisiting the integration hypothesis again: High heterogeneity complicates the interpretation of cross-sectional evidence |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |volume=93 |article-number=101780 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2023.101780 |issn=0147-1767|doi-access=free }}</ref> 

===Typological approach===
Several theorists have stated that the fourfold models of acculturation are too simplistic to have predictive validity.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | last=Ward | first=Colleen | title=Thinking outside the Berry boxes: New perspectives on identity, acculturation and intercultural relations | journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations | date=March 2008 | volume=32 | issue=2 | pages=105–114 | doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2007.11.002}}</ref> Some common criticisms of such models include the fact that individuals don't often fall neatly into any of the four categories, and that there is very little evidence for the applied existence of the marginalization acculturation strategy.<ref name="Kunst 2013 225–241"/><ref>{{cite journal | last=Schwartz | first=Seth J. |author2=Unger, Jennifer B.|author3= Zamboanga, Byron L.|author4= Szapocznik, José | title=Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research | journal=American Psychologist | year=2010 | volume=65 | issue=4 | pages=237–251 | doi=10.1037/a0019330| pmid=20455618 | pmc=3700543 }}</ref> In addition, the bi-directionality of acculturation means that whenever two groups are engaged in cultural exchange, there are 16 permutations of acculturation strategies possible (e.g. an integrationist individual within an assimilationist host culture).<ref name="Rudmin"/> According to the research, another critique of the fourfold model of acculturation is that the people are less likely to cultivate a self-perception but either not assimilate other cultures or continuing the heritage cultures. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3700543/ Rethinking the Concept of Acculturation - PMC] The [[Interactive acculturation|interactive acculturation model]] represents one proposed alternative to the typological approach by attempting to explain the acculturation process within a framework of state policies and the dynamic interplay of host community and immigrant acculturation orientations.

=== Studying a Causal Process With Correlational Data ===
Acculturation, which focuses on the processes of cultural change, is inherently concerned with causal relationships. However, a significant limitation of the field is that nearly all existing research has been correlational in nature, making it impossible to infer causality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kunst |first=Jonas R. |date=2021-11-01 |title=Are we facing a "causality crisis" in acculturation research? The need for a methodological (r)evolution |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147176721001176 |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |volume=85 |pages=A4–A8 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.08.003 |issn=0147-1767|hdl=10852/86833 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Therefore, major notions such as the integration hypothesis studied in hundreds of studies still lack solid empirical support.<ref name=":6" /> Calls have been made to address this issue by considering acculturation from a developmental, longitudinal perspective.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Titzmann |first1=Peter F. |last2=Jugert |first2=Philipp |date=2024-11-22 |title=The dynamics of acculturative change: The potential of a developmental perspective in acculturation science |url=https://advances.in/psychology/10.56296/aip00029/ |journal=Advances.in/Psychology |language=en |volume=2 |pages=e553629 |doi=10.56296/aip00029 |issn=2976-937X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Jugert |first1=Philipp |title=Developmental Tasks and Immigrant Adolescent's Adaptation |date=2020 |work=Contextualizing Immigrant and Refugee Resilience: Cultural and Acculturation Perspectives |pages=33–50 |editor-last=Güngör |editor-first=Derya |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-42303-2_3 |access-date=2024-12-07 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-42303-2_3 |isbn=978-3-030-42303-2 |last2=Titzmann |first2=Peter F. |editor2-last=Strohmeier |editor2-first=Dagmar|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Richard M. Lee, Peter F. Titzmann, Philipp Jugert |title=Towards a more dynamic perspective on acculturation research |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-351-04026-6 |edition=1st}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Naturalization]]
* [[Acclimatization]]
* [[Socialization]]
* [[Deculturalization]]
* [[Globalization]]
* [[Nationalization]]
* [[Acculturation gap]]
* [[Educational anthropology]]
* [[Ethnocentrism]]
* [[Cultural relativism]]
* [[Cultural conflict]]
* [[Inculturation]]
* [[Cultural competence]]
* [[Language shift]]
* [[Westernization]]
* [[Cultural identity]]
* [[Linguistic imperialism]]
* [[Intercultural communication]]    
* [[Fusion music]]
* [[Fusion cuisine]]
{{div col end}}
'''Culture-specific:'''
{{cols|colwidth=23em}}
* [[Anglicisation]]
* [[Arabization]]
* [[Stolen Generations]] (of Australian Aborigines)
* [[Christianization]]
* [[Croatisation]]
* [[Francization]]
* [[Germanization]]
* [[Hellenization]]
* [[Hispanicization]]
* "[[More Irish than the Irish themselves]]"
* [[Indianisation]]
* [[Islamification]]
* [[Italianization]]
* [[Japanization]]
* [[Javanisation]]
* [[Jewish assimilation]]
* [[Lithuanization]] 
* [[Magyarization]]
* [[Malayisation]]
* [[Norwegianization]]
*[[Pashtunization]]
*[[Persianization]]
* [[Polonization]]
* [[Russification]]
* [[Romanianization]]
* [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]]
* [[Sanskritisation]]
* [[Serbianisation]]
* [[Sinicization]]
* [[Slavicisation]]
* [[Slovakization]]
* [[Swedification]]
* [[Ukrainization]]
* [[Thaification]]
* [[Turkification]]
* [[Vietnamization (cultural)]]
* [[Gerim]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|3}}

