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{{Short description|Form of communication for marketing}}
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[[File:The Ladies' home journal (1948) (14785694143).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|1948 print advertisement for [[Rinso]] laundry soap]]
{{Marketing}}

'''Advertising''' is the practice and techniques employed to bring attention to a [[Product (business)|product]] or [[Service (economics)|service]]. Advertising aims to present a product or service in terms of utility, advantages, and qualities of interest to [[Consumer|consumers]]. It is typically used to promote a specific good or service, but there are a wide range of uses, the most common being [[commercial advertisement]].

Commercial advertisements often seek to generate increased [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] of their products or services through "[[Branding (promotional)|branding]]", which associates a product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of consumers. On the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as [[Direct marketing|direct-response advertising]]. Non-commercial entities that advertise more than consumer products or services include [[Political party|political parties]], [[Interest group|interest groups]], [[Religious organization|religious organizations]], and [[Government agency|governmental agencies]]. [[Nonprofit organization|Non-profit organizations]] may use free modes of persuasion, such as a [[public service announcement]]. Advertising may also help to reassure employees or [[Shareholder|shareholders]] that a company is viable or successful.

In the 19th century, [[soap]] businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns. [[Thomas J. Barratt]] was hired by [[Pears (soap)|Pears]] to be its brand manager—the first of its kind—and in addition to creating slogans and images, he recruited West End stage actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.<ref name="Endorse"/> Modern advertising originated with the techniques introduced with [[tobacco advertising]] in the 1920s, most significantly with the campaigns of [[Edward Bernays]], considered the founder of modern, "[[Madison Avenue]]" advertising.<ref name="Studlar2002p55">Donley T. Studlar (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=GmN9-GXTu4wC&pg=PA55 ''Tobacco Control: Comparative Politics in the United States and Canada''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509234835/https://books.google.com/books?id=GmN9-GXTu4wC&pg=PA55 |date=May 9, 2016 }} p.55 quotation: "...&nbsp;from the early days advertising has been intimately intertwined with tobacco. The man who is sometimes considered the founder of modern advertising and Madison Avenue, Edward Bernays, created many of the major cigarette campaigns of the 1920s, including having women march down the street demanding the right to smoke."</ref><ref name="Gifford2010p15">Donald G. Gifford (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id=6UYzFt5Qgk4C&pg=PA15 ''Suing the Tobacco and Lead Pigment Industries''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510065809/https://books.google.com/books?id=6UYzFt5Qgk4C&pg=PA15 |date=May 10, 2016 }}, p.15 quotation: "...&nbsp;during the early twentieth century, tobacco manufacturers virtually created the modern advertising and marketing industry as it is known today."</ref>

Worldwide spending on advertising in 2015 amounted to an estimated {{US$|529.43{{nbsp}}billion|link=yes}}.<ref name="Carat092015">{{cite web |url= http://www.carat.com/au/en/news-views/carat-predicts-positive-outlook-in-2016-with-global-growth-of-plus47/ |title= Carat Predicts Positive Outlook in 2016 with Global Growth of +4.7% |publisher= Carat |date= September 22, 2015 |access-date= September 30, 2015 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151001222501/http://www.carat.com/au/en/news-views/carat-predicts-positive-outlook-in-2016-with-global-growth-of-plus47/ |archive-date= October 1, 2015 |df= mdy-all }}</ref> Advertising's projected distribution for 2017 was 40.4% on [[Television advertisement|TV]], 33.3% on [[Digital marketing|digital]], 9% on [[Newspaper|newspapers]], 6.9% on [[Magazine|magazines]], 5.8% on [[Outdoor advertising|outdoor]], and 4.3% on [[Radio advertisement|radio]].<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/plummeting-newspaper-ad-revenue-sparks-new-wave-of-changes-1476955801 |first1=Suzanne |last1=Vranica |first2=Jack |last2=Marshall | title= Plummeting Newspaper Ad Revenue Sparks New Wave of Changes | date= October 20, 2016 | work= Wall Street Journal | url-status= live | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170311112139/https://www.wsj.com/articles/plummeting-newspaper-ad-revenue-sparks-new-wave-of-changes-1476955801 | archive-date= March 11, 2017 | df= mdy-all }}</ref> Internationally, the largest ("Big Five") [[advertising agency]] groups are [[Omnicom Group|Omnicom]], [[WPP plc|WPP]], [[Publicis]], [[The Interpublic Group of Companies|Interpublic]], and [[Dentsu]].<ref>{{cite web |last1= Parekh |first1= Rupal |first2= Kunur |last2=Patel |url= http://adage.com/article/agency-news/big-holding-firms-adland-anymore-big/236001/ |title= Not the 'Big Four' Holding Firms in Adland Anymore – Now It's the Big Five |url-access=subscription |publisher= Advertising Age |date= July 12, 2012 |access-date= January 18, 2014 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150215032454/http://adage.com/article/agency-news/big-holding-firms-adland-anymore-big/236001/ |archive-date= February 15, 2015 |df= mdy-all }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of advertising}}

[[File:Bronze printing plate for an advertisement.jpg|thumb|Bronze plate for printing an advertisement for the Liu family needle shop at [[Jinan]], [[Song dynasty]] China. It is the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.]]

[[File:Edo period advertising in Japan.jpg|thumb|[[Edo period]] LEL flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called ''Kinseitan'']]

Egyptians used [[papyrus]] to make sales messages and wall posters.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Behal|first1=Vikas|last2=Sareen|first2=Sania|year=2014|title=Guerilla marketing: a low cost marketing strategy |journal=International Journal of Management Research and Business Strategy|volume=3|via=Google Scholar}}</ref> [[Advertising campaign|Commercial messages]] and [[political campaign]] displays have been found in the ruins of [[Pompeii]] and ancient [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]. [[Lost and found]] advertising on papyrus was common in [[ancient Greece]] and [[ancient Rome]]. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian [[rock art]] paintings that date back to 4000 BC.<ref name= Bhatia>Bhatia (2000). ''Advertising in Rural India: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism'', 62+68</ref>

In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the [[Classic of Poetry]] (11th to 7th centuries BC) of bamboo flutes played to sell confectionery. Advertisement usually takes the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the [[Song dynasty]] used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with "[[Jinan]] Liu's Fine Needle Shop" and "We buy high-quality steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time" written above and below<ref>{{cite web|url=http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/graph/tcommain.htm|title=Commercial Advertising in China|access-date=August 31, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008012808/http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/graph/tcommain.htm|archive-date=October 8, 2014}}</ref> is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.<ref>Hong Liu, ''Chinese Business: Landscapes and Strategies'' (2013), p.15.</ref>

In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general population was unable to read, instead of signs that read "cobbler", "miller", "tailor", or "blacksmith", images associated with their trade would be used such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horseshoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers ([[town crier]]s) to announce their whereabouts. The first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in "Les Crieries de Paris", a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/carlin/www/docs.villeneuve.htm|title= Les Crieries de Paris|access-date= July 9, 2015|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150608094418/https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/carlin/www/docs.villeneuve.htm|archive-date= June 8, 2015|df= mdy-all}}</ref>

=== 18th-19th century: Newspaper Advertising ===
[[Image:Pears Soap 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Poster for [[Pears (soap)|Pears soap]] created under [[Thomas J. Barratt]]'s leadership, 1900. [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London]]

In the 18th century, advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after. However, [[false advertising]] and so-called "[[Quackery|quack]]" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.

In the United States, newspapers grew quickly in the first few decades of the 19th century, in part due to advertising. By 1822, the United States had more newspaper readers than any other country. About half of the content of these newspapers consisted of advertising, usually local advertising, with half of the daily newspapers in the 1810s using the word "advertiser" in their name.<ref>{{cite book|last=Howe|first=Daniel|title=What Hath God Wrought|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|pages=227–228|isbn=978-0-19-539243-2}}</ref>

[[File:Beechams Pills. Worth a guinea a Box from August 1859.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|"[[Beecham's Pills|Beechams Pills]]: Worth a guinea a box", the first [[advertising slogan]] from August 1859]]

In August 1859, British pharmaceutical firm [[Beecham Group|Beechams]] created a slogan for [[Beecham's Pills]]: "Beechams Pills: Worth a [[guinea (coin)|guinea]] a box", which is considered to be the world's first advertising slogan.<ref name="Herald"/> The Beechams adverts would appear in newspapers all over the world, helping the company become a global brand.<ref name="Herald">{{cite news |title=Anniversary of the first ad slogan |url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/17815202.issue-day-anniversary-first-ad-slogan/ |work=The Herald |date=August 5, 2019}}</ref><ref name="slogan">{{cite news |title=When Beecham put St Helens on the map |url=https://www.sthelensstar.co.uk/news/14288202.when-beecham-put-st-helens-on-the-map/ |access-date=November 5, 2023 |work=St Helen's Star}}</ref> The phrase was said to be uttered by a satisfied lady purchaser from [[St Helens, Merseyside|St Helens]], Lancashire, the founder's hometown.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ratcliffe |first1=Susan |title=Oxford Treasury of Sayings and Quotations |publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2011 |page=478}}</ref>

[[File:19th Century advertisement for Beecham's Pills.png|thumb|upright=0.7|Beecham's slogan in the ''Los Angeles Herald,''  July 20, 1893]]
In June 1836, the French newspaper ''[[La Presse (France)|La Presse]]'' was the first to include paid advertising in its pages,{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}} allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its [[Profit (economics)|profitability]] and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad – the copy, layout, and artwork – was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed when the first full-service advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded in 1869 in Philadelphia. Ayer & Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession.
<ref name="eskilson-pg58">{{Cite book |title=Graphic Design: A New History |last=Eskilson |first=Stephen J. |year=2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Connecticut |isbn=978-0-300-12011-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/graphicdesignnew00eski/page/58 58] |url=https://archive.org/details/graphicdesignnew00eski/page/58 }}</ref> Around the same time, in France, [[Charles-Louis Havas]] extended the services of his news agency, [[Havas]] to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers.<!-- INSERT ADVERTISING AGENCIES' ROLES AFTER THEY OUTGREW BEING LIMITED TO BEING BROKERS for ADVERTISEMENT SPACE IN NEWSPAPERS --><ref name="eskilson-pg58" />

=== Late 19th century: Modern Advertising ===

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern advertising, driven by [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] and the growth of consumer goods. This era saw the dawn of ad agencies, employing more cunning methods— persuasive diction and psychological tactics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norton |first=Nancy P. |date=July 1984 |title=The Making of Modern Advertising. By Daniel Pope. (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1983. ix + 340 pp. $18.95.) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-history-review/article/abs/making-of-modern-advertising-by-daniel-pope-new-york-basic-books-inc-1983-ix-340-pp-1895/2128C528ADA5106E03267826FB44EF78 |journal=Business History Review |language=en |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=290–292 |doi=10.2307/3115064 |jstor=3115064 |issn=2044-768X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Thomas J. Barratt]] of London has been called "the father of modern advertising".<ref>He was first described as such in T F G Coates, 'Mr Thomas J Barratt, "The father of modern advertising"', Modern Business, September 1908, pp. 107–15.</ref><ref name="mat">Matt Haig, ''Brand failures: the truth about the 100 biggest branding mistakes of all time'', Kogan Page Publishers, 2005, pp. 219, 266.</ref><ref name="nick">Nicholas Mirzoeff, ''The visual culture reader'', Routledge, 2002, p. 510.</ref> Working for the [[Pears (soap)|Pears soap]] company, Barratt created an effective advertising campaign for the company products, which involved the use of targeted slogans, images, and phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century.<ref name="obit">{{cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/04/27/100310554.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1914/04/27/100310554.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |title=Obituary, Thomas J. Barratt Dead: Chairman of the Firm of A. & F. Pears an Advertising Genius|work=[[The New York Times]]| page= 11 |date=April 27, 1914 |access-date=April 6, 2014}}</ref><ref name="part">{{cite book|author1=Eric Partridge|authorlink1=Eric Partridge|author2=Paul Beale|title=A Dictionary of Catch Phrases: British and American, from the Sixteenth Century to the Present Day|publisher=Routledge|year=1986|pages=164}}</ref> In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.<ref name="Endorse">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Geoffrey |title=Beauty Imagined: A History of the Global Beauty Industry |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=When Celebrity Endorsers Go Bad |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2002/02/03/when-celebrity-endorsers-go-bad/260776e6-d38c-4319-b683-eb466c499dce/|access-date=March 2, 2022 |newspaper=The Washington Post|quote=British actress Lillie Langtry became the world's first celebrity endorser when her likeness appeared on packages of Pears Soap.}}</ref>

