View source for Act on National Flag and Anthem

{{Short description|Japanese law ratified in 1999}}
{{Good article}}
{{Infobox legislation
| short_title           = Act on National Flag and Anthem<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?id=1386&vm=04&re=02&new=1 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120802140110/http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?id=1386&vm=04&re=02&new=1 | url-status = dead | archive-date = August 2, 2012 | title = Act on National Flag and Anthem | access-date = 2011-07-27 | date = 2009-04-01 | work = Japanese Law Translation | publisher = Ministry of Justice }}</ref><br/>国旗及び国歌に関する法律
| legislature           = [[National Diet]]
| long_title            = 
| citation              = Law No. 127 of Heisei 11
| territorial_extent    = 
| enacted_by            = [[House of Representatives (Japan)|House of Representatives]]
| date_enacted          = 22 July 1999
| enacted_by2           = [[House of Councillors]]
| date_enacted2         = 9 August 1999
| date_assented         = 
| assented_by           = 
| royal_assent          = 13 August 1999
| date_signed           = 
| signed_by             = 
| date_effective        = 13 August 1999
| date_of_expiry        = 
| date_repealed         = 
| administered_by       = [[Cabinet Office (Japan)|Cabinet Office]]<br>[[Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism]]
| bill                  = Bill on National Flag and Anthem
| bill_citation         = 
| bill_date             = 11 June 1999
| introduced_by         = 
| 1st_reading           = 
| 2nd_reading           = 
| committee_whole_label = 
| committee_whole       = 
| 3rd_reading           = 
| conf_committee_passed = 
| committee_report      = 
| date_conf_committee   = 
| white_paper           = 
| amends                = 
| repeals               = 
| amended_by            = 
| repealed_by           = 
| related_legislation   = 
| summary               = To ratify the national flag and anthem of Japan
| keywords              = 
| status                = current
}}

The {{nihongo|'''Act on National Flag and Anthem'''|国旗及び国歌に関する法律|Kokki Oyobi Kokka ni Kansuru Hōritsu}}, abbreviated as {{lang|ja|国旗国歌法}},<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/asospeech/2009/07/21kaiken.html |script-title=ja:麻生内閣総理大臣記者会見 |trans-title=Prime Minister Aso Cabinet Press Conference |access-date=2010-01-14 |date=2009-07-21 |publisher=Office of the Prime Minister of Japan |language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704123025/http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/asospeech/2009/07/21kaiken.html |archive-date=2014-07-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a law that formally established [[Japan]]'s [[Flag of Japan|national flag]] and [[Kimigayo|anthem]]. Before its ratification on August 13, 1999, there was no official flag or anthem for Japan. The {{nihongo|''[[Flag of Japan|nisshōki]]''|日章旗}} flag, commonly referred to as the {{nihongo|''hinomaru''|日の丸}},<ref name="sfcon">{{citation|url=http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/jp/m08_01_01.htm#5 |title=Basic / General Information on Japan |access-date=2009-11-19 |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=Consulate-General of Japan in San Francisco |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011204004/http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/jp/m08_01_01.htm |archive-date=October 11, 2007 }}</ref> had represented Japan unofficially since 1870; {{nihongo|"[[Kimigayo]]"|君が代}} had been used as Japan's ''[[de facto]]'' anthem since 1880.

After [[Surrender of Japan|Japan's defeat]] in [[World War II]], there were suggestions to legislate the ''hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' as the official symbols of Japan. However, a law to establish the ''hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' as official in 1974 failed in the [[National Diet]], due to the opposition of the [[Japan Teachers Union]] that insists they have a connection with [[Japanese militarism]]. It was suggested that both the ''hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' should be made official after a school principal in [[Hiroshima Prefecture|Hiroshima]] committed suicide over a dispute regarding the use of the flag and anthem in a school ceremony.

After a vote in both houses of the National Diet, the law was passed on August 9, 1999. Promulgated and enforced on August 13, 1999, it was considered one of the most controversial laws passed by the National Diet in the 1990s. The debate surrounding the law also revealed a split in the leadership of the opposition [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ) and the unity of the ruling [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) and coalition partners.

The passage of the law was met with mixed reactions. Although some Japanese hailed the passage, others felt that it was a shift toward restoring nationalistic feelings and culture: It was passed in time for the tenth anniversary of the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Akihito]]'s reign. In the [[List of territories acquired by the Empire of Japan|countries that Japan had occupied]] during [[World War II]], some felt that the law's passage, along with debates on laws related to military affairs and [[Yasukuni Shrine]], marked a shift in Japan toward the [[Political extremism in Japan#Right-wing extremism|political right]]. Regulations and government orders issued in the wake of this law, especially those issued by the Tokyo Board of Education, were also challenged in court by some Japanese due to conflicts with the [[Constitution of Japan|Japanese constitution]].<ref name="japantoday1">{{citation |url=https://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/teachers-lose-lawsuit-for-compensation-over-national-flag-anthem-issue |title=Teachers lose compensation suit over national flag, anthem issue |work=Japan Today: Japan News and Discussion |date=2010-01-28 |access-date=2011-05-31 |archive-date=2013-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711041720/http://https/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="National anthem lawsuit rejected">{{citation|url=https://windsorstar.com/news/National+anthem+lawsuit+rejected/4865423/story.html |title=National anthem lawsuit rejected |work=The Windsor Star |date=2011-02-15 |access-date=2011-05-31}} {{Dead link|date=April 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

==Text of the act==
[[File:国旗及び国歌に関する法律.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Kanpō (Japanese government gazette)|Official gazette]] published on 13 August 1999]]

The Act on National Flag and Anthem established the Nisshōki <!-- The term Nishouki is used in the law, but this article will use the more common name Hinomaru --> as the national flag and ''Kimigayo'' as the national anthem. Details about each symbol were provided in appendices, including specifications for the construction of the flag and sheet music for ''Kimigayo''. The law made no provisions for the use or treatment of either symbol,<ref name="law"/> leading to different national and [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectural]] agencies and ministries creating their own regulations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Regarding the Treatment of the National Flag and Anthem 1999}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Regarding the Treatment of the National and Prefectural Flags 2003}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/gaiko/local/database/pdfs/protocol200902.pdf |script-title=ja:プロトコール |trans-title=Protocol |access-date=2010-01-13 |date=February 2009 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |language=ja |pages=5–10}}</ref> If rules about the use of the flag and anthem had been included in the act, it would not have gained enough support in the Diet to pass.<ref name="JPRI79"/>

