View source for Aceh

{{short description|Autonomous province in Sumatra, Indonesia}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Aceh
| official_name      = Government of Aceh<br />{{nobold|{{lang|id|Pemerintah Provinsi Aceh}}}}
| other_name         = {{hlist|Nanggroë Acèh Darussalam|Special Region of Aceh}}
| type               = [[Provinces of Indonesia|Province with special status]]
| image_flag         = 
| shield_size        = 
| flag_size          = 
| flag_link          = 
| image_map          = Aceh in Indonesia.svg
| map_alt            = Map indicating the location of Aceh in Indonesia
| map_caption        = {{centre|{{Legend inline|#C41E3A|outline=red}} '''Aceh''' in {{Legend inline|#FFFDD0|outline=silver}} '''[[Indonesia]]'''}}
| coordinates        = {{coord|05|33|25|N|95|19|34|E|region:ID_type:adm1st|name=provincial administration|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes = 
| motto              = {{native phrase|sa|Pancacita}}<br />"Five Ideals"{{force singular}}
| anthem             = {{lang|ace|[[Aceh Mulia|Acèh Mulia]]}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kesbangpol.bandaacehkota.go.id/2017/12/16/aceh-mulia-jadi-himne-aceh/ |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2019-10-14 |archive-date=2019-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014144309/http://kesbangpol.bandaacehkota.go.id/2017/12/16/aceh-mulia-jadi-himne-aceh/ |url-status=live}}</ref><br />"Noble Aceh"
| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = {{flag|Indonesia}}
| subdivision_type1  = [[Regions of Indonesia|Region]]
| subdivision_name1  = [[Sumatra]]
| seat_type          = Capital<br />{{nobold|and largest city}}
| seat               = [[Banda Aceh]]
| governing_body     = Aceh Provincial Government
| leader_title       = [[List of governors of Aceh|Governor]]
| leader_name        = [[Muzakir Manaf]] ([[Aceh Party|PA]])
| leader_title2      = Vice Governor
| leader_name2       = [[:id:Fadhlullah|Fadhlullah]]
| leader_title3      = [[Regional House of Representatives#Names|Legislature]]
| leader_name3       = [[Aceh House of Representatives]] (DPRA)
| area_footnotes     = <ref>The sum of the districts' land areas is 56,839.09 km<sup>2</sup>, although the official area is given as 56,834.75 km<sup>2</sup>.</ref>
| area_total_km2     = 56839.09
| area_rank          = 11th
| area_note          = 
| elevation_m        = 125
| elevation_min_m    = 0
| elevation_max_m    = 3466
| elevation_max_point = [[Mount Leuser]]
| population_total   = 5554815
| population_footnotes = <ref name="BPS Provinsi Aceh 2025">Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 28 February 2025, ''Provinsi Aceh Dalam Angka 2025'' (Katalog-BPS 1102001.11)</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank    = 14th
| population_density_rank = 20th
| population_as_of   = mid 2024
| demographics_type1 = Demographics
| demographics1_footnotes = <ref name="BPS Provinsi Aceh 2025" />
| demographics1_title1 = {{nowrap|[[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Ethnic groups]]}} {{nobold|(2010)}}<ref>{{cite book
|first1 =  Oleh
|last1 = Aris Ananta,¿ 
|first2 = Evi
|last2 = Nurvidya Arifin
|first3 = M. 
|last3 = Sairi Hasbullah
|first4 = Nur
|last4 = Budi Handayani
|first5 = Agus 
|last5 = Pramono
|publisher = Institute of Southeast Asian Studies dan BPS – Statistics Indonesia
|title = Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity
|year = 2015
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=crKfCgAAQBAJ
|page = 98
|isbn = 978-981-4519-87-8
|archive-date = 2023-01-24
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230124085516/https://books.google.co.id/books?id=crKfCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=id#v=onepage&q&f=false
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
| timezone1          = [[Time in Indonesia|Indonesia Western Time]]
| utc_offset1        = +7
| demographics1_info1 = {{plainlist|
*71.72% [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]]
*9.08% [[Javanese people|Javanese]]
*7.33% [[Gayo people|Gayo]]
*3.34% [[Batak people|Batak]]
* 2.16% [[Malay (ethnic group)|Tamiang Malays]]
*1.43% [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamèë]]
*1.13% [[Singkil people|Singkil]]
*1.04% [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]]
*0.75% [[Simeulue people|Devayan]]
* 2.02% [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Others]]}}
| demographics1_title2 = [[Religion in Indonesia|Religion]] {{nobold|(2024)}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/ | title=Visualisasi Data Kependudukan | access-date=23 July 2021 | archive-date=5 July 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705211227/http://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>
| demographics1_info2 = {{plainlist|
*98.60% [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]]
{{Tree list}}
*1.28% [[Christianity in Indonesia|Christianity]]
**1.17% [[Protestantism in Indonesia|Protestanism]]
**0.11% [[Catholicism in Indonesia|Catholicism]]
{{Tree list/end}}
*0.12% [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]]}}
| demographics1_title3 = [[Languages of Indonesia|Languages and dialects]]
| demographics1_info3 = {{plainlist|
*[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (official)
*[[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] (co-official)
*[[Alas-Kluet language|Alas-Kluet]]
*[[Gayo language|Gayo]]
*[[Tamiang Malay]]
*[[Jamee language|Jamèë]]
*[[Simeulue language|Leukon]]
*[[Sigulai language|Sigulai]]
*[[Simeulue language|Simeulue]]
*[[Singkil language|Singkil]]
*[[Haloban language|Haloban]]
}}
| website            = {{URL|acehprov.go.id}}
| government_type    = [[Subdivisions of Indonesia#First level|Special autonomous province]]
| established_title  = Province status
| established_date   = 7 December 1956<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 1956 |wslanguage=id}}</ref>
| population_demonym = {{hlist|[[Acehnese people|Acehnese]]|[[wikt:Achinese|Achinese]]}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mediaaceh.co/2017/12/23/arti-orang-aceh-dalam-uupa-menurut-kip-subulussalam |title=Arti "Orang Aceh" Dalam UUPA Menurut KIP Subulussalam |date=23 December 2017 |access-date=16 October 2020 |archive-date=22 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022035701/https://mediaaceh.co/2017/12/23/arti-orang-aceh-dalam-uupa-menurut-kip-subulussalam/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| nickname           = <br />{{lang|id|Serambi Mekah}}<br />"Porch of [[Mecca]]"{{force singular}}
| image_map1         = {{hidden begin|title=OpenStreetMap|ta1=center}}{{Infobox mapframe|frame-width=250|zoom=5}}{{hidden end}}
| image_shield       = Coat of arms of Aceh.svg
| iso_code           = ID - AC
| blank_name         = GDP (nominal)
| blank_info         = 2022
| registration_plate_type = BL
| blank1_name        = &nbsp;- Total<ref>{{Cite web |author=Badan Pusat Statistik |author-link=Statistics Indonesia |year=2023 |title=Produk Domestik Regional Bruto (Milyar Rupiah), 2022 |url=https://www.bps.go.id/id/statistics-table/3/WkdVMWRYVnBkMnBvVEhKSVkyWXhNblZtTjJSbmR6MDkjMw==/produk-domestik-regional-bruto-atas-dasar-harga-berlaku--menurut-provinsi--miliar-rupiah-.html?year=2022 |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik |location=Jakarta |language=id}}</ref>
| blank1_info        = [[Indonesian rupiah|Rp]] 211.8&nbsp;trillion ([[List of Indonesian provinces by GDP|20th]])<br>[[USD|US$]] 14.3&nbsp;billion<br>[[Int$]] 44.5&nbsp;billion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]])
| blank2_name        = &nbsp;- Per capita<ref>{{Cite web |author=Badan Pusat Statistik |author-link=Statistics Indonesia |year=2023 |title=Produk Domestik Regional Bruto Per Kapita (Ribu Rupiah), 2022 |url=https://www.bps.go.id/id/statistics-table/3/YWtoQlRVZzNiMU5qU1VOSlRFeFZiRTR4VDJOTVVUMDkjMw==/produk-domestik-regional-bruto-per-kapita-atas-dasar-harga-berlaku-menurut-provinsi--ribu-rupiah-.html?year=2022 |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik |location=Jakarta |language=id}}</ref>
| blank2_info        = [[Indonesian rupiah|Rp]] 39.2&nbsp;million ([[List of Indonesian provinces by GRP per capita|30th]])<br>[[USD|US$]] 2,637<br>[[Int$]] 8,229&nbsp;([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]])
| blank3_name        = &nbsp;- Growth<ref>{{Cite web |author=Badan Pembangunan Nasional |author-link=Ministry of National Development Planning (Indonesia) |year=2023 |title=Capaian Indikator Utama Pembangunan |url=https://simreg.bappenas.go.id/home/pemantauan/lpe |publisher=Badan Pembangunan Nasional |location=Jakarta |language=id}}</ref>
| blank3_info        = {{Increase}} 0.009
| blank4_name        = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2024)
| blank4_info        = {{increase}} 0.7623<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/id/pressrelease/2024/11/15/2296/indeks-pembangunan-manusia--ipm--indonesia-tahun-2024-mencapai-75-02--meningkat-0-63-poin-atau-0-85-persen-dibandingkan-tahun-sebelumnya-yang-sebesar-74-39-.html|title=Indeks Pembangunan Manusia 2024|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|date=2024|language=id|access-date=15 November 2024}}</ref> ([[List of Indonesian provinces by Human Development Index|11th]]) – <span style=color:#090>high</span>
}}
'''Aceh''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|tʃ|eɪ}} {{respell|AH|chay}}, {{IPA|id|ˈatʃɛh|lang|Aceh spoken.ogg}}; {{langx|ace|Acèh}}, {{IPA|ace|atʃɛh}}; [[Jawi script|Jawoë]]: {{lang|ace-Arab|اچيه}}; [[Van Ophuijsen Spelling System|Old Spelling]]: ''Atjeh'') is the westernmost [[Provinces of Indonesia|province]] of [[Indonesia]]. It is located on the northern end of [[Sumatra]] island, with [[Banda Aceh]] being its capital and largest city. It is bordered by the [[Indian Ocean]] to the west, [[Strait of Malacca]] to the northeast, as well bordering the province of [[North Sumatra]] to the east, its sole land border, and shares maritime borders with [[Malaysia]] and [[Thailand]] to the east, and [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] of [[India]] to the north. Granted a special [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomous]] status, Aceh is a religiously [[Religious conservatism|conservative]] territory, with the majority of the population being [[Muslim]] and the only Indonesian province practicing Islamic [[Sharia]] law officially. There are ten indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the [[Acehnese people]], accounting for approximately 70% of the region's population of about 5.55 million people in mid-2024. Its land area of 56,839.09&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> is comparable to [[Croatia]], [[Togo]], the U.S. state of [[West Virginia]], or Russia's [[Pskov Oblast]].

Aceh is a provincial region that constitutes a unified legal community with a special status and is granted special authorities to regulate and manage its own governmental affairs and local interests in accordance with laws and regulations within the system and principles of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia, based on the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, and is led by a [[Governor of Aceh|Governor]].

Aceh is where the [[spread of Islam in Indonesia]] began, and was a key factor of the [[spread of Islam in Southeast Asia]]. Islam reached Aceh (Kingdoms of [[Barus|Fansur]] and [[Lamuri]]) around 1250 AD. In the early 17th century the [[Sultanate of Aceh]] was the most wealthy, powerful and cultivated state in the [[Malacca Straits]] region. Aceh has a history of political independence and resistance to control by outsiders, including the former [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch colonists]] and later the Indonesian government.

