View source for African buffalo

{{Short description|Bovine species}}
{{speciesbox
| name = African buffalo
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|0.7|0}}<small>[[Middle Pleistocene]]-[[Holocene]]</small>
| image = African buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) male with cattle egret.jpg
| image_caption = Cape buffalo (''S. c. caffer'') at [[Chobe National Park]], [[Botswana]] with a [[cattle egret]] atop it
| image2 = Syncerus caffer nanus 001.JPG
| image2_caption = Forest buffalo (''S. c. nanus'') at [[Réserve Africaine de Sigean]], France
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group |date=2019 |title=''Syncerus caffer'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T21251A50195031 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T21251A50195031.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Syncerus
| species = caffer
| authority = ([[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]], 1779)
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = 
''S. c. caffer''<br/>
''[[African forest buffalo|S. c. nanus]]''<br/>
''S. c. brachyceros''<br/>
''S. c. aequinoctialis''<br/>
''S. c. mathewsi''
| range_map = Syncerus range map.png
| range_map_caption = Range of the commonly accepted forms of the African buffalo
| synonyms =
''Bos caffer'' [[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]], 1779<br />
''Bos brachyceros'' [[John Edward Gray|J.E. Gray]], 1837
}}
[[File:African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) male with Oxpecker.jpg|thumb|Male African buffalo with [[red-billed oxpecker]], partly a [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship and partly [[Parasitism|parasitic]]]]
[[File:African Buffalo Resting (Gregg Yan).jpg|alt=Resting buffalo|thumb|A pair of African buffalo resting inside [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area#Ngorongoro Crater|Ngorongoro Crater]] in Tanzania ]]
The '''African buffalo''' ('''''Syncerus caffer''')'' is a large species of [[true buffalo]] native to [[Sub-Saharan Africa]],<ref name="MSW3">{{MSW3 Artiodactyla | id = 14200707 | pages = 695–696}}</ref> where it is found in a number of disconnected ranges stretching from south-eastern Senegal through West and Central Africa to South Africa.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021"/> The adult African buffalo's horns are its characteristic feature: they have fused bases that form a continuous bone shield, referred to as a "boss", across the top of the head. The African buffalo is more closely related to [[Bubalus|Asian buffalo]] (''Bubalus'') species than it is to other bovids such as [[American bison]] or domestic [[cattle]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jirik |first=Kate |title=LibGuides: Forest Buffalo (''Syncerus caffer nanus'') Fact Sheet: Taxonomy & History |url=https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/forestbuffalo/taxonomy |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=ielc.libguides.com |language=en}}</ref> Its unpredictable temperament may be part of the reason that the African buffalo has never been [[domesticated]] and has no domesticated descendants, unlike the [[wild yak]] and [[wild water buffalo]], which are the ancestors of the [[Yak|domestic yak]] and [[water buffalo]], respectively. Natural predators of adult African buffaloes include [[lion]]s, [[African wild dog]]s, [[spotted hyena]]s, and [[Nile crocodile]]s. As one of the [[Big Five game]] animals, the '''Cape buffalo''' (''Syncerus caffer caffer''), the largest subspecies native to eastern and southern Africas, is a sought-after trophy in hunting.

==Description==
{{more citations needed section|date=March 2014}}
[[File:Syncerus caffer african buffalo skull MNHN.jpg|thumb|Skull of an African buffalo]]
The African buffalo is a very robust species. Its shoulder height can range from {{cvt|1.0|to|1.7|m|ft}} and its head-and-body length can range from {{cvt|1.7|to|3.4|m|ft}}. The tail can range from {{cvt|70|to|110|cm|in}} long.<ref name="ultimateungulate">{{cite web|first=Brent |last=Huffman |url=http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Syncerus_caffer.html |title=Syncerus caffer – African buffalo |publisher=Ultimateungulate.com |date=2010-05-24 |access-date=2010-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319074627/http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Syncerus_caffer.html |archive-date=2012-03-19 }}</ref> Compared with other [[Bovinae|large bovids]], it has a long but stocky body (the body length can exceed that of the [[wild water buffalo]], which is heavier and taller) and short but thickset legs, resulting in a relatively short standing height. Cape buffaloes weigh {{cvt|425|to|870|kg|lb}} (males weigh about {{cvt|100|kg|lb}} more than females).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia
|title=Cape buffalo
| encyclopedia= Britannica
|url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/Cape-buffalo|access-date=2023-02-16|date=2020
| last = Estes | first= Richard
| display-authors= etal}}</ref> In comparison, [[African forest buffalo]]es, at {{cvt|250|to|450|kg|lb|-2}}, are only half that size.<ref>Boitani, Luigi, ''Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals''. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books (1984), {{ISBN|978-0-671-42805-1}}</ref> Its head is carried low; its top is located below the backline. The front hooves of the buffalo are wider than the rear, which is associated with the need to support the weight of the front part of the body, which is heavier and more powerful than the back.