===Provisions for the flag===
{{main article|Flag of Japan#Design}}
[[File:Construction sheet of the Japanese flag no text.svg|thumb|alt=The flag has a ratio of two by three. The diameter of the sun is three-fifths of the length of the flag. The sun is placed directly in the center.|A diagram illustrating the placement and size ratio of the elements of the flag]]

The drawing and construction details of the flag are given in the first appendix. The overall ratio of the flag is two-units length to three-units width (2:3). The red disc is at the exact center of the flag and its diameter is three-fifths of the flag's height.<ref name="sfcon"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Takenaka|2003|pp=68–69}}</ref> However, the 1999 law allowed the continued use and manufacture of flags with the proportions set down in the Prime Minister's Proclamation No.&nbsp;57 of 1870, which stipulated that the flag have a seven-to-ten (7:10) ratio, with the red disc off-center by one-hundredth of the flag's length toward the side of the [[Hoist (flag)|hoist]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prime Minister's Proclamation No. 57 1870}}</ref> The background of the flag is white, and the disc red, but the exact color shades were not defined in the 1999 law.<ref name="law">{{Harvnb|Act on National Flag and Anthem 1999}}</ref> Further explanations from the government merely stated that the red color is a deep shade.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.cao.go.jp/en/flag_anthem.html |title= National Flag & National Anthem |access-date=2010-01-02 |year=2006 |publisher=Cabinet Office, Government of Japan}}</ref> Specifications published by the [[Ministry of Defense (Japan)|Ministry of Defense]] in 2008 defined the shades of red for the flag.<ref name="z8701">{{citation |url=https://www.mod.go.jp/j/procurement/chotatsu/nds/pdf/z/z8701.pdf |title=Defense Specification Z 8701C (DSPZ8701C) |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language=ja |date=1973-11-27 |access-date=2009-07-09 |page=6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420171251/http://www.mod.go.jp/j/procurement/chotatsu/nds/pdf/z/z8701.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> During deliberations in the Diet about this bill, there was a suggestion to either use a bright red ({{nihongo|赤色|aka iro}}) shade or choose from the color pool of the [[Japanese Industrial Standards]].<ref>{{citation |url=http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/sangiin/145/0044/14508020044004a.html |script-title=ja:第１４５回国会 国旗及び国歌に関する特別委員会 第４号 |access-date=2010-02-01 |date=1999-08-02 |publisher=National Diet Library |trans-title=145th Meeting of the Diet, Discussion about the bill ''Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem'' |language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819132720/http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/sangiin/145/0044/14508020044004a.html |archive-date=2011-08-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Provisions for the anthem===
{{listen
|filename=Kimi ga Yo 1930.ogg
|title=Kimigayo
|description=A recording of the anthem from 1930
|format=[[Ogg]]
}}

The lyrics and [[musical notation]] of the anthem are given in the second appendix. The text of the law does not credit a single person for the lyrics or music, but the notation credits [[Hiromori Hayashi]] for the musical arrangement.<ref name="law"/> However, evidence suggests that Yoshiisa Oku and Akimori Hayashi (son of Hiromori) authored the music; the elder Hayashi had put his name on it for serving as their supervisor and Chief Court Musician of the Imperial Court.<ref name="Telegraph">{{citation | first = Colin | last = Joyce | title = Briton who gave Japan its anthem | date = 2005-08-30 | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/1497261/Briton-who-gave-Japan-its-anthem.html | work = The Daily Telegraph | access-date = 2010-10-21}}</ref> The melody was eventually put to a Western-style harmony by [[Franz Eckert]] and has been in use since 1880.<ref name="webjapanen">{{citation |url=http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/11NFlagAnthem.pdf |title=National Flag and Anthem |publisher=Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs |year=2000 |access-date=2009-12-11 |page=3}}</ref> The lyrics on the sheet music are in [[hiragana]], and there is no mention for a [[tempo]] for the vocal arrangement. The anthem is played in the [[Dorian mode]] in [[Time signature|common (4/4) time]].<ref name="law"/>

==''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'' before 1999==
The ''hinomaru'' was widely used on military banners in the [[Sengoku period|Sengoku]] period of the 15th and 16th&nbsp;centuries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Turnbull|2001}}</ref> During the [[Meiji Restoration]], on February 27, 1870 (January 27, 3rd year of Meiji in the [[Japanese calendar]]), the flag was officially adopted as the [[civil ensign]] by Proclamation No.&nbsp;57. The ''hinomaru'' was legally the national flag from 1870 to 1885, but Japanese law did not designate a national flag from 1885 to 1999 because with the modernization of the cabinet, all of the prior Council of States' declarations were abolished.<ref name="cripps1996">{{citation |title=Case Studies on Human Rights in Japan |chapter=Flags and Fanfares: The ''Hinomaru'' Flag and ''Kimigayo'' Anthem |publisher=Routledge |location=London |first=D |last=Cripps |editor1=Goodman, Roger |editor2=Ian Neary |year=1996 |pages=77–78 |isbn=978-1-873410-35-6 |oclc=35294491 |quote=In 1870 the [''Hinomaru''] was designated as the national flag by means of a 'declaration (''fukoku'') by the Council of State (''Daijō-kan''太政官). In 1871, however, the Council was reorganized and the legislative function entrusted to the Left Chamber (''Sa-in''). Finally in 1885 the Council was replaced by a modern cabinet, with the result that the Council's declarations were abolished.}}</ref> Despite this, several [[List of Japanese flags#Military flags|military banners of Japan]] are based on the design of the ''hinomaru,'' including the sun-rayed Naval Ensign.<ref name="law.e-gov">{{harvnb|Self-Defense Forces Law Enforcement Order 1954}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|JMSDF Flag and Emblem Rules 2008}}</ref> The ''hinomaru'' was used as a template to design other Japanese flags,<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.japanpost.jp/teipark/display/museum_shozou/museum_shozou_20.html |script-title=ja:郵便のマーク |access-date=2010-02-06 |publisher=Communications Museum "Tei Park" |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219012826/http://www.japanpost.jp/teipark/display/museum_shozou/museum_shozou_20.html |archive-date=December 19, 2007 }}</ref> and its use was severely restricted during the early years of the [[Occupation of Japan|Allied-occupation]] after World War II, although these restrictions were later relaxed.<ref name="47letter">{{citation |url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/shiryo/05/002_23/002_23tx.html |title=Letter from Shigeru Yoshida to General MacArthur dated May 2, 1947|publisher=National Diet Library |last=Yoshida|first=Shigeru |language=ja |date=1947-05-02 |access-date=2007-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/shiryo/05/142/142tx.html |title=Letter from Douglas MacArthur to Prime Minister dated May 2, 1947|access-date=2009-12-10 |last=MacArthur |first=Douglas |date=1947-05-02 |publisher=National Archives of Japan}}</ref>

