View source for Acropolis of Athens

{{short description|Ancient citadel above the city of Athens}}
{{for|the neighbourhood of Athens|Makrygianni, Athens}}
{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
|WHS = Acropolis, Athens
|Image       = Classic view of Acropolis.jpg
|Caption     = The Acropolis of Athens, seen from [[Philopappos Monument|Philopappos Hill]]
|image_upright = 1.3
|Location    = [[Athens]], Attica, Greece
|Criteria    = Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv, vi
|Coordinates = {{Coord|37|58|18|N|23|43|34|E|display=inline,title}}
|ID          = 404
|Area        = 3.04 ha
|Buffer_zone = 116.71 ha
|locmapin    = Greece
|map_caption = Location in Greece
|Year=1987}}
The '''Acropolis of Athens''' ({{transl-grc|ἡ Ἀκρόπολις τῶν Ἀθηνῶν|}}; {{langx|el|label=[[Modern Greek]]|Ακρόπολη Αθηνών|Akrópoli Athinón}}) is an ancient [[citadel]] located on a rocky [[outcrop]] above the city of [[Athens]], Greece, and contains the remains of several [[Ancient Greek architecture|ancient buildings]] of great architectural and historical significance, the most famous being the [[Parthenon]]. The word ''[[Acropolis]]'' is {{ety|el|''ἄκρον'' (akron)|highest point, extremity||''πόλις'' (polis)|city}}.<ref>acro-. (n.d.). In Greek, Acropolis means "Highest City". ''[[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]'', Fourth Edition. Retrieved September 29, 2009, [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/acro- from Dictionary.com website:] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080247/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/acro- |date=2016-03-04 }} Quote: "[From Greek ''akros'', extreme; see ''ak-'' in Indo-European roots.]"</ref> The term acropolis is generic and there are many other acropoleis in [[Greece]]. During ancient times the Acropolis of Athens was also more properly known as '''Cecropia''', after the legendary serpent-man [[Cecrops I|Cecrops]], the supposed first Athenian king.

While there is evidence that the hill was inhabited as early as the 4th millennium BC, it was [[Pericles]] ({{Circa|495}}–429 BC) in the fifth century BC who coordinated the construction of the buildings whose present remains are the site's most important ones, including the Parthenon, the [[Propylaia_(Acropolis_of_Athens)|Propylaea]], the [[Erechtheion]] and the [[Temple of Athena Nike]].<ref>Hurwit 2000, p. 87.</ref><ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384 "History"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024154934/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384 |date=2019-10-24 }}, Odysseus. Retrieved 2 December 2012.</ref> The Parthenon and the other buildings were seriously damaged during the 1687 siege by the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] during the [[Morean War]] when gunpowder being stored by the Turkish rulers in the Parthenon was hit by a Venetian bombardment and exploded.<ref>[http://www.nicholasreeves.com/item.aspx?category=Writing&id=281 Nicholas Reeves and Dyfri Williams, "The Parthenon in Ruins"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806054926/http://www.nicholasreeves.com/item.aspx?category=Writing&id=281 |date=2009-08-06 }}, British Museum Magazine 57 (spring/summer 2007), pp. 36–38. Retrieved 2 December 2012.</ref>

==History==
[[File:View of the Acropolis of Athens from Mt Lycabettus on April 22, 2022.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|The Acropolis of Athens as seen from [[Mount Lycabettus]]. The wooded [[Pnyx|Hill of the Nymphs]] is half-visible on its right, and Philopappos Hill on the left, immediately behind. The [[Philopappos Monument]] is seen here where, in the distant background, the coast of [[Peloponnese]] meets the waters of the [[Saronic Gulf]].]]<!-- Please note, the Parthenon is not an acropolis, but rather sits upon one -->

===Early settlement===
The Acropolis is located on a flattish-topped rock that rises {{cvt|150|m|ft}} above sea level in the city of [[Athens]], with a surface area of about {{cvt|3|ha}}. While the earliest artifacts date to the Middle [[Neolithic]] era, there have been documented habitations in [[Attica]] from the Early Neolithic period (6th millennium BC).

There can be little doubt that a [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] [[megaron]] palace stood upon the hill during the late [[Aegean civilization|Bronze Age]]. Nothing of this structure survives except, probably, a single limestone column base and pieces of several sandstone steps.<ref name="Castleden">{{cite book |last=Castleden |first=Rodney |date=2005 |title=Mycenaeans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kfi0dAlfJaoC&pg=PA64 |publisher=Routledge |pages=64– |isbn=978-1-134-22782-2}}</ref> Soon after the palace was constructed, a massive [[Cyclopean]] circuit wall was built, 760 meters long, up to 10 meters high, and ranging from 3.5 to 6 meters thick. From the end of the [[Helladic chronology|Late Helladic IIIB]] (1300–1200 BC) on,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Iakovidis |first=Spyros |title=The Mycenaean Acropolis of Athens |publisher=The Archaeological Society at Athens |year=2006 |location=Athens |pages=197–221}}</ref> this wall would serve as the main defense for the acropolis until the 5th century.<ref>Hurwit 2000, pp. 74–75.</ref> The wall consisted of two [[parapet]]s built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called ''emplekton'' (Greek: ἔμπλεκτον).<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De%29%2Fmplektos ἔμπλεκτος] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610052406/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De%29%2Fmplektos|date=2021-06-10}},
Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library.</ref> The wall uses typical Mycenaean conventions in that it followed the natural contour of the terrain and its gate, which was towards the south, was arranged obliquely, with a parapet and tower overhanging the incomers' right-hand side, thus facilitating defense. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its north side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. [[Homer]] is assumed to refer to this fortification when he mentions the "strong-built house of [[Erechtheus]]" (''[[Odyssey]]'' 7.81). At some time before the 13th century BC, an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge of the Acropolis. This fissure extended some 35 meters to a bed of soft marl in which a well was dug.<ref>Hurwit 2000, p. 78.</ref> An elaborate set of stairs was built and the well served as an invaluable, protected source of drinking water during times of siege for some portion of the Mycenaean period.<ref>[http://www.hydriaproject.net/en/cases/athens/acropolis_hill/mycenaean.html "The springs and fountains of the Acropolis hill"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728143221/http://www.hydriaproject.net/en/cases/athens/acropolis_hill/mycenaean.html |date=2013-07-28}}, Hydria Project. Retrieved 2 December 2012.</ref>