Savannah-type buffaloes have black or dark brown coats with age. Old bulls often have whitish circles around their eyes and on their face. Females tend to have more reddish coats. Forest-type buffaloes are 30–40% smaller, reddish brown in colour, with much more hair growth around the ears and with horns that curve back and slightly up. Calves of both types have red coats.

A characteristic feature of the [[Horn (anatomy)|horns]] of adult male African buffalo (southern and eastern populations) is that the bases come very close together, forming a shield referred to as a "boss".  From the base, the horns diverge downwards, then smoothly curve upwards and outwards and in some cases inwards and or backwards. In large bulls, the distance between the ends of the horns can reach upwards of one metre (the record being 64.5 inches 164&nbsp;cm). The horns form fully when the animal reaches the age of 5 or 6 years old, but the bosses do not become "hard" until it reaches the age of 8 to 9 years old. In cows, the horns are, on average, 10–20% smaller, and they do not have a boss. Forest-type buffalo horns are smaller than those of the savanna-type buffaloes from Southern and East Africa, usually measuring less than {{cvt|40|cm|in}}, and are almost never fused.

Unlike other large bovines, African buffalo have 52 chromosomes (for comparison, American bison and domestic cattle have 60). This means they are unable to produce [[Bovid hybrid#Water buffalo-domestic cattle hybrids|hybrid]] offspring with domestic cattle and bison.

==Subspecies==
There are five [[subspecies]] that are recognized as valid by most authorities:

* ''Syncerus caffer caffer'', the '''Cape buffalo''', is the [[nominotypical subspecies]], as well as the largest, found in [[Southern Africa|Southern]] and [[East Africa]].
* ''S. c. nanus'', the '''[[African forest buffalo|forest buffalo]]''', is the smallest subspecies, common in forest areas of [[Central Africa|Central]] and [[West Africa]]
* ''S. c. brachyceros'', the '''Sudan buffalo''', a smaller version of the Cape buffalo, found in the drier, northern areas of Central and West Africa.
* ''S. c. aequinoctialis'', the '''Nile buffalo''', sometimes considered identical to the Sudan buffalo, found in the drier, northern areas of East and Central Africa.
* ''S. c. mathewsi'', the '''mountain buffalo''', a disputed subspecies from the [[Virunga Mountains]] in Central Africa.