[[File:Cocacola-5cents-1900 edit1.jpg|thumb|A [[Coca-Cola]] advertisement from the 1890s]]

Becoming the company's brand manager in 1865, listed as the first of its kind by the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising, and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that "tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different – it hits the present taste."<ref name="mat" />

[[File:Opera wafers huntleypalmers ad.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Advertising for [[Huntley & Palmers]] wafers {{Circa|1890}}]]
Enhanced advertising revenues was one effect of the Industrial Revolution in Britain.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Sam Weller Bump |url=https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/04/14/the-sam-weller-bump/ |access-date=August 25, 2021 |magazine=[[The Paris Review]]}}</ref> Thanks to the revolution and the consumers it created, by the mid-19th century [[Biscuit#Confectionery biscuits|biscuits]] and [[chocolate]] became products for the masses, and British biscuit manufacturers were among the first to introduce branding to distinguish grocery products.<ref name="V&A"/><ref name="FT">{{cite news |title=History Cook: the rise of the chocolate biscuit |url=https://www.ft.com/content/5f890020-bba6-11e8-8274-55b72926558f |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5f890020-bba6-11e8-8274-55b72926558f |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=August 25, 2021 |work=Financial Times}}</ref> One the world's first global brands, [[Huntley & Palmers]] biscuits were sold in 172 countries in 1900, and their global reach was reflected in their advertisements.<ref name="V&A">{{cite news |title=Huntley & Palmers Biscuits |url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O561034/huntley-palmers-biscuits-poster-wh-smith/huntley--palmers-biscuits-poster-wh-smith/ |access-date=August 25, 2021 |agency=[[Victoria and Albert Museum|Victoria & Albert Museum]]}}</ref>

[[File:George William Joy - The Bayswater Omnibus.jpg|thumb|[[George William Joy]]'s depiction of the interior of a late 19th century omnibus conspicuously shows the advertisements placed overhead.]]

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Advert for Guy's Tonic Wellcome L0040436.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Advertisement for Guy's Tonic in the 1900s]]
[[File:1929- Advertising revenue as percent of GDP (US).svg|thumb|right| Advertising revenue as a percent of US [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] shows a rise in audio-visual and digital advertising at the expense of print media.<ref name=BEA_20171023>{{cite web |last1=Nakamura |first1=Leonard I. (FRB) |last2=Samuels |first2=Jon (BEA) |last3=Soloveichik |first3=Rachel H. (BEA) |title=Measuring the "Free" Digital Economy Within the GDP and Productivity Accounts |url=https://www.bea.gov/index.php/system/files/papers/WP2017-9.pdf |website=SSRN.com |publisher=Social Science Research Network publishing working paper 17-37 of the Research Department, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320213029/https://www.bea.gov/index.php/system/files/papers/WP2017-9.pdf |archive-date=March 20, 2021 |page=37 (Fig. 3) |date=October 24, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Aegna Plakat.jpg|thumb|left|180px|An [[Estonian language]] advertisement about a cruise between [[Tallinn]] and [[Helsinki]] in the 1930s]]
[[File:Ad Encyclopaedia-Britannica 05-1913.jpg|thumb|right|A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'']]

As a result of massive industrialization, advertising increased dramatically in the United States. In 1919 it was 2.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in the US, and it averaged 2.2 percent of GDP between then and at least 2007, though it may have declined dramatically since the Great Recession.

Industry could not benefit from its increased productivity without a substantial increase in [[consumer spending]]. This contributed to the development of mass marketing designed to influence the population's economic behavior on a larger scale.<ref>Ewen, ''Captains of Consciousness'' (1976), p. 33. "As Ford's massive assembly line utilized 'extensive single-purpose machinery' to produce automobiles inexpensively and at a rate that dwarfed traditional methods, the costly machinery of advertising that Coolidge had described set out to produce consumers, likewise inexpensively and at a rate that dwarfed traditional methods."</ref> In the 1910s and 1920s, advertisers in the U.S. adopted the doctrine that human instincts could be targeted and harnessed – "[[sublimation (psychology)|sublimated]]" into the desire to purchase commodities.<ref>Ewen, ''Captains of Consciousness'' (1976), p. 34. "While agreeing that 'human nature is more difficult to control than material nature,' ad men spoke in specific terms of 'human instincts' which if properly understood could induce people 'to buy a given product if it was scientifically presented. If advertising copy appealed to the right instincts, the urge to buy would surely be excited'."</ref> [[Edward Bernays]], a nephew of [[Sigmund Freud]], became associated with the method and is sometimes called the founder of modern advertising and public relations.<ref>{{cite book|last=DiMaggio|first=Anthony|title=The Rise of the Tea Party: Political Discontent and Corporate Media in the Age of Obama|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfzFF5TT0tUC&pg=PA12|year=2012|publisher=NYU Press|page=12|isbn=978-1-58367-306-5|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429145930/https://books.google.com/books?id=jfzFF5TT0tUC&pg=PA12|archive-date=April 29, 2016}}</ref> Bernays claimed that:{{blockquote|[The] general principle, that men are very largely actuated by motives which they conceal from themselves, is as true of mass as of individual psychology. It is evident that the successful propagandist must understand the true motives and not be content to accept the reasons which men give for what they do.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Propaganda|url=https://archive.org/details/propaganda00bern_0|last=Bernays|first=Edward|year=1928|pages=[https://archive.org/details/propaganda00bern_0/page/52 52]}}</ref>}}In other words, selling products by appealing to the rational minds of customers (the main method used prior to Bernays) was much less effective than selling products based on the unconscious desires that Bernays felt were the true motivators of human action. "[[Sex in advertising|Sex sells]]" became a controversial issue, with techniques for titillating and enlarging the audience posing a challenge to conventional morality.<ref>Rodger Streitmatter, ''Sex sells!: The media's journey from repression to obsession'' (Basic Books, 2004).</ref><ref>Jessica Dawn Blair, et al., "[https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/jnlolletl9&div=15&id=&page= Ethics in advertising: sex sells, but should it?]" ''Journal of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues'' 9.1/2 (2006): 109+.</ref>

In the 1920s, under [[Secretary of Commerce]] [[Herbert Hoover]], the American government promoted advertising. Hoover himself delivered an address to the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World in 1925 called 'Advertising Is a Vital Force in Our National Life."<ref>{{cite book|last=Leach|first=William|title=Land of Desire|year=1993|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|page=375|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHZ6UAudSiUC&pg=375|isbn=978-0-307-76114-9|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506134502/https://books.google.com/books?id=VHZ6UAudSiUC&pg=375|archive-date=May 6, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In October 1929, the head of the U.S. [[Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce]], Julius Klein, stated "Advertising is the key to world prosperity."<ref name="Leach367">{{cite book|last=Leach|first=William|title=Land of Desire|year=1993|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|page=367|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHZ6UAudSiUC&pg=367|isbn=978-0-307-76114-9|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502152642/https://books.google.com/books?id=VHZ6UAudSiUC&pg=367|archive-date=May 2, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> This was part of the "unparalleled" collaboration between business and government in the 1920s, according to a 1933 European economic journal.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leach|first=William|title=Land of Desire|year=1993|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|page=373|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHZ6UAudSiUC&pg=373|isbn=978-0-307-76114-9|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617042943/https://books.google.com/books?id=VHZ6UAudSiUC&pg=373|archive-date=June 17, 2016}}</ref>

The tobacco companies became major advertisers in order to sell packaged cigarettes.<ref name="Brandt2009p31">Brandt (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=yybaN6j4IpEC&pg=PA31 p.31] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509171427/https://books.google.com/books?id=yybaN6j4IpEC&pg=PA31 |date=May 9, 2016 }}</ref> The tobacco companies pioneered the new advertising techniques when they hired Bernays to create positive associations with tobacco smoking.<ref name="Studlar2002p55" /><ref name="Gifford2010p15" />

Advertising was also used as a vehicle for [[cultural assimilation]], encouraging workers to exchange their traditional habits and community structure in favor of a shared "modern" lifestyle.<ref>Ewen, ''Captains of Consciousness'' (1976), pp. 68–59. "Widespread within the socially oriented literature of business in the twenties and thirties is a notion of educating people into an acceptance of the products and aesthetics of a mass-produced culture.&nbsp;... Beyond this, and perhaps more important to the consciousness of many, were the indigenous networks of social structure which generated mistrust or open opposition to corporate monopolization of culture."</ref> An important tool for influencing immigrant workers was the [[American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers]] (AAFLN). The AAFLN was primarily an advertising agency but also gained heavily centralized control over much of the immigrant press.<ref>Ewen, ''Captains of Consciousness'' (1976), pp. 62–65.</ref><ref>Petit, ''The Men and Women We Want'' (2010), pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=sTubHqECr84C&pg=PA66 66] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415132341/http://books.google.com/books?id=sTubHqECr84C&pg=PA66 |date=April 15, 2015 }}–68.</ref>
[[File:1916-skin-touch-soap-ad.jpg|thumb|1916 ''Ladies' Home Journal'' version of the famous ad by [[Helen Lansdowne Resor]] of the J. Walter Thompson Agency]]

At the turn of the 20th century, advertising was one of the few career choices for women. Since women were responsible for most household purchasing done, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a [[Sex in advertising|sexual sell]] was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "A skin you love to touch".<ref>[http://www.tvacres.com/adslogans_w.htm Advertising Slogans] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120530044539/http://www.tvacres.com/adslogans_w.htm |date=May 30, 2012 }}, [[Woodbury Soap Company]], "A skin you love to touch", [[J. Walter Thompson]] Co., 1911</ref>

In the 1920s, psychologists Walter D. Scott and [[John B. Watson]] contributed applied psychological theory to the field of advertising. Scott said, "Man has been called the reasoning animal, but he could with greater truthfulness be called the creature of suggestion. He is reasonable, but he is to a greater extent suggestible".<ref>Benjamin, L.T., & Baker, D.B. 2004. Industrial–organizational psychology: The new psychology and the business of advertising. ''From Séance to Science: A History of the Profession of Psychology in America''. 118–121. California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.</ref> He demonstrated this through his advertising technique of a direct command to the consumer.

