View source for Aircraft hijacking

{{Short description|Incident involving unlawful seizure of an aircraft in operation}}
{{Redirect|Skyjack|other uses|Skyjack (disambiguation)|and|Skyjacker (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Air piracy|the type of stock character in science fiction and fantasy|Air pirate}}
[[File:TWA Flight 847 Captain John Testrake with hijacker in Beirut.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Captain John Testrake of [[TWA Flight 847]], which was hijacked by an armed [[Shia Islamism|Shia Islamist]] hijacker in [[Beirut]], 1985]]
{{Terrorism}}'''Aircraft hijacking''' (also known as '''airplane hijacking''', '''skyjacking''', '''plane hijacking''', '''plane jacking''', '''air robbery''', '''air piracy''', or '''aircraft piracy''', with the last term used within the special aircraft [[jurisdiction]] of the United States) is the [[Crime|unlawful]] seizure of an [[aircraft]] by an individual or a group.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/49/46502|title=49 U.S. Code § 46502 – Aircraft piracy|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|access-date=2015-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116050854/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/49/46502|archive-date=2015-11-16|url-status=live}}</ref> Dating from the earliest of hijackings, most cases involve the [[Pilot (aeronautics)|pilot]] being forced to fly according to the hijacker's demands. There have also been incidents where the hijackers have overpowered the flight crew, made unauthorized entry into the cockpit and [[suicide attacks|flown them into buildings]]—most notably in the [[September 11 attacks]]—and in some cases, planes have been hijacked by the official pilot or co-pilot, such as with [[Ethiopian Airlines Flight 702]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Swiss confirm Ethiopian plane hijack |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26222674 |access-date=17 February 2014 |date=17 February 2014 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218013847/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26222674 |archive-date=18 February 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Photos: Major aircraft hijackings that shocked the world|url=http://www.mid-day.com/photos/photos-major-aircraft-hijackings-that-shocked-the-world/8324|access-date=24 December 2014|work=[[Mid-Day]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224104706/http://www.mid-day.com/photos/photos-major-aircraft-hijackings-that-shocked-the-world/8324|archive-date=24 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Air China pilot hijacks his own jet to Taiwan|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=28 October 1998|url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9810/28/hijack.china.taiwan.02/index.html|access-date=25 January 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080321171516/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9810/28/hijack.china.taiwan.02/index.html|archive-date=21 March 2008}}</ref><ref name="B. Raman">{{cite web|author=B. Raman|title=Plane Hijacking in Perspective|publisher=South Asia Analysis Group|date=2 January 2000|url=http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper103|access-date=29 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402112525/http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper103|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

Unlike [[carjacking]] or sea [[piracy]], an aircraft hijacking is not usually committed for [[robbery]] or [[theft]]. Individuals driven by personal gain often divert planes to destinations where they are not planning to go themselves.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2016/3/29/11326472/hijacking-airplanes-egyptair|title=The US once had more than 130 hijackings in 4 years. Here's why they finally stopped.|last=Nelson|first=Libby|date=2016-03-29|website=Vox|access-date=2019-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629151906/https://www.vox.com/2016/3/29/11326472/hijacking-airplanes-egyptair|archive-date=2019-06-29|url-status=live}}</ref> Some hijackers intend to use passengers or crew as [[hostage]]s, either for [[Ransom|monetary ransom]] or for some political or administrative concession by authorities. Various motives have driven such occurrences, such as demanding the release of certain high-profile individuals or for the right of [[political asylum]] (notably [[Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961]]), but sometimes a hijacking may have been affected by a failed private life or financial distress, as in the case of Aarno Lamminparras in [[Finnair Flight 405]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Lauri Puintila | title = Kaappari Lamminparras: Suomen ensimmäisen konekaappauksen tarina | publisher = [[Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö|WSOY]] | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-951-0-35501-5 | language = fi }}</ref> Hijackings involving hostages have produced violent confrontations between hijackers and the authorities, during [[Crisis negotiation|negotiation]] and settlement. In several cases{{snd}}most famously [[Entebbe raid|Air France Flight 139]], [[Lufthansa Flight 181]], and [[Air France Flight 8969]]{{snd}}the hijackers were not satisfied and showed no inclination to surrender, resulting in the deployment of [[counterterrorist]] [[police tactical unit]]s or [[special forces]] to rescue the passengers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1578183.stm|title=History of airliner hijackings|date=2001-10-03|access-date=2019-06-29|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628042022/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1578183.stm|archive-date=2019-06-28|url-status=live}}</ref>

In most jurisdictions of the world, aircraft hijacking is punishable by life imprisonment or a long prison sentence. In most jurisdictions where the death penalty is a legal punishment, aircraft hijacking is a [[capital crime]], including in [[China]], [[India]], [[Liberia]], and the [[U.S. state]]s of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Mississippi]].

==History==
{{Main|List of aircraft hijackings}}Airplane hijackings have occurred since the early days of flight. These can be classified in the following eras: Pre-1929, 1929–1957, 1958–1979, 1980–2000, and 2001–present. Early incidents involved light planes, but this later involved passenger aircraft as [[commercial aviation]] became widespread.