Aceh has substantial [[natural resource]]s of [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]].<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1590162,00.html "How An Escape Artist Became Aceh's Governor"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803235400/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1590162,00.html |date=3 August 2008 }}, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', 15 February 2007</ref> Aceh was the closest point of land to the [[epicenter]] of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]], which devastated much of the western coast of the province. Approximately 170,000 Indonesians were killed or went missing in the disaster.<ref>United Nations. ''Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2005''. 2005, page 172</ref> The disaster helped precipitate the peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the [[separatism|separatist]] group of [[Free Aceh Movement]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth-indonesia.org/story/exxonmobil-plays-terrorist-card-aceh-case|title=ExxonMobil plays "terrorist" card in Aceh case|date=August 2002|website=downtoearth-indonesia.org}}</ref>

== Name ==
Aceh was first known as '''Aceh Darussalam''' (1511–1945). Upon its formation in 1956 it bore the name '''Aceh''' before being renamed to the '''Daerah Istimewa Aceh''' (Aceh Special Region; 1959–2001), '''Nanggroë Aceh Darussalam''' (2001–2009), and back to '''Aceh''' (2009–present). In the past it was also spelled as ''Acheh'', ''Atjeh'', and ''Achin''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.djpk.kemenkeu.go.id/?p=664 |title=Direktorat Jenderal Perimbangan Keuangan {{!}} Perubahan Sebutan Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam menjadi Aceh|website=djpk.kemenkeu.go.id|language=id |access-date=2018-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831211947/http://www.djpk.kemenkeu.go.id/?p=664 |archive-date=31 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== History ==
=== Prehistory ===
[[File:Bukit Kerang in Aceh Tamiang, Aceh.jpg|thumb|Mollusca piles in [[Aceh Tamiang Regency]]]]

According to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the [[Tamiang River]] where [[Midden|shell middens]] are present. [[Stone tool]]s and [[Faunal assemblage|faunal remains]] were also found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs%5CAceh-project%5Cfull-papers%5Caceh_fp_danielperret.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080119135034/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_danielperret.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2008 |title=Aceh as a Field for Ancient History Studies |author=Daniel Perret |date=24 February 2007 |publisher=Asia Research Institute-[[National University of Singapore]] |access-date=29 January 2010}}</ref>

=== Pre-Islamic Aceh ===
[[File:Avalokiteshvara head Aceh Srivijaya 1.JPG|thumb|upright|right|Head of [[Avalokiteshvara]] from Aceh.]]
[[File:Neusu Inscription.jpg|thumb |[[Neusu]] inscription stored in the Aceh Museum]]

The history of Aceh stretches back to the [[Lambri]] Kingdom. Several documented references indicate that Hindu-Buddhist culture existed in the area before its [[Islamization]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Lamuri, Kerajaan Pertama di Aceh yang Beragama Hindu
|url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-3926025/lamuri-kerajaan-pertama-di-aceh-yang-beragama-hindu|website=detik news|access-date=2023-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mc.Kinnons|first1=E.Edwards|title=Beyond Serandib: A Note on Lambri at the Northern Tip of Aceh|journal=Indonesia |date=10 November 1988 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3351047|volume=1|issue=46 |pages=102–121|doi=10.2307/3351047 |jstor=3351047 |hdl=1813/53892 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The people of [[Lambri]] were described by [[Marco Polo]] as "idolaters", who had a [[Maharaja]] as their ruler, a king in the Hindu political structure, likely meaning they were [[Hindus]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], or a combination thereof.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TexF3FC87YC&pg=PA299 |title=The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier Edition |author=Marco Polo |translator=Henry Yule |editor=Henri Cordier |date=1993 |page=299 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0486275871}}</ref>

The inscription at [[Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world|Tanjore]] of [[Rajendra I]] documents the conquest of a land called "llämuridesam", located at the northern tip of Sumatra. The Nagarakritagama documents the possessions of the Imperial [[Majapahit]], and states that they control Barat, identified as the western coast of Aceh. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] records indicate that Aceh was under the control of the [[Sriwijaya]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Coedès|first= George|author-link= George Coedès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}</ref>

Though many temples were left abandoned or converted into mosques, such as the [[Indrapuri Old Mosque]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.witpress.com/Secure/elibrary/papers/IHA16/IHA16008FU1.pdf |title=Changing a Hindu temple into the Indrapuri Mosque in Aceh: the beginning of Islamisation in Indonesia – a vernacular architectural context |quote=Kompas argues that Indrapuri Mosque in Aceh was built in the 10th century AD by the Lamuri kingdom. At the time, it functioned as the Temple of Hinduism [4]. In addition, Zein says that the function of the temple was changed into a Mosque when the King and the people of Lamuri Hindu kingdom converted to Islam in 1205 AD}}</ref> some evidence remains, such as the head of a stone sculpture of [[Avalokiteshvara]] [[Boddhisattva]] was discovered in Aceh. Images of [[Amitabha]] Buddhas adorn his crown in front and on each side. [[Srivijaya]]n art estimated 9th-century CE collection of [[National Museum of Indonesia]], Jakarta. One of the few structural remains is the Indra Patra fort, which has several Hindu shrines.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indonesia-tourism.com/aceh/indra_patra.html|title=Indra Patra Fortress|publisher=Indonesia Tourism}}</ref> Historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri, which refer to the God [[Indra]], also indicate that Hinduism had a lasting and significant presence in this land.

=== Beginnings of Islam in Southeast Asia ===
{{See also|Spread of Islam in Indonesia}}
[[File:Pasai.jpg|thumb|Map of [[Pasai]], the first Islamic kingdom in [[Southeast Asia]]]]

Evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in [[Southeast Asia]] is thin and inconclusive. The historian [[Anthony Reid (academic)|Anthony Reid]] has argued that the region of the [[Chams|Cham people]] on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship was with Aceh.<ref>Reid (1988 and 1993)</ref> Furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of [[Islam]] was in the Aceh region. When [[Venice|Venetian]] traveller [[Marco Polo]] passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that [[Perlak, Aceh|Peureulak]] was a Muslim town while nearby 'Basma(n)' and 'Samara' were not. 'Basma(n)' and 'Samara' are often said to be [[Pasai]] and Samudra but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has been found and is dated [[Hijri year|AH]] 696 (AD 1297). This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area and more gravestones from the 13th century show that this region continued under Muslim rule. [[Ibn Batutah]], a [[Morocco|Moroccan]] traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the [[Shafi'i]] school of Islam.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), page 4</ref>

After the initial appearance of Islam in Aceh, it further spread into the coastal regions by the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abuza |first=Zachary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rwp5DQAAQBAJ |title=Forging Peace in Southeast Asia: Insurgencies, Peace Processes, and Reconciliation |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-5757-3 |pages=23}}</ref> Aceh soon became a cultural and scholastic Islamic center throughout Southeast Asia. It also became wealthy because it was a center of extensive trade.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=1-57958-468-3 |editor-last=Skutsch |editor-first=Carl |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=5}}</ref>

The Portuguese apothecary [[Tome Pires]] reported in his early 16th-century book ''Suma Oriental'' that most of the kings of Sumatra from Aceh through [[Palembang]] were Muslim. At Pasai, in what is now the [[North Aceh Regency]], there was a thriving international port. Pires attributed the establishment of Islam in Pasai to the 'cunning' of the Muslim merchants. The ruler of Pasai, however, had not been able to convert the people of the interior.<ref>Ricklefs (1991),
 page 7</ref>

=== Sultanate of Aceh ===
{{Main|Aceh Sultanate}}

The Sultanate of Aceh was established by Sultan [[Ali Mughayat Syah]] in 1511.

In 1584–88 the Bishop of [[Portuguese Malacca|Malacca]], D. João Ribeiro Gaio, based on information provided by a former captive called Diogo Gil, wrote the "Roteiro das Cousas do Achem" (Lisboa 1997) – a description of the sultanate.

Later, during its [[golden era]], in the 17th century, its [[wikt:Special:Search/territory|territory]] and political influence expanded as far as [[Satun]] in southern [[Thailand]], [[Johor]] in [[Malay Peninsula]], and Siak in what is today the province of [[Riau]]. As was the case with most non-Javan pre-colonial states, [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] power expanded outward by sea rather than inland. As it expanded down the Sumatran coast, its main competitors were [[Johor Sultanate|Johor]] and [[Portuguese Malacca]] on the other side of the [[Straits of Malacca]]. It was this seaborne trade focus that saw Aceh rely on rice imports from north [[Java]] rather than develop [[self sufficiency]] in rice production.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), page 17</ref>
[[File:Sultanate of Aceh.png|thumb|Map of Aceh Sultanate and its vassals at its greatest extent during the reign of Sultan Iskandar Muda]]
After the Portuguese occupation of [[Malacca]] in 1511, many Islamic traders passing the [[Malacca Straits]] shifted their trade to [[Banda Aceh]] and increased the [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] rulers' wealth. During the reign of [[Sultan Iskandar Muda]] in the 17th century, Aceh's influence extended to most of [[Sumatra]] and the [[Malay Peninsula]]. Aceh allied itself with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Dutch East India Company]] in their struggle against the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and the [[Johor Sultanate]]. Acehnese military power waned gradually thereafter, and Aceh ceded its territory of [[Pariaman]] in [[Sumatra]] to the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] in the 18th century.<ref>*D. G. E. Hall, ''A History of South-east Asia''. London: Macmillan, 1955.</ref>[[File:Aceh Sultanate en.svg|thumb|Map of Iskandar Muda's expeditions|left]]

By the early 19th century, however, Aceh had become an increasingly influential power due to its strategic location for controlling regional trade. In the 1820s it was the producer of over half the world's supply of [[black pepper]]. The pepper trade produced new wealth for the sultanate and for the rulers of many smaller nearby ports that had been under Aceh's control, but were now able to assert more independence. These changes initially threatened Aceh's integrity, but a new Sultan [[Alauddin Ibrahim Mansur Syah|Tuanku Ibrahim]], who controlled the kingdom from 1838 to 1870, reasserted power over nearby ports.<ref name="ricklefs2001p185">Ricklefs, M.C. (2001) ''A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1200''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p&nbsp;185–188.</ref>

Under the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]] the [[United Kingdom|British]] ceded their colonial possessions on Sumatra to the Dutch. In the treaty, the British described Aceh as one of their possessions, although they had no actual control over the sultanate. Initially, under the agreement the Dutch agreed to respect Aceh's independence. In 1871, however, the British dropped previous opposition to a Dutch invasion of Aceh, possibly to prevent [[France]] or the United States from gaining a foothold in the region. Although neither the Dutch nor the British knew the specifics, there had been rumors since the 1850s that Aceh had been in communication with the rulers of France and of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="ricklefs2001p185" />

=== Aceh War ===
{{Main|Aceh War}}

[[File:Generaal Kohler sneuvelt in de Mesigit.jpg|thumb|[[Johan Köhler|General Köhler]], commandant of Dutch troops, died from a shot by an Acehnese sniper during the first attack on Aceh.]]
Pirates operating from Aceh threatened commerce in the [[Strait of Malacca]]; the sultan was unable to control them. Britain was a protector of Aceh and gave the Netherlands permission to eradicate the pirates. The campaign quickly drove out the sultan but the local leaders mobilized and fought the Dutch in four decades of guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Nicholas Tarling |editor-link=Nicholas Tarling |title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2, the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBfsaw64rjMC&pg=PA104 |year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge U.P. |page=104 |isbn=978-0-521-35506-3 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref> The Dutch colonial government declared war on Aceh on 26 March 1873. Aceh sought American help but Washington rejected the request.<ref name="ricklefs2001p185" />

The Dutch tried one strategy after another over the course of four decades. An expedition under Major General [[Johan Harmen Rudolf Köhler]] in 1873 occupied most of the coastal areas. Köhler's strategy was to attack and take the sultan's palace. It failed. The Dutch then tried a naval blockade, reconciliation, concentration within a line of forts, and lastly passive containment. They had scant success. Reaching 15 to 20 million guilders a year, the heavy spending for failed strategies nearly bankrupted the colonial government.<ref>E.H. Kossmann, ''The Low Countries 1780–1940'' (1978) pp&nbsp;400–401</ref> During the course of the war, the Dutch set up the [[Gouvernment of Atjeh and Dependencies]] under a governor, although it did not establish wider control of its territory until after 1908.