===Archaic Acropolis===
{{Redirect|Temple of Athena Polias|the temple in Priene|Temple of Athena Polias (Priene)}}
[[File:Primitive Acropolis with the Pelargicon.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Primitive Acropolis with the Pelargicon and the Old Temple of Athena.]]
[[File:Aufriß des alten Athena-Tempels.jpg|thumb|Elevation view of a proposed reconstruction of the Old Temple of Athena. Built around 525 BC, it stood between the Parthenon and the [[Erechtheum]]. Fragments of the sculptures in its pediments are in the Acropolis Museum.]]

Not much is known about the architectural appearance of the Acropolis until the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic era]]. During the 7th and the 6th centuries BC, the site was controlled by [[Cylon (ancient Athenian)|Kylon]] during the failed Kylonian revolt,<ref name="Pomeroy1999">{{cite book |last=Pomeroy |first=Sarah B. |author-link=Sarah B. Pomeroy |title=Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=INUT5sZku1UC&pg=PA163 |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-509742-9 |pages=163–}}</ref> and twice by [[Peisistratos]]; each of these was an attempt directed at seizing political power by ''[[coup|coups d'état]]''. Apart from the [[Hekatompedon temple|Hekatompedon]] mentioned later, Peisistratos also built an entry gate or [[propylaea]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/448916/Peisistratus |title=Peisistratos |last=Starr |first=Chester G. |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2 December 2012 |archive-date=31 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731080315/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/448916/Peisistratus |url-status=live }}</ref> Nevertheless, it seems that a nine-gate wall, the [[Enneapylon]],<ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=8242 "Acropolis fortification wall"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121128012957/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=8242 |date=2012-11-28 }}, Odysseus. Retrieved 2 December 2012.</ref> had been built around the acropolis hill and incorporated the biggest water spring, the [[Klepsydra (Akropolis)|Clepsydra]], at the northwestern foot.

A temple to [[Athena|Athena Polias]], the [[tutelary deity]] of the city, was erected between 570 and 550 BC. This [[Doric order|Doric]] limestone building, from which many relics survive, is referred to as the Hekatompedon (Greek for "hundred–footed"), Ur-Parthenon (German for "original Parthenon" or "primitive Parthenon"), H–Architecture or Bluebeard temple, after the pedimental three-bodied man-serpent sculpture, whose beards were painted dark blue. Whether this temple replaced an older one or just a sacred precinct or altar is not known. Probably, the Hekatompedon was built where the Parthenon now stands.<ref>Hurwit 2000, p. 111.</ref>
[[File:The Capture of the Acropolis by the Persians.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Achaemenid destruction of Athens|Destruction of the Acropolis]] by the armies of [[Xerxes I]], during the [[Second Persian invasion of Greece]], 480–479 BC]]

Between 529 and 520 BC yet another temple was built by the [[Pisistratus|Pisistratids]], the [[Old Temple of Athena]], usually referred to as the Arkhaios Neōs (ἀρχαῖος νεώς, "ancient temple"). This temple of Athena Polias was built upon the [[Wilhelm Dörpfeld|Dörpfeld]] foundations,<ref>Hurwit 2000, p. 121.</ref> between the [[Erechtheion]] and the still-standing Parthenon. The Arkhaios Neōs was destroyed as part of the [[Achaemenid destruction of Athens]] during the [[Second Persian invasion of Greece]] during 480–479 BC; however, the temple was probably reconstructed during 454 BC, since the treasury of the [[Delian League]] was transferred in its [[opisthodomos]]. The temple may have been burnt down during 406/405 BC as [[Xenophon]] mentions that the old temple of Athena was set afire. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] does not mention it in his 2nd century AD ''Description of Greece''.<ref>{{in lang|el}} [http://www.eie.gr/archaeologia/gr/02_DELTIA/Old_Temple_of_Athena.aspx] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230004407/http://www.eie.gr/archaeologia/gr/02_DELTIA/Old_Temple_of_Athena.aspx|date=2011-12-30}}, Retrieved 5 June 2012.</ref>