=== Pre-1929 ===
One of the first accounts of an aircraft hijacking dates to 1919,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://skift.com/2016/03/24/the-airport-security-measure-that-works-yet-too-few-airports-use/ |title=The Airport Security Measure That Works, Yet Too Few Airports Use |last=Champion |first=Marc |date=March 24, 2016 |website=Skift  |access-date=April 9, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410043253/https://skift.com/2016/03/24/the-airport-security-measure-that-works-yet-too-few-airports-use |archive-date=April 10, 2016}}</ref> sometime during the short existence of the [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] (21 March – 1 August). Hungarian polymath [[Baron]] [[Franz Nopcsa von Felső-Szilvás]] was a spy for [[Austria-Hungary]] in [[World War I]], whose defeat and dissolution ceded Nopcsa's native [[Transylvania]] to [[Romania]].<ref name="FerencNopcsa">{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/history-forgot-rogue-aristocrat-discovered-dinosaurs-died-penniless-180959504/|title=History Forgot This Rogue Aristocrat Who Discovered Dinosaurs and Died Penniless|last=Veselka|first=Cristian Movilă,Vanessa|website=Smithsonian|language=en|access-date=2019-03-01}}</ref> Under the new [[socialist state]] government, Nopcsa and [[Bajazid Elmaz Doda]] (his secretary and boyfriend) were unable to obtain a passport to leave the country.<ref name="NopcsaCastle">{{cite web |url=https://kastelyerdelyben.ro/castle/castelul-nopcsa-sacel-nopcsa-kastely-szacsal-nopcsa-castle-sacel/ |title=Nopcsa-kastély, Szacsal |website=Kastély Erdélyben |publisher=PONT Group |access-date=April 9, 2019 |language=hu |trans-title=Nopcsa Castle}}</ref><ref name="NatSzLib">{{cite web |last1=Eszenyi |first1=Miklós |title=Felsõszilvási Nopcsa Ferenc |url=http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02387/00039/pdf/EPA02387_osi_gyoker_2017_1-2_018-022.pdf |website=National Széchényi Library |access-date=April 9, 2019 |language=hu |trans-title=Franz Nopcsa Felsõ-Szilvás }}</ref><ref name="VitS">{{Citation |last=Baum |first=Philip |title=Violence in the Skies: A History of Aircraft Hijacking and Bombing |date=2016 |work= |pages=13–15 |place=West Sussex, UK |publisher=Summersdale |isbn=978-1849538381}}</ref> To circumvent this, Nopcsa forged documents from the Ministry of War that convinced the military commander at the {{ill|Mátyásföld Airport|fr|Aéroport_de_Budapest-Mátyásföld|hu|Mátyásföldi repülőtér}} on the outskirts of [[Budapest]] to provide him and Doda with a small airplane and a pilot. Somewhere over [[Győr]], approximately halfway between Budapest and their supposed destination of [[Sopron]], Franz pulled out a revolver, held it to the pilot's head, and demanded to be flown to [[Vienna]] (then a part of the also transitionary [[Republic of German-Austria]] (12 November 1918 – 10 September 1919)).<ref name="NopcsaCastle" /><ref name="NatSzLib" /><ref name="VitS" /> Nopcsa and Doda successfully arrived in Vienna, where they lived until Nopcsa's [[murder-suicide]] of Doda in 1933 after years of [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[poverty|financial destitution]].<ref name="FerencNopcsa" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGSPO3m9DvkC&q=nopcsa+spy&pg=PA323|title=Dinosaurs: A Concise Natural History|last1=Fastovsky|first1=David E.|last2=Weishampel|first2=David B.|date=2012-08-27|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107010796|language=en}}</ref>

=== 1929–1957 ===
Between 1929 and 1957, there were fewer than 20 incidents of reported hijackings worldwide; several occurred in [[Eastern Europe]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |title=A profile of the global airline industry |last=Gourdin, Kent N. |isbn=978-1606495551 |edition= |location=New York |oclc=935736423|year=2015 }}</ref>

An early but unconfirmed account of hijacking occurred in December 1929. J. Howard "Doc" DeCelles was flying a postal route for a Mexican firm, Transportes Aeras Transcontinentales, ferrying mail from [[San Luis Potosí]] to [[Torreón|Torreon]] and then on to [[Guadalajara]]. [[Saturnino Cedillo]], the governor of the state of San Luis Potosí, ordered him to divert. Several other men were also involved, and through an interpreter, DeCelles had no choice but to comply. He was allegedly held captive for several hours under armed guard before being released.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Violence in the Skies: A History of Aircraft Hijacking and Bombing|last=Baum|first=Philip|publisher=Summersdale Publishers LTD|year=2016|isbn=978-1783727902|pages=5}}</ref>

[[File:Sécurité Aérienne Afrique.JPG|thumb|Warning posters in a Central African airport, 2012]]

The first recorded aircraft hijack took place on February 21, 1931, in [[Arequipa]], Peru. Byron Richards, flying a [[Ford Tri-Motor]], was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries. He refused to fly them anywhere during a 10-day standoff. Richards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could be freed in return for flying one of the men to [[Lima]].<ref>30 years later Richards was again the victim of a failed hijacking attempt. A father and son boarded his [[Continental Airlines]] [[Boeing 707]] in [[El Paso, Texas]] and tried to force him at gunpoint to fly the plane to [[Cuba]] hoping for a cash reward from [[Fidel Castro]]. [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agents and police chased the plane down the runway and shot out its tires, averting the hijacking. See {{cite web |url=http://www.airdisaster.com/features/hijack/hijack.shtml |title=Feature: Hijack Part 1 |website=airdisaster.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070724125115/http://www.airdisaster.com/features/hijack/hijack.shtml |archive-date=2007-07-24 }}</ref>