The Aceh army was rapidly modernized, and Aceh soldiers killed Köhler. Köhler made some grave tactical errors and the reputation of the Dutch was severely harmed. In recent years, in line with expanding international attention to human rights issues and atrocities in war zones, there has been increasing discussion about some of the recorded acts of cruelty and slaughter committed by Dutch troops during the period of warfare in Aceh.<ref>Linawati Sidarto, "Images of a grisly past", ''[[The Jakarta Post]]: Weekender'', July 2011 {{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/23/grisly-images.html |title=Grisly Images &#124; the Jakarta Post |access-date=26 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110627150918/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/23/grisly-images.html |archive-date=27 June 2011}}</ref>

Hasan Mustafa (1852–1930) was a chief ''penghulu'', or judge, for the colonial government and was stationed in Aceh. He had to balance traditional Muslim justice with Dutch law. To stop the Aceh rebellion, Hasan Mustafa issued a fatwa, telling the Muslim population there in 1894, "It is Incumbent upon the Indonesian Muslim to be loyal to the Dutch East Indies Government".<ref>Mufti Ali, "A Study of Hasan Mustafa's 'Fatwa: 'It Is Incumbent upon the Indonesian Muslims to be Loyal to the Dutch East Indies Government,'" ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society,'' April 2004, Vol. 52 Issue 2, pp 91–122</ref>

=== Japanese occupation ===
During World War II, Japanese troops occupied Aceh. The Acehnese ''[[ulama]]'' (Islamic clerics) fought against both the Dutch and the Japanese, revolting against the Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in November 1942. The revolt was led by the All-Aceh Religious Scholars' Association (PUSA). The Japanese suffered 18 dead in the uprising while they slaughtered up to 100 or over 120 Acehnese.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Martinkus |title=Indonesia's Secret War in Aceh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RcdwAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Random House Australia |isbn=978-1-74051-209-1 |page=47 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Merle Calvin Ricklefs |title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC&pg=PA252 |year=2001 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4480-5 |page=252 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref> The revolt happened in Bayu and was centered around Tjot Plieng village's religious school.<ref>{{cite book |title=Tempo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3NETAQAAMAAJ |series=43–52 |volume=3 |year=2003 |publisher=Arsa Raya Perdana |page=27 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atjehcyber.net/2011/08/sejarah-jejak-perlawanan-aceh.html |title=Sejarah Jejak Perlawanan Aceh |author=atjehcyberID |work=Atjeh Cyber Warrior |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427002230/http://www.atjehcyber.net/2011/08/sejarah-jejak-perlawanan-aceh.html |archive-date=27 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://issuu.com/waspada/docs/waspada__sabtu_17_maret_2012/3 |title=Waspada, Sabtu 17 Maret 2012 |work=Issuu |date=16 March 2012 |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314210034/https://issuu.com/waspada/docs/waspada__sabtu_17_maret_2012/3 |archive-date=14 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://issuu.com/waspada/docs/waspada__sabtu_17_maret_2012 |title=Waspada, Sabtu 17 Maret 2012 |work=Issuu |date=16 March 2012 |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315025913/https://issuu.com/waspada/docs/waspada__sabtu_17_maret_2012 |archive-date=15 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> During the revolt, the Japanese troops armed with mortars and machine guns were charged by sword wielding Acehnese under Teungku Abduldjalil (Tengku Abdul Djalil) in Buloh Gampong Teungah and Tjot Plieng on 10 and 13 November.<ref>{{cite book |title=Berita Kadjian Sumatera: Sumatra Research Bulletin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiTjAAAAMAAJ |volume=1–4 |year=1971 |publisher=Dewan Penjelidikan Sumatera |page=35 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Abdul Haris Nasution |title=Tentara Nasional Indonesia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3kDBvr5UeYC |year=1963 |publisher=Ganaco |page=89 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Sedjarah Iahirnja Tentara Nasional Indonesia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKbQAAAAMAAJ |year=1970 |publisher=Sedjarah Militer Dam II/BB |page=12 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Indonesia. Panitia Penjusun Naskah Buku "20 Tahun Indonesia Merdeka." |author2=Indonesia |title=20 &#91;i. e Dua puluh&#93; tahun Indonesia merdeka |year=1966 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AE5AQAAIAAJ |volume=7 |publisher=Departement Penerangan |page=547 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Indonesia. Angkatan Darat. Pusat Sedjarah Militer |title=Sedjarah TNI-Angkatan Darat, 1945–1965. &#91;Tjet. 1.&#93; |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KOyzISuyJlwC |year=1965 |publisher=PUSSEMAD |page=8 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Indonesia. Departemen Penerangan |title=20 tahun Indonesia merdeka |year=1965 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtsRAAAAMAAJ |volume=7 |publisher=Departemen Penerangan R.I. |page=545 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref><ref>Atjeh Post, Minggu Ke III September 1990. halaman I & Atjeh Post, Minggu Ke IV September 1990 halaman I</ref> In May 1945 the Acehnese rebelled again.<ref>{{cite book |author=Louis Jong |title=The collapse of a colonial society: the Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BpZuAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=978-90-6718-203-4 |page=189 |access-date=15 December 2015}}</ref> The religious ulama party gained ascendancy to replace district warlords ({{Lang|ace|[[ulèëbalang]]}}) party that formerly collaborated with the Dutch. Concrete bunkers still line the northernmost beaches.

=== Indonesian independence ===
{{Main|Cumbok affair}}

[[File:Teuku Daud Beureueh.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Daud Beureu'eh|Teungku Daud Beureu'eh]], 3rd governor of Aceh and the regional leader of Darul Islam in Aceh]]

After World War II, civil war erupted in 1945 between the district warlords party, that supported the return of a Dutch government, and the [[Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh]] (PUSA) party that supported the newly proclaimed state of Indonesia. The ulama won, and the area remained free during the [[Indonesian National Revolution|Indonesian War of Independence]]. The Dutch military itself never attempted to invade Aceh. The civil war raised the religious ''ulama'' party leader, [[Daud Bereueh|Daud Bereu'eh]], to the position of military governor of Aceh.<ref name="ibrahimy">M Nur El-Ibrahimy, ''Peranan Teungku M. Daud Bereueh dalam Pergolakan di Aceh'' [The Role of Mr. M. David in the Upheaval in Aceh], 2001.</ref><ref name="nasution">{{cite book |first1= A.H. |last1= Nasution |title= Seputar Perang Kemerdekaan Indonesia, Jilid II |trans-title= About the Indonesian War of Independence |date= 1977 |language= id }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Teungku Muhammad Daud Beureueh |url=https://esi.kemdikbud.go.id/wiki/Teungku_Muhammad_Daud_Beureueh |date=2024 |publisher=[[Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology]] |language= id}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |first1=Muhammad |last1=Ilham |title=Peran Tuhan Muhammad . Daud Pemberontakan 1953-1962 |trans-title=The Role Of The Lord Muhammad David: The Rebellion 1953–1962 |date=2016 |publisher= [[Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta]] |url=https://repository.uinjkt.ac.id/dspace/bitstream/123456789/32193/1/MUHAMMAD%20ILLHAM.pdf |lang=ace}}</ref>

=== Acehnese rebellion ===
The Acehnese revolted soon after its inclusion into an independent Indonesia, a situation created by a complex mix of what the Acehnese regarded as transgressions against and betrayals of their rights.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://moraref.kemenag.go.id/documents/article/25196304627931199 |title=Moraref |website=moraref.kemenag.go.id|access-date=2020-01-09 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611122755/https://moraref.kemenag.go.id/documents/article/25196304627931199 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Sukarno]], the first president of Indonesia, had reneged on his promise made on 16 June 1948 that Aceh would be allowed to rule itself in accordance with [[Sharia|Islamic Law]]. Aceh was politically dismantled and incorporated into the province of [[North Sumatra]] in 1950. This resulted in the Acehnese Rebellion of 1953–59 which was led by [[Daud Beureu'eh]] who on 20 September 1953 declared a free independent Aceh under the leadership of [[Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewirjo]]. In 1959, the Indonesian government attempted to placate the Acehnese by offering wide-ranging freedom in matters relating to religion, education and culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2016 |title=Daud Beureu'eh and The Darul Islam Rebellion in Aceh |url=https://scholar.ui.ac.id/en/publications/daud-beureueh-and-the-darul-islam-rebellion-in-aceh |journal=Buletin Al-Turas|volume=22 |issue=1 |doi=10.15408/bat.v22i1.7221 |issn=2579-5848 |doi-access=free |last1=Apipudin |first1=Apipudin |pages=145–167 |access-date=9 January 2020 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611061933/https://scholar.ui.ac.id/en/publications/daud-beureueh-and-the-darul-islam-rebellion-in-aceh |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2nUJFtoHq7YC&q=di+tii+aceh+rebellion&pg=PA70 |title=Aceh, Indonesia: Securing the Insecure State |last=Drexler |first=Elizabeth F. |date=2009-04-06 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-2071-1|access-date=24 October 2020}}</ref>

=== Free Aceh Movement ===
{{Main|Free Aceh Movement|Insurgency in Aceh}}

[[File:Free Aceh Movement women soldiers.jpg|thumb|Women soldiers of the [[Free Aceh Movement]] with GAM commander Abdullah Syafei'i, 1999]]

During the 1970s, under an agreement with the Indonesian central government, American oil and gas companies began exploitation of Aceh natural resources. Alleged unequal distribution of profits between central government and the native people of Aceh induced Dr. [[Hasan Muhammad di Tiro]], former ambassador of Darul Islam,<ref name="ibrahimy" /> to call for an independent Aceh. He proclaimed independence in 1976.