{| class="wikitable "
|-
! Image !! Subspecies !!Description !!  Distribution
|-
|[[File:Syncerus-caffer-Masaai-Mara-Kenya crop.JPG|300px]]||''Syncerus caffer caffer'' (the '''Cape buffalo''') ||Nominate subspecies and the largest one, with large males weighing up to {{cvt|870|kg|lb}}. The average weight of bulls from [[South Africa]] was {{cvt|753|kg|lb}}.<ref>Cornélis, D., Melletti, M., Korte, L., Ryan, S. J., Mirabile, M., Prin, T., & Prins, H. H. (2014). ''African buffalo Syncerus caffer (Sparrman, 1779)''. In Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour of Wild Cattle: Implications for Conservation (pp. 326-372). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.</ref> In [[Serengeti National Park]], eight bulls averaged similarly {{cvt|751|kg|lb}}.<ref name= Grubb>Grubb, P. (1972). ''[http://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Zeitschrift-Saeugetierkunde_37_0121-0144.pdf Variation and incipient speciation in the African buffalo]''. Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde, 37, 121-144.</ref> In one survey, mature bulls and cows from [[Kruger National Park]] averaged {{cvt|590|kg|lb}} and {{cvt|513|kg|lb}} respectively.<ref>Visscher, D. R., Van Aarde, R. J., & Whyte, I. (2004). ''[http://www.ceru.up.ac.za/downloads/Environmental_maternal_correlates.pdf Environmental and maternal correlates of foetal sex ratios in the African buffalo (''Syncerus caffer'') and savanna elephant (''Loxodonta africana'')] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809055235/http://www.ceru.up.ac.za/downloads/Environmental_maternal_correlates.pdf |date=2017-08-09 }}''. Journal of Zoology, 264(2), 111-116.</ref>  In both [[Kenya]] and [[Botswana]], the average adult weight of this race was estimated as {{cvt|631|kg|lb}}.<ref>Bonyongo, M. C., & Harris, S. (2007). ''Grazers species-packing in the Okavango Delta, Botswana''. African Journal of Ecology, 45(4), 527-534.</ref><ref>Oindo, B. O. (2002). [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/127/1272969787.pdf Body size and measurement of species diversity in large grazing mammals]. African Journal of Ecology, 40(3), 267-275.</ref>  Buffaloes of this subspecies living in the south of the continent, notably tall in size and ferocity, are the so-called Cape buffalo. Color of this subspecies is the darkest, almost black.|| Southern and East Africa. 
|-
|[[File:Diergaarde Blijdorp 2014 - Syncerus caffer nanus.jpg|300px]]||''S. c. nanus'' (the '''[[African forest buffalo|forest buffalo]]''', '''dwarf buffalo''' or '''Congo buffalo''') || The smallest of the subspecies; the height at the [[withers]] is less than 120&nbsp;cm and average weight is about {{cvt|270|kg|lb}}, or about the size of a [[zebra]], and two to three times lighter in mass than the nominate subspecies.<ref name= Grubb/><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00430.x/full | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00430.x | title=Variation of group size among African buffalo herds in a forest-savanna mosaic landscape | year=2008 | last1=Korte | first1=L. M. | journal=Journal of Zoology | volume=275 | issue=3 | pages=229–236 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> The color is red, with darker patches on the head and shoulders, and in the ears, forming a brush.  This subspecies is so different from the Cape buffalo that some researchers still consider it to be a separate species, ''S.  nanus''. Hybrids between the Cape and forest buffalo are not uncommon.||Forest areas of Central and West Africa.
|-
|[[File:Pendjari büffel.JPG|300px]]||''S. c. brachyceros'' (the '''Sudan buffalo''' or '''West African savanna buffalo''')  ||Intermediate between the first two subspecies.   Its dimensions are relatively small, especially compared to other buffalo found in Cameroon, which weigh half as much as the Cape subspecies (bulls weighing {{cvt|600|kg|lb}} are considered to be very large). Adults average in weight up to {{cvt|400|kg|lb}}.<ref>Brown, W. (1988). ''[http://www.wabbrown.co.uk/agedeterminationbuffalo.pdf Age determination of the West African buffalo ''Syncerus caffer brachyceros'' and the constancy of tooth wear]''. African Journal of Ecology, 26(3), 221-227.</ref>||West Africa.
|-
|[[File:Chad4418.jpg|277x277px|center|frameless]]|| ''S. c.  aequinoctialis'' (the '''Nile buffalo''')  ||It is similar to the Cape buffalo, but somewhat smaller, and its color is lighter. This subspecies is sometimes considered to be the same as the Western savanna buffalo.<ref name="Groves & Leslie, 2011">C. P. Groves, D. M. Leslie Jr. (2011) ''Family Bovidae (Hollow-horned Ruminants).'' pp. 585–588. In: Wilson, D. E., Mittermeier, R. A., (Hrsg.). ''Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals.'' Lynx Edicions, 2009. {{ISBN|978-84-96553-77-4}}</ref>||Central Africa. 
|-
|[[File:I-photographed-these.jpg|300px|center|frameless|alt=Virunga buffalo herd | A group of three Virunga buffalos]]
|| ''S. c. mathewsi'' (the '''mountain buffalo''' or '''Virunga buffalo''') ||Not universally recognized by all authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id726113/|title=BioLib - ''Syncerus caffer matthewsi'' (Virunga Buffalo)|work=biolib.cz}}</ref>||Mountainous areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Uganda.
|-
|}