==== Radio from the 1920s ====
[[File:1930.05.06 Advertisement for Radio Broadcast With Lisa Roma.gif|thumb|Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company, Adohr milk, and published in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' on May 6, 1930]]

In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers, followed by [[non-profit organization]]s such as schools, clubs, and civic groups who also set up their own stations.<ref name="uouynv">[[Robert W. McChesney|McChesney, Robert]], ''Educators and the Battle for Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928–35'', Rich Media, Poor Democracy, {{ISBN|0-252-02448-6}} (1999)</ref> Retailers and consumer goods manufacturers quickly recognized radio's potential to reach consumers in their homes and soon adopted advertising techniques that would allow their messages to stand out; [[slogan]]s, [[mascot]]s, and [[jingle]]s began to appear on [[radio]] in the 1920s and early [[television]] in the 1930s.<ref>Leigh, F., ''Historical Dictionary of American Radio,'' Greenwood Publishing Group, 1998 pp 7–9</ref>

The rise of mass media communications allowed manufacturers of branded goods to bypass retailers by advertising directly to consumers. This was a major paradigm shift that forced manufacturers to focus on the brand and stimulated the need for superior insights into consumer purchasing, consumption, and usage behavior; their needs, wants, and aspirations.<ref>Petty, R.D., "A History of Brand Identity Protection and Brand Marketing", in The Routledge Companion to Marketing History, D.G. Brian Jones & Mark Tadajewski (eds), Oxon, Routledge, 2016, p. 104</ref> The earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers and the genre became known as a ''[[soap opera]].''<ref>Copeland, M.A., ''Soap Opera History,'' BDD Books; 1991, {{ISBN|0792454510}}</ref> Before long, radio station owners realized they could increase advertising revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations, which could be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these ''advertising spots'', as the packets of time became known, were being sold by the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era of national radio advertising.<ref>Leigh, F., ''Historical Dictionary of American Radio,'' Greenwood Publishing Group, 1998, p.8</ref>

By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize the way in which consumers were developing personal relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense.<ref>Mildred Pierce, [http://newmediagroup.co.uk/pphistory1.htm Newmediagroup.co.uk] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206032132/http://newmediagroup.co.uk/pphistory1.htm |date=December 6, 2006 }}</ref> Advertisers began to use motivational research and [[marketing research|consumer research]] to gather insights into consumer purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon/Esso, using insights drawn research methods from psychology and cultural anthropology, led to some of the most enduring campaigns of the 20th century.<ref>Karmasin, H., "Ernest Dichter's Studies on Automobile Marketing", in Schwarzkopf, S. and Gries, R. (eds.), Ernest Dichter and Motivation Research: New Perspectives on the Making of Post-war Consumer Culture, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, pp. 109–125</ref>

==== Commercial television in the 1950s ====
In the early 1950s, the [[DuMont Television Network]] began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as [[The United States Steel Hour]]. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show – up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Samuel|first=Lawrence R.|url=|title=Brought to You By: Postwar Television Advertising and the American Dream|year=2009|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-77476-6|language=en}}</ref> The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the [[Hallmark Hall of Fame]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=November 23, 2011 |title=Slate |url=https://slate.com/culture/2011/11/hallmark-hall-of-fame-how-did-hallmark-get-into-the-tv-business-and-how-has-it-stayed-there.html }}</ref>

==== Cable television from the 1980s ====
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly [[MTV]]. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in ''for'' the advertising message, rather than it being a [[by-product]] or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, [[specialty channel]]s emerged, including channels entirely [[Shopping channel|devoted to advertising]], such as [[QVC]], [[Home Shopping Network]], and [[ShopTV Canada]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 1, 1996|title=A brief history of the future of advertising: Visions and lessons from integrated marketing communications|journal=Journal of Business Research|language=en|volume=37|issue=3|pages=135–138|doi=10.1016/S0148-2963(96)00062-8|issn=0148-2963|last1=Bearden|first1=William O.|last2=Madden|first2=Charles S.}}</ref>

==== Internet from the 1990s ====
{{Main|Online advertising}}

With the advent of the [[ad server]], online advertising grew, contributing to the "[[dot-com bubble|dot-com]]" boom of the 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Senn|first1=James A.|title=Electronic Commerce Beyond the "dot com" Boom|journal=National Tax Journal|date=2000|volume=53|issue=3, Part 1|pages=373–383|doi=10.17310/ntj.2000.3.04|s2cid=42028642|language=en|url=https://www.ntanet.org/NTJ/53/3/ntj-v53n03p373-84-electronic-commerce-beyond-dot.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ntanet.org/NTJ/53/3/ntj-v53n03p373-84-electronic-commerce-beyond-dot.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live|issn = 0028-0283}}</ref> Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from [[coupon]]s to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, some websites, including the [[Web search engine|search engine]] [[Google]], changed [[online advertising]] by personalizing ads based on web browsing behavior. This has led to other similar efforts and an increase in [[interactive advertising]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ko|first1=Hanjun|last2=Cho|first2=Chang-Hoan|last3=Roberts|first3=Marilyn S.|title=Internet Uses and Gratifications: A Structural Equation Model of Interactive Advertising|journal=Journal of Advertising|date=June 1, 2005|volume=34|issue=2|pages=57–59|doi=10.1080/00913367.2005.10639191|s2cid=144435476|issn=0091-3367}}</ref> Online advertising introduced new opportunities for targeting and engagement, with platforms like [[Google]] and [[Facebook]] leading the charge. This shift has significantly altered the advertising landscape, making digital advertising a dominant force in the industry.<ref>Hanafizadeh, P., & Behboudi, M. (2012). "Online advertising: An empirical study of web advertising dimensions." ''Information Systems Frontiers'', 14(2), 301-313. DOI: 10.1007/s10796-010-9270-6.</ref>

The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media since 1925. In 1925, the main advertising media in America were newspapers, magazines, signs on [[Tram|streetcars]], and outdoor [[poster]]s. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media; by 2017, the balance between broadcast and online advertising had shifted, with online spending exceeding broadcast.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fry|first=Erika|date=February 1, 2018|title=Super Bowl Ads Can't Save TV|url=<!--print edition; url not determined-->|journal=Fortune|type=mailed print edition|pages=12|issn=0015-8259|quote=Last year, for the first time, global ad spending on digital platforms exceeded the dolloars spent on TV – by a solid $31 billion margin.}}</ref> Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower – about 2.4 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galbithink.org/ad-spending.htm |title=Annual U.S. Advertising Expenditure Since 1919 |publisher=Galbithink.org |date=September 14, 2008 |access-date=April 20, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090401205848/http://galbithink.org/ad-spending.htm| archive-date= April 1, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>

[[Guerrilla marketing]] involves unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. This type of advertising is unpredictable, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bigat|first1=Ekrem Cetin|title=Guerrilla Advertisement and Marketing|journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|date=January 1, 2012|volume=51|pages=1022–1029|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.08.281|doi-access=free}}</ref> This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via [[product placement]], having consumers vote through text messages, and various campaigns utilizing [[social network service]]s such as [[Facebook]] or [[Twitter]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Culotta|first1=Aron|last2=Cutler|first2=Jennifer|title=Mining Brand Perceptions from Twitter Social Networks|journal=Marketing Science|date=February 22, 2016|volume=35|issue=3|pages=343–362|doi=10.1287/mksc.2015.0968|issn=0732-2399}}</ref>

The advertising [[business model]] has also been adapted in recent years.{{when|date=December 2014}}{{clarify |date=January 2017 |reason= Which advertising model? Specify}} In [[media for equity]], advertising is not sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for [[equity (finance)|equity]]. If the company grows and is sold, the media companies receive cash for their shares.

[[Domain name]] registrants (usually those who register and renew domains as an investment) sometimes [[domain parking|"park" their domains]] and allow advertising companies to place ads on their sites in return for per-click payments. These ads are typically driven by pay per click search engines like Google or Yahoo, but ads can sometimes be placed directly on targeted domain names through a domain lease or by making contact with the registrant of a domain name that describes a product. Domain name registrants are generally easy to identify through [[WHOIS]] records that are publicly available at registrar websites.<ref name=icannwhois>{{cite web |url=http://whois.icann.org/ |title=ICANN Whois Database |publisher=ICANN.org |access-date=December 15, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220121557/http://whois.icann.org/ |archive-date=December 20, 2014  }}</ref>

== Classification ==
Advertising may be categorized in a variety of ways, including by style, target audience, geographic scope, medium, or purpose.<ref name="Bovee">Courtland L. Bovee, William F. Arens. Contemporary Advertising, Fourth Edition. Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1992.</ref>{{rp|9–15}} For example, in print advertising, classification by style can include [[display ad]]vertising (ads with design elements sold by size) vs. classified advertising (ads without design elements sold by the word or line). Advertising may be local, national or global. An ad campaign may be directed toward consumers or to businesses. The purpose of an ad may be to raise awareness (brand advertising), or to elicit an immediate sale (direct response advertising). The term '''above the line''' ([[ATL & BTL Agencies|ATL]]) is used for advertising involving mass media; more targeted forms of advertising and promotion are referred to as '''below the line''' (BTL).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-belowtheline-advertising-10099.html|title=Examples of Below-the-Line Advertising|work=Houston Chronicle|access-date=June 14, 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Marketing Book |last=Baker |first=Michael |date=2003 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=0585459525 |edition= 5th |location=Oxford |pages=424, 425 |oclc=52732761}}</ref> The two terms date back to 1954 when [[Procter & Gamble]] began paying their advertising agencies differently from other promotional agencies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business-observer/why-we-no-longer-speak-of-above-and-below-the-line-advertising_122677?profile=0 |title=Why we no longer speak of above and below-the-line advertising |website=jamaicaobserver.com |date=January 17, 2018 |access-date=March 4, 2019 |archive-date=March 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043447/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business-observer/why-we-no-longer-speak-of-above-and-below-the-line-advertising_122677?profile=0 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the 2010s, as advertising technology developed, a new term, '''through the line''' (TTL) began to come into use, referring to integrated [[advertising campaigns]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.entrepreneurmag.co.za/advice/marketing/marketing-tactics/through-the-line-marketing-lets-have-that-chat/ |title=Through The Line Marketing – Let's Have That Chat |website=entrepreneurmag.co.za |date=November 5, 2013 |access-date=March 4, 2019 |archive-date=March 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306050412/https://www.entrepreneurmag.co.za/advice/marketing/marketing-tactics/through-the-line-marketing-lets-have-that-chat/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Marketing Book |last=Baker |first=Michael |date=2003 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=0585459525 |edition= 5th |location=Oxford |pages=425, 426 |oclc=52732761}}</ref>

=== Traditional media ===
[[File:Esso Standard Oil Company commercial 1938.webm|thumbtime=2|thumb|A 1938 cinema advertisement for [[Esso]] oil]]
[[File:Street Advertising (5795814747).jpg|thumb|upright|Advertising man pasting a bill for [[Madame Tussauds]], London in 1877]]
Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include [[Mural|wall paintings]], [[billboards]], [[street furniture]] components, printed flyers and [[rack card]]s, radio, cinema and television adverts, [[web banner]]s, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web [[Pop-up ad|popups]], [[skywriting]], bus stop benches, [[human billboard]]s and [[forehead advertising]], magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to airplanes ("[[logojet]]s"), [[In-flight advertising|in-flight advertisements]] on [[Tray-table|seatback tray tables]] or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and [[cabvision|passenger screens]], musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, [[Shopping cart|shopping cart handles]] (grabertising), the opening section of [[Streaming media|streaming]] audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any situation in which an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.<ref>{{cite web|title=Commercial Acting – Science of the Business|url=https://socialbilitty.com/2017/02/commercial-acting/|date=February 17, 2017|publisher=Socialbilitty|access-date=February 18, 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218125757/https://socialbilitty.com/2017/02/commercial-acting/|archive-date=February 18, 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Share of global adspend<ref>{{cite web |title= Executive summary: Advertising Expenditure Forecasts |date= December 2015 |publisher= [[ZenithOptimedia]] |url= http://www.zenithoptimedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Adspend-forecasts-December-2015-executive-summary.pdf |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160804010556/http://www.zenithoptimedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Adspend-forecasts-December-2015-executive-summary.pdf |archive-date= August 4, 2016 |df= mdy-all }}</ref>
|-
! Medium !! 2015 !! 2017 {{Disputed inline|date=January 2017}}
|-
| [[Television advertisement]] || 37.7% || 34.8%
|-
| Desktop [[online advertising]] || 19.9% || 18.2%
|-
| [[Mobile advertising]] || 9.2% || 18.4%
|-
| [[Newspaper#Advertising|Newspaper]] || 12.8% || 10.1%
|-
| [[Magazine]]s || 6.5% || 5.3%
|-
| [[Outdoor advertising]] || 6.8% || 6.6%
|-
| [[Radio advertisement]] || 6.5% || 5.9%
|-
| [[Film industry|Cinema]] || 0.6% || 0.7%
|}