Around 500 BC the Hekatompedon was dismantled to make place for a new grander building, the [[Older Parthenon]] (often referred to as the Pre-Parthenon or Early Parthenon). For this reason, Athenians decided to stop the construction of the [[Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens|Olympieion]] temple which was connoted with the tyrant Peisistratos and his sons, and, instead, used the [[Piraeus]] limestone destined for the Olympieion to build the Older Parthenon. To accommodate the new temple, the south part of the summit was cleared, made level by adding some 8,000 two-ton blocks of limestone, a foundation {{cvt|11|m|0}} deep at some points, and the rest was filled with soil kept in place by the retaining wall. However, after the victorious [[Battle of Marathon]] in 490 BC, the plan was revised and marble was used instead. The limestone phase of the building is referred to as Pre-Parthenon I and the marble phase as Pre-Parthenon II. In 485 BC, construction stalled to save resources as [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] became king of Persia, and war seemed imminent.<ref>Manolis Korres, [http://www.eie.gr/archaeologia/En/chapter_more_3.aspx ''Topographic Issues of the Acropolis''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218042410/http://www.eie.gr/archaeologia/En/chapter_more_3.aspx|date=2020-02-18}}, Archaeology of the City of Athens; Retrieved 7 June 2012.</ref>
The Older Parthenon was still under construction when the Persians invaded and sacked the city in 480 BC. The building was burned and looted, along with the Ancient Temple and practically everything else on the rock.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact;jsessionid=7EAE195E7827EA194D2FFC77288CE706?name=Athens%2C+Pre-Parthenon&object=Building "Athens, Pre-Parthenon (Building)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821080259/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact;jsessionid=7EAE195E7827EA194D2FFC77288CE706?name=Athens,+Pre-Parthenon&object=Building |date=2020-08-21 }}, ''Perseus Digital Library''. Retrieved 3 December 2012.</ref><ref>Dörpfeld, W: ''Der aeltere Parthenon'', Ath. Mitt, XVII, 1892, pp. 158–189. {{in lang|de}}.</ref> After the Persian crisis had subsided, the Athenians incorporated many architectural parts of the unfinished temple (unfluted column drums, triglyphs, metopes, etc.) into the newly built northern [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] of the Acropolis, where they served as a prominent "war memorial" and can still be seen today. The devastated site was cleared of debris. Statuary, cult objects, religious offerings, and unsalvageable architectural members were buried ceremoniously in several deeply dug pits on the hill, serving conveniently as a fill for the artificial plateau created around the Classical Parthenon. This "[[Perserschutt|Persian debris]]" was the richest archaeological deposit excavated on the Acropolis by 1890.<ref>Kavvadias, Panagiotis, Kawerau, Georg: ''Die Ausgrabung der Akropolis vom Jahre 1885 bis zum Jahre 1890'', Athens, 1906 {{in lang|de}}.</ref>

===The Periclean building program===
After winning at [[Battle of the Eurymedon|Eurymedon]] during 468 BC, [[Cimon]] and [[Themistocles]] ordered the reconstruction of the southern and northern walls of the Acropolis. Most of the major temples, including the [[Parthenon]], were rebuilt by order of [[Pericles]] during the so-called [[Age of Pericles|Golden Age of Athens]] (460–430 BC). [[Phidias]], an Athenian sculptor, and [[Ictinus]] and [[Callicrates]], two famous architects, were responsible for the reconstruction.<ref>[http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Ictinus_and_Callicrates_wi.html "Ictinus and Callicrates with Phidias"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104070801/http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Ictinus_and_Callicrates_wi.html |date=2013-01-04 }}, ''Architecture Week''. Retrieved 3 December 2012.</ref>
[[File:The Parthenon in Athens.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Parthenon]], as seen from the north-west in 1978]]

During 437 BC, [[Mnesicles]] started building the [[Propylaea (Acropolis of Athens)|Propylaea]], a monumental gate at the western end of the Acropolis with [[Doric order|Doric]] columns of [[Pentelic]] marble, built partly upon the old Propylaea of Peisistratos.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/386642/Mnesicles |title=Mnesicles |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=6 December 2012 |archive-date=20 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220065801/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/386642/Mnesicles |url-status=live }}</ref> These colonnades were almost finished during 432 BC and had two wings, the northern one decorated with paintings by [[Polygnotus]].<ref name="McCulloch1841">{{cite book |last=McCulloch |first=John Ramsay |title=A Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical: Of the Various Countries, Places and Principal Natural Objects in the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ufYRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA205 |year=1841 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans |pages=205–}}</ref> About the same time, south of the Propylaea, building started on the small Ionic [[Temple of Athena Nike]] in Pentelic [[marble]] with [[tetrastyle]] porches, preserving the essentials of Greek temple design. After an interruption caused by the [[Peloponnesian War]], the temple was finished during the time of [[Nicias]]' peace, between 421 BC and 409 BC.<ref name="Mark1993">{{cite book |last=Mark |first=Ira S. |title=The Sanctuary of Athena Nike in Athens: Architectural Stages and Chronology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0kaLJOgRoRoC&pg=PA72 |year=1993 |publisher=ASCSA |isbn=978-0-87661-526-3 |pages=72– |access-date=2016-05-29 |archive-date=2023-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217134536/https://books.google.com/books?id=0kaLJOgRoRoC&pg=PA72 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Erechtheum Acropolis Athens.jpg|thumb|The [[Erechtheion]], viewed from the south-west, looking across the remains of the Old Temple in 2015]]

Construction of the elegant temple of [[Erechtheion]] in Pentelic marble (421–406 BC) was by a complex plan which took account of the extremely uneven ground and the need to circumvent several shrines in the area. The entrance, facing east, is lined with six Ionic columns. Unusually, the temple has two porches, one on the northwest corner borne by Ionic columns, the other, to the southwest, supported by huge female figures or [[caryatid]]s. The eastern part of the temple was dedicated to [[Athena Polias]], while the western part, serving the cult of the archaic king [[Erechtheus|Poseidon-Erechtheus]], housed the altars of [[Hephaestus]] and Voutos, brother of Erechtheus. Little is known about the original plan of the interior, which was destroyed by fire during the first century BC and has been rebuilt several times.<ref>[http://www.ancient-greece.org/architecture/erechtheion.html Thomas Sakoulas, "Erechtheion"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131004205/http://www.ancient-greece.org/architecture/erechtheion.html |date=2013-01-31 }}, Ancient-Greece.org. Retrieved 7 December 2012.</ref><ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=973Ioanna Venieri, "Erechtheion"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129125700/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=973Ioanna |date=2014-11-29 }}, Odysseus. Retrieved 7 December 2012.</ref>