The movement had a small number of followers initially, and di Tiro himself had to live in exile in Sweden. Meanwhile, the province followed [[Suharto]]'s policy of economic development and industrialization. During the late 1980s several security incidents prompted the Indonesian central government to take repressive measures and to send troops to Aceh. Human rights abuse was rampant for the next decade, resulting in many grievances on the part of the Acehnese toward the Indonesian central government. In 1990, the Indonesian government initiated [[1990–98 Indonesian military operations in Aceh|military operations against GAM]] by deploying more than 12,000 Indonesian troops in the region.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

During the late 1990s, chaos in Java and an ineffective central government gave an advantage to the Free Aceh Movement and resulted in the second phase of the rebellion, this time with large support from the Acehnese people. This support was demonstrated during the 1999 plebiscite in Banda Aceh which was attended by nearly half a million people (of four million population of the province). The Indonesian central government responded in 2001 by broadening Aceh's autonomy, giving its government the right to apply Sharia law more broadly and the right to receive direct foreign investment. This was again accompanied by repressive measures, however, and in 2003 [[2003-2004 Indonesian offensive in Aceh|an offensive began]] and a [[state of emergency]] was proclaimed in the province. The war was still ongoing when the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|tsunami disaster of 2004]] struck the province.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

In 2001, villagers from the [[North Aceh Regency]] [[ExxonMobil violations in Indonesia|sued ExxonMobil for human rights abuses]] at the hands of Indonesian military units hired by the company for security for its natural gas operations. [[ExxonMobil]] denied fault for the allegations. After a series of attacks against its operations, the company shut down its Arun natural gas operations in the province.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/21/business/lawsuit-says-exxon-aided-rights-abuses-898244.html?pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |title=Lawsuit Says Exxon Aided Rights Abuses |first=Neela |last=Banerjee |date=21 June 2001 |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=2 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602044105/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/21/business/lawsuit-says-exxon-aided-rights-abuses-898244.html?pagewanted=all%2F |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Tsunami disaster ===
{{Main|2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami}}

[[File:US Navy 050102-N-9593M-040 A village near the coast of Sumatra lays in ruin after the Tsunami that struck South East Asia.jpg|thumb|Aftermath of the tsunami in Aceh]]
[[File:Museum_Tsunami_2.JPG|thumb|[[Aceh Tsunami Museum]] was created and designed to raise awareness of the disaster]]
The western coastal areas of Aceh, including the cities of [[Banda Aceh]], [[Calang]], and [[Meulaboh]], were among the areas hardest-hit by the [[tsunami]] resulting from the magnitude 9.2 [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Indian Ocean earthquake]] on 26 December 2004.<ref>For details of the impact of the tsunami in Aceh, see Jayasuriya, Sisira and Peter McCawley in collaboration with Bhanupong Nidhiprabha, Budy P. Resosudarmo and Dushni Weerakoon, [http://www.adbi.org/book/2010/12/17/4252.asian.tsunami.aid.reconstruction/ ''The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316081820/http://www.adbi.org/book/2010/12/17/4252.asian.tsunami.aid.reconstruction/ |date=16 March 2012 }}, Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA US: Edward Elgar and Asian Development Bank Institute, 2010.</ref> While estimates vary, over 170,000 people were killed by the tsunami in Aceh and about 500,000 were left homeless. The tragedy of the tsunami was further compounded several months later, when the [[2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake|2005 M8.6 Nias–Simeulue earthquake]] struck the sea bed between the islands of [[Simeulue Island]] in Aceh and [[Nias]] in North Sumatra. This second quake killed a further 1346 people on Nias and Simeulue, displaced tens of thousands more, and caused the tsunami response to be expanded to include Nias. The [[World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]] estimates a 100% increase in prevalence of mild and moderate [[mental disorder]]s in Aceh's general population after the tsunami.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wise |first=Cat |year=2011 |title=Tsunami-Devastated Aceh, an Epicenter of Mental Health Woes |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/tsunami-devastated-aceh-at-epicenter-of-mental-health-activity |access-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410080134/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/tsunami-devastated-aceh-at-epicenter-of-mental-health-activity/ |archive-date=10 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, misjudging the intensity of the Sumatra earthquake, sent out a bulletin that no tsunami was expected following a magnitude 8.0 quake based on historical data. Only when more accurate measurements of the quakes >9.0 magnitude became available did scientists at the warning center realize they were dealing with a basin-wide tsunami across the Indian Ocean.  When the tsunami hit, it was enormous, and the death toll in Aceh exceeded 100,000. There was no [[tsunami warning system]] in 2004. Tsunami warning systems have improved since the immense death toll drew international notice but in rural areas where many don't have internet access or cell phones it remains a challenge to communicate warnings in a timely manner.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/tsunami-changed-science|title=The day that changed tsunami science|date=24 December 2014|website=PBS NewsHour}}</ref> A warning system was put in place at the request of Aceh residents but it was disabled in 2007 after technical issues and a false alarm that caused a panic.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jun/07/indonesia.ianmackinnon|title=Aceh residents disable tsunami warning system after false alarm|first1=Ian|last1=MacKinnon|date=7 June 2007|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>

The population of Aceh before the December 2004 tsunami was 4,271,000 (2004). The population as of 15 September 2005 was 4,031,589, and in January 2014 was 4,731,705.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.depkes.go.id/downloads/Penduduk%20Kab%20Kota%20Umur%20Tunggal%202014.pdf |title=Estimasi Penduduk Menurut Umur Tunggal Dan Jenis Kelamin 2014 Kementerian Kesehatan |access-date=21 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208021950/http://depkes.go.id/downloads/Penduduk%20Kab%20Kota%20Umur%20Tunggal%202014.pdf |archive-date=8 February 2014}}</ref> The 2020 census produced a total population of 5,274,871, comprising 2,647,563 males and 2,627,308 females.<ref name="Badan Pusat Statistik 2021">Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021.</ref>

As of February 2006, more than a year after the tsunami, a large number of people were still living in barrack-style temporary living centers (TLC) or [[tent]]s. Reconstruction was visible everywhere, but due to the sheer scale of the disaster, and logistic difficulties, progress was slow. A study in 2007 estimated that 83.6% of the population had a psychiatric illness, while 69.8% suffers from severe emotional distress.<ref>Souza, R., Bernatsky, S., Ryes, R., Jong, K. (2007). "Mental Health Status of Vulnerable Tsunami-Affected Communities: A Survey in Aceh Province, Indonesia". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 20(3), 263–269</ref>

The ramifications of the tsunami went beyond the immediate impact to the lives and infrastructure of the Acehnese living on the coast. Since the disaster, the Acehnese rebel movement GAM, which had been fighting for independence against the Indonesian authorities for 29 years, has signed a peace deal (15 August 2005). The perception that the tsunami was punishment for insufficient piety in this proudly Muslim province is partly behind the increased emphasis on the importance of religion post-tsunami. This has been most obvious in the increased implementation of [[Sharia]] law, including the introduction of the controversial [[Wilayatul Hisbah]] or Syariah police. As homes are being built and people's basic needs are met, the people are also looking to improve the quality of [[education]], increase tourism, and develop responsible, sustainable industry. Well-qualified educators are in high demand in Aceh.
[[File:US Navy 050101-O-XXXXB-054 Boats washed ashore near local businesses in down town Aceh, Sumatra following a massive Tsunami that struck the area on the 26th of December 2004.jpg|thumb|left|Boats washed ashore near local businesses in down town Aceh, Sumatra following a massive tsunami that struck the area on 26 December 2004]]

While parts of the capital [[Banda Aceh]] were unscathed, the areas closest to the water, especially the areas of Kampung Jawa and Meuraxa, were completely destroyed. Most of the rest of the western coast of Aceh was severely damaged. Many towns completely disappeared. Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by the disaster included [[Lhoknga]], [[Leupung]], Lamno, [[Patek, Aceh|Patek]], [[Calang]], [[Teunom]], and the island of [[Simeulue]]. Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north and east coasts were [[Pidie Regency]], [[Samalanga]], and [[Lhokseumawe]].

The area was slowly rebuilt after the disaster. The government initially proposed the creation of a two-kilometer [[buffer zone]] along low-lying coastal areas within which permanent construction was not permitted. This proposal was unpopular among some local inhabitants and proved impractical in most situations, especially [[fishing]] families that are dependent on living near to the sea.

The Indonesian government set up a special agency for Aceh reconstruction, the [[Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi]] (BRR) headed by [[Kuntoro Mangkusubroto]], a former Indonesian government minister. This agency had ministry level of authority and incorporated officials, professionals and community leaders from all backgrounds. Most of the reconstruction work was performed by local people using a mix of traditional methods and partial prefabricated structures, with funding coming from many international organizations and individuals, governments, and the people themselves.

The [[Government of Indonesia]] estimated in their Preliminary Damage and Losses Assessment<ref>{{cite web |author=Stefan G. Koeberle |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21149942%7EpagePK:141137%7EpiPK:141127%7EtheSitePK:226309,00.html |title=Preliminary Damage and Losses Assessment on |publisher=Web.worldbank.org |access-date=13 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904003022/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21149942%7EpagePK:141137%7EpiPK:141127%7EtheSitePK:226309,00.html |archive-date=4 September 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> that damages amounted to US$4.5 billion (before inflation, and US$6.2 billion including inflation). Three years after the tsunami, reconstruction was still ongoing. The [[World Bank]] monitored funding for reconstruction in Aceh and reported that US$7.7 billion had been earmarked for the reconstruction whilst at June 2007 US$5.8 billion had been allocated to specific reconstruction projects, of which US$3.4 billion had actually been spent (58%).

In 2009, the government opened a US$5.6 million [[Aceh Tsunami Museum|museum]] to commemorate the tsunami with photographs, stories, and a simulation of the earthquake that triggered the tsunami.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Indonesia Opens Tsunami Museum |magazine=[[The Irrawaddy]] |date=March–April 2009 |page=3}}</ref>

=== Peace agreement and contemporary history ===

[[File:Martti Ahtisaari.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Martti Ahtisaari]], facilitator in Aceh-Indonesia peace agreement]]

The 2004 tsunami helped trigger a peace agreement between the [[Free Aceh Movement|GAM]] and the Indonesian government. The mood in post-[[Suharto]] Indonesia in the liberal-democratic reform period, as well as changes in the Indonesian military, helped create an environment more favorable to peace talks. The roles of newly elected president [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] and vice president [[Jusuf Kalla]] were highly significant.<ref>A very useful and detailed account of the negotiation process from the Indonesian side is in the book by the Indonesian key negotiator, [[Hamid Awaludin]], ''Peace in Aceh: Notes on the peace process between the Republic of Indonesia and the Aceh Freedom Movement (GAM) in Helsinki'', translated by Tim Scott, 2009, [[Centre for Strategic and International Studies (Indonesia)|Centre for Strategic and International Studies]], Jakarta. {{ISBN|978-979-1295-11-6}}.</ref> At the same time, the GAM leadership was undergoing changes, and the [[Military of Indonesia|Indonesian military]] had inflicted so much damage on the rebel movement that it had little choice but to negotiate with the central government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HH15Ae01.html |work=Asia Times |title=A happy, peaceful anniversary in Aceh |date=15 August 2006 |access-date=13 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203041743/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HH15Ae01.html |archive-date=3 February 2017 |url-status=unfit}}</ref> The peace talks were first initiated by [[Juha Christensen (peace activist)|Juha Christensen]], a Finnish peace activist, and then formally facilitated by a [[Finland]]-based NGO, the [[Crisis Management Initiative]] led by former Finnish president [[Martti Ahtisaari]]. The resulting peace agreement, generally known as the [[Helsinki Agreement (Aceh)|Helsinki Agreement]], was signed on 15 August 2005. Under the agreement Aceh would receive special autonomy and government troops would be withdrawn from the province in exchange for GAM's disarmament. As part of the agreement, the [[European Union]] dispatched [[Aceh Monitoring Mission]]. Their mission expired on 15 December 2006, following local elections.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/helsinki-agreement-more-promising-basis-peace-aceh |title=The Helsinki Agreement: A More Promising Basis for Peace in Aceh? |date=2005-12-15 |website=East-West Center|access-date=2020-01-09 |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108100445/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/helsinki-agreement-more-promising-basis-peace-aceh |url-status=live }}</ref>