==Ecology==
The African buffalo is one of the most successful grazers in Africa. It lives in [[savannas]], [[swamps]] and [[floodplain]]s, as well as [[mopane]] [[grassland]]s, and the forests of the major mountains of [[Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Kristen |last2=Fosgate |first2=Geoffrey T. |last3=Budke |first3=Christine M. |last4=Ward |first4=Michael P. |last5=Kerry |first5=Ruth |last6=Ingram |first6=Ben |title=Modeling the spatial distribution of African buffalo (''Syncerus caffer'') in the Kruger National Park, South Africa |journal=PLOS ONE |date=13 September 2017 |volume=12 |issue=9 |article-number=e0182903 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0182903 |pmid=28902858 |pmc=5597095 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1282903H |doi-access=free }}</ref> This buffalo prefers a habitat with dense cover, such as reeds and thickets, but can also be found in open woodland.<ref name ="Estes 1991">Estes, R. (1991) ''The Behavior Guide to African Mammals, Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates.'' Los Angeles, The University of California Press. pp. 195–200 {{ISBN|0520080858}}</ref> While not particularly demanding in regard to habitat, they require water daily, and so they depend on perennial sources of water. Like the [[plains zebra]], the buffalo can live on tall, coarse grasses. Herds of buffalo mow down grasses and make way for more selective grazers. When feeding, the buffalo makes use of its tongue and wide [[incisor]] row to eat grass more quickly than most other African herbivores. Buffaloes do not stay on trampled or depleted areas for long.

Other than humans, African buffaloes have few [[predator]]s and are capable of defending themselves against (and killing) [[lion]]s.{{citation needed|date=July 2025}} Lions kill and eat buffaloes regularly, and in some regions, the buffaloes are the lions' primary prey. It often takes several lions to bring down a single adult buffalo, and the entire pride may join in the hunt. However, several incidents have been reported in which lone adult male lions have successfully brought down adult buffaloes. On very rare occasions, buffaloes and [[white rhinos]] will fight over territory; due to the rhino's strength and size advantage, the rhino typically wins and the buffalo can die from injuries sustained during the encounter. Rhinos live solitary lives, whereas buffalo (excluding solitary adult bulls) primarily live social lives and thus they do not usually recognize each other as threats.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Extremely rare sighting' of rhino's head-to-head battle with buffalo caught on camera {{!}} Animal Behaviour {{!}} Earth Touch News |url=https://www.earthtouchnews.com/natural-world/animal-behaviour/extremely-rare-sighting-of-rhinos-head-to-head-battle-with-buffalo-caught-on-camera |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=Earth Touch News Network |language=en}}</ref> 

[[Hippopotamus]]es and buffalo also do not normally interact, but if the buffalo provokes the hippo or makes it feel threatened, a fight can break out, but this is also rare.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-31 |title=Buffalo escapes pride of 15 lions and then 3 hippos |url=https://www.getaway.co.za/videos/buffalo-escapes-pride-of-15-lions-and-then-3-hippos/ |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=Getaway Magazine}}</ref> Adolescent bull [[African elephant]]s may harass or kill Cape buffalo, either out of territorial aggression or while in [[musth]]; when they do this, the calves are most likely to be killed by the elephant attack as they are defenseless when facing an elephant alone, whereas adults will try to fight back and may survive (or succumb to injuries afterward).<ref>{{Cite web |last=bennostand |date=2015-10-06 |title=VIDEO: Why the elephant killed the buffalo - an expert's opinion |url=https://lowvelder.co.za/296346/video-why-the-elephant-killed-the-buffalo-an-experts-opinion/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Lowvelder |language=en-US}}</ref> The average-sized [[Nile crocodile]] typically attacks only old solitary animals and young calves, though they can kill healthy adults. Exceptionally large, old male [[crocodile]]s may become semi-habitual predators of buffaloes.<ref name="ultimateungulate"/><ref name= Graham>Graham, A. D. (1968). [http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/aa/00/00/75/90/00001/lakerudolfcrocodilesalistairgraham.pdf The Lake Rudolf Crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'' Laurenti) Population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212141642/http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/aa/00/00/75/90/00001/lakerudolfcrocodilesalistairgraham.pdf |date=2021-12-12 }}. Masters of Science Thesis, The University of East Africa.</ref><ref name= Pienaar>{{cite journal|author=Pienaar, U. D. V. |title= Predator-prey relationships amongst the larger mammals of the Kruger National Park|journal= Koedoe|volume= 12|doi=10.4102/koedoe.v12i1.753|year= 1969|doi-access= free}}</ref> The [[cheetah]], [[leopard]], [[African wild dog]] and [[spotted hyena]] are normally a threat only to newborn calves, though larger clans of hyenas have been recorded killing cows (mainly pregnant ones) and, on rare occasions, full-grown bulls.<ref name="Hyena">{{cite book | last= Kruuk |first= Hans | title=The Spotted Hyena: A study of predation and social behaviour | year= 1979 | page= 335 | isbn= 978-0-226-45508-2 | publisher= University of Chicago Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite Q| Q105300095 |author=Trinkel, M.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Q|Q55951239|author=Hayward, M. W.}}</ref> Large packs of wild dogs have been observed to hunt calves and sick adults.