''Kimigayo'' is one of the world's shortest national anthems, with a length of 11 measures and 32 characters. Its [[lyrics]] are based on a [[Waka (poetry)|Waka]] poem written in the [[Heian period]] (794–1185) and sung to a melody composed in the [[Meiji era]] (1868–1912). In 1869, [[John William Fenton]], a visiting Irish military band leader, realized there was no national anthem in Japan, and suggested to [[Ōyama Iwao|Iwao Ōyama]], an officer of the [[Satsuma Clan]], that one be created. Ōyama agreed, and selected the lyrics.<ref name="Scotsman">{{citation|url=http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=379822006 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121216103557/http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=379822006 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-16 |author=Aura Sabadus |title=Japan searches for Scot who modernised nation |work=The Scotsman |date=2006-03-14 |access-date=2007-12-10 }}</ref>

The lyrics may have been chosen for their similarity to the [[God Save the King|British national anthem]] because of Fenton's influence.<ref name="Telegraph"/> After selecting the anthem's lyrics, Ōyama then asked Fenton to create the melody. This was the first version of ''Kimigayo'', which was discarded because the melody "lacked solemnity."<ref>{{citation | first = Jun | last = Hongo | title = Hinomaru, 'Kimigayo' express conflicts both past and future | date = 2007-07-17 | url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070717i1.html | work = [[The Japan Times]] | access-date = 2010-10-28}}</ref><ref name="webjapanen2">{{citation |url=http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/11NFlagAnthem.pdf |title=National Flag and Anthem |publisher=Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs |year=2000 |access-date=2009-12-11 |page=2}}</ref> In 1880, the [[Imperial Household Agency]] adopted the current melody of ''Kimigayo'', and the government formally adopted ''Kimigayo'' as the national anthem in 1888.<ref name="State Making in Asia">{{Harvnb|Boyd|2006|p=36}}</ref> By 1893, ''Kimigayo'' was included in public school ceremonies due to the efforts of the then [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)|Ministry of Education]].<ref name="JPRI79" /> During the Allied-occupation of Japan, there were no directives by the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers]] to restrict use of ''Kimigayo'' by the Japanese government.<ref name="Goodman81">{{harvnb|Goodman|1996|p=81}}</ref> However, only the score of ''Kimigayo'' was played during official ceremonies following the war; the lyrics were not sung.<ref>{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|p=206}}</ref>

==Background of the legislation==
The proposal for the law was motivated by the suicide of a school principal in [[Hiroshima Prefecture|Hiroshima]], who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over use of the Hinomaru and ''Kimigayo''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aspinall|2001|p=126}}</ref> The principal of Sera High School in [[Sera, Hiroshima|Sera]], Ishikawa Toshihiro, killed himself the evening before his school's graduation ceremony.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{citation | title = Vote in Japan Backs Flag and Ode as Symbols | date = 1999-07-23 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/23/world/vote-in-japan-backs-flag-and-ode-as-symbols.html | work = The New York Times | access-date = 2010-10-13}}</ref> The Hiroshima Prefecture School Board had demanded that all principals ensure use of both symbols at every school ceremony, but the teachers at Sera High School vehemently opposed the practice.<ref>{{harvnb|Lall|2003|pp=44–45}}</ref><ref name="Hood">{{harvnb|Hood|2001|pp=66–67}}</ref> Ishikawa took his own life after failing to win support of his teachers on this issue.<ref name="Hood"/>

Ishikawa's suicide, along with the protests by teachers at the graduation ceremony at Sera High School, prompted [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Keizō Obuchi]] of the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) to draft legislation to make the Hinomaru and ''Kimigayo'' the official symbols of Japan.<ref>{{citation|last1=Wong |first1=So Fei |title=Reframing Futoko in Japan&nbsp;– A Social Movement Perspective |publisher=School of Social Sciences&nbsp;– The University of Adelaide |date=2007-11-01 |page=174 |url=http://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/48389/1/02whole.pdf |access-date=2011-06-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310045522/http://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/48389/1/02whole.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-10 }}</ref> He intended for the legislation to be introduced in 2000, but his [[Chief Cabinet Secretary]], [[Hiromu Nonaka]], wanted it in effect by November 1999, the tenth anniversary of the enthronement of [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Akihito]] and start of [[Heisei era]]).<ref name="Itoh 2003 209">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|p=209}}</ref>

This is not the first time legislation was proposed to make the Hinomaru and ''Kimigayo'' official symbols. After the return of [[Okinawa Prefecture]] to Japan from American rule in 1972 and the [[1973 oil crisis|global oil crisis of 1973]], then-Prime Minister [[Tanaka Kakuei]] hinted in 1974 at the passage of a law that would legalize use of both symbols, a move done partially to increase his popularity with conservative voters.<ref name="Education: Tanaka v. the Teachers"/><ref name="Goodman82-83">{{harvnb|Goodman|1996|pp=82–83}}</ref> At the time of his suggestion, the [[Japan Teachers Union]] was opposed to using the anthem because it "smacked of emperor worship"<ref name="Education: Tanaka v. the Teachers">{{citation | title = Education: Tanaka v. the Teachers | date = 1974-06-17 | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879332-1,00.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110623055527/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879332-1,00.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = June 23, 2011 | magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] | access-date = 2010-10-13}}</ref> and was seen as a connection to pre-war militarism. Although the literacy rate in Japan was 99&nbsp;percent at the time, many students did not know what ''Kimigayo'' even was or how to sing it. In addition to instructing the schools to teach and play ''Kimigayo'', Kakuei wanted students to raise the flag and read the [[Imperial Rescript on Education]], pronounced by the [[Emperor Meiji]] in 1890, every morning.<ref name="Education: Tanaka v. the Teachers"/> Kakuei was unsuccessful in passing the legislation through the Diet.<ref>{{harvnb|Okano|1999|p=237}}</ref>