Aceh has been granted greater autonomy through an Aceh government law that includes special rights agreed in 2006 as well as the right of Acehnese people to establish local political parties to represent their interests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hillman |first=Ben |title='Power Sharing and Political Party Engineering in Conflict-Prone Societies: The Indonesian Experiment in Aceh |journal=Conflict Security and Development |volume=12 |issue=2 |year=2012 |pages=149–169 |doi=10.1080/14678802.2012.688291 |s2cid=154463777}}</ref> Human rights advocates protest that previous human rights violations in the province have not been seriously addressed.<ref>{{cite web |author=Veena Siddharth, Asia advocacy director |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/09/19/indone11764.htm |title=Next steps for Aceh after the peace pact &#124; Human Rights Watch |publisher=Hrw.org |date=27 August 2005 |access-date=13 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815114905/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/09/19/indone11764.htm |archive-date=15 August 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/mou_aceh/mou_acehen.pdf |title=''Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement'' |access-date=9 January 2020 |archive-date=5 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905042216/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/mou_aceh/mou_acehen.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Biodiversity ==
[[File:Hutan Gunung Leuser Aceh.jpg|[[Mount Leuser]] Forest|thumb|200px]]
Aceh has the largest range of biodiversity in the Asian Pacific region.<ref name="RTRW">{{Cite news |author1=Simanjuntak, Hotli |author2=Sangaji, Ruslan |date=20 May 2013 |title=Scientists urged to stand up for Aceh's biodiversity |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/03/20/sciencists-urged-stand-aceh-s-biodiversity.html |access-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505232730/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/03/20/sciencists-urged-stand-aceh-s-biodiversity.html |archive-date=5 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> including the [[Gunung Leuser National Park]], 7,927 km2 national park that stretches across the border between Aceh and North Sumatra provinces<ref>World Database on Protected Areas: [http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdpa/sitedetails.cfm?siteid=1251&level=nat Entry of Gunung Leuser National Park] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929222746/http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdpa/sitedetails.cfm?siteid=1251&level=nat |date=2007-09-29}}</ref> The national park, located in the Barisan mountains, is close to [[Mount Leuser]] (3,119 m) and protects a variety of ecosystems, among the rarer large mammals are the [[Sumatran rhinoceros]], [[Sumatran tiger]], [[Orangutan]] and [[Sumatran elephant]].<ref name="RTRW" /> In 2014, there were 460 Sumatran elephants in Aceh including at least eight baby elephants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jogja.tribunnews.com/2014/08/19/gajah-sumatera-hanya-tersisa-460-ekor-di-aceh/ |title=Gajah Sumatera Hanya Tersisa 460 Ekor di Aceh |date=19 August 2014 |access-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821054841/http://jogja.tribunnews.com/2014/08/19/gajah-sumatera-hanya-tersisa-460-ekor-di-aceh/ |archive-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The area has been suffering from [[deforestation]] since the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=McGregor, Andrew |year=2010 |title=Green and REDD? Towards a Political Ecology of Deforestation in Aceh, Indonesia |journal=Human Geography |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=21–34 |doi=10.1177/194277861000300202 |s2cid=132046525|doi-access=free}}</ref> The first [[Wood-pulp|wood pulp]] mill in Aceh was built in 1982.<ref>{{Cite journal |year=2000 |title=Aceh: ecological war zone |journal=Down to Earth |issue=47 |url=http://www.downtoearth-indonesia.org/story/aceh-ecological-war-zone |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303191739/http://www.downtoearth-indonesia.org/story/aceh-ecological-war-zone |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> The government of Aceh intends a law by which 1.2 million hectares would be opened for commercial use.<ref name="thejakartapost">{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/05/19/global-calls-save-aceh-forest.html |title=Global calls to save Aceh forest |author=The Jakarta Post |work=The Jakarta Post |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185237/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/05/19/global-calls-save-aceh-forest.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> This proposal has caused many protests.<ref name="thejakartapost" />

== Government ==
Within the country, Aceh is governed not as a regular province but as a special autonomous province (''daerah istimewa''), an administrative designation intended to give the area increased [[Wiktionary:autonomy|autonomy]] from the central government in [[Jakarta]]. This has resulted in canings for crimes deemed to have violated sharia law such as gambling, drinking, skipping Friday prayers, and most notably homosexuality.

Regional elections have been held in Aceh in recent years for senior positions at the provincial, regency (''kabupaten'') and district (''kecamatan'') levels. In the [[2006 Acehnese gubernatorial election|2006 elections]], [[Irwandi Yusuf]] was elected as the provincial governor for 2007–2012 and in [[2012 Acehnese gubernatorial election|elections in April 2012]], [[Zaini Abdullah]] was elected as governor for 2012–2017.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/priorities-gam-led-government-aceh |title=Priorities for a GAM-Led Government in Aceh |date=2006-12-29 |website=Crisis Group|access-date=2020-01-09 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611200401/https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/priorities-gam-led-government-aceh |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iis* |first1=Em Yusuf |last2=Yunus |first2=Mukhlis |last3=Adam |first3=Muhammad |last4=Sofyan |first4=Hizir |date=2018 |title=Antecedent Model of Empowerment and Performance of Aceh Government With Motivation as the Intervening Variable |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/arp/tjssrr/2018p743-747.html |journal=The Journal of Social Sciences Research|pages=743–747:2 |access-date=9 January 2020 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611152619/https://ideas.repec.org/a/arp/tjssrr/2018p743-747.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{See also|Governor of Aceh}}

=== Law ===
{{Main|Islamic criminal law in Aceh}}

[[File:Use of sharia in Southeast Asia.png|thumb|Use of [[sharia]] in Southeast Asia:
{{legend|#03FFFF|Choice between sharia and secular courts, only on personal status issues}}
{{legend|#F6DD4F|Sharia applies in personal status issues only}}
{{legend|#706EA4|Sharia applies in full, including criminal law}}
]]
Beginning with the promulgation of Law 44/1999, Aceh's governor began to issue limited [[Sharia]]-based regulations, for example requiring female government employees to wear Islamic dress. These regulations were not enforced by the provincial government, but as early as April 1999, reports emerged that groups of men in Aceh were engaging in [[vigilante]] violence in an effort to impose Sharia, for example, by conducting "[[jilbab]] raids," subjecting women who were not wearing Islamic headscarves to verbal abuse, cutting their hair or clothes, and committing other acts of violence against them.<ref name="shariapolicing">{{cite web |title=Policing Morality Abuses in the Application of Sharia in Aceh, Indonesia |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c2252,4565c25f4d,4cf62b9f1d1,0,,,.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416143726/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c2252,4565c25f4d,4cf62b9f1d1,0,,,.html |archive-date=16 April 2013 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=2 April 2013 |year=2010 |pages=13–17}}</ref> The frequency of these and other attacks on individuals considered to be violating Sharia principles appeared to increase following the enactment of Law 44/1999 and the governor's Sharia regulations.<ref name="shariapolicing" /> In 2014, a group of scholars who call themselves [[Tadzkiiratul Ummah]], started to paint the [[Trousers|pants]] of men and women as a call for heavier Islamic law enforcement in the area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://makassar.tribunnews.com/2014/12/04/ini-hukuman-bagi-wanita-berpakaian-ketat-celananya-disemprot-cat |title=Ini Hukuman Bagi Wanita Berpakaian Ketat, Celananya Disemprot Cat |author=Edi Sumardi |date=4 December 2014 |access-date=4 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208060328/http://makassar.tribunnews.com/2014/12/04/ini-hukuman-bagi-wanita-berpakaian-ketat-celananya-disemprot-cat |archive-date=8 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Upon the enactment of the Special Autonomy Law in 2001, Aceh's provincial legislature enacted a series of ''[[Qanun Aceh|qanuns]]'' (local laws) governing the implementation of Sharia. Five qanuns enacted between 2002 and 2004 contained criminal penalties for violations of Sharia: Qanun 11/2002 on "belief, ritual, and promoting Islam," which contains the Islamic attire requirement; Qanun 12/2003 prohibiting the consumption and sale of alcohol; Qanun 13/2003 prohibiting gambling; Qanun 14/2003 prohibiting "seclusion"; and Qanun 7/2004 on the payment of Islamic alms. With the exception of gambling, none of the offenses are prohibited outside of Aceh.<ref name="shariapolicing" />

Responsibility for enforcement of the qanuns rests both with the National Police and with a special Sharia police force unique to Aceh, known as the [[Wilayatul Hisbah]] (Sharia Authority). All of the qanuns provide for penalties including fines, imprisonment, and [[caning]], the latter a punishment unknown in most parts of Indonesia. Between mid-2005 and early 2007, at least 135 people were caned in Aceh for transgressing the qanuns.<ref name="shariapolicing" /> In April 2016, a 60-year-old non-Muslim woman was sentenced to 30 lashes for selling alcohol drinks. The controversy is that qanun is not allowed for non-Muslim person, and national law should be used instead as in other parts of Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.detik.com/berita/3187693/hukuman-cambuk-pertama-terhadap-non-muslim-di-aceh-jadi-sorotan |title=Hukuman Cambuk Pertama Terhadap Non Muslim di Aceh Jadi Sorotan |author=Rachmadin Ismail |date=14 April 2016 |access-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415175706/http://news.detik.com/berita/3187693/hukuman-cambuk-pertama-terhadap-non-muslim-di-aceh-jadi-sorotan |archive-date=15 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2009, the [[Aceh Party]] won control of the local parliament in Aceh's first post-war legislative elections. In September 2009, one month before the new legislators were to take office, the outgoing parliament unanimously endorsed two new qanuns to expand the existing criminal Sharia framework in Aceh.

*One bill, the ''Qanun on Criminal Procedure'' ({{Lang|id|Qanun Hukum Jinayat}}), to create an entirely new procedural code for the enforcement of Sharia by police, prosecutors, and courts in Aceh.<ref name="shariapolicing" />
*The other bill, the ''Qanun on Criminal Law'' ({{Lang|id|Qanun Jinayat}}), reiterated the existing criminal Sharia prohibitions, at times enhancing their penalties, and a host of new criminal offenses, including [[ikhtilat]] (intimacy or mixing), [[zina]] (adultery, defined as willing intercourse by unmarried people), sexual harassment, rape, and homosexual conduct.<ref>Hotli Simanjuntak and Ina Parlina, '[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/07/aceh-fully-enforces-sharia.html Aceh fully enforces Sharia'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307183758/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/07/aceh-fully-enforces-sharia.html |date=7 March 2018 }}, ''The Jakarta Post'', 7 February 2014.</ref> The law authorized punishments including up to 60 lashes for "intimacy," up to 100 lashes for engaging in homosexual conduct, up to 100 lashes for adultery by unmarried persons, and death by [[stoning]] for adultery by a married person.<ref name="shariapolicing" />

However, the then proposed bylaws was met with widespread condemnations from all of Indonesia and then governor [[Irwandi Yusuf]] refused to sign the bylaw, thereby keeping it a law without legal force and, in some views, therefore still a law ''draft'', rather than actual law.<ref>
[http://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/archive/aceh-stoning-law-hits-a-new-wall/ Aceh Stoning Law Hits a New Wall] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125051612/http://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/archive/aceh-stoning-law-hits-a-new-wall/ |date=2016-01-25 }} ''The Jakarta Globe'', 12 October 2009</ref> In March 2013, the Aceh government removed the stoning provision from its own draft of a new criminal code.<ref>[http://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/news/aceh-government-removes-stoning-sentence-from-draft-bylaw/ Aceh Government Removes Stoning Sentence From Draft Bylaw] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125051612/http://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/news/aceh-government-removes-stoning-sentence-from-draft-bylaw/ |date=2016-01-25 }}, ''Jakarta Globe'' 12 March 2013</ref>

'''Caning'''

In practice since the introduction of the new laws, there has been a considerable increase in the use of the penalties provided set out in the laws. As an example, in August 2015 six men in [[Bireuën Regency]] were arrested and caned for betting on the names of passing buses.<ref>'[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/08/27/six-men-caned-betting-passing-buses-aceh.html Six men caned for betting on passing buses in Aceh'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925142315/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/08/27/six-men-caned-betting-passing-buses-aceh.html |date=25 September 2015 }}, ''The Jakarta Post'', 27 August 2015.</ref> And it was reported that on just one day, 18 September 2015, a total of 34 people were caned in Banda Aceh and in the nearby regency of Aceh Besar.<ref>Hotli Simanjuntak, '[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/09/19/dozens-sharia-violators-caned-aceh.html Dozens of sharia vilators caned in Aceh'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928222649/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/09/19/dozens-sharia-violators-caned-aceh.html |date=28 September 2015 }}, ''The Jakarta Post'', 19 September 2015.</ref>