===Diseases===
[[File:005 Decomposing African buffalo skull in the Serengeti National Park (edit) Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|alt=African buffalo skull decomposing in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania|thumb|African buffalo skull decomposing in the [[Serengeti National Park]], Tanzania]]
The African buffalo is susceptible to many diseases, including those shared with domestic cattle, such as [[bovine tuberculosis]], [[East Coast fever|corridor disease]], and [[foot-and-mouth disease]]. As with many diseases, these problems remain dormant within a population as long as the health of the animals is good. These diseases do, however, restrict the legal movements of the animals and fencing infected areas from unaffected areas is enforced. Some wardens and game managers have managed to protect and breed "disease-free" herds which become very valuable because they can be transported. Most well-known are [[Lindsay Hunt]]'s efforts to source uninfected animals from the [[Kruger National Park]] in [[South Africa]]. Some disease-free buffaloes in South Africa have been sold to breeders for close to US$130,000.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Laing |first1=Aislinn |title=Why is this buffalo worth £8.5 million? |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/24/why-is-this-buffalo-worth-85-million/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/24/why-is-this-buffalo-worth-85-million/ |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=The Telegraph |date=24 April 2016 |publisher=The Telegraph |access-date=25 June 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

==Social behavior==
[[File:Afrikanische Büffel (Syncerus caffer) 1.jpg|thumb|right|An African buffalo herd]]
[[Group size measures|Herd size]] is highly variable. The core of the herds is made up of related females, and their offspring, in an almost linear [[dominance hierarchy]].  The basic herds are surrounded by subherds of subordinate males, high-ranking males and females, and old or invalid animals.

African buffaloes engage in several types of group behavior. Females appear to exhibit a sort of "voting behavior". During resting time, the females stand up, shuffle around, and sit back down again. They sit in the direction they think they should move. After an hour of more shuffling, the females travel in the direction they decide. This decision is communal and not based on hierarchy or dominance.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=D. S. |s2cid=23390199 |year=1997|title=Altruism and Organism: Disentangling the Themes of Multilevel Selection Theory |jstor=2463504|pmid=18811309 |journal=The American Naturalist|volume=150|issue=S1 |pages= S122–S134|doi=10.1086/286053 |bibcode=1997ANat..150S.122W }}</ref>

When chased by [[Predation|predators]], a herd sticks close together and makes it hard for the predators to pick off one member. Calves are gathered in the middle. A buffalo herd responds to the distress call of a threatened member and tries to rescue it.<ref name="Sinclair 1977"/> A calf's distress call gets the attention of not only the mother, but also the herd. Buffaloes engage in [[mobbing behavior]] when fighting off predators.  They have been recorded killing lions<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJjcQBSPDaI |title=YouTube|work=youtube.com}}</ref> and chasing lions up trees and keeping them there for two hours, after the lions have killed a member of their group. Lion cubs can get trampled and killed. In one videotaped instance, known as the ''[[Battle at Kruger]]'', a calf survived an attack by both lions and a crocodile after intervention of the herd.