==Party positions==
===In support===
The main conservative parties of Japan, the LDP and the Liberal Party, were the chief supporters of the 1999 bill. LDP General Secretary [[Yoshirō Mori]] stated in June of that year that the Japanese people had accepted both the [[Flag of Japan|Hinomaru]] and ''[[Kimigayo]]'' as national symbols. The President of the [[Liberal Party (Japan, 1998)|Liberal Party]], [[Ichirō Ozawa]], echoed the same sentiment and believed that the Diet could not conclude otherwise.<ref name="JPRI79">{{citation|title=Japan's Neo-Nationalism: The Role of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo Legislation|journal=Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper|date=July 2001|first=Mayumi|last=Itoh|volume=79|url=http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp79.html|access-date=2010-10-13|archive-date=2018-10-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002192508/http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp79.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[New Komeito]] (also known as the Clean Government Party, or CGP) was initially cautious about the bill. Although some of its leadership conceded that both symbols were accepted by the people, they believed that establishing the idea as a law could be a violation of the Japanese Constitution. The CGP eventually supported the bill in exchange for being allowed into the LDP coalition.<ref name="Itoh 2003 208">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|p=208}}</ref>

===In opposition===
The [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDPJ) and [[Japanese Communist Party|Communist Party]] (JCP) opposed the bill because of the connotations both symbols have with the war era, and because the public was not given the option to settle the issue by a referendum.<ref name="Itoh 2003 209"/> The chairman of the CPJ said that the party would prefer new symbols that represent a democratic and peaceful Japan.<ref name="JPRI79" /> The SDPJ's opposition was a change from its previous stance toward the symbols; Prime Minister [[Tomiichi Murayama]] of the [[Japan Socialist Party]] (the SDPJ's former name) accepted both the [[Hinomaru]] and ''Kimigayo'' as the symbols of Japan in exchange for support from the LDP in the National Diet in 1994.<ref>{{harvnb|Stockwin|2003|p=180}}</ref>

===The Democratic Party of Japan===
The then-president of the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ), [[Naoto Kan]], stated that his party must support the bill because it had already recognized both as symbols of Japan.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www1.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=11044 |script-title=ja:国旗国歌法制化についての民主党の考え方 |access-date=2010-01-17 |date=1999-07-21 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |trans-title=The DPJ Asks For A Talk About the Flag and Anthem Law |language=ja |archive-date=2010-01-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116083917/http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=11044 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Then-Deputy Secretary General [[Yukio Hatoyama]] believed that the bill would cause further problems for school officials and unrest among leftist groups that oppose the flag and anthem.<ref name="Itoh 2003 209-210">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|pp=209–10}}</ref> The DPJ offered an amendment to the bill that designated the [[Hinomaru]] as the national flag but gave ''Kimigayo'' no special status; an alternative anthem was to be found. On July 16, the DPJ decided to issue its amendment; if it was rejected, the party members would be allowed to vote freely.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www1.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8499 |script-title=ja:国旗国歌法案への対応決める／「国旗だけを法制化」修正案提出・否決なら自由投票 |trans-title=Responding to determine the national flag and anthem bill / "flag legislation only" amendment submitted; free vote if rejected |access-date=2010-01-18 |date=1999-07-16 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |language=ja |archive-date=2010-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117081916/http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8499 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other groups issued their own bills against the government's legislation; they were all rejected before the main vote on the bill.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www1.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8506 |script-title=ja:国旗・国歌法案、衆院で可決 民主党は自主投票 |trans-title=National flag and anthem bill passed in the House of Representatives; DPJ free vote |access-date=2010-01-18 |date=1999-07-22 |publisher=Democratic Party of Japan |language=ja |archive-date=2010-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117081646/http://www.dpj.or.jp/news/?num=8506 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Public opinion==
In the week before the vote in the [[House of Councillors]], ''[[The Japan Times]]'' conducted a poll in [[Tokyo]], [[Osaka Prefecture|Osaka]] and [[Hiroshima Prefecture|Hiroshima]]. Approximately nine out of ten respondents favored having the Hinomaru as the national flag, and six out of ten supported ''Kimigayo'' as the national anthem. Overall, about 46&nbsp;percent were in favor of the bill. Respondents thought of the Hinomaru as the flag of Japan and that its history should be taught. Some felt that ''Kimigayo'' was an inappropriate anthem for modern Japan; one respondent suggested using the song "[[Sakura Sakura]]" instead. Another suggestion was to keep the melody of ''Kimigayo'' but replace the lyrics.<ref>{{citation | title = Public favors flag over anthem, poll shows | date = 1999-08-05 | url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn19990805a2.html | work = The Japan Times | access-date = 2010-10-14}}</ref>

A March 1999 poll conducted by the ''[[Yomiuri Shimbun]]'' and one by the Japan Research Council on Public Opinion Polls in July 1999 yielded different results from the poll by ''The Japan Times''. In the former, taken after the suicide of Toshihiro, 61&nbsp;percent felt that the symbols of Japan should be the Hinomaru as the flag and ''Kimigayo'' as the anthem; 64 percent felt it desirable to have both symbols used at school ceremonies, and percent felt both symbols should be enshrined in law. The poll by the Japan Research Council on Public Opinion Polls showed similar results; 68 percent felt that both the Hinomaru and ''Kimigayo'' were the symbols of Japan;  71 percent supported the bill in the Diet. Both polls had slightly less than 2,000 respondents.<ref name="JPRI79"/> There was 15&nbsp;percent more support for the Hinomaru than for ''Kimigayo''; the lyrics of ''Kimigayo'' were directly associated with the emperor.<ref name="JPRI79"/><ref name="webjapanen2"/> Both polls also showed that older generations had a greater attachment to the symbols, while younger generations exhibited more negative feelings.<ref name="JPRI79"/>