[[File:Television commercial 1948.JPG|thumb|A television commercial being filmed in 1948]]
;[[Television advertisement|Television]]: Television advertising is one of the most expensive types of advertising; networks charge large amounts for commercial [[Broadcasting|airtime]] during popular events. The annual [[Super Bowl]] [[American football|football]] game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television – with an audience of over 108 million and studies showing that 50% of those only tuned in to see the advertisements.<ref name="A Super Bowl Ad Really Is Worth $4 Million" /><ref>{{cite magazine|title = Yes, A Super Bowl Ad Really Is Worth $4 Million|magazine = Forbes|date = January 29, 2014|url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171002055356/https://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/|archive-date = October 2, 2017|df = mdy-all}}</ref> During the 2014 edition of this game, the average thirty-second ad cost US$4 million, and $8 million was charged for a 60-second spot.<ref name="A Super Bowl Ad Really Is Worth $4 Million">{{cite magazine |title=A Super Bowl Ad Really Is Worth $4 Million |magazine=Forbes |date=January 29, 2014 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002055356/https://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/ |archive-date=October 2, 2017  }}</ref> [[Virtual advertising|Virtual advertisements]] may be inserted into regular programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops<ref name="McCarthy">{{cite web |last=McCarthy |first=Michael |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/2002-10-17-fake-ads_x.htm |title=Digitally inserted ads pop up more in sports |publisher=usatoday.Com |date=October 17, 2002 |access-date=April 20, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327010635/http://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/2002-10-17-fake-ads_x.htm |archive-date=March 27, 2009  }}</ref> or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.<ref name="Keith Mcarthur">{{cite news |last=Mcarthur |first=Keith |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20060315.RVIRTUAL15/TPStory/Business |title=Business |publisher=globeandmail.com |access-date=April 20, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316150845/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20060315.RVIRTUAL15/TPStory/Business/ |archive-date=March 16, 2006 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> Virtual billboards may be inserted into the background where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events. [[Virtual Product Placement|Virtual product placement]] is also possible.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/02/business/media/advertisings-twilight-zone-that-signpost-up-ahead-may-be-a.html|title=Advertising's Twilight Zone: That Signpost Up Ahead May Be a Virtual Product|first=Sam|last=Lubell|date=October 15, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709120431/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/02/business/media/advertisings-twilight-zone-that-signpost-up-ahead-may-be-a.html|archive-date=July 9, 2017|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name="Welcome to E-Commerce Times">{{cite web |url=http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/48956.html |title=Welcome to E-Commerce Times |date=February 23, 2006 |publisher=Ecommercetimes.com |access-date=April 20, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303233228/http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/48956.html |archive-date=March 3, 2009  }}</ref> An [[infomercial]] is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The name blends the words "information" and "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an [[impulse purchase]], so that the target sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised [[toll-free telephone number]] or website. Infomercials describe and often demonstrate products, and commonly have testimonials from customers and [[advertising professional|industry professionals]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Braxton|first=Greg|title="Latest Amazing Discovery: The Un-Infomercial : Television: Storymercials cost more to shoot and don't look like infomercials – they look like real shows. The soft-sell approach is more appealing to corporate America"|publisher=The Los Angeles Times.}}</ref>

;Radio: [[Radio]] advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found on air, and also online. According to [[Arbitron]], radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S. population.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The radio industry's oldest on line magazine..featurning Radio Superstar morning show network|url=http://newradio.com/NRS/31192|access-date=November 8, 2021|website=newradio.com|archive-date=November 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108092315/http://newradio.com/NRS/31192|url-status=dead}}</ref>

;Online: Online advertising is a form of [[Promotion (marketing)|promotion]] that uses the Internet and [[World Wide Web]] for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on [[search engine results page]]s, [[banner ad]]s, in [[pay per click]] text ads, [[rich media]] ads, [[Social network advertising]], [[online classified advertising]], [[advertising network]]s and [[e-mail marketing]], including [[e-mail spam]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Semerádová|first1=Tereza|url=|title=Impacts of Online Advertising on Business Performance|last2=Weinlich|first2=Petr|year=2019|publisher=IGI Global|isbn=978-1-7998-1618-8|language=en}}</ref> A newer form of online advertising is [[Native advertising|Native Ads]]; they go in a website's news feed and are supposed to improve user experience by being less intrusive. However, some people argue this practice is deceptive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalmarketer.com/what-is-native-advertising/|title=What is Native Advertising?|work=Digital Marketer|date=June 30, 2014|access-date=September 8, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906104032/http://www.digitalmarketer.com/what-is-native-advertising/|archive-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref>

;Domain names: Domain name advertising is most commonly done through pay per click [[web search engine]]s, however, advertisers often lease space directly on domain names that generically describe their products. When an Internet user visits a website by typing a domain name directly into their web browser, this is known as "direct navigation", or "type in" web traffic. Although many Internet users search for ideas and products using search engines and mobile phones, a large number of users around the world still use the address bar. They will type a keyword into the address bar such as "geraniums" and add ".com" to the end of it. Sometimes they will do the same with ".org" or a country-code Top Level Domain (TLD such as ".co.uk" for the United Kingdom or ".ca" for Canada). When Internet users type in a generic keyword and add .com or another [[top-level domain]] (TLD) ending, it produces a targeted sales lead.<ref name=targetedtraffic>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1nyTNnVSGAC&q=what%20is%20targeted%20domain%20name%20traffic&pg=PT61 |title=Get Rich Click!: The Ultimate Guide to Making Money on the Internet |publisher=Free Press, Simon and Schuster |last=Ostrofsky |first=Marc |date=2011 |access-date=December 15, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415132523/https://books.google.com/books?id=J1nyTNnVSGAC&pg=PT61#v=onepage&q=targeted%20domain%20name%20traffic |archive-date=April 15, 2015  |isbn=978-1451668391 }}</ref> Domain name advertising was originally developed by Oingo (later known as Applied Semantics), one of [[Google]]'s early acquisitions.<ref name=oingo>{{cite web |url=http://allthingsd.com/20130422/ten-years-later-lessons-from-the-applied-semantics-google-acquisition/ |title=Ten Years Later – Lessons from the Applied Semantics Google Acquisition |publisher=Allthingsd.com |last=Elbaz |first=Eytan |date=April 22, 2013 |access-date=December 15, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214035929/http://allthingsd.com/20130422/ten-years-later-lessons-from-the-applied-semantics-google-acquisition/ |archive-date=December 14, 2014  }}</ref>

;[[Product placement]]s: This is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'', where [[Tom Cruise]]'s character John Anderton owns a phone with the ''[[Nokia]]'' logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the ''[[Bulgari]]'' logo. Another example of advertising in film is in ''[[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]]'', where main character played by [[Will Smith]] mentions his ''[[Converse (shoe company)|Converse]]'' shoes several times, calling them "classics", because the film is set far in the future. ''I, Robot'' and ''[[Spaceballs]]'' also showcase futuristic cars with the ''[[Audi]]'' and ''[[Mercedes-Benz]]'' logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. [[Cadillac]] chose to advertise in the movie ''[[The Matrix Reloaded]]'', which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for [[Omega SA|Omega Watches]], [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[VAIO]], [[BMW]] and [[Aston Martin]] cars are featured in recent [[James Bond]] films, most notably ''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]''. In "[[Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer]]", the main transport vehicle shows a large [[Dodge]] logo on the front. ''[[Blade Runner]]'' includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a [[Coca-Cola]] billboard.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

;Print: Print advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. One form of print advertising is [[classified advertising]], which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad paid by the word or line. Another form of print advertising is the display ad, which is generally a larger ad with design elements that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.<ref name="Bovee" />{{rp|14}}

;Outdoor:
[[File:London , Piccadilly Circus looking up Shaftsbury Ave , circa 1949 ,Kodachrome by Chalmers Butterfield.jpg|thumb|250px|Outdoor advertisements, such as [[Shaftesbury Avenue]], London {{Circa|1949}} pictured here, are usually placed in busy locations.]]

[[File:Aditya Enclave - Ameerpet - Hyderabad.jpg|thumb|235px|Hoardings as seen on commercial buildings in [[Hyderabad|Hyderabad, India]]]]
:[[Billboard]]s, also known as hoardings in some parts of the world, are large structures located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large numbers of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums. The form known as street advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products such as [[Reverse Graffiti]], [[air dancer]]s and 3D pavement advertising, for getting brand messages out into public spaces.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Nelson|first1=Richard|title=Outdoor Advertising (RLE Advertising)|last2=Sykes|first2=Anthony|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-66930-9|language=en}}</ref> Sheltered outdoor advertising combines outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile, structures ([[tents]]) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space aims to exert a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoors, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.<ref name=":0" /> [[Mobile billboard]]s are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being [[Backlight|backlit]], and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: target advertising, one-day and long-term campaigns, conventions, sporting events, store openings and similar promotional events, and big advertisements from smaller companies.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Clarkes on Belmont.jpg|thumb|upright|An advertisement for a diner. Such signs are common on storefronts.]]
;Point-of-sale: In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters (a.k.a. POP – point of purchase display), eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kotler|first1=Philip|title=Marketing Management|last2=Keller|first2=Kevin Lane|date=2012|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0-13-210292-6|language=en}}</ref>

;Novelties: Advertising printed on small tangible items such as coffee mugs, T-shirts, pens, bags, and such is known as [[Novelty item|novelty advertising]]. Some printers specialize in printing novelty items, which can then be distributed directly by the advertiser, or items may be distributed as part of a cross-promotion, such as ads on fast food containers. {{citation needed| date= January 2017}}

;Celebrity endorsements: Advertising in which a celebrity endorses a product or brand leverages celebrity power, fame, money, and popularity to gain recognition for their products or to promote specific stores' or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however; one mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the [[public relations]] of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer [[Michael Phelps]]' contract with [[Kellogg's]] was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Macur|first=Juliet|date=February 6, 2009|title=Phelps Disciplined Over Marijuana Pipe Incident|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/06/sports/othersports/06phelps.html|access-date=November 8, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Celebrities such as [[Britney Spears]] have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, and Toyota.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strunck|first=Michael|title=Celebrity Endorsement: The Key Success Factors of Brand Endorsers|publisher=LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing|year=2011|isbn=978-3844301175}}</ref>

;[[Aerial advertising|Aerial]]: Using aircraft, [[Balloon (aircraft)|balloons]] or [[airship]]s to create or display advertising media. [[Skywriting]] is a notable example.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Allegiant blueman md80 (cropped).jpg|thumb|An [[Allegiant Air]] aircraft in the special [[Blue Man Group]] livery]]
[[File:Zeppelin NT N07 (D-LZFN), Friedrichshafen.jpg|thumb|A [[Zeppelin NT]] (D-LZFN) of [[Friedrichshafen]] used for advertisement]]

=== New media approaches ===
A new advertising approach is known as advanced advertising, which is [[data]]-driven advertising, using large quantities of data, precise measuring tools and precise targeting.<ref>[https://www.adweek.com/tv-video/advanced-advertising-is-delivering-more-data-better-targeting-but-what-else/ Advanced Advertising Is Delivering More Data, Better Targeting … but What Else?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327192303/https://www.adweek.com/tv-video/advanced-advertising-is-delivering-more-data-better-targeting-but-what-else/ |date=March 27, 2019 }} Published by adweek.com on April 19, 2018, retrieved March 27, 2019</ref> Advanced advertising also makes it easier for companies which sell ad space to attribute customer purchases to the ads they display or broadcast.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lafayette |first1=Jon |title=Attribution Data Points to TV Ads Driving More Sales |url=https://www.nexttv.com/news/attribution-data-points-tv-ads-driving-more-sales |website=NextTV |access-date=December 4, 2021 |date=March 26, 2018}}</ref>

Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward the usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like [[digital video recorders]] (DVRs) such as [[TiVo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/survey-research/how-americans-get-news/|title=How Americans get their news|date=March 17, 2014|work=American Press Institute|access-date=December 14, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113113347/http://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/survey-research/how-americans-get-news/|archive-date=November 13, 2015}}</ref>

