View source for African philosophy

{{Short description|Philosophical movement}}
{{for|the journal that formerly had this name|Philosophia Africana}}
{{missing information|date=July 2024|reason=recent developments and various topics}}
'''African philosophy''' is the philosophical discourse produced using indigenous African thought systems.  [[:Category:African philosophers|African philosophers]] are found in the various academic fields of present philosophy, such as [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[Ethics|moral philosophy]], and [[political philosophy]].<ref name="A Companion to African Philosophy">{{Cite book|date=2005-01-01|editor-last=Wiredu|editor-first=Kwasi|title=A Companion to African Philosophy|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470997154|language=en|doi=10.1002/9780470997154|isbn=9780470997154}}</ref> It discusses substantive issues from an African perspective.

African philosophy before the 20th century was primarily conducted and transmitted orally as ideas by philosophers whose names have been lost to history. While early African intellectual history primarily focused on [[African folklore|folklore]], [[Proverb|wise sayings]], and religious ideas, it also included philosophical concepts, such as the [[Nguni people|Nguni Bantu]] concept of [[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]] in moral philosophy.<ref name="auto">{{multiref|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=African Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=433–452}}|{{harvnb|Chimakonam|2023|loc=lead section, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Janz|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ADNfa6ph57wC&pg=PA74 74]}}}}</ref> Ubuntu, often summarized by the phrase "I am because we are," emphasizes the interconnectedness of individuals within a community. It contrasts with Western [[individualism]] by prioritizing communal values and the well-being of the group over the individual, and is reminiscent of the wider phenomenon of [[African communalism]] found across the continent.

African philosophy includes but often differs from [[Africana philosophy]] in that African philosophy usually focuses on [[Indigenous knowledge|indigenous knowledge systems]] and philosophical traditions native to the African continent. In contrast, Africana philosophy addresses the philosophical concerns, experiences, and identities of Africans in the [[African diaspora|diaspora]], particularly in regions outside Africa such as the Americas and the Caribbean.

One particular subject that several modern African philosophers have written about is on the subject of [[freedom]] and what it means to be free or to experience wholeness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mucale|first=Ergimino Pedro|date=Fall 2015|title=The Libertarian Paradigm in Ngoenha: A Contribution to the African Philosophy|journal=Philosophia Africana|volume= 17|pages=45–54|doi=10.5840/philafricana20151715}}</ref>

Philosophy in Africa has a rich and varied history, some of which has been lost over time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Holton|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BIRZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |title=World Civilizations And History Of Human Development|last2=Nasson|first2=William Richard|date=2009-09-29|publisher=EOLSS Publications|isbn=978-1-84826-213-3|language=en}}</ref> Some of the world's oldest philosophical texts have been produced in [[Ancient Egypt]], written in [[Hieratic]] and on [[papyrus]], {{circa}} 2200–1000 BCE. One of the earliest known African philosophers was [[Ptahhotep]], an ancient Egyptian philosopher.

A philosophical tradition of Islamic scholarship emerged in [[History of Africa|medieval African]] kingdoms such as Mali, Ghana and Songhai.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Imbo |first1=Samuel Oluoch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-p0iHjAEBvkC |title=An Introduction to African Philosophy |date=1998 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8476-8841-8 |page=41 |language=en}}</ref> In the seventeenth century, a philosophical literature developed in [[Ethiopia]] in relation to [[theodicy]], principle of [[ethics]] and [[psychology]] under the philosopher [[Zera Yacob (philosopher)|Zera Yacob]], and that of his disciple [[Walda Heywat]]."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wiredu |first1=Kwasi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DGuJztByFvEC&dq=Zera+Yacob,+and+that+of+his+disciple+Walda&pg=PA172 |title=A Companion to African Philosophy |date=15 April 2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-99737-6 |pages=172–192|language=en}}</ref>

In the 21st century, research by [[Egyptologists]] has indicated that the word ''philosopher'' itself seems to stem from Egypt: "the founding Greek word ''philosophos'', lover of wisdom, is itself a borrowing from and translation of the Egyptian concept ''mer-rekh'' (''mr-rḫ'') which literally means 'lover of wisdom,' or knowledge."<ref name="Herbjørnsrud">{{Cite web |last=Herbjørnsrud |first=Dag |date=2018-12-17 |title=The Radical Philosophy of Egypt: Forget God and Family, Write! |url=https://blog.apaonline.org/2018/12/17/the-radical-philosophy-of-egypt-forget-god-and-family-write/ |access-date=2021-06-04 |website=Blog of the APA |language=en-US}}</ref>

In the early and mid-twentieth century, anti-colonial movements had a tremendous effect on the development of a distinct modern African [[political philosophy]] that had resonance on both the continent and in the African diaspora. One well-known example of the economic philosophical works emerging from this period was the [[African socialist]] philosophy of [[Ujamaa]] propounded in Tanzania and other parts of [[Southeast Africa]]. These African political and economic philosophical developments also had a notable impact on the anti-colonial movements of many non-African peoples around the world.