During the same period, a combination of sacred precincts including the temples of Athena Polias, [[Poseidon]], [[Erechtheus]], [[Cecrops I|Cecrops]], [[Herse]], [[Pandrosos]] and [[Aglauros]], with its Kore Porch (Porch of the Maidens) or Caryatids' Balcony was begun.<ref>[http://www.calvin.edu/academic/clas/pathways/acropoli/aere3.htm "The Acropolis of Athens"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402231011/http://www.calvin.edu/academic/clas/pathways/acropoli/aere3.htm |date=2012-04-02 }}. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref> Between the temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon, there was the [[Brauroneion|Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia]] (or the Brauroneion), the goddess represented as a bear and worshipped in the [[deme]] of Brauron. According to Pausanias, a wooden statue or ''[[xoanon]]'' of the goddess and a statue of [[Artemis]] made by [[Praxiteles]] during the 4th century BC were both in the sanctuary.<ref>[http://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/content/sanctuary-artemis-brauronia-0 "The Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924083719/https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/content/sanctuary-artemis-brauronia-0 |date=2020-09-24 }}, Acropolis Museum. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref>
[[File:Propylaea-athens.jpg|thumb|[[Propylaea (Acropolis of Athens)|The Propylaea]] in 2005]]

Behind the Propylaea, Phidias' gigantic bronze statue of [[Athena Promachos]] ("Athena who fights in the front line"), built between 450 BC and 448 BC, dominated. The base was {{cvt|1.50|m|0}} high, while the total height of the statue was {{cvt|9|m|0}}. The goddess held a lance, the gilt tip of which could be seen as a reflection by crews on ships rounding Cape [[Sounion]], and a giant shield on the left side, decorated by [[Mys (artist)|Mys]] with images of the fight between the [[Centaur]]s and the [[Lapiths]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mikalson |first=Jon D. |title=Ancient Greek Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0Xa5uL8ZOEC&pg=PA73 |access-date=9 February 2013 |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5819-3 |pages=73–}}</ref> Other monuments that have left almost nothing visible to the present day are the [[Chalkotheke]], the [[Pandroseion]], [[Pandion's sanctuary]], Athena's altar, Zeus Polieus's sanctuary and, from Roman times, the circular [[Temple of Roma and Augustus]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Brouskarē |first=Maria S. |title=The monuments of the Acropolis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gj5oAAAAMAAJ |access-date=9 February 2013 |year=1997 |publisher=Ministry of Culture, Archeological Receipts Fund |pages=56–57 |isbn=978-960-214-158-8}}</ref>

===Hellenistic and Roman Period===
[[File:Acropolis 3D.stl|thumb|3-D model of the Acropolis in 165 AD (click to rotate)]]

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many of the existing buildings in the area of the Acropolis were repaired to remedy damage from age and occasionally war.<ref name="autogenerated54">Travlos, John, ''Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens'', London: Thames and Hudson, 1971. p. 54.</ref> Monuments to foreign kings were erected, notably those of the [[Attalid|Attalid kings]] of Pergamon Attalos II (in front of the NW corner of the Parthenon), and Eumenes II, in front of the Propylaea. These were rededicated during the early Roman Empire to Augustus or Claudius (uncertain) and [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]], respectively.<ref>Hurwit 2000, p. 278.</ref> Eumenes was also responsible for constructing a [[Stoa of Eumenes|stoa]] on the south slope, similar to that of [[Stoa of Attalos|Attalos]] in the [[Athenian agora|agora]] below.<ref>[http://www.greek-thesaurus.gr/the-acropolis-the-stoa-of-Eumenes.html "The Stoa of Eumenes"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602034512/http://www.greek-thesaurus.gr/the-acropolis-the-stoa-of-Eumenes.html |date=2012-06-02 }}, The Acropolis of Athens. Greek Thesaurus. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref>

During the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty|Julio-Claudian period]], the Temple of Roma and Augustus, a small, round edifice about 23 meters from the Parthenon, was to be the last significant ancient construction on the summit of the rock.<ref>Hurwit 2000, p. 279.</ref> Around the same time, on the north slope, in a [[Cave Sanctuaries of the Akropolis|cave]] next to the one dedicated to [[Pan (god)|Pan]] since the Classical period, a sanctuary was founded where the [[Archons#Ancient Greece|archons]] dedicated to [[Apollo]] on assuming office.<ref>Nulton, Peter, ''The Sanctuary of Apollo Hypoakraios and Imperial Athens'', Archaeologia Transatlantica XXI, 2003.</ref> During 161 AD, on the south slope, the Roman [[Herodes Atticus]] built his grand amphitheater or [[Odeon of Herodes Atticus|odeon]]. It was destroyed by the invading [[Herulian]]s a century later but was reconstructed during the 1950s.<ref name="Steves2011">{{cite book |last=Steves |first=Rick |title=Rick Steves' Greece: Athens & the Peloponnese |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1zNtIHutGTwC&pg=PA115 |access-date=9 February 2013 |year=2011 |publisher=Avalon Travel |isbn=978-1-61238-060-5 |pages=115–}}</ref>

During the 3rd century, under threat from a Herulian invasion, repairs were made to the Acropolis walls, and the [[Beulé Gate]] was constructed to restrict entrance in front of the Propylaea, thus returning the Acropolis to use as a fortress.<ref name="autogenerated54"/>

===Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Period===
[[File:Venetian siege of Acropolis.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the Venetian siege of the Acropolis of Athens during 1687.]]