==Vote==
The [[House of Representatives (Japan)|House of Representatives]] passed the bill on 22 July 1999 by a 403-to-86 vote during the 145th [[National Diet]].<ref>{{citation |url=http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14507220001047c.html |script-title=ja:第１４５回国会 本会議 第４７号 |trans-title=145th Session of the Diet, plenary meeting No. 47 |access-date=2010-01-17 |date=1999-07-22 |publisher=National Diet Library |language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714043020/http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/SENTAKU/syugiin/145/0001/14507220001047c.html |archive-date=2012-07-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The legislation was then sent to the [[House of Councillors]] on 28 July and passed on 9 August 1999 by a 166-to-71 vote.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.sangiin.go.jp/japanese/joho1/kousei/vote/145/145-0809-v005.htm | script-title=ja:本会議投票結果: 国旗及び国歌に関する法律案 |trans-title=Plenary vote: Act on National Flag and Anthem | access-date = 2010-10-13 | date = 1999-08-09 | publisher = House of Councillors | language = ja}}</ref> It was enacted as law on August 13.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1CE3AB6.htm |script-title=ja:議案審議経過情報: 国旗及び国歌に関する法律案 |trans-title=Deliberation Information: Act on National Flag and Anthem |access-date=2010-01-17 |date=1999-08-13 |publisher=House of Representatives |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323180056/http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1CE3AB6.htm |archive-date=2011-03-23 }}</ref>

{|
|-
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Bill on National Flag and Anthem<br>[[House of Representatives (Japan)|House of Representatives]] vote<ref name="Itoh 2003 210">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|p=210}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="2"| Party !! Votes for !! Votes against !! Abstained !! Absent
|-
| {{party name with colour|Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)}} (260)
| style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" | '''260'''
| –
| –
| –
|-
| {{party name with colour|Democratic Party of Japan}} (92)
| '''45'''
| style="background-color:#FFAEB9;" | '''46'''
| –
| '''1'''
|- 
| {{party name with colour|Komeito}} (52)
| style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" | '''52'''
| –
| –
| –
|-
| {{party name with colour|Liberal Party (Japan, 1998)}} (39)
| style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" | '''38'''
| –
| –
| '''1'''
|-
| {{party name with colour|Japanese Communist Party}} (26)
| –
| style="background-color:#FFAEB9;" | '''26'''
| –
| –
|-
| {{party name with colour|Social Democratic Party (Japan)}} (14)
| –
| style="background-color:#FFAEB9;" | '''14'''
| –
| –
|-
|style="background:gray;"|
|[[Independent (politician)|Independents]] (16)
| style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" | '''8'''
| –
| –
| '''8'''
|-
!colspan=2| Total (499) !! style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" |403 !! 86 !! 0 !! 10
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Bill on National Flag and Anthem<br>[[House of Councillors]] vote<ref name="Itoh 2003 211">{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|p=211}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="2"| Party !! Votes for !! Votes against !! Abstained !! Absent
|-
| {{party name with colour|Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)}} (101)
| style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" | '''101'''
| –
| –
| –
|-
| {{party name with colour|Democratic Party of Japan}} (56)
| '''20'''
| style="background-color:#FFAEB9;" | '''31'''
| '''5'''
| –
|- 
| {{party name with colour|Komeito}} (24)
| style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" | '''24'''
| –
| –
| –
|-
| {{party name with colour|Japanese Communist Party}} (23)
| –
| style="background-color:#FFAEB9;" | '''23'''
| –
| –
|-
| {{party name with colour|Social Democratic Party (Japan)}} (13)
| –
| style="background-color:#FFAEB9;" | '''13'''
| –
| –
|-
| {{party name with colour|Liberal Party (Japan, 1998)}} (12)
| style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" | '''12'''
| –
| –
| –
|-
|style="background:gray;"|
|[[Independent (politician)|Independents]] (22)
| style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" | '''9'''
| '''4'''
| –
| '''9'''
|-
!colspan=2| Total (251) !! style="background-color:#CCFFCC;" |166 !! 71 !! 5 !! 9
|}
|}

==Reactions==
===Domestic===
[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Keizō Obuchi]] was enthusiastic over the passage of the law because it established a "clear basis by written law"<ref name="Ministry of Foreign Affairs">{{citation|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/1999/8/809.html |title=Statement of Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi |access-date=2010-01-28 |date=1999-08-09 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref> for use of the symbols. He felt this was a major step for Japan to "move into the 21st century".<ref name="Ministry of Foreign Affairs"/> [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Akihito]] declined to comment on the law when asked at a press conference on [[The Emperor's Birthday|his birthday]] (December 23), mostly due to the constitutional prohibition for the Emperor to speak on political matters.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e-okotoba/01/press/kaiken-h11e.html |title=Press Conference on the occasion of His Majesty's Birthday (1999) |access-date=2010-01-28 |date=1999-12-23 |publisher=The Imperial Household Agency}}</ref><ref name="nytimes1">{{Cite news |last=Onishi |first=Norimitsu |date=2004-12-16 |title=Tokyo's Flag Law: Proud Patriotism, or Indoctrination? |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/16/world/asia/tokyos-flag-law-proud-patriotism-or-indoctrination.html |access-date=2023-08-28 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> However, Emperor Akihito expressed displeasure to [[Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education|Tokyo Education Board]] member [[Kunio Yonenaga]] in 2004 that forcing teachers and students to honor the flag and anthem was not "desirable."<ref name="nytimes1" /> The head of a teachers' federation praised the legislation, believing it would help them inculcate people with a proper sense of respect for a country's symbols, thereby reducing international incidents such as the booing of other countries' anthems by the Japanese. The legislation also drew condemnation from certain Japanese who were disdainful of their country's actions in World War II. They felt that unless their government issued a formal apology—expressed with "true remorse"<ref name="nytimes.com"/><ref name="McCormack 2001 xvii">{{harvnb|McCormack|2001|p=xvii}}</ref> for those incidents—they saw no reason to be proud about the flag and anthem.<ref name="nytimes.com"/><ref name="McCormack 2001 xvii"/> Ozawa saw the passage of this law and a few others in 1999 as heralds of a "bloodless revolution" toward a new future—a revolution that would change Japan's national identity and set up changes to its Constitution.<ref name="McCormack 2001 xvii"/>