==Definition==
There is some debate in defining the [[Ethnophilosophy|ethnophilosophical]] parameters of African philosophy and identifying what differentiates it from other philosophical traditions. One of the implicit assumptions of [[ethnophilosophy]] is that a specific culture can have a philosophy that is not applicable and accessible to all peoples and cultures in the world. In ''A Discourse on African Philosophy: A New Perspective on Ubuntu and Transitional Justice in South Africa'', Christian B. N. Gade argues that the ethnophilosophical approach to African philosophy as a static group property is highly problematic. His research on [[Ubuntu philosophy|ubuntu]] presents an alternative collective discourse on African philosophy that takes differences, historical developments, and social contexts seriously. According to [[Edwin Etieyibo]] and Jonathon O. Chimakonam in their article “African Philosophy: Past, Present, and Future”, historical context plays an important role in African philosophy. History provides the framework in which we can inspect philosophical problems. In terms of African philosophy, one must look at the whole picture through the lens of African history.&nbsp;“There are no facts without history."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Etieyibo|first1=Edwin|last2=Chimakonam|first2=Jonathan|date=Fall 2015|title=African Philosophy: Past, Present, and Future|journal=Philosophia Africana}}</ref>

African philosophy can be formally defined as a critical thinking by Africans on their experiences of reality. Nigerian born Philosopher [[K.C. Anyanwu]] defined African philosophy as "that which concerns itself with the way in which African people of the past and present make sense of their destiny and of the world in which they live.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Peters|first1=R.S.|title=Authority, Responsibility and Education|date=1959|publisher=G. Allen & Unwin|location=London}}</ref>

Nigerian philosopher Joseph I. Omoregbe broadly defines a philosopher as one who attempts to understand the world's phenomena, the purpose of human existence, the nature of the world, and the place of human beings in that world. This form of [[natural philosophy]] is identifiable in Africa even before individual African philosophers can be distinguished in the sources.<ref>Maurice Muhatia Makumba, [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=9966082964 An Introduction to African Philosophy: Past and Present] (2007), p. 25.</ref> Like [[Western philosophy]], African philosophy contemplates the perceptions of time, personhood, space and other subjects.

== History ==
There is a rich and written history of ancient African philosophy - for example from ancient Egypt, Ethiopia, and Mali (Timbuktutu, Djenne).<ref name="A Companion to African Philosophy"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Philosophy: An Anthology |url=https://www.wiley.com/en-us/African+Philosophy%3A+An+Anthology-p-9780631203384|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Wiley.com|language=en-us}}</ref> In general, the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] acknowledged their Egyptian forebears,<ref name="A Companion to African Philosophy" /> and in the fifth century BCE, the philosopher [[Isocrates]] declared that the earliest Greek thinkers traveled to Egypt to seek knowledge; one of them [[Pythagoras]] of Samos, who "was first to bring to the Greeks all philosophy".<ref name="Herbjørnsrud" /> When it comes to the modern era and the 20th century, a new beginning is linked to the 1920s, when African individuals who had studied in the United States and Europe ("Western" locations) returned to Africa and reflected on the racial discrimination experienced abroad. Their arrival back in Africa instigated a feeling of ''onuma'', which is an interpretation of "frustration." The onuma was felt in response to legacies of colonialism on a global scale. The renaissance of African philosophy in the 20th century is important because ''onuma'' inspired some who had traveled and returned to formulate a "systematic beginning" of philosophizing the African identity, the space of African people in history, and African contribution to humanity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/afric-hi/#H3|title=History of African Philosophy|last=Chimakonam|first=Jonathan|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>

== Criteria ==
According to some, two conflicting components are deemed integral to a work for it to be considered African philosophy. First, the piece must have a racial focus. This facet is valued by Traditionalist groups, who posit that African philosophy should be an expression of the world experienced by African individuals. African philosophy must be produced by African authors. In contrast, Universalist groups suggest that African philosophy should be analyses and critical engagement of and between individual African thinkers. A work is African philosophy based on a focal point of tradition. African philosophy must pull from African cultural backgrounds or thought processes, but it should be independent from racial considerations and use "African" only as a term of solidarity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Essay in African Philosophical Thought: The Akan Conceptual Scheme|last=Gyeke|first=Kwame|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1987|location=Cambridge}}</ref>

== Methods ==

=== Communitarian method ===
The communitarian method of African philosophy emphasizes mutualism in thought. It is most commonly used by researchers following [[Ubuntu philosophy|ubuntu]]. The common expression of ubuntu is that "a person is a person through a person." Leonhard Praeg, Mogobe Ramose, and Fainos Mangera implement the communitarian method.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=On Defining African Philosophy|last=Wiredu|first=Kwasi|publisher=APP Publications|year=1989}}</ref>

=== Complementary method ===
The complementary method focuses on the prospect of a missing link. All variables are important in consideration of histories and identities, and no variable should be overlooked or under-considered. Additionally, all variables affect one another, so the relationship between them and their affects on other variables should be scrutinized. Mesembe Edet implements the complementary method.<ref name=":0" />

=== Conversational method ===
The conversational method creates thought by assessing a relationship between oppositional works. The defender or proponent is named "[[nwa-swa]]," and the nwa swa is questioned and doubted by a disagreeing party, known as "[[nwa nju]]." The conversational method emphasizes the interconnectedness of networks within reality; the more accurate a thought should be, the more specific a location should be. This method is endorsed by the Conventional School of Psychology, and it is used by Victor Nweke and Msembe Edet.<ref name=":0" />

==Early philosophy by region==

===Pre-modern===
====North Africa====
In [[North Africa]], arguably central to the development of the [[Ancient Egyptian philosophy|ancient Egyptian philosoph]]ical tradition of Egypt and Sudan was the conception of ''[[ma'at]]'', which roughly translated refers to 'justice', 'truth', or simply 'that which is right'. One of the earliest works of political philosophy was ''[[The Maxims of Ptahhotep]]'', which were taught to Egyptian schoolboys for centuries.