The following year, in September 1932, a [[Sikorsky S-38]] with registration P-BDAD, registered to [[Panair do Brasil|Nyrba do Brasil]], was seized in the company's hangar by three men, who took a hostage. Despite having no flying experience, they managed to take off. However, the aircraft crashed in [[São João de Meriti]], killing the four men. Apparently, the hijack was related to the events of the [[Constitutionalist Revolution]] in São Paulo; it is considered to be the first hijack that took place in Brazil.{{citation needed paragraph|date=June 2021}}

On October 28, 1939, the first murder on a plane took place in [[Brookfield, Missouri]], US. The victim was Carl Bivens, a [[flight instructor]], who was teaching a man named Earnest P. "Larry" Pletch. While airborne in a [[Taylor Cub]] [[monoplane]], Pletch shot Bivens twice in the back of the head. Pletch later told prosecutors, "Carl was telling me I had a natural ability and I should follow that line", adding, "I had a revolver in my pocket and without saying a word to him, I took it out of my overalls and I fired a bullet into the back of his head. He never knew what struck him." The ''[[Chicago Daily Tribune]]'' stated it was one of the most spectacular crimes of the 20th century. Pletch pleaded guilty and was sentenced to life in prison. However, he was released on March 1, 1957, after serving 17 years, and lived until June 2001.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/murderous-story-americas-first-hijacking-180956152/ |title=The Murderous Story of America's First Hijacking |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807171224/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/murderous-story-americas-first-hijacking-180956152/ |archive-date=2015-08-07 |first=Mike |last=Dash |work=Smithsonian Magazine |date=5 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.magbloom.com/PDF/bloom20/Bloom_20_Killer.pdf |title=The Killer Who Fell From the Sky |website=magbloom.com |access-date=2011-08-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628144121/http://magbloom.com/PDF/bloom20/Bloom_20_Killer.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1942 near Malta, two New Zealanders, a South African, and an Englishman achieved the first confirmed in-air hijack when they overpowered their captors aboard an Italian seaplane that was flying them to a [[prisoner-of-war camp]]. As they approached an [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] base, they were strafed by [[Supermarine Spitfire]]s unaware of the aircraft's true operators and forced to land on the water. However, all on board survived to be picked up by a British boat.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YvuQQaQLDPQ |title=World's First Air Hijack – Allied Aircrew's Daring 1942 Escape |website=[[YouTube]] |date=5 May 2019 |access-date=2019-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221093841/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YvuQQaQLDPQ&gl=US&hl=en&has_verified=1&bpctr=9999999999 |archive-date=2019-12-21 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/43/a2040643.shtml |title=The World's First Air Hijack! |work=BBC.com |date=November 14, 2003}}</ref>

In the years following [[World War II]], Philip Baum, an [[Airport security|aviation security]] expert, suggested that the development of a rebellious youth "piggybacking on to any cause which challenged the status quo or acted in support of those deemed oppressed" may have been a contributor to attacks against the aviation field.<ref name=":0" /> The first hijacking of a commercial flight occurred on the [[Cathay Pacific]] ''[[Miss Macao]]'' on July 16, 1948.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/on-this-day/May-June-08/On-this-Day--The-First-Commercial-Flight-is-Hijacked.html |title=On This Day: First Commercial Flight Hijacked |date=16 July 2010 |access-date=24 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103075904/http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/on-this-day/May-June-08/On-this-Day--The-First-Commercial-Flight-is-Hijacked.html |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> After this incident and others in the 1950s, airlines recommended that flight crews comply with the hijackers' demands rather than risk a violent confrontation.<ref name=":0" /> There were also various hijacking incidents and assaults on planes in [[China]] and the Middle East.<ref name=":0" /> The [[Israel and state-sponsored terrorism#1954 forced landing of Syrian civilian aircraft|forced landing by the Israeli Air Force of a Syrian Airlines plane]] in December 1954 has been described by multiple writers as a state-sponsored hijacking.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rokach |first=Livia |title=Israel's Sacred Terrorism |date=1980 |publisher=Association of Arab-American University Graduates |location=Belmont, MA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Kameel B. |title=Arab and Israeli Terrorism: The Causes and Effects of Political Violence, 1936-1993 |date=1997 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-0280-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chomsky |first=Noam |title=Pirates and Emperors, Old and New: International Terrorism in the Real World |date=2015-03-23 |publisher=Haymarket Books |isbn=978-1-60846-442-5 |pages=86}}</ref>

On 23 July 1956, in the [[Hungarian People's Republic]], seven passengers hijacked a domestic flight of [[Malév Hungarian Airlines]], a [[Lisunov Li-2]] (registration HA-LIG), to escape from behind the [[Iron Curtain]], and flew it to [[West Germany]]. The aircraft landed safely at Ingolstadt Air Base without injuries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ranter |first=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident Lisunov Li-2T HA-LIG Ingolstadt Air Base |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19560713-1 |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=aviation-safety.net}}</ref>

An aircraft belonging to the airline [[Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano|Lloyd Aereo Boliviano]] was hijacked in [[Bolivia]] on September 26, 1956. The [[Douglas DC-4|DC-4]] was carrying 47 prisoners who were being transported from [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra|Santa Cruz, Bolivia]], to El Alto, in [[La Paz Department (Bolivia)|La Paz]]. A political group was waiting to take them to a concentration camp located in Carahuara de Carangas, [[Oruro, Bolivia|Oruro]]. The 47 prisoners overpowered the crew and gained control of the aircraft while airborne and diverted the plane to [[Tartagal, Argentina]]. Prisoners took control of the aircraft and received instructions to again fly to [[Salta|Salta, Argentina]], as the airfield in Tartagal was not big enough. Upon landing, they told the government of the [[injustice]] they were subjected to, and received [[political asylum]].