Two gay men are to be publicly lashed 85 times each under sharia law after being filmed by vigilantes in Indonesia. An Islamic court in the province of Aceh passed down its first sentence for homosexuality on the [[International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia]], 17 May 2017 in spite of international appeals to spare the couple.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/islamic-court-indonesia-gay-men-85-lashes-sex-caught-homosexuality-laws-first-time-khairil-jamal-a7740626.html |title=Sharia court in Indonesia sentences two gay men to 85 lashes each after being caught having sex |author=Lizzie Dearden |website=[[The Independent]]|location=London |date=17 May 2017 |access-date=23 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901071227/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/islamic-court-indonesia-gay-men-85-lashes-sex-caught-homosexuality-laws-first-time-khairil-jamal-a7740626.html |archive-date=1 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Whipping is the common [[hudud]] punishment for [[Maisir|gambling]], [[Zina|adultery]], [[Khamr|drinking alcohol]], and having gay or pre-marital sex. Typically the whipping has been done by men. In 2020, with increased enforcement and more crimes being committed by women, Aceh authorities say they are trying to follow [[Islamic law]], which calls for women to whip female perpetrators.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/indonesias-aceh-unveils-new-female-flogging-squad-1.1580195711185 |title=Indonesia's Aceh unveils new female flogging squad |date=28 January 2020 |work=[[The Gulf News]] |access-date=24 April 2020 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611132253/https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/indonesias-aceh-unveils-new-female-flogging-squad-1.1580195711185 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/01/31/asia-pacific/crime-legal-asia-pacific/indonesias-aceh-unveils-female-flogging-squad-women-run-afoul-islamic-law/ |title=Indonesia's Aceh unveils female flogging squad as more women run afoul of Islamic law |date=31 January 2020 |work=[[The Japan Times]] |access-date=24 April 2020 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325135421/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/01/31/asia-pacific/crime-legal-asia-pacific/indonesias-aceh-unveils-female-flogging-squad-women-run-afoul-islamic-law/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
[[File:Aceh Regencies.png|thumb|Municipalities of Aceh]]
Administratively, the province now is subdivided into eighteen [[Regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] ({{Langx|id|kabupaten}}; {{Langx|ace|kabupatèn}}) and five autonomous [[City status in Indonesia|cities]] ({{Langx|id|kota}}; {{Langx|ace|banda}}). The capital and the largest city is [[Banda Aceh]], located on the coast near the northern tip of Sumatra. When originally devised in 1956, the province comprised the city of Banda Aceh and six regencies – [[Aceh Besar Regency|Great Aceh]], [[Pidie Regency|Pidie]], [[North Aceh Regency|North Aceh]], [[East Aceh Regency|East Aceh]], [[Central Aceh Regency|Central Aceh]], and [[West Aceh Regency|West Aceh]]; however on 14 November 1956 a seventh regency ([[South Aceh Regency|South Aceh]]) was created from the southeastern districts of West Aceh Regency. A second city ([[Sabang, Aceh|Sabang City]]) was separated from Aceh Besar on 10 June 1965 and [[Southeast Aceh Regency]] from part of Central Aceh on 4 June 1974; three additional regencies were formed in 1999 – [[Aceh Singkil Regency|Aceh Singkil]] from part of South Aceh Regency on 20 April, and [[Bireuën Regency|Bireuën]] (from part of North Aceh Regency) and [[Simeulue Regency|Simeulue]] (from part of West Aceh Regency) on 4 October.

The towns of [[Lhokseumawe]] and [[Langsa]] were given separate city status (from parts of North Aceh Regency and of East Aceh Regency respectively) on 21 June 2001, and five additional regencies were created on 10 April 2002 – [[Aceh Jaya Regency|Aceh Jaya]] and [[Nagan Raya Regency|Nagan Raya]] (both from parts of West Aceh Regency), [[Aceh Tamiang Regency|Aceh Tamiang]] (from part of East Aceh Regency), [[Gayo Lues Regency|Gayo Lues]] (from part of Southeast Aceh Regency) and [[Southwest Aceh Regency|Southwest Aceh]] (from part of South Aceh Regency). [[Bener Meriah Regency]] was created on 19 December 2003 (from part of Central Aceh Regency), and [[Pidie Jaya Regency]] (from part of Pidie Regency) and [[Subulussalam|Subulussalam City]] (from part of Aceh Singkil Regency) on 2 January 2007. Some other local areas are pushing to create new autonomous areas, usually with the stated goal of enhancing local control over politics and development.

The cities and regencies (subdivided into the 289 [[Districts of Indonesia|districts]] or ''kecamatan'' of Aceh), are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 census<ref name="Biro Pusat Statistik 2011">Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011.</ref> and the 2020 census,<ref name="Badan Pusat Statistik 2021" /> together with the officially estimated population as at mid 2024.<ref name="BPS Provinsi Aceh 2025"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-bottom:0;"
|-
! Kode <br>Wilayah|| Name of<br>City or <br>Regency !! Regency<br>Capital !! Est. || Established<br /> by statute || Area <br />in<br />km<sup>2</sup> !! Pop'n<br />2010<br />census !! Pop'n<br />2020<br />census !! Pop'n<br />mid 2024<br />estimate !! [[Human Development Index|HDI]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bps.go.id/indicator/26/413/1/-metode-baru-indeks-pembangunan-manusia.html |title=Indeks-Pembangunan-Manusia-2021 |access-date=30 January 2020 |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127193437/https://www.bps.go.id/indicator/26/413/1/-metode-baru-indeks-pembangunan-manusia.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />2021 estimates
|-
| 11.72 || [[Sabang, Indonesia|Sabang City]]|| || 1967 || UU 10/1965 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 122.04}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 30653}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 41197}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 43500}} || 0.761 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.06 || [[Aceh Besar Regency]] || [[Jantho]] || 1956 || UU 24/1956 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 2882.83}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 351418}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 405535}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 428300}} || 0.735 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.71 || [[Banda Aceh]] City|| || 1956 || UU 24/1956 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 55.85}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 223446}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 252899}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 265000}} || 0.857 ({{fontcolor|green|Very High}})
|-
| 11.14 || [[Aceh Jaya Regency]] || [[Calang]] || 2002 || UU 4/2002 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 3893.05}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 76782}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 93,159}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 99200}} || 0.698 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.07 || [[Pidie Regency]] || [[Sigli]] || 1956 || UU 24/1956 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 3133.93}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 379108}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 435275}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 452500}} || 0.707 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.18 || [[Pidie Jaya Regency]] || [[Meureudu]] || 2007 || UU 7/2007 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 953.12}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 132956}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 158397}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 166500}} || 0.736 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.11 || [[Bireuen Regency]] || [[Bireuen]] || 1999 || UU 48/1999 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 1793.27}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 389288}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 436418}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 459100}} || 0.723 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.08 || [[North Aceh Regency]]<br />(Aceh Utara) || [[Lhoksukon]] || 1956 || UU 24/1956 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 2711.15}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 529751}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 602793}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 632000}} || 0.694 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.73 || [[Lhokseumawe]] City|| || 2001 || UU 2/2001 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 136.49}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 171163}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 188713}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 200400}} || 0.775 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.03 || [[East Aceh Regency]]<br />(Aceh Timur) || [[Idi Rayeuk]] || 1956 || UU 24/1956 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 5432.63}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 360475}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 422401}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 444600}} || 0.678 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.74 || [[Langsa]] City|| || 2001 || UU 3/2001 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 217.17}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 148945}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 185971}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 198000}} || 0.774 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.16 || [[Aceh Tamiang Regency]] || [[Karang Baru]] || 2002 || UU 4/2002 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 2184.40}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 251914}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 294356}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 309000}} || 0.694 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.13 || [[Gayo Lues Regency]] || [[Blangkejeren]] || 2002 || UU 4/2002 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 5541.28}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 79560}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 99532}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 106800}} || 0.675 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.17 || [[Bener Meriah Regency]] || [[Simpang Tiga Redelong|Simpang Tiga <br>Redelong]] || 2003 || UU 41/2003 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 1930.75}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 122277}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 161342}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 172000}} || 0.732 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.04 || [[Central Aceh Regency]]<br />(Aceh Tengah) || [[Takengon]] || 1956 || UU 24/1956 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 4521.70}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 175527}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 215860}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 226700}} || 0.733 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.05 || [[West Aceh Regency]]<br />(Aceh Barat) || [[Meulaboh]] || 1956 || UU 24/1956 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 2818.17}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 173558}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 198736}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 206800}} || 0.716 ({{fontcolor|green|High}})
|-
| 11.15 || [[Nagan Raya Regency]] || [[Suka Makmue]] || 2002 || UU 4/2002 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 3416.32}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 139663}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 168392}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 176400}} || 0.693 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.12 || [[Southwest Aceh Regency]]<br />(Aceh Barat Daya) || [[Blangpidie]] || 2002 || UU 4/2002 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 1882.28}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 126036}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 150780}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 154997}} || 0.669 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.01 || [[South Aceh Regency]]<br />(Aceh Selatan) || [[Tapaktuan]] || 1956 || UU 24/1956 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 4175.37}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 202251}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 232410}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 241994}} || 0.674 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.02 || [[Southeast Aceh Regency]]<br />(Aceh Tenggara) || [[Kutacane]] || 1974 || UU 7/1974 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 4179.12}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 179010}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 220860}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 235589}} || 0.694 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.75 || [[Subulussalam]] City|| || 2007 || UU 8/2007 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 1183.60}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 67446}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 90751}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 105553}} || 0.652 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.10 || [[Aceh Singkil Regency]]<br />(including the <br>[[Banyak Islands]])|| [[Singkil, Indonesia|Singkil]] || 1999 || UU 14/1999 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 1852.82}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 102509}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 126514}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 138792}} || 0.692 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|-
| 11.09 || [[Simeulue Regency]] || [[Sinabang]] || 1999 || UU 48/1999 ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 1821.75}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 80674}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 92865}} ||align="right"| {{formatnum: 98633}} || 0.664 ({{fontcolor|#fc0|Medium}})
|}
{{refbegin}}'''Note:''' UU is an abbreviation from Undang-Undang ([[Law of Indonesia|the Indonesia statute of law]]).{{refend}}

Aceh is unique in Indonesia in grouping its [[Villages of Indonesia|villages]] into [[Mukim (Aceh)|mukims]]. These are sometimes related to traditional indigenous communities. Beginning in September 2023, the Indonesian government provided legal recognition to the claims of some mukims over customary forests.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2023/10/for-1st-time-indonesia-government-recognizes-ancestral-forests-in-aceh-but-only-some/ |title=For 1st time, Indonesia government recognizes ancestral forests in Aceh — but only some |author=Hans Nicholas Jong |work=Mongabay |date=26 October 2023 |access-date=25 June 2024}}</ref>

The province comprises two of Indonesia's 84 national electoral districts to elect members to the [[Indonesian Parliament|People's Representative Council]]. 
* The '''Aceh I Electoral District''' consists of 12 of the regencies in the province (Simeulue, Aceh Singkil, South Aceh, Southeast Aceh, West Aceh, Aceh Besar, Pidie, Southwest Aceh, Aceh Jaya, Gayo Lues, Nagan Raya and Pidie Jaya), together with the cities of Bandar Aceh, Sabang and Subulussalam, and elects 7 members to the People's Representative Council. 
* The '''Aceh II Electoral District''' consists of the remaining 6 regencies (East Aceh, Central Aceh, Bireuen, North Aceh, Aceh Tamiang and Bener Meriah), together with the cities of Langsa and Lhokseumawe, and elects 6 members to the People's Representative Council.<ref>Law No. 7/2017 (''UU No. 7 Tahun 2017'') as amended by Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 1/2022 and Regulation of General Elections Commission No. 6/2023.</ref>

== Economy ==
In 2006, the economy of Aceh grew by 7.7% after having minimal growth since the devastating tsunami.<ref>World Bank, Jakarta, [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/226271-1176706430507/3681211-1194602678235/aeu_nov2007_en.pdf Aceh Economic Update November 2007.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228013211/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/226271-1176706430507/3681211-1194602678235/aeu_nov2007_en.pdf |date=28 February 2008 }}</ref> This growth was primarily driven by the reconstruction effort with massive growth in the building/construction sector.