Ancient Egypt have several philosophical texts that have been treated by scholars in recent years. In the 2018 podcast "Africana Philosophy", the philosophers [[Peter Adamson (philosopher)|Peter Adamson]] and [[Chike Jeffers]] devoted the first eight episodes to [[Ancient Egyptian philosophy|Egyptian philosophy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://historyofphilosophy.net/africana/precolonial|title=Locating and Debating Precolonial African Philosophy {{!}} History of Philosophy without any gaps|website=historyofphilosophy.net|access-date=2019-06-20}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The [[American Philosophical Association]] (APA) has published a text on the classical text ''[[The Immortality of Writers]]'' ("Be a Writer"), ca. 1200 BCE. The Blog of the APA article also covers ''[[Dispute between a man and his Ba|The Dispute Between a Man and His Ba]]'' from the 19th century BCE; ''[[Instruction of Any|The Teaching of Ani]]'', 13th century BCE, which gives advice to the ordinary man; ''[[The Satire of the Trades]]'' by Khety; and the text of [[Amennakht]] (active in 1170–1140 BCE) from [[Deir el-Medina]], whose teaching states that "it is good to finish school, better than the smell of lotus blossoms in summer".<ref name="Contributor">{{Cite web|url=https://blog.apaonline.org/2018/12/17/the-radical-philosophy-of-egypt-forget-god-and-family-write/|title=The Radical Philosophy of Egypt: Forget God and Family, Write!|last=Herbjørnsrud|first=Dag |date=2018-12-17|website=Blog of the APA|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-20}}</ref>

Ancient Egyptian and other African philosophers also made important contributions to [[Hellenistic philosophy]] and [[Christian philosophy]]. According to ''Busiris'' by the ancient Greek philosopher [[Isocrates]], who was born before [[Plato]], "all men agree the Egyptians are the healthiest and most long of life among men; and then for the soul they introduced philosophy's training [...]".<ref name="Contributor"/> In the Hellenistic tradition, the influential philosophical school of [[Neoplatonism]] was founded by the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] philosopher [[Plotinus]] in the third century CE. The Church Father and philosopher [[Augustine of Hippo]] (born in [[Thagaste]], today's Algeria, in 354) had a Christian mother, [[Saint Monica]], who was an Amazigh (Berber), and Augustine defined himself as an African (or [[Punic people|Punic]], of [[Phoenicia]]n descent).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Troup|first=Calvin L.|date=1995|title=Augustine the African: Critic of Roman Colonialist Discourse|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3886277|journal=Rhetoric Society Quarterly|volume=25|issue=1–4|pages=91–106|doi=10.1080/02773949509391034|jstor=3886277|issn=0277-3945}}</ref>

====West Africa====
The most prominent of [[West Africa]]'s pre-modern philosophical traditions has been identified as that of the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] philosophical tradition and the distinctive worldview that emerged from it over the thousands of years of its development. Philosophical concepts such as [[Ifá]], [[Omoluabi]], [[Aṣẹ|Ashè]] and [[Emi Omo Eso]] were integral to this system, and the totality of its elements are contained in what is known amongst the Yoruba as the [[Yoruba mythology|Itan]]. The cosmologies and philosophies of the [[Akan people|Akan]], [[Dogon people|Dogon]], [[Serer creation myth|Serer]] and [[Dahomey]] were also significant.

In pre-colonial [[Senegambia]] (modern [[Gambia]] and [[Senegal]]), the 17th-century philosopher [[Kocc Barma Fall]] (b. 1586) stood out as one of the renowned philosophers in [[:Category:History of Senegambia|Senegambian history]]. His proverbs are still recited by Senegalese and Gambians alike, including in Senegambian popular culture - for example in [[Ousmane Sembene]]'s films such as ''[[Guelwaar]]''<ref>Ware, Rudolph T., ''The Walking Qurʼan: Islamic Education, Embodied Knowledge, and History in West Africa,'' UNC Press Books (2014), p. 101, {{ISBN|9781469614311}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=gRGpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101]</ref><ref>Murphy, David, ''Sembene: Imagining Alternatives in Film & Fiction.'' James Currey Publishers (200), p. 63, {{ISBN|978-0-85255-555-2}}</ref> Other notable philosophical thinkers include the Gambian historian [[Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof]], and the [[Mali]]an ethnologist [[Amadou Hampâté Bâ]].

One of the foremost scholars of Timbuktu was [[Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti|Ahmed Baba]] (1556–1627), who argued against what he called "racial slavery".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hunwick|first=J. O.|date=October 1964|title=A New Source For the Biography of Aḥmad Bābā Al-Tinbuktī (1556–1627)|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/new-source-for-the-biography-of-ahmad-baba-altinbukti-15561627/7FF54A15CFD28E57CA481121D3C5FFB7|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=568–593|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00118385|s2cid=162780325 |issn=1474-0699|url-access=subscription}}</ref> One of the leading women philosophers and writers of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], in present-day Nigeria, was the princess [[Nana Asma'u]] (1793-1864).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Before the canon: the non-European women who founded philosophy – Dag Herbjørnsrud {{!}} Aeon Essays|url=https://aeon.co/essays/before-the-canon-the-non-european-women-who-founded-philosophy|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Aeon|language=en}}</ref>

====Horn of Africa====
In the [[Horn of Africa]], there are a number of sources documenting the development of a distinct [[Ethiopian philosophy]] from the first millennium onwards. Among the most notable examples from this tradition emerge from the work of the 17th-century philosopher [[Zera Yacob (philosopher)|Zera Yacob]], and that of his disciple [[Walda Heywat]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aeon.co/essays/yacob-and-amo-africas-precursors-to-locke-hume-and-kant|title=Yacob and Amo: Africa's precursors to Locke, Hume and Kant – Dag Herbjørnsrud {{!}} Aeon Essays|website=Aeon|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20}}</ref> Yacob in his writings discusses religion, morality, and existence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herbjørnsrud|first=Dag|date=2019-05-10|title=Beyond decolonizing: global intellectual history and reconstruction of a comparative method|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/23801883.2019.1616310|journal=Global Intellectual History|volume=6|issue=5|pages=614–640|doi=10.1080/23801883.2019.1616310|s2cid=166543159|issn=2380-1883|url-access=subscription}}</ref> He comes to the belief that every person will believe their faith to be the right one and that all men are created equal.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ethiopian Philosophy|last=Sumner|first=Claude|year=1994}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Menn|first1=Stephen|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anton-wilhelm-amos-philosophical-dissertations-on-mind-and-body-9780197501627?cc=no&lang=en&|title=Anton Wilhelm Amo's Philosophical Dissertations on Mind and Body|last2=Smith|first2=Justin E. H.|date=2020-09-05|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-750162-7|location=Oxford, New York}}</ref>