On October 22, 1956, [[French hijacking of Moroccan plane|French forces hijacked a Moroccan airplane]] carrying leaders of the Algerian [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) during the ongoing [[Algerian War]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Essemlali |first=Mounya |date=2011 |title=Le Maroc entre la France et l'Algérie (1956–1962) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/ri.146.0077 |journal=Relations Internationales |volume=146 |issue=2 |pages=77–93 |doi=10.3917/ri.146.0077 |issn=0335-2013|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Yabiladi.com |title=22 October 1956 : Ben Bella, King Mohammed V and the story of the re-routed plane |url=https://en.yabiladi.com/articles/details/70157/october-1956-bella-king-mohammed.html |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=en.yabiladi.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Essa |date=2020-10-22 |title=أكتوبر في تاريخ المغرب أحداث وأهوال {{!}} المعطي منجب |url=https://www.alquds.co.uk/أكتوبر-في-تاريخ-المغرب-أحداث-وأهوال/ |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=القدس العربي |language=ar}}</ref> The plane, which was carrying [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], [[Hocine Aït Ahmed]], and [[Mohamed Boudiaf]], was destined to leave from [[Palma de Mallorca]] for [[Tunis]] where the FLN leaders were to conference with Prime Minister [[Habib Bourguiba]], but French forces redirected the flight to occupied [[Algiers]], where the FLN leaders were arrested.<ref name=":02" />

=== 1958–1979 ===
[[File:Worldwide Aircraft Hijackings 1958-1979.svg|thumb|World map depicting global aircraft hijacking incidents between 1958 and 1979|450x450px]]
Between 1958 and 1967, there were approximately 40 hijackings worldwide.<ref name=":1" /> Beginning in 1958, hijackings from [[Cuba]] to other destinations started to occur; in 1961, hijackings from other destinations to Cuba became prevalent.<ref name=":1" /> The first happened on May 1, 1961, on a flight from [[Miami]] to [[Key West]]. The perpetrator, armed with a knife and gun, forced the captain to land in Cuba.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Volpe|first1=John A.|last2=Stewart|first2=John T.|date=1970|title=Aircraft Hijacking: Some Domestic and International Responses|journal=Kentucky Law Journal|volume=59|issue=2|pages=273–318}}</ref>

Australia was relatively untouched by the threat of hijackings until July 19, 1960. On that evening, a 22-year-old Russian man attempted to divert [[Trans Australia Airlines Flight 408]] to [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] or [[Singapore]].<ref name=":0" /> The crew were able to subdue the man after a brief struggle.

According to the FAA, in the 1960s, there were 100 attempts of hijackings involving U.S. aircraft: 77 successful and 23 unsuccessful.<ref name=":2" /> Recognizing the danger early, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] issued a directive on July 28, 1961, which prohibits unauthorized persons from carrying concealed [[firearm]]s and interfering with crew member duties.<ref name=":2" /> The [[Federal Aviation Act of 1958]] was amended to impose severe penalties for those seizing control of a commercial aircraft.<ref name=":2" /> Airlines could also refuse to transport passengers who were likely to cause danger. That same year, the FAA and [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] created the [[Federal Air Marshal Service|Peace Officers Program]] which put trained marshals on flights.<ref name=":2" /> A few years later, on May 7, 1964, the FAA adopted a rule requiring that [[cockpit]] doors on commercial aircraft be kept locked at all times.<ref name=":2" /> One proposal the FAA had for combating the hijackings was to build a fake Havana airport in Southern Florida. However they determined that it would be too expensive.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Take me to Cuba! The skyjacking craze of the 1960s |url=https://www.aerotime.aero/oleg.volkov/15042-take-me-to-cuba-the-skyjacking-craze-of-the-1960s |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104031745/https://www.aerotime.aero/oleg.volkov/15042-take-me-to-cuba-the-skyjacking-craze-of-the-1960s |archive-date=2019-01-04 |access-date=2025-08-13 |website=www.aerotime.aero |language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 10px;"
|+Destinations desired by U.S. hijackers, 1968–72<ref name=":4" />
! colspan="2" |Transport attempts
|-
!Destination
!Number
|-
|{{CUB}}
|90
|-
|{{MEX}}
|4
|-
|{{ITA}}
|3
|-
|{{CAN}}
|2
|-
|{{BAH}}
|1
|-
|{{EGY}}
|1
|-
|{{ISR}}
|1
|-
|{{PRK}}
|1
|-
|{{flag|North Vietnam}}
|1
|-
|{{flag|South Vietnam}}<br />
|1
|-
|{{SWE}}
|1
|-
|{{SWI}}
|1
|-
|{{USA}}
|1
|-
|Unknown
|3
|-
! colspan="2" | Extortion attempts
|-
|Extortion
|26
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''137'''
|}

In a five-year period (1968–1972) the world experienced 326 hijack attempts, or one every 5.6 days.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Holden|first=Robert T.|date=1986|title=The Contagiousness of Aircraft Hijacking|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=91|issue=4|pages=874–904|issn=0002-9602|jstor=2779961|doi=10.1086/228353|s2cid=144772464}}</ref> The incidents were frequent and often just an inconvenience, which resulted in [[television show]]s creating parodies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2016/3/29/11326472/hijacking-airplanes-egyptair|title=The US once had more than 130 hijackings in four years. Here's why they finally stopped.|last=Nelson|first=Libby|date=2016-03-29|website=Vox|access-date=2019-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629151906/https://www.vox.com/2016/3/29/11326472/hijacking-airplanes-egyptair|archive-date=2019-06-29|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] even ran a lighthearted comedy piece called "What to Do When the Hijacker Comes".<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,844656,00.html|title=Travel: What to Do When the Hijacker Comes|date=1968-12-06|magazine=Time|access-date=2019-07-06|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629151920/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,844656,00.html|archive-date=2019-06-29|url-status=live}}</ref> Most incidents occurred in the United States. There were two distinct types: hijackings for transportation elsewhere and hijackings for [[extortion]] with the threat of harm.<ref name=":4" />