The ending of the conflict, and the reconstruction program resulted in the structure of the economy changing significantly since 2003. Service sectors played a more dominant role whilst the share of the oil and gas sectors continued to decline.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sector (% share of Aceh GDP)
! 2003
! 2004
! 2005
! 2006
|-
| Agriculture and fisheries
| 17
| 20
| 21
| 21
|-
| Oil, gas and mining
| 36
| 30
| 26
| 25
|-
| Manufacturing (incl. oil and gas manufacturing)
| 20
| 18
| 16
| 14
|-
| Electricity and water supply
| ...
|
|
|
|-
| Building / construction
| 3
| 4
| 4
| 5
|-
| Trade, hotels and restaurants
| 11
| 12
| 14
| 15
|-
| Transport & communication
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 5
|-
| Banking & other financial
| 1
| 1
| 1
| 1
|-
| Services
| 8
| 10
| 13
| 13
|-
|Total
|100
|100
|100
|100
|}
{{refbegin}}'''Note:''' ... = less than 0.5%{{refend}}

After peaking at around 40% in December 2005, largely as a result of the [[Dutch disease]] impact of sudden aid flows into the province, [[inflation]] declined steadily and was 8.5% in June 2007, close to the national level in [[Indonesia]] of 5.7%. Persistent inflation means that Aceh's [[consumer price index]] (CPI) remains the highest in Indonesia. As a result, Aceh's cost competitiveness has declined as reflected in both inflation and wage data. Although inflation has slowed down, CPI has registered steady increases since the tsunami. Using 2002 as a base, Aceh's CPI increased to 185.6 (June 2007) while the national
CPI increased to 148.2. There have been relatively large nominal wage increases in particular sectors, such as construction where, on average, workers' nominal wages have risen to almost Rp.60,000 per day, from Rp.29,000 pre-tsunami. This is also reflected in Aceh's minimum regional wage (UMR, or Upah Minimum Regional), which increased by 55% from Rp.550,000 pre-tsunami to Rp.850,000 in 2007, compared with an increase of 42% in neighboring [[North Sumatra]], from Rp.537,000 to Rp.761,000.

[[Poverty]] levels increased slightly in Aceh in 2005 after the tsunami, but by less than expected.<ref>World Bank, Jakarta, [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1200376036925/acehpoverty2008_en.pdf Aceh Poverty Assessment 2008] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228013215/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1200376036925/acehpoverty2008_en.pdf |date=28 February 2008 }}.</ref> The poverty level then fell in 2006 to below the pre-tsunami level, suggesting that the rise in tsunami-related poverty was short lived and reconstruction activities and the end of the conflict most probably facilitated this decline. However, poverty in Aceh remains significantly higher than in the rest of Indonesia.<ref>A useful survey of the state of development up to 2010 is in the UNDP [http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/Aceh%20HDR%20-%20English.pdf Provincial Human Development Report Aceh 2010] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328234630/http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/Aceh%20HDR%20-%20English.pdf |date=28 March 2013}}.</ref> A large number of the Acehnese remain vulnerable to poverty, reinforcing the need for further sustained efforts at development in the post-tsunami construction period.<ref>Edward Aspinall, Ben Hillman, and Peter McCawley, [http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/ANUE_Study_Book_Printed%20Version.pdf Governance and capacity-building in post-crisis Aceh'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329000836/http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/ANUE_Study_Book_Printed%20Version.pdf |date=29 March 2013}}, a report by Australian National University Enterprise, Canberra, for UNDP, Jakarta, 2012.</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Historical populations
|footnote= Source: [[Badan Pusat Statistik]] 2024 and previous.<ref name="Badan Pusat Statistik 2024" />
|percentages = pagr
|1971 |2008595
|1980 |2611271
|1990 |3416156
|1995 |3847583
|2000 |3930905
|2010 |4494410
|2015 |4993385
|2020 |5274871
|2023 |5512219
}}

The population of Aceh was not adequately documented during the [[Indonesia 2000 census]] because the insurgency complicated the process of collecting accurate information. An estimated 170,000 people died in Aceh in the 2004 tsunami which further complicates the task of careful demographic analysis. According to the most recent censuses, the total population of Aceh in 2010 was 4,486,570,<ref name="Biro Pusat Statistik 2011" /> in 2015 was 4,993,385, and in 2020 was 5,274,871.<ref name="Badan Pusat Statistik 2021" /> The official estimate for mid 2023 was 5,482,527 (comprising 2,753,176 males and 2,729,351 females);<ref name="Badan Pusat Statistik 2024">Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 28 February 2024, ''Kota Subussalam Dalam Angka 2024'' (Katalog-BPS 1102001.1175)</ref> however, the sum of the official population estimates for the individual regencies and cities totalled 5,512,219 people.

=== Ethnic and cultural groups ===
Aceh is a diverse region occupied by several ethnic and language groups. The major ethnic groups are the [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] (who are distributed throughout Aceh), [[Gayo people|Gayo]] (in central and eastern part), [[Alas people|Alas]] (in [[Southeast Aceh Regency|Southeast Aceh]]), [[Malay people|Tamiang Malays]] (in [[Aceh Tamiang Regency|Aceh Tamiang]]), [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamèë]] (descendant from [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]]; concentrated in southern and southwestern), [[Kluet people|Kluet]] (in [[South Aceh Regency|South Aceh]]), [[Singkil people|Singkil]] (in [[Aceh Singkil Regency|Aceh Singkil]] and [[Subulussalam]]), [[Simeulue people|Simeulue]] and Sigulai (in [[Simeulue Regency|Simeulue]]), and [[Haloban people|Haloban]] (in [[Banyak Islands]]). There are also significant populations of [[Chinese Indonesian|Chinese]] and [[Javanese people|Javanese]]. Among the present-day population of Aceh, especially in coastal areas, one can find a number of individuals of [[Arabs]], [[Turkish people|Turkish]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], and [[Indian people|Indians]] descent.

=== Languages ===

[[File:WIKITONGUES- T.A., Iqbal, and Kalam speaking Acehnese.webm|thumb|left|Speakers of Acehnese.]]

The [[Acehnese language]] is widely spoken within the Acehnese population. This is a member of the [[Aceh-Chamic languages|Aceh-Chamic]] group of languages, whose other representatives are mostly found in Vietnam and Cambodia, and is also closely related to the [[Malay language|Malay]] group of languages. Acehnese also has many words borrowed from Malay and [[Arabic]] and traditionally was written using [[Jawi script|Arabic script]]. Acehnese is also used as local language in Langkat and Asahan ([[North Sumatra]]), and Kedah (Malaysia), and once dominated Penang. Aside from the [[Indonesian language]], Acehnese is also designated as the co-official regional language of Aceh under Qanun Number 10 of 2022.<ref>{{cite act|type=Qanun|index=10|date=2022|legislature=[[People's Representative Council of Aceh]]|title=Qanun Aceh Tentang Bahasa Aceh|url=https://jdih.acehprov.go.id/dih/view/bb2427df-39e1-4986-be26-932f25cda170}}</ref>

Alas and Kluet are closely related languages within the [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]] group. The Jamee language originated from [[Minangkabau language]] in [[West Sumatra]], with just a few variations and differences.

=== Religion ===
{{further|Islam in Aceh}}
[[File:Meuseujid Raya Baiturrahman .jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Baiturrahman Grand Mosque]] in [[Banda Aceh]]. 98% of Aceh's population is Muslim]]

According to 2022 data of the Ministry of Religious Affairs, Aceh is overwhelmingly Muslim-majority where they dominate Aceh with more than 98%. While the rest 1.15% of population are Protestants, 0.13% Buddhism and 0.1% Catholics.<ref name="RELIGION">{{cite web|url=https://satudata.kemenag.go.id/dataset/detail/jumlah-penduduk-menurut-agama|title=Jumlah Penduduk Menurut Agama|publisher=[[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Religious Affairs]]|date=31 August 2022|access-date=29 October 2023|language=id}}</ref>
Religious issues are often sensitive in Aceh. There is very strong support for Islam across the province, and sometimes other religious groups – such as Christians or Buddhists – feel that they are subject to social or community pressure to limit their activities. The official explanation for this action, supported by both the governor of Aceh [[Zaini Abdullah]] and the Indonesian home affairs minister [[Gamawan Fauzi]] from Jakarta, was that the churches did not have the appropriate permits. Earlier in April 2012, a number of churches in the [[Aceh Singkil Regency|Singkil regency]] in southern Aceh had also been ordered to close.<ref>Bagus BT Saragih, '[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/10/25/closed-aceh-churches-lack-permits-gamawan.html Closed churches lack permits: Gamawan'] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026134641/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/10/25/closed-aceh-churches-lack-permits-gamawan.html |date=26 October 2012 }}, ''The Jakarta Pose'', 25 October 2012.</ref> In response, some Christians voiced concern about these actions. In 2015 a church was burned down and another attacked in which a Muslim rioter was shot, causing President [[Joko Widodo]] to call for calm.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=[[Channel NewsAsia]] |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/jokowi-calls-for-calm/2191802.html |title=Jokowi calls for calm amid clashes in Aceh |date=14 October 2015 |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015155654/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/jokowi-calls-for-calm/2191802.html |archive-date=15 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Human rights ===
Caning has increasingly been used as a form of judicial punishment in Aceh.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/01/indonesia-man-flogged-adultery-law-helped-draw-aceh Indonesian man flogged after breaking adultery law he helped draw up] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101114014/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/01/indonesia-man-flogged-adultery-law-helped-draw-aceh |date=1 November 2019 }} The Guardian, 2019</ref> This is backed by the governor of Aceh. At least 72 people were caned for various offences, including drinking alcohol, being alone with someone of the opposite sex who was not a marriage partner or relative (khalwat), gambling and for being caught having gay sex.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-39996224 |title=Indonesian men caned for gay sex in Aceh |publisher=BBC News |date=23 May 2017| access-date=21 July 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030191016/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-39996224| archive-date=30 October 2018| url-status=live}}</ref> The Acehnese authorities passed a series of by-laws governing the implementation of [[Sharia]] after the enactment of the province's Special Autonomy Law in 2001. In 2016 alone, 100 public caning cases were documented by human rights organizations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Two Indonesians sentenced to 85 lashes of cane for gay sex |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-indonesia-lgbt-caning-idUKKCN18D0QG |access-date=10 August 2021 |work=Reuters|date=17 May 2017 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810063345/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-indonesia-lgbt-caning-idUKKCN18D0QG |url-status=live }}</ref>