====Southern Africa====
In [[Southern Africa]] and [[Southeast Africa]] the development of a distinctive [[Bantu Philosophy|Bantu philosophy]] addressing the nature of existence, the cosmos and humankind's relation to the world following the [[Bantu migration]] has had the most significant impact on the philosophical developments of the said regions, with the development of the philosophy of [[Ubuntu (philosophy)|Ubuntu]] as one notable example emerging from this worldview.

====Central & East Africa====
Many [[Central Africa]]n philosophical traditions before the [[Bantu migration]] into southern [[Central Africa]] have been identified as a uniting characteristic of many [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] and [[Sudanic languages|Sudanic]] peoples, ultimately giving rise to the distinctive worldviews identified in the conceptions of time, the creation of the world, human nature, and the proper relationship between mankind and nature prevalent in [[Dinka mythology]], [[Maasai mythology]] and similar traditions.

====African diaspora====
Some pre-modern [[African diaspora|African diasporic]] philosophical traditions have also been identified, mostly produced by descendants of Africans in Europe and the Americas. One notable pre-modern diasporic African philosopher was [[Anton Wilhelm Amo|Anthony William Amo]] in the 18th century, who was taken as a slave from Awukenu in what is now [[Ghana]], and was brought up and educated in Europe where he gained doctorates in medicine and philosophy, and subsequently became a professor of philosophy at the universities of [[University of Halle|Halle]] and [[University of Jena|Jena]] in Germany.

== Modern trends ==
[[Kenya]]n philosopher [[Henry Odera Oruka]] has distinguished what he calls four trends in modern African philosophy: ethnophilosophy, philosophical sagacity, nationalistic&ndash;ideological philosophy, and professional philosophy.<ref name="Samuel Oluoch Imbo, An Introduction to African Philosophy (1998)">Samuel Oluoch Imbo, [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0847688410 ''An Introduction to African Philosophy''] (1998), pp. 38-39,</ref> In fact it would be more realistic to call them candidates for the position of African philosophy, with the understanding that more than one of them might fit the bill. (Oruka later added two additional categories: literary/artistic philosophy, such as the work of literary figures such as [[Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o]], [[Wole Soyinka]], [[Chinua Achebe]], [[Okot p'Bitek]], and [[Taban Lo Liyong]], and hermeneutic philosophy, the analysis of African languages in order to find philosophical content.) In the African diaspora, American philosopher [[Maulana Karenga]] has also been notable in presenting varied definitions for understanding modern African philosophy, especially as it relates to its earliest sources.
[[File:Achille Mbembe 2.JPG|thumb|Achille Mbembe, a modern African philosopher]]
One notable contributor to professional philosophy is [[Achille Mbembe]]. He interacts with a multitude of modern subjects, including thoughts on statehood, death, capital, racism, and colonialism. He invokes attention to moral and political arguments through a tone of morality in his works. Many recent pieces from Mbembe, including ''Critique of Black Reason'', suggest that understanding Europe as a force not at the center of the universe is a point from which philosophy and society should view the world. Mbembe asserts that he positions himself in multiple worlds of existence at one time. This method creates an empathetic point from which the world can be viewed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalsocialtheory.org/thinkers/mbembe-achille/|title=MBEMBE, Achille|last=says|first=Shaka Yesufu|website=GLOBAL SOCIAL THEORY|language=en|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref>

===Ethnophilosophy and philosophical sagacity===
[[Henry Odera Oruka]] of Kenya came up with Sage Philosophy and philosophic sagacity is attributed to him. [[Ethnophilosophy]] has been used to record the beliefs found in African cultures. Such an approach treats African [[philosophy]] as consisting in a set of shared beliefs, values, categories, and assumptions that are implicit in the language, practices, and beliefs of African cultures; in short, the uniquely African [[worldview]]. As such, it is seen as an item of communal property rather than an activity for the individual.

One proponent of this form, [[Placide Tempels]], argued in ''[[Bantu Philosophy]]'' that the metaphysical categories of the [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] people are reflected in their linguistic categories. According to this view, African [[philosophy]] can be best understood as springing from the fundamental assumptions about reality reflected in the languages of [[Africa]].

Another example of this sort of approach is the work of [[E. J. Alagoa|Ebiegberi Joe Alagoa]] of the [[University of Port Harcourt]] in [[Nigeria]], who argues for the existence of an African [[philosophy of history]] stemming from traditional proverbs from the [[Niger Delta]] in his paper "An African Philosophy of History in the Oral Tradition." Alagoa argues that in African [[philosophy]], age is seen as an important factor in gaining wisdom and interpreting the past. In support of this view, he cites proverbs such as "More days, more wisdom", and "What an old man sees seated, a youth does not see standing." Truth is seen as eternal and unchanging ("Truth never rots"), but people are subject to error ("Even a four-legged horse stumbles and falls"). It is dangerous to judge by appearances ("A large eye does not mean keen vision"), but first-hand observation can be trusted ("He who sees does not err"). The past is not seen as fundamentally different from the present, but all history is contemporary history ("A storyteller does not tell of a different season"). The future remains beyond knowledge ("Even a bird with a long neck cannot see the future"). Nevertheless, it is said, "God will outlive eternity." History is seen as vitally important ("One ignorant of his origin is nonhuman"), and historians (known as "sons of the soil") are highly revered ("The son of the soil has the python's keen eyes"). However, these arguments must be taken with a grain of cultural relativism, as the span of culture in [[Africa]] is incredibly vast, with patriarchies, matriarchies, monotheists and traditional religionists among the population, and as such the attitudes of groups of the [[Niger Delta]] cannot be applied to the whole of [[Africa]].