During the [[Byzantine]] period, the Parthenon was used as a church dedicated to the [[Virgin Mary]].<ref>[http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Parthenon/ "The Partenon"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702195954/http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Parthenon/ |date=2017-07-02}}, Ancient Greece. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref> During the Latin [[Duchy of Athens]], the Acropolis functioned as the city's administrative center, with the Parthenon as its cathedral, and the Propylaea as part of the ducal palace.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |last2=Baumann |first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA233 |date=21 September 2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 |pages=233–}}</ref> A large tower was added, the [[Frankish Tower (Acropolis of Athens)|Frankopyrgos]] (Frankish Tower), demolished during the 19th century.<ref name="Neils2005">{{cite book |last=Neils |first=Jenifer |title=The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gA81kINAI9cC&pg=PA346 |date=5 September 2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82093-6 |pages=346–}}</ref>

After the [[Ottoman Greece|Ottoman conquest of Greece]], the Propylaea were used as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army,<ref>Hellenistic ministry of culture, [http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384 History of the Acropolis of Athens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024154934/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384|date=2019-10-24}}.</ref> the Parthenon was converted into a [[mosque]] and the [[Erechtheum]] was turned into the [[governor]]'s private [[harem]]. The buildings of the Acropolis suffered significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the [[Morean War]]. The Parthenon, which was being used as a gunpowder [[Magazine (artillery)|magazine]], was hit by [[artillery]] and damaged severely.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404 "Acropolis, Athens: Long description"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216234908/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404 |date=2020-12-16}}, UNESCO. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref>
[[File:49. Athènes. Acropole. Côté O. MET DP-13897-003.jpg|thumb|1842 [[daguerreotype]] by [[Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey]] (earliest known photo of the site)]]
[[File:Akropolis by Leo von Klenze.jpg|thumb|Idealized reconstruction of the Acropolis and [[Areios Pagos]] in Athens, [[Leo von Klenze]], 1846.]]

During subsequent years, the Acropolis was a site of bustling human activity with many Byzantine, Frankish, and Ottoman structures. The dominant feature during the Ottoman period was a [[Parthenon mosque|mosque]] inside the Parthenon, complete with a minaret.

The Acropolis was besieged thrice during the [[Greek War of Independence]]—two sieges from the Greeks [[Siege of the Acropolis (1821–1822)|in 1821–1822]] and one from the Ottomans [[Siege of the Acropolis (1826–1827)|in 1826–1827]]. A new bulwark named after [[Odysseas Androutsos]] was built by the Greeks between 1822 and 1825 to protect the recently rediscovered [[Klepsydra (Akropolis)|Klepsydra]] spring, which became the sole fresh water supply of the fortress.

===Independent Greece===
[[File:Francis Frith, The Acropolis, 1839–98, Albumen silver print, 15.2 x 20.6 cm, MoMA, 187.1972.png|thumb|The Acropolis (photo using albumen silver print) by 19th century photographer [[Francis Frith]]]]
After independence, most features that dated from the Byzantine, Frankish, and Ottoman periods were cleared from the site in an attempt to restore the monument to its original form, "cleansed" of all later additions.<ref>[http://www.nicholasreeves.com/item.aspx?category=Writing&id=281 Nicholas Reeves and Dyfri Williams, "The Parthenon in Ruins"], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806054926/http://www.nicholasreeves.com/item.aspx?category=Writing&id=281|date=2009-08-06}}, ''British Museum Magazine'', No. 57, 2007, pp. 36–38. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref> The [[Parthenon mosque]] was demolished in 1843, and the [[Frankish Tower (Acropolis of Athens)|Frankish Tower]] in 1875. German [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassicist]] architect [[Leo von Klenze]] was responsible for the restoration of the Acropolis in the 19th century, according to German historian Wolf Seidl, as described in his book ''Bavarians in Greece''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/english/historic-ties-the-bavarian-greek-renaissance/23503774.html?ticket=ST-1971567-H5cWlRHnrWscUT9llj96-cas01.example.org|title=Handelsblatt|website=www.handelsblatt.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Acropolis |url=https://acropolisrestoration.ysma.gr/en/monument/the-acropolis/ |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=Restoring the Acropolis Monuments |language=en-US}}</ref> 

Some antiquities from the Acropolis were exhibited in the [[old Acropolis Museum]], which was built in the second half of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Titi |first=Catharine |author-link=Catharine Titi |title=The Parthenon marbles and international law |date=2023 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-031-26356-9 |location=Cham |at=52}}</ref>

At the beginning of the [[Axis occupation of Greece]] in 1941, German soldiers raised the Nazi [[Reichskriegsflagge|German War Flag]] over the Acropolis. It would be taken down by [[Manolis Glezos]] and [[Apostolos Santas]] in one of the first acts of resistance. In 1944 Greek Prime Minister [[Georgios Papandreou]] arrived on the Acropolis to celebrate liberation from the Nazis.

==Archaeological remains==
[[File:Athen Akropolis (18512008726).jpg|thumb|left|Remains of the [[Theatre of Dionysus]] as of 2007. View from the west.]]