Males have a linear dominance hierarchy based on age and size. Since a buffalo is safer when a herd is larger, dominant bulls may rely on subordinate bulls and sometimes tolerate their copulation. The young males keep their distance from the dominant bull, which is recognizable by the thickness of his horns.<ref name ="Turner 1995"/>
[[File:Syncerus caffer fight1.jpg|thumb|Bulls in position to spar]]

Adult bulls spar in play, dominance interactions, or actual fights. A bull approaches another, lowing, with his horns down, and waits for the other bull to do the same thing. When sparring, the bulls twist their horns from side to side.<ref name="Sinclair 1977">Sinclair, A. R. E. (1977) ''The African Buffalo''. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.</ref> If the sparring is for play, the bull may rub his opponent's face and body during the sparring session. Actual fights are violent but rare and brief. Calves may also spar in play, but adult females rarely spar at all.

During the dry season, males split from the herd and form bachelor groups.<ref name ="Turner 1995"/> Two types of bachelor herds occur: ones made of males aged four to seven years and those of males 12 years or older.<ref name= "Ryan 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=S. J. |last2=Knetchtel |first2=Christiane U. |last3=Wayne |first3=M. |year=2006|title=Range and habitat Selection of African Buffalo in South Africa|doi=10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70[764:RAHSOA]2.0.CO;2 |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/getzlab/Reprints06/RyanKnechtelGetzJWM06.pdf |volume= 70|issue=3|pages=764–776 |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management|s2cid=356110 }}</ref> During the wet season, the younger bulls rejoin a herd to mate with the females. They stay with them throughout the season to protect the calves.<ref name ="Main 1990">{{cite journal |last1=Main |first1=M. B. |last2=Coblentz |first2=Bruce E. |year=1990|title=Sexual Segregation among Ungulate: A Critique |jstor=3782137|journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin|volume=18|issue=2|pages=204–210}}</ref> Some older bulls cease to rejoin the herd, as they can no longer compete with the younger, more aggressive males. The old bachelors are called ''dagga boy''s ("mud covered"), and are considered the most dangerous to humans.<ref name="afrgeo">{{cite web |title=Buffalo - Godfather of the African bushveld |url=https://africageographic.com/stories/buffalo-godfather-of-the-african-bushveld/ |website=Africa Geographic |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210806101652/https://africageographic.com/stories/buffalo-godfather-of-the-african-bushveld/ |archive-date=6 August 2021 |date=5 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Vocalizations===
African buffaloes make various vocalizations. Many calls are lower-pitched versions of those emitted by [[domestic cattle]]. They emit low-pitched, two- to four-second calls intermittently at three- to six-second intervals to signal the herd to move. To signal to the herd to change direction, leaders  emit "gritty", "creaking gate" sounds.<ref name ="Estes 1991"/> When moving to drinking places, some individuals make long "maaa" calls up to 20 times a minute. When being aggressive, they make explosive grunts that may last long or turn into a rumbling growl. Cows produce croaking calls when looking for their calves. Calves make a similar call of a higher pitch when in distress.<ref name ="Estes 1991"/> When threatened by predators, they make drawn-out "waaaa" calls. Dominant individuals make calls to announce their presence and location. A version of the same call, but more intense, is emitted as a warning to an encroaching inferior.<ref name ="Estes 1991"/> When grazing, they make various sounds, such as brief bellows, grunts, honks, and croaks.

===Reproduction===
Females reach sexual maturity at around five years of age while males are sexually matured at four to six.<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{Cite web |last=Ng |first=Christoph |title=Syncerus caffer (African buffalo) |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Syncerus_caffer/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=Animal Diversity Web |language=en}}</ref> African buffaloes mate and give birth only during the rainy seasons. Birth peak takes place early in the season, while mating peaks later. A bull closely guards a cow that comes into heat, while keeping other bulls at bay.<ref name ="Estes 1991"/><ref name ="Turner 1995">{{Cite Q| Q56338562|author=Turner, W. C.|author2=Jolles, A. E.|author3=Owen-Smith, N.}}</ref> This is difficult, as cows are quite evasive and attract many males to the scene. By the time a cow is in full estrus, only the most dominant bull in the herd/subherd is there.<ref name ="Estes 1991"/>