Another more controversial application of this approach is embodied in the concept of [[Negritude]]. [[Leopold Senghor]], a proponent of [[Negritude]], argued that the distinctly African approach to reality is based on emotion rather than logic, works itself out in participation rather than analysis, and manifests itself through the arts rather than the sciences. [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] and Mubabinge Bilolo, on the other hand, while agreeing that African culture is unique, challenged the view of Africans as essentially emotional and artistic, arguing that Egypt was an African culture whose achievements in [[science]], [[mathematics]], [[architecture]], and [[philosophy]] were pre-eminent. This [[philosophy]] may also be maligned as overly [[reductionist]] due to the obvious scientific and scholarly triumphs of not only ancient Egypt, but also Nubia, Meroe, as well as the great library of Timbuktu, the extensive trade networks and kingdoms of North Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, the Horn of Africa and Great Zimbabwe and the other major empires of Southern, Southeast and [[Central Africa]].

Critics of this approach argue that the actual philosophical work in producing a coherent philosophical position is being done by the academic philosopher (such as Alagoa), and that the sayings of the same culture can be selected from and organised in many different ways in order to produce very different, often contradictory systems of thought.

Philosophical sagacity is a sort of individualist version of ethnophilosophy, in which one records the beliefs of certain special members of a community. The premise here is that, although most societies demand some degree of conformity of belief and behaviour from their members, a certain few of those members reach a particularly high level of knowledge and understanding of their cultures' worldviews; such people are sages. In some cases, the sage goes beyond mere knowledge and understanding to reflection and questioning&mdash;these become the targets of philosophical sagacity.

Critics of this approach note that not all reflection and questioning is philosophical; besides, if African philosophy were to be defined purely in terms of philosophic sagacity, then the thoughts of the sages could not be African philosophy, for they did not record them from other sages. Also, on this view the only difference between non-African [[anthropology]] or [[ethnology]] and African philosophy seems to be the nationality of the researcher.

Critics argue further that the problem with both ethnophilosophy and philosophical sagacity is that there is surely an important distinction between philosophy and the [[history of ideas]], although other philosophers consider the two topics to be remarkably similar.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=uWOnYFyGZcMC&dq=ethnophilosophy+philosophy+history+of+ideas+the+same+or+not&pg=PA172 "Overview African Philosophy"], p. 172, ''One Hundred Philosophers'', Peter J. King, Zebra, 2006</ref> The argument is that no matter how interesting the beliefs of a people such as the [[Akan (ethnic group)|Akan]] or the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] may be to the philosopher, they remain beliefs, not philosophy. To call them philosophy is to use a secondary sense of that term, as in "my philosophy is live and let live."

===Professional philosophy===
Professional philosophy is usually identified as that produced by African philosophers trained in the Western philosophical tradition, that embraces a universal view of the methods and concerns of philosophy.<ref name="Samuel Oluoch Imbo, An Introduction to African Philosophy (1998)"/> Those philosophers identified in this category often explicitly reject the assumptions of ethnophilosophy and adopt a universalist worldview of philosophy that requires all philosophy to be accessible and applicable to all peoples and cultures in the world.<ref name="Samuel Oluoch Imbo, An Introduction to African Philosophy (1998)"/> This is even if the specific philosophical questions prioritized by individual national or regional philosophies may differ.<ref name="Samuel Oluoch Imbo, An Introduction to African Philosophy (1998)"/> Some African philosophers classified in this category are Odera Oruka, Paulin Hountondji, Peter Bodunrin, Kwasi Wiredu, Tsenay Serequeberhan, Marcien Towa and Lansana Keita.<ref name="Samuel Oluoch Imbo, An Introduction to African Philosophy (1998)"/>

===Nationalist and ideological philosophy===
{{further|African nationalism}}
Nationalist and ideological philosophy might be considered a special case of philosophic sagacity, in which not sages but ideologues are the subjects. Alternatively, it has been considered as a subcategory of professional political philosophy. In either case, the same sort of problem arises with retaining a distinction between ideology and philosophy, and also between sets of ideas and a special way of reasoning. Examples include [[African socialism]], [[Nkrumaism]], [[Harambee]] and [[Authenticité (disambiguation)|Authenticité]]<!--intentional link to DAB page-->.

===African ethics===
Although Africa is extremely diverse, there appear to be some shared moral ideas across many ethnic groups.<ref name=Gyekye2010 /> In a number of African cultures, ethics is centered on a person's character, and saying "he has no morals" translates as something like "he has no character".<ref name=Gyekye2010 /> A person's character reflects the accumulation of their deeds and their habits of conduct; hence, it can be changed over a person's life.<ref name=Gyekye2010 /> In some African cultures, "personhood" refers to an adult human who exhibits moral virtues, and one who behaves badly is not considered a person, even if he is considered a human.<ref name=Gyekye2010>{{cite journal|last1=Gyekye|first1=Kwame|title=African Ethics|journal=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|date=9 Sep 2010|volume=Fall 2011 Edition|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/african-ethics/|access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref>