Within education, a major battleground where the use of the symbols was fought,<ref name="Wesiman">{{citation |author =Weisman, Steven R. |title=For Japanese, Flag and Anthem Sometimes Divide | date=1990-04-29 | url =https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/29/world/for-japanese-flag-and-anthem-sometimes-divide.html#end_copy | work =The New York Times | access-date = 2010-01-02 }}</ref> the reactions were also mixed. The 1999 [[curriculum guideline]] issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the law decrees that "on entrance and graduation ceremonies, schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the "[[Kimigayo]]" (national anthem), given the significance of the flag and the song."<ref name="hiroshima2001">{{citation|url=http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/kyouiku/hotline/02zesei/sankou/kokkikokka.htm |script-title=ja:学習指導要領における国旗及び国歌の取扱い |trans-title=Handling of the flag and anthem in the National Curriculum |access-date=2009-12-08 |date=2001-09-11 |publisher=Hiroshima Prefectural Board of Education Secretariat |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722112237/http://www.pref.hiroshima.lg.jp/kyouiku/hotline/02zesei/sankou/kokkikokka.htm |archive-date=2011-07-22 }}</ref> Additionally, the ministry's commentary on the 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools notes that "given the advance of internationalization, along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese, it is important to nurture school children's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and ''Kimigayo'' as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society."<ref name="mext2">{{citation|url=http://cebc.jp/data/education/gov/jp/tsuuchi/19990917hatauta/data-02.htm |script-title=ja:小学校学習指導要領解説社会編，音楽編，特別活動編 |trans-title=National Curriculum Guide: Elementary social notes, Chapter music Chapter Special Activities |publisher=Ministry of Education |language=ja |date=1999-09-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060319210723/http://cebc.jp/data/education/gov/jp/tsuuchi/19990917hatauta/data-02.htm |archive-date=2006-03-19 }}</ref>

In [[Hiroshima Prefecture]], where Sera High School is located, the reaction was mostly negative. As one of the two prefectures directly affected by World War II, education in Hiroshima has leaned left with regards to information regarding the symbols and the Emperor due to the power of native groups, such as the [[Buraku Liberation League]], and teachers' unions.<ref name="Murakami">{{citation | first = Asako | last = Murakami | title = Flag-anthem law no end to controversy | date = 1999-08-09 | url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn19990809a2.html | work = The Japan Times | access-date = 2011-02-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606125611/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn19990809a2.html |archive-date= Jun 6, 2011 }}</ref> There the passage of the law was seen as an "annoyance", running counter to the prefecture's educational practices and unlikely to be able to resolve its war-related issues.<ref name="Murakami"/>

===International===
<!--- Beyond Japan, the passage of the law was met with mixed reactions. In [[China|Mainland China]] and [[South Korea]], the 1999 formal adoption of the ''Hinomaru'' and ''Kimigayo'', along with debates about the status of the [[Yasukuni Shrine]], [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|U.S.–Japan military cooperation]], and the creation of a missile defense, was met with the notion that Japan was moving toward the [[Political extremism in Japan#Right-wing extremism|right]] of the [[political spectrum]]. Both nations had been occupied by the [[Empire of Japan]], and feared that the rightward shift would revive re-militarization in Japan.{{cn|date=August 2019}} --->

However, the spokesperson for the mainland Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that the bill was an issue for the Japanese to resolve on their own to move their country toward a peaceful future. In [[Singapore]], older generations still harbored ill feelings toward the symbols. The [[Philippines|Philippine]] government believed that Japan was not going to revert to militarism and that the goal of the law was to formally establish two national symbols, which every state has a right to do.<ref name="JPRI79"/>

==Political ramifications==
Members of the DPJ were allowed by party leaders to vote based on their own conscience; the party leadership itself was split. Hatoyama overcame his opposition and voted for the bill, along with DPJ Secretary General and [[Tsutomu Hata]]. Kan voted against the bill. With the exception of the DPJ, each party voted strictly along party lines, and none among them broke party discipline.<ref name="Itoh 2003 210"/> Ironically, Hatoyama wanted to use his vote for the bill as a call to his fellow DPJ members for unity. Half of the DPJ supported the bill, reducing the numbers that would have opposed it and making it easier for the bill to pass. The split of the DPJ vote showed the lack of unity of its members.<ref name="Itoh 2003 209-210"/><ref name="Williams"/>

Another factor that played into the passage of the bill was the coalition of the LDP, the Liberal Party and the CGP. In the Diet, the union between the LDP and the Liberal Party gave them a majority in the lower house but not in the House of Councilors.<ref name="JPRI79"/> The leadership of the LDP considered Ozawa to be a traitor because he left the LDP in 1993, yet the LDP needed him and his party to form a coalition to govern.<ref name="Itoh 2003 211"/> Although the CGP had a relatively small number of seats (52) in the lower house and had nothing in common with the LDP in terms of policy, it was tempted by the idea of being part of the ruling cabinet and supported the LDP in passing the bill.<ref name="Itoh 2003 211"/> The Social Democratic Party had to abandon key party platforms—such as their earlier opposition to the symbols, security treaties with the United States and the existence of the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Self Defense Forces]]—to join the coalition. Despite the concessions of the SPDJ, the LDP did not advance any of the traditional platforms championed by the SPDJ. Eventually, those policies advocated by the SPDJ were removed from the national policy debate.<ref>{{harvnb|Reed|2003|pp=27–28}}</ref> The only party that stuck to its stance throughout the debate was the Communist Party; the CGP (New Komeito), Liberal Party and SDPJ switched sides to support the bill.<ref>{{Harvnb|Itoh|2003|p=212}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Amyx|2003|p=43}}</ref>