Cows first calve at five years of age, after a [[gestation]] period of 11.5 months. Newborn calves remain hidden in vegetation for the first few weeks while being nursed occasionally by the mother before joining the main herd. Older calves are held in the centre of the herd for safety.<ref>{{cite web|url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species/African_buffalo |title = African Buffalo|publisher = British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=2010-10-23| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101027125404/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species/African_Buffalo| archive-date= 27 October 2010| url-status= live}}</ref> The maternal bond between mother and calf lasts longer than in most bovids. That bonding ends when a new calf is born, and the mother then keeps her previous offspring at bay with horn jabs. Nevertheless, the yearling follows its mother for another year or so. Males leave their mothers when they are two years old and join the bachelor groups. Young calves, unusually for bovids, suckle from behind their mothers, pushing their heads between the mothers' legs.<ref name="Prins1996">{{cite book |last=Prins |first=H.H.T |title=Ecology and Behaviour of the African Buffalo: Social Inequality and Decision Making|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FUs3eujlFwC&pg=PA118 |access-date=31 July 2013|year=1996 |publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-412-72520-3|page=118}}</ref>

In the wild African buffaloes have an average lifespan of 11 years but they have been recorded to reach 22 years of age. In captivity they can live for a maximum of 29.5 years though they only live 16 years on average.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) calf 2 weeks.jpg|Two-week-old red calf<br />At [[Kazinga Channel]] in [[Uganda]]
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) calf 2 weeks suckling.jpg|Two-week-old calf suckling<br />At Kazinga Channel in Uganda
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) juvenile head.jpg|Calf<br />At [[Chobe National Park]] in [[Botswana]]
Cape Buffalo calf.jpg|Female with red calf<br />At [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]] in [[Tanzania]]
</gallery>

==Relationship with humans==
[[File:Ernest Hemingway poses with water buffalo, Africa, 1953.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Hemingway]] poses with a Cape buffalo he shot in 1953.]]

===Status===
The current status of the African buffalo is dependent on the animal's value to both trophy hunters and tourists, paving the way for conservation efforts through anti-poaching patrols, village crop damage payouts, and [[Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources|CAMPFIRE]] payback programs to local areas.

The African buffalo is listed as [[Near threatened]] by the [[IUCN]], with a decreasing population of 400,000 individuals. While some populations (subspecies) are decreasing, others will remain unchanged in the long term if large, healthy populations continue to persist in a substantial number of national parks, equivalent reserves and hunting zones in southern and eastern Africa."<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

In the most recent and available census data at continental scale, the total estimated numbers of the three savanna-type African buffalo subspecies (''S. c. caffer'', ''S. c. brachyceros'' and ''S. c. aequinoctialis'') are at 513,000 individuals.<ref>Melletti M. and Burton J. (eds). 2014. ''Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour of Wild Cattle: Implications for Conservation''. Cambridge University Press</ref>

In the past, numbers of African buffaloes suffered their most severe collapse during the great [[1890s African rinderpest epizootic|rinderpest epidemic of the 1890s]], which, coupled with [[pleuro-pneumonia]], caused mortalities as high as 95% among both livestock and wild ungulates.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Winterbach |first=H. E. K. |year=1998|title=Research review: the status and distribution of Cape buffalo ''Syncerus caffer caffer'' in southern Africa|journal=South African Journal of Wildlife Research|volume= 28|issue=3|pages=82–88|url=http://www.sabinet.co.za/abstracts/wild/wild_v28_n3_a4.html}}</ref>

Being a member of the big five game group, a term used to describe the five most dangerous animals to hunt, the Cape buffalo is a sought-after trophy, with some hunters paying over $10,000 for the opportunity to hunt one. The larger bulls are targeted for their trophy value, although in some areas, buffaloes are still hunted for meat.