While many traditional African societies are highly religious, [[Traditional African religions|their religions]] are not revealed, and hence, ethics does not center around divine commands.<ref name=Gyekye2010 /> Instead, ethics is [[humanistic]] and [[utilitarian]]: it focuses on improving social functioning and human flourishing.<ref name=Gyekye2010 /> On the other hand, social welfare is not a mere aggregate of individual welfare; rather, there is a collective "social good" embodying values that everyone wants, like peace and stability.<ref name=Gyekye2010 /> In general, African ethics is social or collectivistic rather than individualistic and united in ideology.<ref name=Gyekye2010 /> Cooperation and altruism are considered crucial.<ref name=Gyekye2010 /> African ethics places more weight on duties of prosocial behaviour than on rights per se, in contrast to most of Western ethics.<ref name=Gyekye2010 />

===Africana philosophy===
{{Main|Africana philosophy}}
Africana philosophy is the work of philosophers of African descent and others whose work deals with the subject matter of the [[African diaspora]]. This is a relatively new (since the 1980s) and developing name given to African thought, and it is given credible attention by professional organizations, including the American Philosophical Association.<ref>{{Citation|last=Outlaw Jr.|first=Lucius T.|title=Africana Philosophy|date=2017|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/africana/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2017|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref>

Africana philosophy includes the philosophical ideas, arguments and theories of particular concern to people of African descent. Some of the topics explored by Africana philosophy include: pre-Socratic African philosophy and modern day debates discussing the early history of [[Western philosophy]], post-colonial writing in Africa and the Americas, black resistance to oppression, [[black existentialism]] in the United States, and the meaning of "blackness" in the modern world.<ref name="Gyekye2010" />

== African epistemology ==
[[African epistemology]] is [[epistemology]] from the African perspective, and is therefore rooted in African [[ontology]] which is unitary and communal.{{efn|It does not divide knowledge's domain into rational, empirical, mythological etc.}} If [[epistemology]] concerns knowledge and non-knowledge, African epistemology considers awareness of what is and can be known, and what isn't and can't be known, contending that human knowledge is, and always will be, humility-inducingly limited and dwarfed by what isn't known. In the search for a comprehensive knowledge, approximation is considered desirable.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |last=Chimakonam |first=Jonathan O. |title=Toward an African Theory of Knowledge |date=2021 |work=African Metaphysics, Epistemology and a New Logic: A Decolonial Approach to Philosophy |pages=175–194 |editor-last=Chimakonam |editor-first=Jonathan O. |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8 |access-date=2024-11-28 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8 |isbn=978-3-030-72445-0 |last2=Ogbonnaya |first2=L. Uchenna |editor2-last=Ogbonnaya |editor2-first=L. Uchenna|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Citation |last=Jimoh |first=Anselm Kole |title=An African Theory of Knowledge |date=2017 |work=Themes, Issues and Problems in African Philosophy |pages=121–136 |editor-last=Ukpokolo |editor-first=Isaac E. |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-40796-8_8 |access-date=2024-11-28 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-40796-8_8 |isbn=978-3-319-40796-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Ancestral spirits, i.e. spirits of individuals that once inhabited the physical world, are central to traditional African thought. It is believed they are still capable of actions which have consequences in the physical world, and having knowledge of their intentions provides grounds for understanding physical occurrences. Reality is conceived in a [[holistic]] view in which [[personalism]] is expressed in concrete [[consubstantiation]] of spirit. While Western epistemology follows analytical reason, African epistemology follows emotional and intuitive reason where experience is foundational to knowledge, and experience is acted upon by and combined with reason to produce a "complete knowledge". Fundamentally, there is thought to be more to the realm of experience than what can be unearthed via empirical enquiry. This contrasts the fundamental tenet of Western culture where science is the main determiner of what is and is not real, and anything unconfirmed by science is viewed as metaphysical fantasy or superstition. This informs what is termed the "colonial myth on Africa", and African scholars have defended "African rational, logical and analytic consciousness and thought patterns", pointing to the [[Cultural relativism|cultural embeddings of knowledge]].<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":1" />

African philosophy seeks a middle ground between [[Dualism in cosmology|dualism]] and [[monism]] regarding the material and spiritual, noting their correlativity. [[Epistemological dualism]], where the epistemic subject and epistemic object are separated, is absent from African epistemology, and the epistemic subject "experiences the epistemic object in a sensuous, emotive, intuitive, abstractive understanding, rather than through abstraction alone, as is the case in Western epistemology". Thus, [[oral tradition]]s, [[Music of Africa|music]], [[African folklore|folklore]], [[myth]]s, [[proverb]]s and the like are utilized in the preservation and transmission of knowledge. African epistemology is the endeavour of the individual, not the community and therefore not [[ethnophilosophy]], and holders of knowledge are considered moral agents that treat knowledge as a tool to moralise/humanise themselves and the society as a whole, thus knowledge is definitively used to address human societal challenges.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

Criticisms come from African [[Neo-positivism|neo-positivists]], who argue that African epistemology must have a basic method of testing knowledge claims to be truly valid. A response is that Africans don't prioritise separation of knowledge and belief, but prioritise whether it is true or false, often seeking a third party's opinion or further evidence from a reliable/truthful person. Truth is considered [[relativist]], and relies on what is meant or understood, which is not always translatable between individuals or cultures owing to differing [[paradigm]]s and linguistical conventions. Thus knowledge is viewed as a societal convention rather than an [[Objectivism|objectivist]] phenomenon. Universal justifiers of epistemological claims are: linguistic-conceptual schemes, human nature, socio-cultural values and interests, and customs and habits, which commonly instil confidence.<ref name=":02" />