Between 1968 and 1972, there were 90 recorded transport attempts to Cuba. In contrast, there were 26 extortion attempts (see table on the right). The longest and first transcontinental (Los Angeles, Denver, New York, Bangor, Shannon and Rome) hijacking from the US started on 31 October 1969.<ref name="LongestHijacking">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-48069272|title=TWA85: The world's longest and most spectacular hijacking|date=26 October 2019|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=27 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027051638/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-48069272|archive-date=27 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Eastern Air Lines Shuttle Flight 1320]] on May 17, 1970, witnessed the first fatality in the course of a U.S. hijacking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/03/20/magazine/you-dont-understand-captain-he-has-gun-hijacking-flight-1320/|title=You Don't Understand Captain – He has a Gun: The Hijacking of Flight 1320|last=Swidey|first=Neil|date=20 March 2020|website=Boston Globe|access-date=21 March 2010}}</ref>

Incidents also became problematic outside of the U.S. For instance, in 1968, [[El Al Flight 426 hijacking|El Al Flight 426]] was seized by [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) militants on 23 July, an incident which lasted 40 days, making it one of the longest. This record was later [[Avianca Flight 9463|beaten in 1999]].<ref name="HistoryHijackings">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1578183.stm|title=History of airliner hijackings|date=3 October 2001|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=8 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210225214/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1578183.stm|archive-date=10 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

As a result of the evolving threat, [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]] issued a directive in 1970 to promote security at airports, electronic surveillance and multilateral agreements for tackling the problem.<ref name=":2" />

The [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) issued a report on aircraft hijacking in July 1970. Beginning in 1969 until the end of June 1970, there were 118 incidents of unlawful seizure of aircraft and 14 incidents of sabotage and armed attacks against civil aviation. This involved airlines of 47 countries and more than 7,000 passengers. In this period, 96 people were killed and 57 were injured as a result of hijacking, sabotage and armed attacks.

The ICAO stated that this is not isolated to one nation or one region, but a worldwide issue to the safe growth of international [[civil aviation]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=News Release|date=July 3, 1970|work=International Civil Aviation Organization}}</ref> Incidents also became notorious{{snd}}in 1971, a man known as [[D. B. Cooper]] hijacked a plane and extorted US$200,000 in ransom before parachuting over Oregon. He was never identified.<ref name="Gray-NYmag2007-10-21">{{cite journal|last=Gray|first=Geoffrey|date=21 October 2007|title=Unmasking D.B. Cooper|url=https://nymag.com/news/features/39593/|journal=[[New York (magazine)|New York magazine]]|issn=0028-7369|access-date=24 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430144404/http://nymag.com/news/features/39593/|archive-date=30 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

On August 20, 1971, a [[Pakistan Air Force]] [[T-33 Shooting Star|T-33]] military plane was hijacked prior the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971]] in [[Karachi]]. [[Flight Lieutenant|Lieutenant]] [[Matiur Rahman (military pilot)|Matiur Rahman]] attacked [[Pilot Officer|Officer]] [[Rashid Minhas]] and attempted to land in India. Minhas deliberately crashed the plane into the ground near [[Thatta]] to prevent the diversion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/awpreview/TextContent.aspx?pId=176|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408215819/http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/awpreview/TextContent.aspx?pId=176|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-04-08|title=Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas|date=2012-04-08|access-date=2019-07-06}}</ref>

Countries around the world continued their efforts to tackle crimes committed on-board planes. The [[Tokyo Convention]], drafted in 1958, established an agreement between signatories that the "state in which the aircraft is registered is competent to exercise jurisdiction over crimes committed on board that aircraft while it is in flight".<ref name=":2" /> While the Convention does not make hijacking an international crime, it does contain provisions which obligate the country in which a hijacked aircraft lands to restore the aircraft to its responsible owner, and allow the passengers and crew to continue their journey.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loy|first=Frank E.|date=1970|title=Some International Approaches to Dealing With Hijacking of Aircraft|journal=The International Lawyer|volume=4|issue=3|pages=444–452|issn=0020-7810|jstor=40704612}}</ref> The Convention came into force in December 1969.

A year later, in December 1970, the [[Hague Hijacking Convention|Hague Convention]] was drafted which punishes hijackers, enabling each state to prosecute a hijacker if that state does not extradite them, and to deprive them from asylum from prosecution.<ref name=":2" />

On December 5, 1972, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] issued emergency rules requiring all passengers and their carry-on baggage to be screened.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Commercial Aviation Security|publisher=National Academy Press|year=1996|location=Washington D.C|pages=6}}</ref> Airports slowly implemented walk-through [[Magnetometer|metal detectors]], hand-searches and [[X-ray]] machines, to prohibit weapons and explosive devices.<ref name=":3" /> These rules came into effect on January 5, 1973, and were welcomed by most of the public.<ref name=":6" /> In 1974, Congress enacted a statute which provided for the death penalty for acts of aircraft piracy resulting in death.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976) |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/428/153/#tab-opinion-1951891 |website=Justia |access-date=3 February 2021}}</ref> Between 1968 and 1977, there were approximately 41 hijackings per year.<ref name=":1" />