Such vote switching led a writer for ''[[The Japan Times]]'' to question the rationality of the country's politics over the passage of the bill.<ref name="Williams">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=91}}</ref> The act is one of the most controversial laws passed by the Diet since the 1992 Law Concerning Cooperation for United Nations Peacekeeping Operations and Other Operations, also known as the "International Peace Cooperation Law"<ref name="Williams"/> which committed Japan to United Nations peacekeeping operations,<ref>{{citation|url=http://www8.cao.go.jp/english/e1-13.html |title=International Peace Cooperation Headquarters |access-date=2010-10-13 |publisher=Cabinet Office, Government of Japan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617000040/http://www8.cao.go.jp/english/e1-13.html |archive-date=2011-06-17 }}</ref> a deviation from Article&nbsp;9 of the Japanese Constitution, which calls on the country to renounce the "use of force as means of settling international disputes."<ref>{{Harvnb|Constitution of Japan}} Article 9</ref>

==Enforcement and lawsuits==
When the law was passed, Prime Minister Obuchi and other officials stated that there was no intention to regulate the use of the flag and the anthem in everyday life.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.japanfocus.org/-Lawrence-Repeta/2355 |title=Politicians, Teachers and the Japanese Constitution: Flag, Freedom and the State |work=Japan Focus |year=2007 |access-date=2011-05-31}}</ref> However, the 1999 [[curriculum guideline]] issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem decrees that "on entrance and graduation ceremonies, schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing ''Kimigayo'', given the significance of the flag and the song."<ref name="hiroshima2001"/>

In Tokyo, regulations were put in place in 2003. As part of that city's regulations, board or school officials are required to record names of teachers who do not stand or sing, and the flag is displayed facing the students during ceremonies. Sanctions ranged from reprimands, re-education courses, pay cuts, loss of duties to termination; and the sanctions were encouraged by [[Shintaro Ishihara]], the [[Governor of Tokyo]].<ref>{{citation|last=Tabuchi |first=Hiroko |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/27/world/asia/27japan.html |title=Japanese Court Rejects Teachers' Suit Over Flag |author-link=Hiroko Tabuchi |work=The New York Times |date=2009-03-26 |access-date=2011-05-31}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=https://www.latimes.com/world/la-xpm-2011-feb-06-la-fg-japan-anthem-20110206-story.html |title=Teachers in Japan fight being forced to sing national anthem |work= Los Angeles Times |author-last1=Nagano|author-first1=Yuriko|date=2011-02-06 |access-date=2011-05-31}}</ref> In 2004, 243 teachers were disciplined and 67 teachers were warned for either not following policies or for instructing their students not to honor both symbols.

One city in [[Fukuoka Prefecture]] measured and rated each school on how loudly the students sang ''Kimigayo'', but Tokyo was the only school board that issued large-scale punishments for not following the regulations.<ref name="nytimes1" /> According to the Tokyo Board of Education, more than 400 people have been punished since 2004.<ref name="abcnews1">{{citation|author =Akiko Fujita|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/japanese-teachers-fight-flag-salute-national-anthem-enforcement/story?id=12909556 |title=Japanese Teachers Fight Flag Salute, National Anthem Enforcement|work= ABC News International |date=2011-02-14 |access-date=2011-05-31}}</ref>

Several lawsuits were filed to challenge the Tokyo regulations on grounds that the order violated Article 19 of the Japanese Constitution, granting "freedom of thought and conscience."<ref name="japantoday1"/> The [[Tokyo District Court]] sided with the teachers, ruling that teachers cannot be forced to stand or sing. However, its decisions are either being appealed or have already been overturned by the [[Tokyo High Court]], which ruled that the order does not represent a violation of the Constitution.<ref name="japantoday1"/> Over a dozen lawsuits, ranging from the constitutionality of the Tokyo order to the compensation of the punished teachers, have been filed in Japanese courts.<ref name="abcnews1"/>  The latest, filed in 2011, was rejected by the Supreme Court; the Court agreed with the Tokyo High Court that requiring teachers to stand for ''Kimigayo'' was not a violation of the Constitution.<ref name="National anthem lawsuit rejected"/> After this ruling, the Osaka Prefectural Assembly passed an ordinance on June 3, 2011, ordering teachers and other school employees in Osaka to stand and sing when ''Kimigayo'' is played during school ceremonies.<ref>{{citation|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110604x3.html |title=Anthem ordinance obliges Osaka teachers to stand, sing 'Kimigayo' |work= The Japan Times |date= 2011-06-04 |access-date=2011-06-04}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Japanese flags]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
; Books<!-- These are organized by author's last name. -->
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |last1 = Amyx |first1 = Jennifer |last2 = Drysdale |first2 = Peter |title = Japanese Governance: Beyond Japan Inc. |publisher = Routledge |year = 2003 |isbn = 978-0-415-30469-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IOmsiRmjg6AC&q=Ichiro+Ozawa+kimigayo&pg=PA43 |ref = {{harvid|Amyx|2003}} }}
* {{citation |last=Aspinall |first=Robert W. |title=Teachers' Unions and the Politics of Education in Japan |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsdFCz-Il3EC&q=Japanese+flag+respect+foreign&pg=PA125 |isbn=978-0-7914-5050-5 }}
* {{citation |last1 = Boyd |first1 = Richard |last2 = Ngo |first2 = Tak-Wing |title = State Making in Asia |publisher = Routledge |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-0-415-34611-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=r8IDxzZ4SQIC&q=kimigayo&pg=PA36 |ref = {{harvid|Boyd|2006}} }}
* {{citation |last1 = Goodman |first1 = Roger |last2 = Neary |first2 = Ian |title = Case Studies on Human Rights in Japan |publisher = Routledge |year = 1996 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=73sE6NkXPbAC&q=Japanese+flag+homes&pg=PA81 |isbn = 978-1-873410-35-6 |ref = {{harvid|Goodman|1996}} }}
* {{citation |last = Hebert |first = David G. |title = Wind Bands and Cultural Identity in Japanese Schools |volume = 9 |pages = 239–250 |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=978-94-007-2178-4 |ref=no<!--{{harvid|Hebert|2011}}-->|doi = 10.1007/978-94-007-2178-4_16 |chapter = National Identity in the Japanese School Band |series = Landscapes: the Arts, Aesthetics, and Education }}
* {{citation |last = Hood |first = Christopher |title = Japanese Education Reform: Nakasone's Legacy |publisher = Routledge |year = 2001 |isbn = 978-0-415-23283-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn9AG5ecIkUC&q=kimigayo+Hiroshima&pg=PA67 }}
* {{citation |last = Itoh |first = Mayumi |year = 2003 |title = The Hatoyama Dynasty: Japanese Political Leadership Through the Generations |publisher = Palgrave Macmillan |isbn = 978-1-4039-6331-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMgpxv6MSEC&q=Kimigayo&pg=206 }}
* {{citation |last1 = Lall |first1 = Marie |last2 = Vickers |first2 = Edward |title = Education as a Political Tool in Asia |publisher = Routledge |year = 2003 |isbn = 978-0-415-45259-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aAI-G2EuBr0C&q=anthem+Kakuei&pg=PA45 |ref = {{harvid|Lall|2003}} }}
* {{citation |last = McCormack |first = Gavan |title = The Emptiness of Japanese Affluence |publisher = M. E. Sharpe |year = 2001 |isbn = 978-0-7656-0768-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MBvqUzE0ZgEC&q=Ichiro+Ozawa+anthem&pg=PR17 }}
* {{citation |last1 = Okano |first1 = Kaori |last2 = Tsuchiya |first2 = Motonori |title = Education in Contemporary Japan |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 1999 |isbn = 978-0-521-62686-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SpZqnFHPBzMC&q=kimigayo+Kakuei&pg=PA237 |ref = {{harvid|Okano|1999}} }}
* {{citation |last = Reed |first = Steven |title = Japanese Electoral Politics: Creating a New Party System |publisher = Routledge |year = 2003 |isbn = 978-0-415-31140-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BZ7Jk8C64H0C&q=Ozawa+flag+1999&pg=PA27 }}
* {{citation |last = Stockwin |first = James |title = Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Japan |publisher = Routledge |year = 2003 |isbn = 978-0-415-15170-2 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OElxkdTcuCAC&q=Ichiro+Ozawa+kimigayo&pg=PA180 }}
* {{citation |last = Takenaka |first = Yoshiharu |year = 2003 |script-title = ja:知っておきたい国旗・旗の基礎知識 |trans-title = Flag basics you should know |language = ja |publisher = Gifu Shimbun |isbn = 978-4-87797-054-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Mk_0AAAACAAJ }}
* {{citation |author1=Turnbull, Stephen |author2=Howard Gerrard |title=Ashigaru 1467–1649 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84176-149-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39cDtcRORS8C |ref={{harvid|Turnbull|2001}} }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{citation |last1 = Williams |first1 = David |last2 = Kersten |first2 = Rikki |title = The Left in the Shaping of Japanese Democracy |publisher = Routledge |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-0-415-33435-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0inRvBykKqcC&q=kimigayo+definition&pg=PA91 |ref = {{harvid|Williams|2006}} }}
{{refend}}