==List of African philosophers==
This is a list of notable philosophers who theorize in the African tradition, as well as philosophers from the continent of Africa.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-1-of-2}}
;Algerian
* [[Albert Camus]]
* [[Louis Althusser]]
* [[Mohammed Arkoun]]
* [[Augustine of Hippo]]
* [[Malek Bennabi]]
* [[Hélène Cixous]]
* [[Jacques Derrida]]
* [[Frantz Fanon]]
* [[Bernard-Henri Lévy]]
* [[Mohammed Chaouki Zine]]
* [[Lalla Zaynab]]
* [[Isabelle Eberhardt]]
* [[Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi]]

;Beninese
* [[Paulin J. Hountondji]]

;Cameroonian
* [[Achille Mbembe]]

;Congolese
* [[Jacques Depelchin]]
* [[V. Y. Mudimbe]]
* [[Ernest Wamba dia Wamba]]
* [[Theophile Obenga]]

;Egyptian
* [[Ptah-Hotep]]
* [[Kagemni I]]
* [[Mustafa Abd al-Rizq]]
* [[Arnouphis]]
* [[Abdel Rahman Badawi]]
* [[George of Laodicea]]
* [[Hassan Hanafi]]
* [[Ihab Hassan]]
* [[Zaki Naguib Mahmoud]]
* [[Abdel Wahab El-Messiri]]
* [[Plotinus]]
* [[al-Suyuti|as-Suyuti]]
* [[Al-Shafi'i|Imam ash-Shafi'i]]
* [[Rifa'a al-Tahtawi]]
* [[Fouad Zakariyya]]
* [[Maimonides]]

;Ethiopian
* [[Walda Heywat]]
* [[Zera Yacob (philosopher)|Zera Yacob]]

;Gambian
* [[Kocc Barma Fall]]
* [[Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof]]

;Ghanaian
* [[Kwame Nkrumah]]
* [[Kwame Anthony Appiah]]
* [[Al-Hajj Salim Suwari]]
* [[Anton Wilhelm Amo]]
* [[W. E. B. Du Bois]]
* [[Kwame Gyekye]]
* [[Ato Sekyi-Otu]]
* [[Kwasi Wiredu]]

;Hellenistic
* [[Apollodorus of Athens]]
* [[Clitomachus (philosopher)|Clitimachus]]
* [[Dio of Alexandria]]
* [[Dionysius of Cyrene]]
* [[Heraclides Lembus]]
* [[Hypatia]]
* [[Lacydes of Cyrene]]

{{col-2-of-2}}
;Kenyan 
* [[Dada Masiti]]
* [[John Mbiti]]
* [[Micere Githae Mugo]]
* [[Henry Odera Oruka]]
* [[Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o]]
* [[PLO Lumumba]]

;Libyan
* [[Sextus Julius Africanus]]
* [[Aref Ali Nayed]]

;Malawian
* [[Didier Kaphagawani]]

;Malian
* [[Amadou Hampâté Bâ]]

;Moroccan
* [[Taha Abdurrahman]]
* [[Alain Badiou]]
* [[Bensalem Himmich]]
* [[Mohammed Abed al-Jabri]]
* [[Mohammed Aziz Lahbabi]]
* [[Ahmad al-Badawi]]
* [[Al-Shadhili|Ash-Shadhili]]
* [[Judah ben Nissim]]
* [[Mohammed Sabila]]
* [[Abu al-Abbas as-Sabti]]
* [[Mohammed Allal Sinaceur]]
* [[Hourya Sinaceur]]
* [[Abdellatif Zeroual]]

;Nigerian
* [[Obafemi Awolowo]]
* [[John Olubi Sodipo]]
* [[Chinua Achebe]]
* [[Wole Soyinka]]
* [[Nana Asma'u]]
* [[Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze]]
* [[Usman dan Fodio]]
* [[Josephat Obi Oguejiofor]]
* [[Ike Odimegwu]]
* Theophilus Okere<ref>Okere, Theophilus. ''African Philosophy: A Historico-Hermeneutical Investigation of the Conditions of its Possibility''. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1983.   
</ref>
*[[Sophie Oluwole]]

;Rwandan
* [[Alexis Kagame]]

;Senegalese
* [[Cheikh Anta Diop]]
* [[Leopold Sedar Senghor]]
* [[Souleymane Bachir Diagne]]
* [[Kocc Barma Fall]]

;South African
* [[Es'kia Mphahlele]]
* [[John Langalibalele Dube]]
* [[Steve Biko]]
* [[Mabogo P. More]]
* [[Mogobe Ramose]]
* [[Mpho Tshivhase]]
* [[David Benatar]]

;Tanzanian
* [[Julius Nyerere]]

;Tunisian
* [[Rachida Triki]]
* [[Ibn Khaldun]]
{{col-end}}

==See also==
* [[:Category:African philosophers|African philosophers]]
* [[Ancient Egyptian philosophy]]
* [[Afrophone philosophy]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite web |last1=Chimakonam |first1=Jonathan O. |title=History of African Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=14 June 2023 |date=2023 |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605181437/https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Grayling |first1=A. C. |title=The History of Philosophy |date=20 June 2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-241-98086-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=24 May 2023}}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Janz |first1=Bruce B. |title=Philosophy in an African Place |date=2009 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7391-3668-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ADNfa6ph57wC&pg=PA74 |language=en |access-date=2023-08-13}}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite book |last1=Smart |first1=Ninian |title=World philosophies |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-41188-2 |edition=Rev. 2nd}}