Online advertising began with unsolicited bulk e-mail advertising known as "[[e-mail spam]]". Spam has been a problem for e-mail users since 1978.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adpushup.com/blog/the-history-of-online-advertising/|title=The History of Online Advertising|access-date=April 28, 2016|first=Ankit|last=Oberoi|website=AdPush|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425171749/http://www.adpushup.com/blog/the-history-of-online-advertising/|archive-date=April 25, 2016}}</ref> As new online communication channels became available, advertising followed. The first banner ad appeared on the World Wide Web in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mashable.com/2013/08/09/first-banner-ad|website=Mashable|title=This is the World's First Banner Ad|first=Todd|last=Wasserman|date=August 9, 2013|access-date=April 28, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421022220/http://mashable.com/2013/08/09/first-banner-ad/|archive-date=April 21, 2016}}</ref> Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

In online display advertising, display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. The display is not only used for generating awareness, it is used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear 'call to action'.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

As the mobile phone became a new mass medium in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Brief History of Science with Levity|last=Bennet|first=Mike|year=2015|isbn=978-1784622954|page=301|publisher=Troubador Publishing }}</ref>{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} [[mobile advertising]] followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2 billion and providers such as [[Admob]] delivered billions of mobile ads.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, [[Multimedia Messaging Service]] picture and video messages, advergames and various [[engagement marketing]] campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the [[2D barcode]], which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SHAPING THE FUTURE MOBILE INFORMATION SOCIETY: THE CASE OF JAPAN |url=https://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/futuremobile/general/casestudies/JapancaseLS1.pdf |website=www.itu.int |access-date=March 14, 2024 |archive-date=March 14, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314103412/https://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/futuremobile/general/casestudies/JapancaseLS1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster [[rocket]]s and the [[International Space Station]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Gail |title=Mass Commnunication and Journalism |date=2019 |publisher=EDTECH |isbn=978-1839472060}}</ref>

Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can include personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "[[Xerox]]" = "[[photocopier]]", "[[Kleenex]]" = [[Facial tissue|tissue]], "[[Vaseline]]" = [[petroleum jelly]], "[[The Hoover Company|Hoover]]" = [[vacuum cleaner]], and "[[Band-Aid]]" = [[adhesive bandage]]). However, some companies{{which|date=December 2014}} oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a [[generic trademark]] – turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Harvard Law School|title=Overview of Trademark Law|url=http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/metaschool/fisher/domain/tm.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115150952/http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/metaschool/fisher/domain/tm.htm|archive-date=January 15, 2010}} "Under some circumstances, terms that are not originally generic can become generic over time (a process called "genericity"), and thus become unprotected."</ref> {{Disputed inline|date=January 2017}}

Early in its life, [[The CW]] aired short programming breaks called "Content Wraps", to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were [[Herbal Essences]], [[Crest (toothpaste)|Crest]], [[Guitar Hero II]], [[CoverGirl]], and [[Toyota]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB115811168010161509|title=CW Will Try A New Ad Idea: 'Content Wraps'|last=Steinberg|first=Brian|date=September 13, 2006|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|access-date=August 23, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warnerbros.com/news/press-releases/warner-bros-television-group-cw-and-toyota-launch-%E2%80%9Csmallville-legends-justice-and-doom%E2%80%9D|title=Warner Bros. Television Group, The CW And Toyota Launch "Smallville Legends: Justice And Doom," A Marketing Campaign For The Hit Series "Smallville"|website=Warner Bros. |access-date=August 23, 2019}}</ref>

A new promotion concept has appeared, "ARvertising", advertising on [[augmented reality]] technology.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pepsi's bus stop ad in London might be the best use of augmented reality yet|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/3/25/5545842/pepsi-bus-stop-ad-augmented-reality|work=Blippar|date=March 25, 2014|publisher=The Verge, Jacob Kastrenakes|access-date=March 25, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325205500/http://www.theverge.com/2014/3/25/5545842/pepsi-bus-stop-ad-augmented-reality|archive-date=March 25, 2014}}</ref>

Controversy exists on the effectiveness of [[subliminal message|subliminal advertising]] (see [[Brainwashing|mind control]]), and the pervasiveness of mass messages ([[propaganda]]).

=== Rise in new media ===
[[File:Naa newspaper ad revenue.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|
US newspaper advertising revenue, Newspaper Association of America published data<ref name=NAAdata>{{cite web
|title=Trends & Numbers
|date=March 14, 2012
|publisher=[[Newspaper Association of America]]
|access-date=September 18, 2012
|url=http://www.spotlightlocal.co.uk/annual-newspaper-ad-expenditures-newspaper-association-of-america/
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218194728/http://www.spotlightlocal.co.uk/annual-newspaper-ad-expenditures-newspaper-association-of-america/
|archive-date=December 18, 2014

}}</ref>]]

With the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Pop-up, [[Adobe Flash|Flash]], banner, pop-under, [[advergaming]], and email advertisements (all of which are often unwanted or spam in the case of email) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009, mobile and Internet advertising grew by 18% and 9% respectively, while older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers).{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} Between 2008 and 2014, U.S. newspapers lost more than half their print advertising revenue.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Schwartz|first1=Jason|title=Will John Henry Save the Globe?|url=https://www.bostonmagazine.com/|magazine=Boston Magazine|date=March 2014|page=133}}</ref>

=== Niche marketing ===
Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the [[niche market]] using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of the [[long tail]], advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest [[mass market]] audience possible.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined,{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, [[Comcast Spotlight]] is one such advertiser employing this method in their [[video on demand]] menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice, from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.<ref>[http://www.comcastspotlight.com/sites/Default.aspx?pageid=7608&siteid=62&subnav=3 "Interactive – VOD"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326200208/http://www.comcastspotlight.com/sites/Default.aspx?pageid=7608&siteid=62&subnav=3 |date=March 26, 2009 }} "Comcast Spotlight website". Retrieved October 5, 2006.</ref>
Niche marketing could also be helped by bringing the issue of color into advertisements. Different colors play major roles when it comes to marketing strategies, for example, seeing the blue can promote a sense of calmness and gives a sense of security which is why many social networks such as Facebook use blue in their logos.
[[Google AdSense]] is an example of niche marketing. Google calculates the primary purpose of a website and adjusts ads accordingly; it uses keywords on the page (or even in emails) to find the general ideas of topics disused and places ads that will most likely be clicked on by viewers of the email account or website visitors.

=== Crowdsourcing ===
{{Main|Crowdsourcing}}

The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of [[user-generated]] advertisements. User-generated ads are created by people, as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, often resulting from brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of [[PepsiCo]] held the "Crash the Super Bowl" contest, allowing people to create their own [[Doritos]] commercials.<ref name="Advertising Age">{{cite news |url=http://adage.com/SuperBowlBuyers/ |title=Who's Buying What at Super Bowl 2007 |publisher=Advertising Age |access-date=May 10, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218070122/http://adage.com/SuperBowlBuyers/ |archive-date=February 18, 2010  }}</ref> [[Chevrolet]] held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.<ref name="Advertising Age" /> Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the [[USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter]] as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/09/business/media/09adco.html |title=Do-It-Yourself Super Ads |newspaper=New York Times |date=February 8, 2010 |access-date=May 10, 2010 |first=Stuart |last=Elliott |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217050431/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/09/business/media/09adco.html |archive-date=February 17, 2010  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/admeter/2009admeter.htm |title='Two nobodies from nowhere' craft winning Super Bowl ad |newspaper=USA Today |date=December 31, 2009 |access-date=May 10, 2010 |first=Bruce |last=Horovitz |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091227030845/http://www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/admeter/2009admeter.htm |archive-date=December 27, 2009  }}</ref> Another example of companies using crowdsourcing successfully is the beverage company [[Jones Soda]] that encourages consumers to participate in the label design themselves.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://adage.com/article/digitalnext/crowdsourcing/132873/ |title=Crowdsourcing: Everything Old Is New Again, and Again |website=adage.com |date=November 26, 2008 |access-date=March 4, 2019}}</ref>

This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google, [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[The Hershey Company|Hershey's]], [[General Mills]], [[Microsoft]], [[NBC Universal]], Zinio, and [[Mini Cooper]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=34241909|title=Zooppa.com, Inc.: Private Company Information |website=www.bloomberg.com|access-date=April 30, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019210743/https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=34241909|archive-date=October 19, 2017}}</ref> Crowdsourcing remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.imediaconnection.com/content/9521.asp |title=Are Consumer-Generated Ads Here to Stay? |publisher=iMediaConnection |date=May 10, 2006 |access-date=May 10, 2010|first=Robert|last=Moskowitz| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100426103023/http://www.imediaconnection.com/content/9521.asp| archive-date= April 26, 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref>

=== Globalization ===
{{Main|Global marketing}}

Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For [[Global marketing|global advertisers]], there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing [[economies of scale]] in the creative process, maximizing local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company's speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.<ref>Global marketing Management, 2004, pp. 13–8</ref>

Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how [[economies of scale]] are maximized. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. [[Market research]] measures, such as [[Wikt:flow of attention|Flow of Attention]], [[Wikt:flow of emotion|Flow of Emotion]] and [[Wikt:branding moment|branding moments]] provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.<ref>Young, p.131</ref>

=== Foreign public messaging ===
{{See also|Soft power|International tourism advertising}}

Foreign governments,{{which|date=December 2014}} particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's [[Perception management|desired international public perception]]. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates airline]] ([[Dubai]]), [[Singapore Airlines]] (Singapore), [[Qatar Airways]] ([[Qatar]]), [[China Airlines]] ([[Taiwan]]/[[Republic of China]]), and [[Air China]] (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions.

=== Diversification ===
In the realm of [[advertising agencies]], continued industry diversification has seen observers note that "big global clients don't need big global agencies any more".<ref>{{cite web |last=Howard |first=Theresa |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/companies/management/2005-10-09-goodson-profile_x.htm |title=USA Today, October 9, 2005 |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=October 10, 2005 |access-date=April 20, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327010633/http://www.usatoday.com/money/companies/management/2005-10-09-goodson-profile_x.htm |archive-date=March 27, 2009  }}</ref> This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business [[TAXI (advertising agency)|TAXI]] and [[SMART (advertising agency)|SMART]] in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".<ref>{{cite magazine
 |url = https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/12/12/8363132/index.htm
 |title = Madison Ave. Lights Up
 |first = Devin
 |last = Leonard
 |magazine = [[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]
 |date = December 12, 2005
|url-status = live
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090606210859/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/12/12/8363132/index.htm
 |archive-date = June 6, 2009
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref>

=== New technology ===
The ability to record shows on [[digital video recorder]]s (such as TiVo) allow watchers to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded [[box set]]s are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are '''sold''', means the company will receive additional profits from these sets.