The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway termed the Propylaea. To the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. At the centre of the Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum. South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains of the ancient, though often remodelled, [[Theatre of Dionysus]]. A few hundred metres away, there is the now partially reconstructed [[Odeon of Herodes Atticus]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hadingham |first=Evan |date=February 2008 |title=Unlocking Mysteries of the Parthenon |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Unlocking-Mysteries-of-the-Parthenon.html |magazine=Smithsonian |access-date=2013-02-09 |archive-date=2013-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104112634/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Unlocking-Mysteries-of-the-Parthenon.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Many of the valuable ancient artifacts are situated in the [[Acropolis Museum]], which resides on the southern slope of the same rock, 280 metres from the Parthenon.<ref>[http://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en "The Acropolis Museum"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229072648/https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en |date=2022-12-29 }}. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref>
{{clear}}

===Site plan===
Site plan of the Acropolis at Athens showing the major archaeological remains.
<imagemap>
File:AcropolisatathensSitePlan.png|right|600px|alt=Site plan of the Acropolis at Athens
poly 332 198 447 158 468 217 352 254 [[Parthenon]]
poly 305 130 374 115 385 146 314 167 [[Old Temple of Athena]]
poly 346 116 389 108 375 71 334 82 [[Erechtheum]]
poly 248 137 266 160 252 168 243 151 [[Athena Promachos|Statue of Athena Promachos]]
poly 104 164 193 115 225 200 158 224 [[Propylaea (Acropolis of Athens)]]
poly 132 223 152 226 150 257 136 255 [[Temple of Athena Nike]]
poly 168 256 193 261 188 278 166 277 [[Eleusinion]]
poly 191 213 258 199 245 259 185 246 [[Brauroneion|Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion]]
poly 248 260 315 276 321 245 255 231 [[Chalkotheke]]
poly 322 78 337 97 343 111 310 122 304 108 [[Pandroseion]]
poly 258 81 281 73 288 96 266 102 [[Arrephorion]]
poly 402 102 428 100 435 120 408 127 [[Altar of Athena Polias]]
poly 462 120 500 96 540 96 533 136 506 146 464 149 [[Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus]]
poly 574 155 641 184 628 212 564 183 [[Sanctuary of Pandion]]
poly 26 384 56 336 88 314 129 313 160 337 174 370 175 399 139 416 72 417 25 402 [[Odeon of Herodes Atticus]]
poly 182 381 462 384 460 419 179 415 [[Stoa of Eumenes]]
poly 395 325 469 309 478 356 406 372 [[Asclepieion|Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion]]
poly 484 397 492 356 516 323 555 297 596 293 642 300 670 311 650 345 683 389 540 457 [[Theatre of Dionysus|Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus]]
poly 655 343 738 276 807 356 722 425 [[Odeon of Pericles]]
poly 564 460 678 414 684 442 627 505 586 515 [[Theatre of Dionysus|Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus]]
poly 300 32 332 42 323 67 296 64 [[Aglaureion]]
</imagemap>

#[[Parthenon]]
#[[Old Temple of Athena]]
#[[Erechtheum]]
#Statue of [[Athena Promachos]]
#[[Propylaea (Acropolis of Athens)|Propylaea]]
#[[Temple of Athena Nike]]
#[[Eleusinion]]
#Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or [[Brauroneion]]
#[[Chalkotheke]]
#[[Pandroseion]]
#[[Arrephorion]]
#Altar of Athena
#[[Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus]]
#[[Sanctuary of Pandion]]
#[[Odeon of Herodes Atticus]]
#[[Stoa of Eumenes]]
#Sanctuary of Asclepius or [[Asclepieion]]
#[[Theatre of Dionysus|Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus]]
#[[Odeon of Pericles]]
#[[Theatre of Dionysus|Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus]]
#Mycenaean fountain

==The Acropolis Restoration Project==
[[File:Map The Acropolis of Athens and its slopes 1928-1940 - Touring Club Italiano CART-TRC-37.jpg|thumb|upright=2.2|Map of Acropolis of Athens ({{circa|1928}} and 1940 CE.)]]
[[File:Acropolis under construction 2014.jpg|thumb|View east toward the Acropolis under construction during summer 2014.]]

The Acropolis Restoration Project began in 1975 to reverse the decay of centuries of attrition, pollution, destruction from military actions, and misguided past restorations. The project included the collection and identification of all stone fragments, even small ones, from the Acropolis and its slopes, and the attempt was made to restore as much as possible using reassembled original material ([[anastylosis]]), with new marble from [[Mount Pentelicus]] used sparingly. All restoration was made using [[titanium]] dowels and is designed to be completely reversible, in case future experts decide to change things. A combination of cutting-edge modern technology and extensive research and reinvention of ancient techniques were used.<ref name=umich>[http://www.lsa.umich.edu/UMICH/modgreek/Home/Window%20to%20Greek%20Culture/Lectures%20at%20U-M/LaUM_Mallouchou_restorationacropolis.pdf Fani Mallouchou-Tufano, "The Restoration of the Athenian Acropolis"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202215359/http://www.lsa.umich.edu/UMICH/modgreek/Home/Window%20to%20Greek%20Culture/Lectures%20at%20U-M/LaUM_Mallouchou_restorationacropolis.pdf |date=2012-12-02 }}, University of Michigan. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.ysma.gr/en/ |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=YSMA |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Restoring the Acropolis Monuments |url=https://acropolisrestoration.ysma.gr/en/ |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=My WordPress |language=en-US}}</ref>

The Parthenon colonnades, largely destroyed by Venetian bombardment during the 17th century, were restored, with many wrongly assembled columns now properly placed. The roof and floor of the Propylaea were partly restored, with sections of the roof made of new marble and decorated with blue and gold inserts, as in the original.<ref name=umich/> Restoration of the Temple of Athena Nike was completed in 2010.<ref>[http://www.ysma.gr/static/files/Newsletter11_ENG.pdf "2010–2011, The progress of restoration on the Acropolis"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820234711/http://www.ysma.gr/static/files/Newsletter11_ENG.pdf|date=2018-08-20}}, ''The Acropolis Restoration News'', July 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref>

A total of 2,675 tons of architectural members were restored, with 686 stones reassembled from fragments of the originals, 905 patched with new marble, and 186 parts made entirely of new marble. A total of 530 cubic meters of new Pentelic marble were used.<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/hellenic/ "Acropolis Restoration Project-Lecture by Maria Ioannidou, Director, Acropolis Restoration Service"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123225042/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/hellenic/|date=2013-01-23}}, Columbia University. Retrieved 9 February 2013.</ref>