==Further reading==
* Amo, Antin Wilhelm Amo: ''[https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anton-wilhelm-amos-philosophical-dissertations-on-mind-and-body-9780197501627?cc=no&lang=en& Anton Wilhelm Amo's Philosophical Dissertations on Mind and Body]'' (Edited and translated by Stephen Menn and [[Justin E. H. Smith]]) (2000: Oxford University Press)
*K.C. Anyanwu (and E.A. Ruch), ''African Philosophy: An Introduction'', Catholic Book Agency 1981
* Mubabinge Bilolo, ''Contribution à l'histoire de la reconnaissance de Philosophie en Afrique Noire Traditionnelle'', (1978: Kinshasa, Facultés Catholiques de Kinshasa, Licence en Philosophie et Religions Africaines)
* Mubabinge Bilolo, ''Les cosmo-théologies philosophiques de l'Égypte Antique. Problématiques, Prémisses herméneutiques et problèmes majeurs''. Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 1, (1986: Kinshasa-Munich-Libreville, African University Studies)
* Peter O. Bodunrin, ''Philosophy in Africa: Trends and Perspectives'' (1985: University of Ife Press)
* Babajide Dasaolu/Demilade Oyelakun, ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20161211092022/http://philosophy-e.com/the-concept-of-evil-in-yoruba-and-igbo-thoughts-some-comparisons ''The concept of evil in Yoruba and Igbo thoughts: Some Comparisons'']}}'' in: {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120226075114/http://philosophy-e.com/ Philosophia: E-Journal of Philosophy and Culture]}} – 10/2015.
*Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze (Ed.): ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/African+Philosophy%3A+An+Anthology-p-9780631203384 African Philosophy. An Anthology]'' (1998: Blackwell Publishers)
* Christian B. N. Gade, [https://www.amazon.com/Discourse-African-Philosophy-Transitional-Perspectives/dp/1498512259/ref=mt_hardcover?_encoding=UTF8&me= ''A Discourse on African Philosophy: A New Perspective on'' Ubuntu ''and Transitional Justice in South Africa''] (2017: Lexington Books)
* [[Dag Herbjørnsrud]], [https://aeon.co/essays/yacob-and-amo-africas-precursors-to-locke-hume-and-kant ''The African Enlightenment'']. [[Aeon (digital magazine)|Aeon]], December 2017.
* Dag Herbjørnsrud, [https://blog.apaonline.org/2018/12/17/the-radical-philosophy-of-egypt-forget-god-and-family-write/ ''The Radical Philosophy of Egypt: Forget God and Family, Write!''] Blog of the American Philosophical Association, December 2018. 
* Paulin J. Hountondji, ''African Philosophy: Myth and Reality'' (1983: Bloomington, Indiana University Press)
* Samuel Oluoch Imbo, ''An Introduction to African Philosophy'' (1998: Rowman & Littlefield) {{ISBN|0-8476-8841-0}}
* [[Janheinz Jahn]], ''Muntu: African culture and the Western world'' (1990: Grove Weidenfeld) {{ISBN|0802132081}}
* Bruce B. Janz, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060526060828/http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~janzb/papers/37AfPhil.pdf ''African Philosophy'']}} (PDF)
* [[Alexis Kagame]], ''La philosophie bantu-rwandaise de l'être'' (1966 Johnson Reprint)
* Gyekye Kwame, ''An Essay of African Philosophical Thought: The Akan Conceptual Scheme'' (1995: Temple University Press) {{ISBN|1-56639-380-9}}
* Safro Kwame, ''Reading in African Philosophy: An Akan Collection'' (1995: University Press of America) {{ISBN|0-8191-9911-7}}
* T. Uzodinma Nwala, ''Igbo Philosophy'', {{ISBN|978-245-453-2}}
* Joseph I. Omoregbe, ''African philosophy: yesterday and today'' (in Bodunrin; references to reprint in [E. C. Eze] <nowiki>[ed.]</nowiki> ''African Philosophy: An Anthology'' (1998: Oxford, Blackwell))
* H. Odera Oruka (ed.), ''Sage Philosophy'' [Volume 4 in ''Philosophy of History and Culture''] (1990: E.J. Brill) {{ISBN|90-04-09283-8}}, ISSN 0922-6001
* Tsenay Serequeberhan (ed.), ''African Philosophy: The Essential Readings'' (1991: Paragon House) {{ISBN|1-55778-309-8}}
* [[Placide Tempels]], ''La philosophie bantoue'' (''Bantu Philosophy''), Elisabethville, 1945, Full text in French {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20050310080248/http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/philbant1945Lovania.htm here]}}.
* [[Kwasi Wiredu]], ''Philosophy and an African'' (1980: Cambridge University Press)
* Kwasi Wiredu (ed.), ''A Companion to African Philosophy'' (2004: Blackwell)
* Kwasi Wiredu {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070219182221/http://web.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v1/4/3.htm ''Toward Decolonizing African Philosophy And Religion'' In: African Studies Quarterly, The Online Journal for African Studies, Volume 1, Issue 4, 1998]}}
* Olabiyi Babalola Yai, (Guest Editor), {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070622063808/http://web.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v1/v1_i4.htm  ''African Studies Quarterly'', Volume 1, Issue 4 (1998): ''Religion and Philosophy in Africa'']}}

==External links==
* Jonathan O. Chimakonam, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/afric-hi History of African Philosophy] in the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* Gail M. Presbey, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/afr-sage African Sage Philosophy] in the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* {{Sep entry|africana|Africana Philosophy|Lucius T. Outlaw Jr.}}
* [http://igwebuikepedia.info/ Igwebuikepedia: Internet Encyclopedia of African Philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220145603/http://igwebuikepedia.info/ |date=2019-12-20 }}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120314013212/http://www.ascleiden.nl/Library/Webdossiers/AfricanPhilosophy.aspx African Philosophy]}} &mdash; [[Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden|African Studies Centre]]
* [https://historyofphilosophy.net/africana-philosophy Africana Philosophy series] of the [[History of Philosophy without any gaps]] podcast

{{Africa topics}}

[[Category:African philosophy| ]]
[[Category:Culture of Africa]]