To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like [[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]. Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected [[EPG|program guides]]s (EPGs), advertising on companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating [[mobile apps]] for TV programs. Additionally, some like brands have opted for [[social television]] sponsorship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com/2011/05/09/survivor-jeff-probst-says-product-placement-is-here-to-stay/|title=Reality TV|website=realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419064602/http://realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com/2011/05/09/survivor-jeff-probst-says-product-placement-is-here-to-stay/|archive-date=April 19, 2015}}</ref>

The emerging technology of [[drone display]]s has recently been used for advertising purposes.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2016/11/intel-launches-500-drones-into-sky-and-breaks-world-record-in-spectacular-style-449886| title = Intel launches 500 drones into sky and breaks world record in spectacular style| date = November 4, 2016}}</ref>

=== Education ===
In recent years there have been several media literacy initiatives, and more specifically concerning advertising, that seek to empower citizens in the face of media advertising campaigns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Adams|first1=Britt|last2=Schellens|first2=Tammy|last3=Valcke|first3=Martin|date=2017|title=Promoting Adolescents' Moral Advertising Literacy in Secondary Education|journal=Comunicar|language=es|volume=25|issue=52|pages=93–103|doi=10.3916/c52-2017-09|issn=1134-3478|doi-access=free|hdl=10272/14091|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

[[Advertising education]] has become popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} A unique model for teaching advertising is the [[student-run advertising agency]], where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.<ref>{{Cite book
 |url = http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED351711&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED351711
 |title = Student-Run Advertising Agency: A Showcase for Student Work.
 |first = James
 |last = Avery
 |date = August 1, 1992
 |url-status = live
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090724163231/http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true
 |archive-date = July 24, 2009
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> Organizations such as the [[American Advertising Federation]] establish companies with students to create these campaigns.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

== Purposes ==
Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The purpose of advertising is to inform the consumers about their product and convince customers that a company's services or products are the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the business, and to hold existing customers.<ref>{{cite book|title = How to start and succeed in a business of your own |first=John| last=Taylor| year = 1978| page=293}}</ref>

=== Sales promotions and brand loyalty ===
Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, and to jump start sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.<ref>Altstiel, Tom, and Jean Grow. Advertising Strategy: Creative Tactics From the Outside/In. CA: Sage Publication Inc. 2006. Print.</ref>

==Criticisms==
{{Main|Criticism of advertising}}
{{see also|Racial stereotyping in advertising}}
[[File:Ballet Star Kathryn Lee advertises Camel cigarettes, 1948.jpg|thumb|''"More Doctors Smoke Camels than Any Other Cigarette"'' [[Cigarette advertising|advertisement]] for [[Camel (cigarette)|Camel]] cigarettes in the 1940s]]
While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth,<ref name="Leach367" /> it is not without social costs. [[E-mail spam|Unsolicited commercial e-mail]] and other forms of [[Spam (electronic)|spam]] have become so prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on [[internet service provider]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://interviews.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=03/03/03/1528247&tid=111 |title=Slashdot &#124; ISP Operator Barry Shein Answers Spam Questions |publisher=Interviews.slashdot.org |date=March 3, 2003 |access-date=April 20, 2009 |url-status=live
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813200327/http://interviews.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=03%2F03%2F03%2F1528247&tid=111 |archive-date=August 13, 2009  }}</ref> Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.<ref>{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416200521/http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/parents/marketing/marketers_target_kids.cfm|url=http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/parents/marketing/marketers_target_kids.cfm
 |archive-date=April 16, 2009 |title=How Marketers Target Kids |access-date=January 18, 2014}}</ref> This increasing difficulty in limiting exposure to specific audiences can result in negative backlash for advertisers.<ref>{{Cite journal
 |title=Influence of gender stereotypes on advertising offensiveness and attitude toward advertising in general
 |journal=International Journal of Advertising}}</ref> In tandem with these criticisms, the advertising industry has seen low approval rates in surveys and negative cultural portrayals.<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Cohen |first1=Andrew C. |last2=Dromi |first2=Shai M.
|title=Advertising morality: maintaining moral worth in a stigmatized profession
|journal=Theory & Society |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=175–206 |doi=10.1007/s11186-018-9309-7
|year=2018 |s2cid=49319915
|url=http://osf.io/h6kvu/|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2021 study of TV advertising found that for more than 80% of brands, advertising had a negative return on investment.<ref>{{Cite journal
|last1=Shapiro |first1=Bradley T. |last2=Hitsch |first2=Günter J. |last3=Tuchman |first3=Anna E.
|date=2021
|title=TV Advertising Effectiveness and Profitability: Generalizable Results From 288 Brands
|journal=Econometrica |language=en |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=1855–1879 |doi=10.3982/ECTA17674 |s2cid=233474042 |issn=1468-0262|doi-access=free }}</ref> Unsolicited ads have been criticized as [[attention theft]].<ref name="Wired">{{cite news |last1=Wu |first1=Tim |authorlink=Tim Wu
 |title=The Crisis of Attention Theft—Ads That Steal Your Time for Nothing in Return
 |url=https://www.wired.com/2017/04/forcing-ads-captive-audience-attention-theft-crime
 |access-date=August 9, 2021 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=April 14, 2017}}</ref>

One of the most controversial criticisms of advertisement in the present day is that of the predominance of advertising of foods high in sugar, fat, and salt specifically to children. Critics claim that food advertisements targeting children are exploitive and are not sufficiently balanced with proper nutritional education to help children understand the consequences of their food choices. Additionally, children may not understand that they are being sold something, and are therefore more impressionable.<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Gussow |first1=Joan |title=Counternutritional Messages of TV Ads Aimed at Children
|journal=Journal of Nutrition Education |volume=4 |issue=2 |date=March 2, 1972 |pages=48–52 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3182(72)80136-5}}</ref> <!-- Is this sentence necessary for this paragraph? Should probably not have a individual criticism written here -->Michelle Obama has criticized large food companies for advertising unhealthy foods largely towards children and has requested that food companies either limit their advertising to children or advertise foods that are more in line with dietary guidelines.<ref>{{cite news
 |title=First Lady to Food Companies: Make Healthier Ads for Kids Now
 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/first-lady-to-food-companies-make-healthier-ads-for-kids-now
 |publisher=[[CBS]] |access-date=April 20, 2015
|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427111344/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/first-lady-to-food-companies-make-healthier-ads-for-kids-now
 |archive-date=April 27, 2015 }}</ref> The other criticisms include the change that are brought by those advertisements on the society and also the deceiving ads that are aired and published by the corporations. [[cosmetic industry|Cosmetic]] and [[health industry]] are the ones which exploited the highest and created reasons of concern.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.actnownews.com/deceiving-misleading-ads
|title=Misleading Ads – be Wary!! |access-date=May 6, 2016 |url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507012033/http://www.actnownews.com/deceiving-misleading-ads/ |archive-date=May 7, 2016  }}</ref> Political advertisement and their regulations have been scrutinized for [[misinformation]], [[Journalism ethics and standards|ethics]] and [[political bias]].<ref name="y759">{{cite web | last=Fischer | first=Sara | title=Harris-sponsored Google ads suggest publishers are on her side | website=Axios | date=13 August 2024 | url=https://www.axios.com/2024/08/13/harris-campaign-google-poltical-ads-news-publishers | access-date=14 August 2024}}</ref>

== Regulation ==
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising [[alcohol advertising|alcohol]], [[tobacco advertising|tobacco]] or [[gambling]] imposed in many countries, as well as the bans around [[advertising to children]], which exist in parts of Europe. Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are often tighter restrictions placed around advertisements for food and healthcare products.<ref name="UK_advertising">{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/marketing-advertising-law/overview |title=Marketing and Advertising: The Law |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |date=January 15, 2016 |access-date=September 5, 2016 |author=UK_advertising |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924105931/https://www.gov.uk/marketing-advertising-law/overview |archive-date=September 24, 2016  }}</ref>

The advertising industries within some countries rely less on laws and more on systems of self-regulation.<ref name="UK_advertising" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asa.co.nz/ |title=Advertising Standards Authority |publisher=Advertising Standards Authority |access-date=September 5, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831014312/http://www.asa.co.nz/ |archive-date=August 31, 2016  }}</ref><ref name=asasa>{{Citation|title=Advertising Standards Authority of South Africa: About Us|url=http://www.asasa.org.za/Default.aspx?mnu_id=10/|access-date=July 5, 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202014/http://www.asasa.org.za/Default.aspx?mnu_id=10%2F|archive-date=March 3, 2016}}</ref> Advertisers and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the [[Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)|Advertising Standards Authority]] in the UK.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.asa.org.uk/About-ASA/About-regulation |title=About Regulation Our Framework |publisher=ASA.org.uk |access-date=October 5, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007111318/https://www.asa.org.uk/About-ASA/About-regulation |archive-date=October 7, 2015  }}</ref>

In the UK, most forms of [[outdoor advertising]], such as the display of billboards, are regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. The display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offense.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://planningguidance.planningportal.gov.uk/blog/guidance/advertisments/is-consent-from-the-local-planning-authority-always-required-to-display-advertisements/ |title=What happens if an advertisement is displayed without the necessary consent? |publisher=PlanningGuidance.PlanningPortal.gov.uk |access-date=October 5, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006191802/http://planningguidance.planningportal.gov.uk/blog/guidance/advertisments/is-consent-from-the-local-planning-authority-always-required-to-display-advertisements/ |archive-date=October 6, 2015  }}</ref> In the US, where some communities believe that outdoor advertising are a blight on landscapes, attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside occurred in the 1960s, leading to the ''Highway Beautification Act''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/beauty.cfm |title=How the Highway Beautification Act Became a Law |publisher=Fhwa.dot.gov |access-date=April 20, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090604005907/http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/beauty.htm| archive-date= June 4, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> Cities such as [[São Paulo]] have introduced an outright ban,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/world/americas/12iht-brazil.html |title=Billboard ban in São Paulo angers advertisers – Americas |newspaper=International Herald Tribune |date=December 12, 2006 |access-date=January 20, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226112132/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/world/americas/12iht-brazil.html |archive-date=February 26, 2014  }}</ref> with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marketing and advertising: the law |url=https://www.gov.uk/marketing-advertising-law |access-date=2024-12-31 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>

Some governments restrict the languages that can be used in advertisements, but advertisers may employ tricks to try avoiding them. In France for instance, advertisers sometimes print English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with Article 120 of the 1994 [[Toubon Law]] limiting the use of English.<ref>Bhatia and Ritchie 2006:542</ref>

The advertising of pricing information is another topic of concern for governments. In the United States for instance, it is common for businesses to only mention the existence and amount of applicable taxes at a later stage of a transaction.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dor.wa.gov/content/getaformorpublication/publicationbysubject/taxtopics/TaxIncluded.aspx |title=Advertising – Tax Included in Price |publisher=Department of Revenue, Washington State |access-date=September 5, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827174442/http://dor.wa.gov/Content/GetAFormOrPublication/PublicationBySubject/TaxTopics/TaxIncluded.aspx |archive-date=August 27, 2016  }}</ref> In Canada and New Zealand, taxes can be listed as separate items, as long as they are quoted up-front.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tico.ca/industry-info/advertising-requirements.html |title=Advertising Requirements |publisher=Travel Industry Council of Ontario |access-date=September 5, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918231329/http://www.tico.ca/industry-info/advertising-requirements.html |archive-date=September 18, 2016  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.consumerprotection.govt.nz/get-guidance/shopping-and-buying/pricing/ |title=Pricing |publisher=Consumer Protection |access-date=September 5, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913213536/https://www.consumerprotection.govt.nz/get-guidance/shopping-and-buying/pricing/ |archive-date=September 13, 2016  }}</ref> In most other countries, the advertised price must include all applicable taxes, enabling customers to easily know how much it will cost them.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.accc.gov.au/business/pricing-surcharging/displaying-prices |title=Displaying Prices |publisher=Australian Competition and Consumer Commission |access-date=September 5, 2016 |author=ACCC |date=September 11, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913152407/http://www.accc.gov.au/business/pricing-surcharging/displaying-prices |archive-date=September 13, 2016  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.asa.org.uk/Rulings/Adjudications/Display-Code.aspx?CodeId=%7B1BB5E9A2-C840-46CB-8211-88E7E34E61B7%7D&ItemId=%7B37D44B06-C5E4-430C-A161-035555C10543%7D |title=Relevant Code Rule |publisher=Advertising Standards Authority |access-date=September 5, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105203616/https://www.asa.org.uk/Rulings/Adjudications/Display-Code.aspx?CodeId=%7B1BB5E9A2-C840-46CB-8211-88E7E34E61B7%7D&ItemId=%7B37D44B06-C5E4-430C-A161-035555C10543%7D |archive-date=November 5, 2016  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/consumer_affairs/consumer_protection/pricing/price_display_of_goods_and_services.html |title=Display of Prices for Goods and Services |publisher=Citizens Information |date=May 31, 2016 |access-date=September 5, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828161455/http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/consumer_affairs/consumer_protection/pricing/price_display_of_goods_and_services.html |archive-date=August 28, 2016  }}</ref>