; Legislation<!-- These are organized by the year of adoption. -->
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |script-title = ja:明治3年太政官布告第57号 |trans-title = Prime Minister's Proclamation No.&nbsp;57 |url = http://www.pref.nara.jp/somu-so/jourei/reiki_honbun/k4010086001.html |access-date = 2010-02-06 |date = 1870-02-27 |publisher = Government of Nara Prefecture |language = ja |ref = {{harvid|Prime Minister's Proclamation No. 57 1870}} |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110608134519/http://www.pref.nara.jp/somu-so/jourei/reiki_honbun/k4010086001.html |archive-date = 2011-06-08 }}
* {{citation |url = http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html |title = Constitution of Japan |access-date = 2010-10-13 |date = 1946-11-03 |publisher = Official Website of the Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet |ref = {{harvid|Constitution of Japan}} |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110409032655/http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html |archive-date = 2011-04-09 |url-status = dead }}
* {{citation |url = http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S29/S29SE179.html |script-title = ja:自衛隊法施行令 |trans-title = Self-Defense Forces Law Enforcement Order |publisher = Government of Japan |language = ja |date = 1954-06-30 |access-date = 2008-01-25 |ref = {{harvid|Self-Defense Forces Law Enforcement Order 1954}} |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080407050124/http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S29/S29SE179.html |archive-date = 2008-04-07 |url-status = dead }}
* {{citation |script-title = ja:国旗及び国歌に関する法律 (法律第百二十七号) |trans-title = Act on National Flag and Anthem, Act No.&nbsp;127 |url = http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/H11/H11HO127.html |access-date = 2010-02-06 |date = 1999-08-13 |publisher = Government of Japan |language = ja |ref = {{harvid|Act on National Flag and Anthem 1999}} |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100521050156/http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/H11/H11HO127.html |archive-date = 2010-05-21 |url-status = dead }}
* {{citation |url = http://www.police.pref.hokkaido.jp/koukai/tuutatu/keimu/keimu-105.html |script-title = ja:国旗及び国歌の取扱いについて |trans-title = Regarding the Treatment of the National Flag and Anthem |access-date = 2010-01-14 |date = 1999-11-18 |publisher = Police of the Hokkaido Prefecture |language = ja |ref = {{harvid|Regarding the Treatment of the National Flag and Anthem 1999}} |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080506115241/http://www.police.pref.hokkaido.jp/koukai/tuutatu/keimu/keimu-105.html |archive-date = 2008-05-06 }}
* {{citation |url = http://www.police.pref.kanagawa.jp/notice/pdf/a00002.pdf |script-title = ja:国旗及び県旗の取扱いについて |trans-title = Regarding the Treatment of the National and Prefectural Flags |access-date = 2010-10-22 |date = 2003-03-29 |publisher = Police of Kanagawa Prefecture |language = ja |ref = {{harvid|Regarding the Treatment of the National and Prefectural Flags 2003}} |archive-date = 2011-10-04 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111004041219/http://www.police.pref.kanagawa.jp/notice/pdf/a00002.pdf |url-status = dead }}
* {{citation |url=http://www.clearing.mod.go.jp/kunrei_data/a_fd/1955/ax19551227_00044_000.pdf |script-title=ja:海上自衛隊旗章規則 |trans-title=JMSDF Flag and Emblem Rules |access-date=2009-09-25 |date=2008-03-25 |publisher=Ministry of Defense |language=ja |ref={{harvid|JMSDF Flag and Emblem Rules 2008}} }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wikisource|Translation:Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem|Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110323180056/http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1CE3AB6.htm Legislation history] {{in lang|ja}}

[[Category:1999 in law]]
[[Category:Japanese legislation]]