=== Attacks ===
One of the [[Big five game|"big five" African game]], it is known as "the Black Death" or "the widowmaker", and is widely regarded as a very dangerous animal. African buffaloes are sometimes reported to kill more people in Africa than any other animal, although the same claim is also made of [[hippopotamus]]es and [[crocodile]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.on-the-matrix.com/africa/buffalo.asp|first = Bruce G.|last = Stumpf|title = Africa on the Matrix: The Cape Buffalo|access-date = 2010-10-23|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20021220101633/http://on-the-matrix.com/africa/buffalo.asp|archive-date = 2002-12-20}}</ref> These numbers may be somewhat overestimated; for example, in [[Mozambique]], attacks, especially fatal ones, were much less frequent on humans than those by hippos, and especially, Nile crocodiles.<ref>Dunham, K. M., Ghiurghi, A., Cumbi, R., & Urbano, F. (2010). ''Human–wildlife conflict in Mozambique: a national perspective, with emphasis on wildlife attacks on humans''. Oryx, 44(2), 185-193.</ref> In [[Uganda]], on the other hand, large herbivores were found to attack more people on average than [[lion]]s or [[leopard]]s and have a higher rate of inflicting fatalities during attacks than the predators (the African buffalo, in particular, killing humans in 49.5% of attacks on them), but hippos and even [[elephant]]s may still kill more people per annum than buffaloes.<ref>Treves, A., & Naughton-Treves, L. (1999). ''[http://faculty.nelson.wisc.edu/treves/pubs/1999_Risk_and_Opportunity.pdf Risk and opportunity for humans coexisting with large carnivores]''. Journal of Human Evolution, 36(3), 275-282.</ref> African buffaloes are notorious amongst big-game hunters as very dangerous animals, with wounded animals reported to ambush and attack the hunters.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.safaribwana.com/ANIMALS/animpages/buffalo.htm|title = African Animals Hunting facts and tips – Buffalo Hunting|publisher = safariBwana newsletter|access-date = 2010-10-23|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130708213845/http://www.safaribwana.com/ANIMALS/animpages/buffalo.htm|archive-date = 2013-07-08}}</ref> In August 2025, Asher Watkins, a 52‑year‑old American rancher and trophy hunter, was killed by a Cape buffalo he was tracking during a safari in [[Limpopo Province]], South Africa. Reportedly, the buffalo charged Watkins at approximately 35 mph, resulting in fatal injuries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Princewill |first=Nimi |date=2025-08-08 |title=US man killed by buffalo he was tracking during South Africa hunting trip |url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/08/08/africa/buffalo-kills-hunter-south-africa-scli-intl |access-date=2025-08-10 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Betts |first=Anna |date=2025-08-06 |title=US hunter reportedly killed by buffalo during expedition in South Africa |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/aug/06/hunter-killed-by-buffalo-south-africa |access-date=2025-08-10 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

=== Domestication ===
The Cape buffalo has been bred with Indian [[water buffalo]] to produce the [[Jafarabadi buffalo]] breed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTgeAQAAMAAJ|title=Indian Science Abstracts|publisher=Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre|year=2006|page=156}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Anoa]]
* [[Gaur]]
* [[Zebu]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Melletti M. and Burton J. (eds). 2014. ''Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour of Wild Cattle. Implications for Conservation'' (Cambridge University Press). http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/life-sciences/animal-behaviour/ecology-evolution-and-behaviour-wild-cattle-implications-conservation
* ''Ecology and Behaviour of the African Buffalo – Social Inequality and Decision Making'' (Chapman & Hall Wildlife Ecology & Behaviour)
* Huffman, B. 2006. [http://www.ultimateungulate.com ''The ultimate ungulate page'']. ''UltimateUngulate.com''. Retrieved January 9, 2007.
* Nowak, R.M. and Paradiso, J.L. 1983. ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8018-2525-5}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikispecies|Syncerus caffer|African buffalo}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LU8DDYz68kM Video:Battle Kruger]
* [http://www.safaritravelplus.com/images/tag/cape-buffalo/ No attribution required Free African buffalo Images]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070916105131/http://www.wildlife-photo.org/keysearch.php?key=african+buffalo African buffalo images]
* {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Buffalo (oxen)|display=Buffalo, the name of two species of the true oxen |short=x}}

{{Artiodactyla|R.4}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q160042}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:African buffalo}}
[[Category:Bovids of Africa]]
[[Category:Syncerus]]
[[Category:Extant Middle Pleistocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Herbivorous mammals]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1779]]
[[Category:Mammals of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Anders Sparrman]]