== Theory ==
{{See also|Advertising management}}

=== Hierarchy-of-effects models ===
{{See also|AIDA (marketing)}}
Various competing models of hierarchies of effects attempt to provide a theoretical underpinning to advertising practice.{{clarify|date= January 2017|reason= which ones? provide details}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
 |editor-first = Stephen W.
 |editor-last = Littlejohn
 |encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Communication Theory
 |title = Advertising Theories
 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC
 |access-date = August 16, 2013
|year = 2009
 |publisher = SAGE
 |volume = 1
 |isbn = 978-1-4129-5937-7
 |page = 19
 |quote = Originally developed in the personal-selling literature, the ''hierarchy-of-effects model'' has undergone various modifications in its historical development such that today we use it in the plural form, indicating that competing models exist.
 |url-status = live
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140627123917/http://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC
 |archive-date = June 27, 2014
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref>
* The model of Clow and Baack<ref>Clow, Kenneth E.; Baack, Donald (2007). Integrated Advertising, Promotion, and Marketing Communications 3rd edition. Pearson Education. pp. 165–171. {{ISBN|0-13-186622-2}}.</ref> clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model postulates six steps a buyer moves through when making a purchase:
*# Awareness
*# Knowledge
*# Liking
*# Preference
*# Conviction
*# Purchase
* Means-end theory suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end-state.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjB5AgAAQBAJ&q=means-end+theory&pg=PP1|title=Understanding Consumer Decision Making: The Means-end Approach To Marketing and Advertising Strategy|last1=Reynolds|first1=Thomas J.|last2=Olson|first2=Jerry C.|date=May 1, 2001|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1135693169|page=3|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216191453/https://books.google.com/books?id=kjB5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=means-end%20theory|archive-date=February 16, 2017}}</ref>
* Leverage points aim to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Integrated advertising, promotion, and marketing communications|last=Clow, Kenneth E.|date=2007|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|others=Baack, Donald.|isbn=978-0131866225|edition= 3rd|location=Upper Saddle River, N.J.|oclc=61448283}}</ref>

=== Marketing mix ===
{{Main|Marketing mix}}

The [[marketing mix]] was proposed by professor [[E. Jerome McCarthy]] in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book|last=McCarthy|first=Jerome E.|title=Basic Marketing. A Managerial Approach|year=1964|publisher=Irwin|location=Homewood, IL}}</ref> It consists of four basic elements called the "'''four Ps'''". '''Product''' is the first P representing the actual product. '''Price''' represents the process of determining the value of a product. '''Place''' represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for '''Promotion''' which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product.

In the 1990s, the concept of '''four Cs''' was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of four P's.<ref name="Business for Higher Awards">{{cite book |title= Business for Higher Awards |last= Needham |first= Dave |year= 1996 |publisher=Heinemann |location=Oxford, England }}</ref> There are two theories based on four Cs: Lauterborn's four Cs (''consumer'', ''cost'', ''communication'', ''convenience'')
<ref name=Schultz>{{Citation | author1=Schultz, Don E | author2=Tannenbaum, Stanley I | author3=Lauterborn, Robert F | title=Integrated marketing communications | date=1993 | publisher=NTC Business Books | isbn=978-0-8442-3363-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/integratedmarket00schu_0 }}</ref> and Shimizu's four Cs (''[[commodity]]'', ''[[cost]]'', ''[[communication]]'', ''[[Marketing channel|channel]]'') in the '''7Cs Compass Model''' ([[Co-marketing]]). [[Communication]]s can include advertising, [[sales promotion]], [[public relations]], [[publicity]], [[personal selling]], [[corporate identity]], [[internal communication]], [[Social networking service|SNS]], and [[Management information system|MIS]].<ref>Shimizu, Koichi (1989) "Advertising Theory and Strategies", (Japanese) first edition, Souseisha Book Company in Tokyo. ({{ISBN|4-7944-2030-7}} C3034 P3980E) pp.&nbsp;63–102.</ref><ref>Shimizu, Koichi (2014) "Advertising Theory and Strategies", (Japanese) 18th edition, Souseisha Book Company ({{ISBN|4-7944-2132-X}} C3034) pp.&nbsp;63–102.</ref><ref>Solis, Brian (2011) Engage!: The Complete Guide for Brands and Businesses to Build, Cultivate, and Measure Success in the New Web, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp.&nbsp;201–202.</ref><ref>Shimizu, Koichi (2003) "Symbiotic Marketing Strategy", (Japanese) 4th edition, Souseisha Book Company.({{ISBN|4-7944-2158-3}} C3034) pp.&nbsp;25–62.</ref>

=== Research ===
{{Main|Advertising research}}

Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as [[copy testing]]) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns.

Pre-testing includes a wide range of qualitative and quantitative techniques, including: focus groups, in-depth target audience interviews (one-on-one interviews), small-scale quantitative studies and physiological measurement. The goal of these investigations is to better understand how different groups respond to various messages and visual prompts, thereby providing an assessment of how well the advertisement meets its communications goals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.copytesting.org|title=CopyTesting.org|website=www.copytesting.org|access-date=February 13, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425021551/http://copytesting.org/|archive-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref>

Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement.<ref>See, for instance: Panton, M. McB. (1936), "The Master Adman Nobody Knows", ''Advertising & Selling'', Vol.27, (September 10, 1936), pp.32, 46.</ref> With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing.

Continuous [[ad tracking]] and the [[Communicus]] System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.<ref>Peeter Verlegh, Hilde Voorveld, and Martin Eisend, eds. ''Advances in Advertising Research (Vol. VI): The Digital, the Classic, the Subtle, and the Alternative'' (Springer, 2015).</ref>

=== Semiotics ===
{{Main|Semiotics}}

Meanings between consumers and marketers depict [[signage|signs]] and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mick|first=Devid Glen|title=Consumer Research and Semiotics: Exploring the Morphology of Signs, Symbols, and Significance|journal=The Journal of Consumer Research|date=September 1986|volume=13|issue=2|page=196|doi=10.1086/209060}}</ref> [[Semiotics]] is the study of signs and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within [[brand names]], [[logo]]s, package designs, print advertisements, and [[television advertisements]]. Semiotics aims to study and interpret the message being conveyed in (for example) advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels – known as the surface level and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for a product.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} These signs can be images, words, fonts, [[color]]s, or slogans. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, [[color]]s, and slogans must be interpreted by the audience or consumer.<ref>{{cite book|last= Beasley|first= Ron|title= Persuasive Signs: The Semiotics of Advertising|year= 2002|publisher= Walter deGruyter GmbH & KG|location= Berlin|isbn= 978-3-11-017341-3}}</ref> The "key to advertising analysis" is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept.<ref>{{cite book|last= Pinson|first= Christian|title= Marketing Semiotics|year= 1998|url= http://flora.insead.edu/fichiersti_wp/inseadwp1998/98-39.pdf|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110816121627/http://flora.insead.edu/fichiersti_wp/inseadwp1998/98-39.pdf|archive-date= August 16, 2011|df= mdy-all}}</ref> A product has a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television's denotative meaning might be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the product's deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top-of-the-line.<ref>{{cite book|last= Umiker-Sebeok|first= Donna Jean|title= Marketing and Semiotics|year= 1987|publisher= Walter de Gruyter & Co.|location= Berlin}}</ref>

[[Apple Inc.|Apple's]] commercials{{when|date=April 2015}} used a black [[silhouette]] of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple's products.<ref>{{cite web|last= Salsburey|first= Justin|title= Semiotic analysis of iPod Advertisements|url= http://sites.google.com/site/jsalsburey/macintoshsemiotics|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130521105135/https://sites.google.com/site/jsalsburey/macintoshsemiotics|archive-date= May 21, 2013|df= mdy-all}}</ref>

The semiotics of [[gender]] plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering [[Gender advertisement|gender roles in advertising]], individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain characteristics of stimuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as [[feminine]] or [[masculine]]). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect [[attention]] and elaboration of the message ([[tradition]]al or non-traditional [[gender role]] orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

There are two types of [[marketing communication]] claims-objective and subjective.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Koc|first= Erdogan|title= Impact of gender in marketing communications: the role of cognitive and affective cues|journal= Journal of Marketing Communications|year= 2002|volume= 8|issue= 4|page= 257|doi= 10.1080/13527260210145993|s2cid= 167941776|hdl= 11376/2036|hdl-access= free}}</ref> Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, a camera may have auto-focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the [[brochure]] has a beautiful design.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Holbrook|first= Morris|title= Beyond Attitude Structure: Toward the Informational Determinants of Attitude|journal= Journal of Marketing Research|date= November 1978|volume= 15|issue= 4|pages= 545–556|doi= 10.2307/3150624|jstor= 3150624}}</ref> [[Male]]s tend to respond better to objective marketing-communications claims while [[female]]s tend to respond better to subjective [[marketing communications]] claims.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Silverman|first= Julian|author2= King, Catherine|title= Pseudoperceptual differentiation|journal= Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology|year= 1970|volume= 34|issue= 1|pages= 119–23|doi= 10.1037/h0028807|pmid= 5436459}}</ref>

[[Voiceover]]s are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are done by men, with figures of up to 94% having been reported.<ref>{{cite web|title= Female Celebrities Still Can't Break Through the Glass Ceiling of Voice-over Work|date= August 20, 2013|url= https://www.vulture.com/2013/08/female-celebrity-voiceovers-glass-ceiling.html|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151009060321/http://www.vulture.com/2013/08/female-celebrity-voiceovers-glass-ceiling.html|archive-date= October 9, 2015|df= mdy-all}}</ref> There have been more female voiceovers in recent years,{{when|date=April 2015}} but mainly for food, household products, and feminine-care products.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1207/s15506878jobem4403_10|title= Gender-Differentiated Production Features in Toy Commercials|journal= Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media|volume= 44|issue= 3|pages= 503|year= 2010|last1= Chandler|first1= Daniel|last2= Griffiths|first2= Merris|s2cid= 144741368}}</ref>

== Gender effects on comprehension ==
According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving [[Problem solving|problem]]s, which could have an effect on how they interpret advertising.<ref>{{cite book|last= Statt|first= David|title= Understanding the Consumer – A Psychological Approach|year= 1977|publisher= Macmillan Press|location= London}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=February 2017}} According to this study, men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message, whereas females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation. Later research by a Danish team<ref>Vestergaard and Schrøder, ''The Language of Advertising'', 75</ref> found that advertising attempts to persuade men to improve their appearance or performance, whereas its approach to women aims at [[metamorphosis|transformation]] toward an impossible ideal of female presentation. In Paul Suggett's article "The Objectification of Women in Advertising" he discusses the negative impact that these women in advertisements, who are too perfect to be real, have on women, as well as men, in real life.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thebalance.com/advertising-women-and-objectification-38754|title=Advertising Sets Impossible Standards for Women|work=The Balance|access-date=May 7, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326082225/https://www.thebalance.com/advertising-women-and-objectification-38754|archive-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref> Advertising's manipulation of women's aspiration to these ideal types as portrayed in film, in erotic art, in advertising, on stage, within music videos and through other media exposures requires at least a conditioned rejection of female reality and thereby takes on a highly ideological cast. Studies show that these expectations of women and young girls negatively affect their views about their bodies and appearances. These advertisements are directed towards men. Not everyone agrees: one critic viewed this monologic, gender-specific interpretation of advertising as excessively skewed and politicized.<ref>Splendora, "Discourse", Review of Vestergaard and Schrøder, ''The Language of Advertising'' in ''Language in Society,'' 449</ref>{{request quotation|date=February 2017}} There are some companies like [[Dove Beauties|Dove]] and [[Aerie (clothing retailer)|aerie]]<!--- no caps as stylized ---> that are creating commercials to portray more natural women, with less [[image manipulation|post production manipulation]], so more women and young girls are able to relate to them.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}