In 2021, the addition of new [[reinforced concrete]] paths to the site to improve accessibility caused controversy among archaeologists.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Stamouli |first1=Nektaria |title=Restoration of Greece's Acropolis causes uproar |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/greek-temple-restoration-acropolis-archeologists-alexis-tsipras/ |access-date=25 September 2021 |work=Politico Europe |date=17 June 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925032728/https://www.politico.eu/article/greek-temple-restoration-acropolis-archeologists-alexis-tsipras/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Cultural significance==
[[File:Acropolis of Athens at dusk.jpg|thumb|View of the Acropolis at dusk from Mount Lycabettus in 2023]]
Every four years, the Athenians had a festival called the Great [[Panathenaea]] that rivaled the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] in popularity. During the festival, a procession (believed to be depicted on the Parthenon frieze) traveled through the city via the Panathenaic Way and culminated on the Acropolis. There, a new robe of woven wool (''[[peplos]]'') was placed on either the statue of Athena Polias in the Erechtheum (during the annual Lesser Panathenaea) or the statue of [[Athena Parthenos]] in the Parthenon (during the Great Panathenaea, held every four years).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/athnlife/rligious.htm |title=Panathenaic Festival |publisher=Brooklyn College Classics Department |website=Athenian Daily Life |first1=Roger |last1=Dunkle |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427153119/http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/athnlife/rligious.htm |archive-date=2012-04-27}}</ref>

Within the later tradition of [[Western Civilization|Western civilization]] and [[classicism|Classical revival]], the Acropolis, from at least the mid-18th century on, has often been invoked as a critical symbol of the Greek legacy and of the glories of [[Classical Greece]].

Most of the artifacts from the temple are housed today in the Acropolis Museum at the foot of the ancient rock.

Apart from their cultural and historical significance, the Acropolis monuments also embody educational value, as they reflect the ideas, art, and culture of the society that created them, these monuments serve as a bridge connecting the past with the present and the future. Therefore, we must make them accessible and understandable to the general public, especially to the youth!<ref>{{Cite web |title=Values |url=https://acropolisrestoration.ysma.gr/en/restoration-why-how/values/ |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=My WordPress |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.ysma.gr/en/ |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=YSMA |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Geology==
The Acropolis is a [[klippe]] consisting of two lithostratigraphic units: the Athens [[schist]] and the overlying Acropolis [[limestone]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=McPhee |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2MLwhd0EZ4C |title=Assembling California |date=2010-04-01 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-70602-9 |pages=142 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Regueiro |first1=M. |last2=Stamatakis |first2=M. |last3=Laskaridis |first3=K. |date=2014 |title=The geology of the Acropolis (Athens, Greece) |url=http://eurogeologists.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/a_egm38_small1.pdf#page=45 |journal=European Geologist |volume=38 |pages=45–52}}</ref> The Athens schist is a soft reddish rock dating from the late [[Cretaceous]] period. The original sediments were deposited in a river delta approximately 72 million years ago. The Acropolis limestone dates from the late [[Jurassic]] period, predating the underlying Athens schist by about 30 million years. The Acropolis limestone was thrust over the Athens schist by compressional [[tectonic]] forces, forming a [[nappe]] or overthrust sheet. Erosion of the limestone nappe led to the eventual detachment of the Acropolis, forming the present-day feature. Where the Athens schist and the limestone meet there are springs and karstic caves. 

Many of the hills in the Athens region were formed by the erosion of the same nappe as the Acropolis. These include the hills of [[Mount Lycabettus|Lykabettos]], [[Areopagus]], and [[Mouseion Hill|Mouseion]]. 

The marble used for the buildings of the Acropolis was sourced from the quarries of [[Mount Pentelicus]], a mountain to the northeast of the city.