==References==
{{Wiktionary|acculturation}}
*{{cite book | last1=Gudykunst | first1=William B. | last2=Kim |first2=Young Yun | title=Communicating with Strangers: An Approach to Intercultural Communication | year=2003 | publisher=McGraw-Hill Education | isbn=978-0-07-119537-9 | edition=4th | location=New York}}
<!--Kramer 1998 -->
*{{cite thesis | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | title=Television criticism and the problem of ground interpretation after deconstruction | location=Ann Arbor | year=1988 | publisher=University of Michigan }}
<!--Kramer 1992-->
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | title=Consciousness and culture: an introduction to the thought of Jean Gebser | location=Westport, Conn | series=Contributions in sociology | year=1992 | publisher=Greenwood Press | isbn=978-0-313-27860-0 | url=http://erickramer.net/download/papers/gebser1992-culture.pdf | pages=1–60 | access-date=2011-12-19 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062118/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/gebser1992-culture.pdf | archive-date=2012-04-26 }}
<!--Kramer 1997a-->
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | title=Modern/postmodern: Off the Beaten Path of Antimodernism | year=1997a | location=Westport, CT | publisher=Praeger | isbn=978-0-275-95758-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KVrFXryPLfcC }}
<!--Kramer 1997b-->
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | year = 1997b | title=Postmodernism and Race | location=Westport, CT | publisher=Praeger }}
<!--Kramer 2000a--->
*{{cite book
 |last=Kramer 
 |first=Eric Mark 
 |year=2000a 
 |chapter=Cultural fusion and the defense of difference 
 |editor1-first=M. K. 
 |editor1-last=Asante 
 |editor2-first=J. E. 
 |editor2-last=Min 
 |chapter-url=http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2000-cultural%20fusion-proof.pdf 
 |title=Socio-cultural Conflict between African and Korean Americans 
 |pages=182–223 
 |location=New York 
 |publisher=University Press of America 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062234/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2000-cultural%20fusion-proof.pdf 
 |archive-date=2012-04-26 
}}
<!--Kramer 2000b--->
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | year=2000b | chapter=Contemptus mundi: Reality as disease | editor1-first=V. | editor1-last=issues | editor2-first=J. W. | editor2-last=Murphy | chapter-url=http://erickramer.net/download/papers/mundi2000.pdf | title=Computers, human interaction, and organizations: Critical issues | pages=31–54 | location=Westport, CT | publisher=Praeger | access-date=2011-12-19 | archive-date=2016-03-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304170110/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/mundi2000.pdf }}
<!--Kramer 2003--->
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | year = 2003  | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x9-yOGSyKrYC  | title= The Emerging Monoculture: Assimilation and the "Model Minority" | location=Westport, CT | publisher=Praeger | isbn=978-0-275-97312-4 }}
<!--Kramer 2009--->
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | year=2009 | chapter=Theoretical reflections on intercultural studies: Preface | editor1-first=S. | editor1-last=Croucher | chapter-url=http://erickramer.net/download/papers/preface2008-Croucher.pdf | title=Looking Beyond the Hijab | pages=ix–xxxix | location=Cresskill, NJ | publisher=Hampton | access-date=2011-12-19 | archive-date=2016-03-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091012/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/preface2008-Croucher.pdf }}
<!--Kramer 2010--->
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | year=2010 | chapter=Immigration | editor1-first=R. L. | editor1-last=Jackson, II | chapter-url=http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2010-immigration.pdf | title=Encyclopedia of Identity | pages=384–389 | location=Thousand Oaks | publisher=Sage | access-date=2011-12-19 | archive-date=2012-04-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062215/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2010-immigration.pdf }}
<!--Kramer 2011--->
*{{cite book|last=Kramer |first=Eric Mark |year=2011 |chapter=Preface |editor1-first=S. |editor1-last=Croucher |chapter-url=http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2011-Praface%20for%20Religious%20Misperceptions.pdf |title=Religious Misperceptions: The case of Muslims and Christians in France and Britain |pages=vii–xxxii |location=Cresskill, NJ |publisher=Hampton |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062147/http://erickramer.net/download/papers/Kramer2011-Praface%20for%20Religious%20Misperceptions.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-26 }}
<!--Kramer 2012--->
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Eric Mark | year = 2012 | chapter=Dimensional accrual and dissociation: An introduction | editor1-first=J. | editor1-last=Grace | title=Comparative Cultures and Civilizations | volume=3 | location= Cresskill, NJ | publisher=Hampton }}
*Ward, C. (2001). The A, B, Cs of acculturation. In D. Matsumoto (Ed.) "The handbook of culture and psychology" (pp.&nbsp;411–445). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
{{culture}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cultural studies]]
[[Category:Majority–minority relations]]
[[Category:Immigration]]