More recent research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads and on the affective tone of the advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer happy ads when they are feeling happy. The television programs in which ads are embedded influence a viewer's mood state.<ref>
Martin, Brett A. S. (2003), [http://www.basmartin.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Martin-2003.pdf "The Influence of Gender on Mood Effects in Advertising"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025120035/http://www.basmartin.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Martin-2003.pdf |date=October 25, 2012 }}, ''Psychology and Marketing'',20 (3), 249–73.</ref> Susan Wojcicki, author of the article "Ads that Empower Women don't just Break Stereotypes—They're also Effective" discusses how advertising to women has changed since the first [[Barbie]] commercial, where a little girl tells the doll that, she wants to be just like her. Little girls grow up watching advertisements of scantily clad women advertising things from trucks to burgers and Wojcicki states that this shows girls that they are either arm candy or eye candy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/ads-empower-women-don-t-just-break-stereotypes-they-re-also-effective-170953/|title=Ads That Empower Women Don't Just Break Stereotypes—They're Also Effective|access-date=May 7, 2017|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326152331/http://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/ads-empower-women-don-t-just-break-stereotypes-they-re-also-effective-170953/|archive-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref>

==Alternatives==
Other approaches to [[revenue]] include [[donation]]s, [[Subscription business model|paid subscriptions]], [[microtransaction]]s, and [[data monetization]]. Websites and applications are "ad-free" when not using advertisements at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]] provides free<ref>aside from rare popups seeking donations, Wikipedia routinely seeks voluntary donations of time to improve itself via research to be done by those who then make edits to existing articles.</ref> content by receiving funding from charitable [[donation]]s.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=m3oEDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA209 Page 209] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227161813/https://books.google.se/books?id=m3oEDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA209 |date=December 27, 2022 }} in: {{cite book |title=Social Media: A Critical Introduction |first=Christian |last=Fuchs |publisher=SAGE |year=2017 |isbn=978-1473987494}}</ref>

== "Fathers" of advertising ==
* Late 1700s – [[Benjamin Franklin]] (1706–1790) – "father of advertising in America"<ref name="HJSJ">Winfield Scott Downs, American Historical Company, American Historical Society, 1940 – Biography & Autobiography
(pp. 260–263) [https://books.google.com/books?id=kpoMAQAAMAAJ&q=%22father%20of%20advertising%22%20franklin%20smythe&pg=RA2-PA260] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227161857/https://books.google.com/books?id=kpoMAQAAMAAJ&vq=%22father%20of%20advertising%22%20franklin%20smythe&pg=RA2-PA260|date=December 27, 2022}}
J. Henry Smythe, Jr – "the world's best known slogan writer... compiled and edited "The Amazing Benjamin Franklin," published in 1929 ... approved by the American Library Association. ... Over forty official contributions ... Each paid tribute to some special "side" of Franklin ... "Franklin, the Printer," is a Craftsman, Father of Advertising in America, Editor, Publisher ..."</ref>
* Late 1800s – [[Thomas J. Barratt]] (1841–1914) of London – called "the father of modern advertising" by T.F.G. Coates<ref>
T F G Coates: 'Mr Thomas J Barratt, "The father of modern advertising"', ''Modern Business'', September 1908, pp 107–115.
</ref>
* Early 1900s – J. Henry ("Slogan") Smythe Jr of Philadelphia – "world's best known slogan writer"<ref name="HJSJ" />
* Early 1900s – [[Albert Lasker]] (1880–1952) – the "father of modern advertising"; defined advertising as "salesmanship in print, driven by a reason why"<ref>{{cite web| url = https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Mass_Media/Advertising| title = Introduction to Mass Media/Advertising|author=William Hart and his graduate students in MCM510|location=Norfolk State University|publisher=Wikibooks}}</ref>

===Influential thinkers in advertising theory and practice===
{{Div col|small=no|colwidth=30em}}
* [[N. W. Ayer & Son]] – probably the first advertising agency to use mass media (i.e. telegraph) in a promotional campaign
* [[Claude C. Hopkins]] (1866–1932) – popularised the use of test campaigns, especially coupons in direct mail, to track the efficiency of marketing spend
* [[Ernest Dichter]] (1907–1991) – developed the field of motivational research, used extensively in advertising
* [[E. St. Elmo Lewis]] (1872–1948) – developed the first hierarchy of effects model (AIDA) used in sales and advertising
* [[Arthur Nielsen]] (1897–1980) – founded one of the earliest international advertising agencies and developed ratings for radio & TV
* [[David Ogilvy (businessman)|David Ogilvy]] (1911–1999) – pioneered the positioning concept and advocated of the use of brand image in advertising
* [[Charles Coolidge Parlin]] (1872–1942) – regarded as the pioneer of the use of marketing research in advertising
* [[Rosser Reeves]] (1910–1984) – developed the concept of the unique selling proposition (USP) and advocated the use of repetition in advertising
* [[Al Ries]] (1926–2022) – advertising executive, author and credited with coining the term "positioning" in the late 1960s
* [[Daniel Starch]] (1883–1979) – developed the Starch score method of measuring print media effectiveness (still in use)
* [[J Walter Thompson]] – one of the earliest advertising agencies
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Business and economics|Media}}
* {{annotated link|Advertisements in schools}}
* {{annotated link|Advertorial}}
* {{annotated link|Ambush marketing}}
* {{annotated link|Annoyance factor}}
* {{annotated link|Bibliography of advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Branded content}}
* {{annotated link|Commercial speech}}
* {{annotated link|Comparative advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Conquesting}}]
* {{annotated link|Copywriting}}
* {{annotated link|Demo mode}}
* {{annotated link|Direct-to-consumer advertising}}
* {{annotated link|False advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Family in advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Graphic design}}
* {{annotated link|Gross rating point}}
* {{annotated link|Guerrilla marketing}}
* {{annotated link|History of Advertising Trust}}
* {{annotated link|Informative advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Integrated marketing communications}}
* [[List of advertising awards]]
* {{annotated link|Local advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Market overhang}}
* {{annotated link|Media planning}}
* {{annotated link|Meta-advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Mobile marketing}}
* {{annotated link|Performance-based advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Promotional mix}}
* {{annotated link|Senior media creative}}
* {{annotated link|Shock advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Surrogate advertising}}
* {{annotated link|Viral marketing}}
* {{annotated link|World Federation of Advertisers}}

== References ==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Arens, William, and Michael Weigold. ''Contemporary Advertising: And Integrated Marketing Communications'' (2012)
* Belch, George E., and Michael A. Belch. ''Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective'' (10th ed. 2014)
* Biocca, Frank. ''Television and Political Advertising: Volume I: Psychological Processes'' (Routledge, 2013)
* Chandra, Ambarish, and Ulrich Kaiser. "Targeted advertising in magazine markets and the advent of the internet." ''Management Science'' 60.7 (2014) pp: 1829–1843.
* Chen, Yongmin, and Chuan He. "Paid placement: Advertising and search on the internet*." ''The Economic Journal'' 121#556 (2011): F309–F328. [http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/06-02_Chen_He_Paid_Placement.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201829/http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/06-02_Chen_He_Paid_Placement.pdf |date=March 4, 2016 }}
* Johnson-Cartee, Karen S., and Gary Copeland. ''Negative political advertising: Coming of age'' (2013)
* McAllister, Matthew P. and Emily West, eds. ''HardcoverThe Routledge Companion to Advertising and Promotional Culture'' (2013)
* McFall, Elizabeth Rose ''Advertising: a cultural economy'' (2004), cultural and sociological approaches to advertising
* Moriarty, Sandra, and Nancy Mitchell. ''Advertising & IMC: Principles and Practice'' (10th ed. 2014)
* Okorie, Nelson. ''The Principles of Advertising: concepts and trends in advertising'' (2011)
* Reichert, Tom, and Jacqueline Lambiase, eds. ''Sex in advertising: Perspectives on the erotic appeal'' (Routledge, 2014)
* Sheehan, Kim Bartel. ''Controversies in contemporary advertising'' (Sage Publications, 2013)
* Vestergaard, Torben and Schrøder, Kim. ''The Language of Advertising.'' Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985. {{ISBN|0-631-12743-7}}
** Splendora, Anthony. "Discourse", a Review of Vestergaard and Schrøder, ''The Language of Advertising'' in ''Language in Society'' Vol. 15, No. 4 (Dec. 1986), pp.&nbsp;445–449

=== History ===
{{Main|History of advertising#Further reading}}
* Brandt, Allan. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yybaN6j4IpEC&pg=PA31 ''The Cigarette Century'' (2009)]
* Crawford, Robert. ''But Wait, There's More!: A History of Australian Advertising, 1900–2000'' (2008)
* [[Stuart Ewen|Ewen, Stuart]]. ''Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture''. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976. {{ISBN|0-07-019846-2}}
* Fox, Stephen R. ''The mirror makers: A history of American advertising and its creators'' (University of Illinois Press, 1984)
* Friedman, Walter A. ''Birth of a Salesman'' (Harvard University Press, 2005), In the United States
* Jacobson, Lisa. ''Raising consumers: Children and the American mass market in the early twentieth century'' (Columbia University Press, 2013)
* Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. ''Packaging the presidency: A history and criticism of presidential campaign advertising'' (Oxford University Press, 1996)
* Laird, Pamela Walker. ''Advertising progress: American business and the rise of consumer marketing'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.)
* Lears, Jackson. ''Fables of abundance: A cultural history of advertising in America'' (1995)
* Liguori, Maria Chiara. "North and South: Advertising Prosperity in the Italian Economic Boom Years." ''Advertising & Society Review'' (2015) 15#4
* Meyers, Cynthia B. ''A Word from Our Sponsor: Admen, Advertising, and the Golden Age of Radio'' (2014)
* Mazzarella, William. ''Shoveling smoke: Advertising and globalization in contemporary India'' (Duke University Press, 2003)
* Moriarty, Sandra, et al. ''Advertising: Principles and practice'' (Pearson Australia, 2014), Australian perspectives
* Nevett, Terence R. ''Advertising in Britain: a history'' (1982)
* Oram, Hugh. ''The advertising book: The history of advertising in Ireland'' (MOL Books, 1986)
* Presbrey, Frank. "The history and development of advertising." ''Advertising & Society Review'' (2000) 1#1 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asr/v001/1.1presbrey.html online]
* Saunders, Thomas J. "Selling under the Swastika: Advertising and Commercial Culture in Nazi Germany." ''German History'' (2014): ghu058.
* Short, John Phillip. "Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany." ''Enterprise and Society'' (2014): khu013.
* Sivulka, Juliann. ''Soap, sex, and cigarettes: A cultural history of American advertising'' (Cengage Learning, 2011)
* Spring, Dawn. "The Globalization of American Advertising and Brand Management: A Brief History of the J. Walter Thompson Company, Proctor and Gamble, and US Foreign Policy." ''Global Studies Journal'' (2013). 5#4
* Stephenson, Harry Edward, and Carlton McNaught. ''The Story of Advertising in Canada: A Chronicle of Fifty Years'' (Ryerson Press, 1940)
* Tungate, Mark. ''Adland: a global history of advertising'' (Kogan Page Publishers, 2007.)
* West, Darrell M. ''Air Wars: Television Advertising and Social Media in Election Campaigns, 1952–2012'' (Sage, 2013)
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{sister project links|auto=1|wikt=Advertising|n=y|s=Portal:Advertising|v=y|d=Q37038}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=yes |lcheading=Advertising}}
* [http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/hartman/index.html Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising & Marketing History at Duke University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106134741/http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/hartman/index.html |date=January 6, 2014 }}
** [[Duke University]] Libraries Digital Collections:
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adaccess/ Ad*Access], over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated 1911–1955, includes World War II propaganda.
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa/ Emergence of Advertising in America], 9,000 advertising items and publications dating from 1850 to 1940, illustrating the rise of consumer culture and the birth of a professionalized advertising industry in the United States.
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adviews/ AdViews], vintage television commercials
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/outdooradvertising/ ROAD 2.0], 30,000 outdoor advertising images
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/mma/ Medicine & Madison Avenue], documents advertising of medical and pharmaceutical products
* ''[[Art & Copy]]'', a 2009 documentary film about the advertising industry

{{Product advertising}}
{{Media manipulation}}
{{Media culture}}
{{Aspects of capitalism}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Advertising| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Communication design]]
[[Category:Promotion and marketing communications]]
[[Category:Business models]]