===Geological instability===
The limestone that the Acropolis is built upon is unstable because of the erosion and tectonic shifts that the region is prone to. This instability may cause rock slides that cause damage to the historic site. Various measures have been implemented to protect the site, including retaining walls, drainage systems, and rock bolts. These measures work to counter the natural processes that threaten the historic site.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research & new technologies |url=https://acropolisrestoration.ysma.gr/en/at-the-monuments-worksites/research-new-technologies/ |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=Restoring the Acropolis Monuments |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery heights="240" widths="210" mode="packed">
File:The Acropolis of Athens as seen from the Pnyx in October 2025.jpg|The Acropolis of Athens as seen from the Pnyx in October 2025 with the scaffolding on the west façade of the Parthenon removed after 15 years.
File:Marble seats from the theatre of Dioynsus.jpg|Marble seats at the [[Theatre of Dionysus]] inscribed with names.
File:Pergamene column.jpg|[[Pergamon|Pergamene]] column at the [[Stoa of Eumenes]].
File:Thrasyllos.jpg|[[Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos]].
File:Temple of Asclepios.jpg|Temple of [[Asclepius]].
File:North Portico of the Erectheion.jpg|North Portico of the [[Erechtheion]], where a [[coffer]] is missing, signifying the supposed place where [[History of Athens|Zeus struck his lightning bolt]], killing [[Erechtheus]]. Another belief is that this was the location where [[History of Athens|Poseidon struck his trident into the Acropolis]].
File:A close-up shot of the Temple of Parthenon being restored.jpg|A close-up shot of [[Parthenon]]. 
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Landscaping of the Acropolis of Athens]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
*Restoring the Acropolis Monuments https://acropolisrestoration.ysma.gr/en/
*{{cite book |last=Andronicos |first=Manolis |title=The Acropolis |publisher=Ekdotike Athenon S.A. |year=2005 |isbn=978-960-213-006-3}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bouras |first1=Charalampos |last2=Ioannidou |first2=Maria |last3=Jenkins |first3=Ian |title=Acropolis Restored |publisher=British Museum Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-86159-187-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Brouskarē |first=Maria S. |title=The monuments of the Acropolis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gj5oAAAAMAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=Ministry of Culture, Archeological Receipts Fund |isbn=978-960-214-158-8}}
*Cohen, Beth. (2010). "Deconstructing the Acropolis: The Acropolis Museum, Athens, opened 20 June 2009 by Bernard Tschumi Architects." ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 114: 745–753.
*{{cite book |last1=Economakis |first1=Richard |last2=Bettella |first2=Mario |title=Acropolis: Ancient Cities |publisher=Artmedia Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-902889-06-1}}
*Goette, Hans Rupprecht. (2001). ''Athens, Attica, and the Megarid: An Archaeological Guide.'' London and New York: Routledge.
*Harris, Diane. (1995). ''The Treasures of the Parthenon and Erechtheion.'' New York: Oxford University Press.
*{{cite book |last1=Higgins |first1=Michael D |last2=Higgins |first2=Reynold |title=A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean |url=http://uqac.ca/mhiggins/greece.htm |year=1996 |publisher=Duckworths |isbn=0-8014-3337-1 |archive-date=2022-02-06 |access-date=2019-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206045007/http://uqac.ca/mhiggins/greece.htm |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book |last=Hurwit |first=Jeffrey M. |title=The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archaeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-42834-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Hurwit |first=Jeffrey M. |title=The Acropolis in the Age of Pericles |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52740-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Keesling |first=Catherine M. |title=The Votive Statues of the Athenian Acropolis |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-07126-0}}
*{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Walter |title=A History of the Akropolis of Athens |publisher=Gorgias Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60724-498-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Neils |first=Jenifer |title=The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gA81kINAI9cC&pg=PA346 |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82093-6}}
*Neils, Jenifer, ed. (1996). ''Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon.'' Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.
*Pollitt, Jerome J. (1990). ''The Art of Ancient Greece: Sources and Documents.'' New York: Cambridge University Press.
*{{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Robin Francis |title=Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-46981-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Shuter |first=Jane |title=The Acropolis |url=https://archive.org/details/acropolis0000shut| url-access = registration |publisher=Heinemann Library |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-57572-855-1}}
*{{cite book |last1=Servi |first1=Katerina |title=The Acropolis: The Acropolis Museum |publisher=Ekdotike Athenon |year=2011 |isbn=978-960-213-452-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Michitaro |title=The Acropolis |publisher=Kodansha America, Incorporated |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-87011-085-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/acropolis00tana}}
*{{cite book |last1=Titi |first1=Catharine |chapter=The Parthenon |pages=37–61 |title=The Parthenon Marbles and International Law |publisher=Springer |year=2023 |isbn=978-3-031-26356-9 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-26357-6_2 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-26357-6_2 |author-link=Catharine Titi |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-26357-6}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Acropolis of Athens
 |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
*[https://acropolisrestoration.ysma.gr/en/ Restoring the Acropolis Monumens]
*{{cite web |title=Acropolis of Athens |url=http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384 |publisher=[[Ministry of Culture and Sports (Greece)]]|website=odysseus.culture.gr}}
*{{cite web |title=Acropolis Restoration Project |url=https://www.ysma.gr/en/the-service/fields-work/restoration/ |website=ysma.gr|publisher=Acropolis Restoration Service}}
*{{cite web |title=Acropolis Educational Resources Repository |url=http://repository.acropolis-education.gr/acr_edu/ |website=repository.acropolis-education.gr |publisher=Acropolis Information and Education Department}}
*{{cite web |title=Acropolis, Athens |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404 |website=whc.unesco.org |publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}
*{{cite web |title=Ancient Athens 3D |url=https://ancientathens3d.com/ |website=ancientathens3d.com |publisher=Ancient Athens 3D}}
*{{cite book |chapter=Attica |chapter-url=http://geologie.uqac.ca/~mhiggins/athen.htm |title=A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean |publisher=[[Université du Québec à Chicoutimi]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520192723/http://geologie.uqac.ca/~mhiggins/athen.htm |archive-date=20 May 2007}}
*{{cite web |title=The Acropolis of Athens |url=https://www.athensguide.com/acropolis.html |website=athensguide.com}}
*{{cite web |title=Acropolis - Tour of Acropolis of Athens, Site of the Parthenon |url=http://cruises.about.com/od/mediterraneancruises/ss/Acropolis.htm |website=about.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518134951/http://cruises.about.com/od/mediterraneancruises/ss/Acropolis.htm |archive-date=18 May 2013}}
*{{cite web |title=A Quick Tour of the Athenian Acropolis |website=campus.lakeforest.edu|url=http://campus.lakeforest.edu/academics/greece/AcropTour.html |publisher=[[Lake Forest College]]}}
*{{cite web |title=Acropolis Tickets |url=https://hhticket.gr |website=hhticket.gr}}
'''Videos'''
*{{YouTube|7YDKTLQSs8M|ACROPOLIS of Athens, Full Reconstruction, 2001}}
*{{YouTube|0FR3DYPO5Nw|The Acropolis in Athens 1955, Greece}}
*{{YouTube|cJEuOks-fTc|Greek Glory 1940s}}
*{{YouTube|xP-FsX0QW88|Athens, Greece: Ancient Acropolis and Agora - Rick Steves’ Europe Travel Guide - Travel Bite}}
*{{YouTube|8smmU8MseWE|Ancient Acropolis 3D presentation}}

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