In January 2018, the Aceh police, with support from the Aceh autonomous government, raided hair salons known to have LGBT clients and staff as part of an ''operasi penyakit masyarakat'' ("community sickness operation"). The police abused all LGBT citizens within the premises of the parlors and arrested twelve transgender women. The arrested trans women were stripped topless, had their heads shaved, and were forced to chant insults at themselves as part of a [[Conversion therapy|process "until they really become men"]]. The intent of the incident was to reverse what officials deemed a "social disease" and that parents were coming to them upset at the increasing number of LGBT individuals in Aceh.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42859473 |title=Indonesia police cut trans women's hair |last=Indonesian |date=2018 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=2018-03-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406061511/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42859473 |archive-date=6 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2018/01/29/indonesian-police-arrest-12-transgender-women-and-shave-their-heads-to-make-them-men/ |title=Police arrest 12 trans women and shave their heads 'to make them men' |work=PinkNews |access-date=2018-03-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816191611/https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2018/01/29/indonesian-police-arrest-12-transgender-women-and-shave-their-heads-to-make-them-men/ |archive-date=16 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The event was decried by human rights organizations local and worldwide, such as [[Amnesty International]]. Usman Hamid stated for the Indonesia branch of the organization that "cutting the hair of those arrested to 'make them masculine' and forcing them to dress like men are forms of [[public humiliation|public shaming]] and amount to cruel, [[inhuman or degrading treatment|inhuman and degrading treatment]], in contravention of Indonesia's international obligations".<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-lgbt/rights-groups-decry-shaming-of-transgender-people-in-indonesias-aceh-province-idUSKBN1FJ1B2 |title=Rights groups decry 'shaming' of transgender people in Indonesia's... |date=30 January 2018 |work=Reuters|access-date=2018-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124210808/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-lgbt/rights-groups-decry-shaming-of-transgender-people-in-indonesias-aceh-province-idUSKBN1FJ1B2 |archive-date=24 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Tourism==
[[File:Danau Laut Tawar.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Laut Tawar]] in Central Aceh Regency]]
Aceh has many tourist destinations, especially natural, historical and cultural tourism. With a fairly long coastline, several archipelagos, and a large forest area, Aceh offers many tourism options, one of the famous natural attractions in Aceh is other famous natural attractions are mountainous areas such as in Tangse and the Gayo Highlands, Ulu Masen Nature Reserve, [[Gunung Leuser National Park]] and Rawa Singkil Wildlife Reserve, [[Lake Laut Tawar]], [[Weh Island|Sabang]] and [[Rondo Island]]. while for historical and cultural tourism, Aceh also has several favorite destinations for tourists, including the [[Aceh Tsunami Museum]], [[Aceh Museum]], Museum Samudra Pasai, [[Gunongan Historical Park]] and [[Baiturrahman Grand Mosque|Baiturahman Mosque]].

==Culture ==
[[File:Museum Aceh.JPG|thumb|[[Aceh Museum]] is the oldest museum in Aceh, built during the Dutch colonial era]]
Aceh has a variety of distinctive arts and culture.

=== Traditional weapon ===
*[[Rencong]] is a type of dagger, a traditional weapon of the Acehnese people. The shape resembles the letter L, and when viewed more closely the form is bismillah calligraphy.

In addition to rencong, the Acehnese people also possessed several other special weapons, such as sikin panyang, peurise awe, peurise teumaga, siwah, geuliwang and peudeueng.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cultural Norms and Values Configuration in Acehnese Traditional Fishing Ritual {{!}} KnE Social Sciences|url=https://knepublishing.com/index.php/Kne-Social/article/view/4846/9725|access-date=2020-10-16|journal=Kne Social Sciences|date=August 2019|pages=189–198–189–198|doi=10.18502/kss.v3i19.4846|last1=Pratiwy|first1=Devi|volume=3 |issue=19 |s2cid=201382724|archive-date=19 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019123030/https://knepublishing.com/index.php/Kne-Social/article/view/4846/9725|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Traditional house ===
[[File:Rumoh Acèh di Piyeung Datu.jpg|thumb|[[Rumoh Aceh]], traditional house of Aceh]]
Aceh's traditional house is called ''[[Rumoh Aceh]]''. This house is a type of house on stilts with three main parts and one additional section. The three main parts of the Aceh house are the ''seuramoë keuë'' (front porch), ''seuramoë teungoh'' (middle porch) and ''seuramoë likôt'' (back porch). Another additional part is the ''rumoh dapu'' (kitchen house).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Graf |first1=Arndt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bot-AT4wZPAC |title=Aceh: History, Politics and Culture |last2=Schroter |first2=Susanne |last3=Wieringa |first3=Edwin |date=2010 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-4279-12-3|access-date=24 October 2020}}</ref>

=== Dance ===
[[File:Ratoh Jaroe Dance.jpg|thumb|Ratoh Jaroe dance performance]]
Traditional Acehnese dances illustrate traditional heritage, religion, and local folklore. Acehnese dances are generally performed in groups, in which a group of dancers are of the same sex, and there are standing or sitting positions. When viewed from the accompanying music, the dances can be grouped into two types; namely accompanied by the vocal and percussion of the dancer's own body, and accompanied by an ensemble of musical instruments. Some dances that are famous at the national and even world level are dances originating from Aceh, such as the Rateb Meuseukat Dance and the [[Saman dance]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fadillah |first1=Dani |last2=Nuryana |first2=Zalik |last3=Sahuddin |first3=Muhammad |last4=Hao |first4=Dong |date=2019-12-19 |title=International-Cultural Communication of the Saman Dance Performance by Indonesian Students in Nanjing |url=https://pubs2.ascee.org/index.php/viperarts/article/view/70 |journal=International Journal of Visual and Performing Arts|volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=98–105 |doi=10.31763/viperarts.v1i2.70 |issn=2684-9259 |doi-access=free |access-date=16 October 2020 |archive-date=17 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017205232/https://pubs2.ascee.org/index.php/viperarts/article/view/70 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
[[File:Mie Aceh with beef.jpg|thumb|[[Mie aceh]]]]
Acehnese cuisine uses combinations of spices found in Indian and Arabic cuisine, include ginger, pepper, coriander, cumin, cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, and fennel. A variety of Acehnese foods are cooked with curry or curry spices and coconut milk, which are generally combined with meat, such as buffalo meat, beef, lamb, fish and chicken. Certain recipes have traditionally used cannabis as a seasoning; which is also found in some other Southeast Asian dishes such as in Laos, but now the material is no longer used. Dishes native to Aceh include [[nasi gurih]], [[mie aceh]], [[mie caluk]] and [[timphan]].

=== Literature ===
Aceh has a tradition of [[oral literature]], such as the folktales ''[[The king of the parakeets]]'' and ''[[Banta Berensyah]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rouf |first1=Irwan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPJqcwuSOUkC |title=Rangkuman 100 Cerita Rakyat Indonesia: Dari Sabang Sampai Merauke |last2=Ananda |first2=Shenia |date=2013-01-01 |publisher=AnakKita |isbn=978-602-9003-82-6 |language=id}}</ref>

The oldest Acehnese manuscripts that can be found are from 1069 H (1658/1659 AD), namely Hikayat Seuma'un.

Before Dutch colonialism (1873–1942), almost all Acehnese literature was in the form of poetry known as Hikayat. Very little is in the form of prose and one of them is the Book of Bakeu Meunan which is a translation of the book Qawaa'id al-Islaam.

It was only after the arrival of the Dutch that Acehnese writings appeared in the form of prose, in the 1930s, such as Lhee Saboh Nang written by Aboe Bakar and De Vries. It was only afterward that various forms of prose appeared, but still remained dominated by the form of Hikayat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aceh: History, Politics and Culture |url=https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/publication/408 |access-date=2020-10-16 |website=bookshop.iseas.edu.sg|archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024095448/https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/publication/408 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Transportation ==
The 74-km [[Sigli–Banda Aceh Toll Road]] is currently under construction, as a part of the [[Trans-Sumatra Toll Road]].

Railways in Aceh has started since the Dutch colonial era. In 1876 the [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army]] (KNIL) started to build a 750-mm gauge railways known as [[Atjeh Tram]], which began operating from 1882 to 1942 and later changed its name to Atjeh Staatsspoorwegen (ASS) in 1916. Its railways assets, now mostly inactive, is under the ownership of the Regional Division I North Sumatra and Aceh of [[Kereta Api Indonesia]]. [[Cut Meutia (train)]] is a train that serves [[Krueng Geukueh railway station|Krueng Geukueh]] to [[Krueng Mane railway station|Krueng Mane]] in North Aceh Regency.

Airports in Aceh include [[Sultan Iskandar Muda International Airport]] in Aceh Besar Regency (serving Banda Aceh and surrounding areas) and [[Maimun Saleh Airport]] in Sabang.

== See also ==
*[[List of people from Aceh]]
*[[Acehnese local government system]]
*Other world's major polities that have applied Sharia law:
**[[Azerbaijan]]
**[[Brunei]]
**[[Chechnya]]
**[[Malaysia]]
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
*{{cite book |title=Sedjarah TNI-Angkatan Darat, 1945–1965. [Tjet. 1.] |author=Indonesia. Angkatan Darat. Pusat Sedjarah Militer |year=1965 |publisher=PUSSEMAD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KOyzISuyJlwC |access-date=10 March 2014}}
*{{cite book |title=20 [i. e Dua puluh] tahun Indonesia merdeka, Volume 7 |author=Indonesia. Panitia Penjusun Naskah Buku "20 Tahun Indonesia Merdeka.", Indonesia |year=1966 |publisher=Departement Penerangan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AE5AQAAIAAJ |access-date=10 March 2014}}
*{{cite book |title=20 tahun Indonesia merdeka, Volume 7 |author=Indonesia. Departemen Penerangan |year=1965 |publisher=Departemen Penerangan R.I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtsRAAAAMAAJ |access-date=10 March 2014}}
*{{cite book |title=The collapse of a colonial society: the Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War |first=Louis |last=Jong |volume=206 of Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Nederlands Geologisch Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap, Volume 206 of Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |edition=illustrated |year=2002 |publisher=KITLV Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BpZuAAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-90-6718-203-4 |access-date=10 March 2014}}
*{{cite book |title=Indonesia's Secret War in Aceh |first=John |last=Martinkus |edition=illustrated |year=2004 |publisher=Random House Australia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RcdwAAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-1-74051-209-1 |access-date=10 March 2014}}
*{{cite book |title=Tentara Nasional Indonesia, Volume 1 |author=Abdul Haris Nasution |year=1963 |publisher=Ganaco |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3kDBvr5UeYC |access-date=10 March 2014}}
*{{cite book |title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200 |first=Merle Calvin |last=Ricklefs |edition=illustrated |year=2001 |publisher=Stanford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC |isbn=978-0-8047-4480-5 |access-date=10 March 2014}}
*{{cite book |title=Tempo: Indonesia's Weekly News Magazine, Volume 3, Issues 43–52 |year=2003 |publisher=Arsa Raya Perdana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3NETAQAAMAAJ |access-date=10 March 2014}}

== Further reading ==
*Bowen, J. R. (1991). Sumatran politics and poetics : Gayo history, 1900–1989. New Haven, Yale University Press.
*Bowen, J. R. (2003). Islam, Law, and Equality in Indonesia Cambridge University Press
*Iwabuchi, A. (1994). The people of the Alas Valley : a study of an ethnic group of Northern Sumatra. Oxford, England; New York, Clarendon Press.
*McCarthy, J. F. (2006). The Fourth Circle. A Political Ecology of Sumatra's Rainforest Frontier, Stanford University Press.
*Miller, Michelle Ann. (2009). [https://archive.today/20130105002742/http://www.remote-sensing.routledge.com/books/details/9780415590365/ ''Rebellion and Reform in Indonesia. Jakarta's Security and Autonomy Policies in Aceh'']. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-45467-4}}
*Miller, Michelle Ann, ed. (2012). ''Autonomy and Armed Separatism in South and Southeast Asia'' (Singapore: ISEAS).
*Siegel, James T. 2000. ''The rope of God''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|0-472-08682-0}}; A classic [[ethnography|ethnographic]] and historical study of Aceh, and Islam in the region. Originally published in 1969

== External links ==
{{Wikivoyage|Aceh}}
{{Commons category}}
*{{Official website}} {{in lang|id}}
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20221005101146/https://acehstory.com/ Local App Portal]}} {{in lang|id}}

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