In the 1970s, in pursuit of their demands for Croatia's independence from the [[Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia]], [[Croatian nationalists]] hijacked several civilian airliners, such as [[Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 130]] and [[TWA Flight 355]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Pluchinsky|first=Dennis|editor1-last=Alexander|editor1-first=Yonah|editor2-last=Myers|editor2-first=Kenneth A.|year=1982|title=Terrorism in Europe|chapter=Political Terrorism in Western Europe: Some Themes and Variations|publisher=Georgetown University|location=London|isbn=0-7099-0728-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHJKCAAAQBAJ|page=59}}</ref>

=== 1980–2000 ===
By 1980, airport screening and greater cooperation from the international community led to fewer successful hijackings; the number of events had significantly dropped below the 1968 level.<ref>{{cite news|title=The FBI Encyclopedia|last1=Newton|first1=Michael|date=2003|publisher=McFarland|page=315}}</ref> Between 1978 and 1988, there were roughly 26 incidents of hijackings a year.<ref name=":1" /> A new threat emerged in the 1980s: [[Terrorism|organised terrorists]] destroying aircraft to draw attention. For instance, terrorist groups were responsible for the bombing of [[Air India Flight 182]] over the Irish coast. In 1988, [[Pan Am Flight 103]] was bombed flying over Scotland.<ref name=":1" /> Terrorist activity which included hijack attempts in the Middle East were also a cause of concern.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Plane clothes: lack of anonymity at the Federal Air Marshal Service compromises aviation and national security: investigative report|last=On The Judiciary|first=The Committee|publisher=Diane Publishing|year=2006|isbn=978-1428994294}}</ref>

During the 1990s, there was relative peace in the United States airspace as the threat of domestic hijacking was seen as a distant memory.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John M.|date=2007-09-01|title=Conceptualizing the Hijacking Threat to Civil Aviation|journal=Criminal Justice Review|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=209–232|doi=10.1177/0734016807306152|s2cid=146335051|issn=0734-0168}}</ref> Globally, however, hijackings still persisted. Between 1993 and 2003, the highest number of hijackings occurred in 1993 (see table below). This number can be attributed to events in [[China]] where hijackers were trying to gain political asylum in Taiwan.<ref name=":5" /> Europe and the rest of [[East Asia]] were not immune either. On December 26, 1994, [[Air France Flight 8969]] with 172 passengers and crew was hijacked after leaving [[Algiers]]. Authorities believed that the goal was to crash the plane into the [[Eiffel Tower]]. On June 21, 1995, [[All Nippon Airways Flight 857]] was hijacked by a man claiming to be a member of the [[Aum Shinrikyo]] religious cult, demanding the release of its imprisoned leader [[Shoko Asahara]]. The incident was resolved when the police stormed the plane.

On October 17, 1996, the first hijacking that was brought to an end while airborne was carried out by four operatives of the [[Austria]]n [[List of special law enforcement units|special law enforcement unit]] [[EKO Cobra|Cobra]] on a [[Russian Federation|Russian]] [[Aeroflot]] flight from [[Malta]] to [[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]], aboard a [[Tupolev Tu-154]]. The operatives escorted inmates detained for deportation to their homelands and were equipped with weapons and gloves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://special-ops.org/5332/einsatzkommando-cobra-eko-cobra/|title = Einsatzkommando Cobra – EKO Cobra|date = 3 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.bmi.gv.at/207/Publikationen/files/LawOrder.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.bmi.gv.at/207/Publikationen/files/LawOrder.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Cobra: Austria's Special Police Commandos |magazine=Law and Order |date=July 2009 |pages=48–52 |access-date=May 24, 2022}}</ref> On 12 April 1999, six [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] members hijacked a [[Fokker 50]] of [[Avianca]] [[Avianca Flight 9463|Flight 9463]], flying from [[Bucaramanga]] to [[Bogotá]]. Many hostages were held for more than a year, and the last hostage was finally freed 19 months after the hijacking.<ref>{{Cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1999/apr/28/features11.g23| title=Terror on flight 9463| newspaper=The Guardian| date=1999-04-28| access-date=2018-10-27| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022232744/https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1999/apr/28/features11.g23| archive-date=2018-10-22| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>"Recordando los 10 años del secuestro del Fokker de Avianca". Noticias ABC colombia.</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto;"
|+Annual hijack incidents, 1993–2003<ref name=":5" />
!Year
|1993
|1994
|1995
|1996
|1997
|1998
|1999
|2000
|2001
|2002
|2003
!Total
|-
!Number
|50
|25
|8
|16
|12
|14
|12
|22
|5
|5
|7
|176
|}

=== 2001–present ===
{{See also|September 11 attacks}}
On September 11, 2001, four airliners were hijacked by 19 [[Al-Qaeda]] [[extremist]]s: [[American Airlines Flight 11]], [[United Airlines Flight 175]], [[American Airlines Flight 77]], and [[United Airlines Flight 93]]. The first two planes were deliberately crashed into the Twin Towers of the [[World Trade Center (1973-2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City and the third was crashed into [[The Pentagon]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia]]. The fourth crashed in a field in [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|Stonycreek Township]] near [[Shanksville, Pennsylvania]] after crew and passengers attempted to overpower the hijackers. Authorities believe that the intended target was the [[United States Capitol|U.S. Capitol]] or the [[White House]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] In total, [[Casualties of the September 11 attacks|2,996 people]] (2,977 if excluding the perpetrators) perished and more than 6,000 were injured in the attacks, making the hijackings the deadliest in modern history.

Following the attacks, the U.S. government formed the [[Transportation Security Administration]] (TSA) to handle airport screening at U.S. airports. Government agencies around the world tightened their airport security, procedures and intelligence gathering.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Mark J.|last2=Mueller|first2=John|date=29 April 2008|title=A risk and cost-benefit assessment of United States aviation security measures|journal=Journal of Transportation Security|volume=1|issue=3|pages=143–159|doi=10.1007/s12198-008-0013-0|s2cid=13317666|via=Springer Science}}</ref> Until the September 11 attacks, there had never been an incident whereby a passenger aircraft was used as a weapon of mass destruction. The [[9/11 Commission]] report stated that it was always assumed that a "hijacking would take the traditional form";<ref name="comish">{{Cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|website=CyberCemetery|publisher=University of North Texas Libraries/U.S. Government Printing Office|access-date=2019-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514052417/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm|archive-date=2008-05-14|url-status=live}}</ref> therefore, airline crews never had a contingency plan for a suicide-hijacking.<ref name="sum">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/22/politics/summary-of-final-report.html|title=Summary of Final Report|date=2004-07-22|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-07-05|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705221731/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/22/politics/summary-of-final-report.html|archive-date=2019-07-05|url-status=live}}</ref> As Patrick Smith, an airline pilot, summarizes:

{{blockquote|One of the big ironies here is the success of the 2001 attacks had nothing to do with airport security in the first place. It was a failure of national security. What the men actually exploited was a weakness in our mind-set{{snd}}a set of presumptions based on decades-long track record of hijackings. In years past, a hijacking meant a diversion, with hostage negotiations and standoffs. The only weapon that mattered was the intangible one: the element of surprise.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |title=Cockpit confidential : everything you need to know about air travel : questions, answers & reflections |last=Smith, Patrick |isbn=978-1492663973 |edition=Revised and updated |location=Naperville, Illinois |oclc=1039369001|date=2018-06-05 }}</ref>}}

Throughout the mid-2000s, hijackings still occurred but there were much fewer incidents and casualties. The number of incidents had been declining, even before the September 11 attacks. One notable incident in 2006 was the hijacking of [[Turkish Airlines Flight 1476]], flying from [[Tirana]] to [[Istanbul]], which was seized by a man named Hakan Ekinci. The aircraft, with 107 passengers and 6 crew, made distress calls to [[air traffic control]] and the plane was escorted by military aircraft before landing safely at [[Brindisi]], Italy. In 2007, several incidents occurred in the Middle East and [[North Africa|Northern Africa]]; hijackers in one of these incidents claimed to be affiliated with [[Al-Qaeda]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/08/19/europe/turkey.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622142418/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/08/19/europe/turkey.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=2008-06-22|title=Pilots and passengers foil hijacking of Turkish jet |journal=International Herald Tribune|date=2008-06-22|access-date=2019-07-06}}</ref> Towards the end of the decade, [[Aeroméxico|AeroMexico]] experienced its first terror incident when [[Aeroméxico Flight 576|Flight 576]] was hijacked by a man demanding to speak with [[Mexican President|President]] [[Felipe Calderón|Calderón]]. In 2007, [[Air West Flight 612|a man failed to hijack a 737-200 with 103 people on board over Chad.]]

Between 2010 and 2019, the [[Aviation Safety Network]] estimates there have been 15 hijackings worldwide with three fatalities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aviation-safety.net/statistics/period/stats.php?cat=A1|title=Aviation Safety Network > Statistics > By period|last=Ranter|first=Harro|website=aviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824230442/https://aviation-safety.net/statistics/period/stats.php?cat=A1|archive-date=2019-08-24|url-status=live}}</ref> This is a considerably lower figure than in previous decades which can be attributed to greater security enhancements and awareness of September 11–style attacks.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/03/29/hijackings-rare-after-911-security-improvements/82375474/|title=Hijackings rare after 9/11 security improvements|website=USA Today|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706110314/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/03/29/hijackings-rare-after-911-security-improvements/82375474/|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2016/03/30/why-hijackings-are-no-longer-common|title=Why hijackings are no longer common|date=2016-03-30|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=2019-07-06|issn=0013-0613|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706110314/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2016/03/30/why-hijackings-are-no-longer-common|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> On June 29, 2012, an attempt was made to hijack [[Tianjin Airlines Flight GS7554]] from [[Hotan]] to [[Ürümqi]] in China. More recently was the 2016 hijacking of [[EgyptAir]] [[EgyptAir Flight 181|Flight MS181]], involving an Egyptian man who claimed to have a bomb and ordered the plane to land in [[Cyprus]]. He surrendered several hours later, after freeing the passengers and crew.<ref name=":9" />

==Countermeasures==
{{See also|Airport security}}As a result of the large number of U.S.–Cuba hijackings in the late 1960s to early 1970s, international airports introduced screening technology such as metal detectors, [[X-ray]] machines and [[explosive detection]] tools. In the U.S., these rules were enforced starting from January 1973<ref name=":6" /> and were eventually copied around the world. These security measures made hijacking a "higher-risk proposition" and deterred criminals in later decades.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/blogs/systems/a-brief-history-of-airline-security-hijackings-and-metal-detectors/|title=A brief history of airline security, hijackings and metal detectors|date=2019-04-24|website=IBM IT Infrastructure Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706110312/https://www.ibm.com/blogs/systems/a-brief-history-of-airline-security-hijackings-and-metal-detectors/|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Until September 2001, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] set and enforced a "layered" system of defense: hijacking intelligence, passenger pre-screening, checkpoint screening and on-board security. The idea was that if one layer were later to fail, another would be able stop a hijacker from boarding a plane. However, the [[9/11 Commission]] found that this layered approach was flawed and unsuitable to prevent the September 11 attacks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|website=govinfo.library.unt.edu|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526072202/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm|archive-date=2019-05-26|url-status=live}}</ref> The U.S. [[Transportation Security Administration]] has since strengthened this approach, with a greater emphasis on intelligence sharing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol50no3/airport_security_5.htm|title=Intelligence and Airport Security — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706201149/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol50no3/airport_security_5.htm|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tsa.gov/news/testimony/2018/09/05/keeping-our-skies-secure-oversight-tsa|title=Keeping Our Skies Secure: Oversight of the TSA|date=2018-09-05|website=Transportation Security Administration|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706201203/https://www.tsa.gov/news/testimony/2018/09/05/keeping-our-skies-secure-oversight-tsa|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== On-board security ===
[[File:Security simulation at Swartkops Air Force Base1.jpg|thumb|Hijacking assault simulation by South African special forces]]

In the history of hijackings, most incidents involved planes being forced to land at a certain destination with demands. As a result, commercial airliners adopted a "total compliance" rule which taught pilots and [[Flight attendant|cabin crew]] to comply with the hijackers' demands.<ref name=":8" /> Crews advise passengers to sit quietly to increase their chances of survival. The ultimate goal is to land the plane safely and let the [[security forces]] handle the situation. The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] suggested that the longer a hijacking persisted, the more likely it would end peacefully with the hijackers reaching their goal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|access-date=2008-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927230023/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm|archive-date=2008-09-27|url-status=live}}</ref> Although total compliance is still relevant, the events of September 11 changed this paradigm as this technique cannot prevent a murder-suicide hijacking.

After the [[September 11 attacks]], it became evident that each hijacking situation needs to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Cabin crew, now aware of the severe consequences, have a greater responsibility for maintaining control of their aircraft. Most airlines also give crew members training in self-defense tactics.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2015/02/26/opinion/abend-terror-hijack-threat/index.html|title=Pilot: Here's what keeps you safe on a plane (Opinion) - CNN|last=Les Abend|work=CNN|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706114524/https://edition.cnn.com/2015/02/26/opinion/abend-terror-hijack-threat/index.html|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Ever since the 1970s, crew are taught to be vigilant for suspicious behaviour. For example, passengers who have no carry-on luggage, or are standing next to the cockpit door with fidgety movements. There have been various incidents when crew and passengers intervened to prevent attacks: on December 22, 2001, [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]] attempted to ignite explosives on [[2001 failed shoe bomb attempt|American Airlines Flight 63]]. In 2009, on [[Northwest Flight 253]], [[Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab]] attempted to detonate explosives sewn into his underwear. In 2012, the attempted hijacking of [[Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554]] was stopped when cabin crew placed a trolley in-front of the cockpit door and asked passengers for help.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-07/07/content_15556586.htm|title=Hotan airport security staff cleared{{!}}Society{{!}}chinadaily.com.cn|website=usa.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706114526/http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-07/07/content_15556586.htm|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Cockpit security ===
As early as 1964, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] required cockpit doors on commercial aircraft be kept locked during flight.<ref name=":2" /> In 2002, [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] passed the Arming Pilots Against Terrorism Act, allowing pilots at U.S. airlines to carry guns in the cockpit. Since 2003, these pilots are known as [[Federal Flight Deck Officer]]s. It is estimated that one in 10 of the 125,000 commercial pilots are trained and armed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-43377461|title=The US airline pilots trained to shoot hijackers|last=Amos|first=Owen|date=2018-03-26|access-date=2019-07-06|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706124236/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-43377461|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Also in 2002, aircraft manufacturers such as [[Airbus]] introduced a reinforced cockpit door which is resistant to gunfire and forced entry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/germanwings-crash-airbus-video-reveals-how-reinforced-cockpit-doors-work-10135414.html|title=Airbus video reveals exactly how reinforced cockpit doors work|date=2015-03-26|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706140054/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/germanwings-crash-airbus-video-reveals-how-reinforced-cockpit-doors-work-10135414.html|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, the FAA required operators of more than 6,000 aircraft to install tougher cockpit doors by April 9, 2003.<ref name=":7" /> Rules were also tightened to restrict cockpit access and make it easier for pilots to lock the doors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/faa_001.asp|title=The Avalon Project : FAA Sets New Standards for Cockpit Doors; January 11, 2002|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706110315/https://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/faa_001.asp|archive-date=July 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-32070528|title=How are cockpit doors locked?|last=Why|first=Who, What|date=2015-03-26|access-date=2019-07-06|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706140621/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-32070528|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, [[Germanwings Flight 9525]] was seized by the co-pilot and deliberately crashed, while the captain was out. The captain was unable to re-enter the cockpit, because the airline had already reinforced the cockpit door. The [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] issued a recommendation for airlines to ensure that at least two people, one pilot and a member of cabin crew, occupy the cockpit during flight.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.easa.europa.eu/newsroom-and-events/news/easa-recommends-minimum-two-crew-cockpit|title=EASA recommends minimum two crew in the cockpit {{!}}|website=EASA|date=27 March 2015 |language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706145050/https://www.easa.europa.eu/newsroom-and-events/news/easa-recommends-minimum-two-crew-cockpit|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> The FAA in the United States enforce a similar rule.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kiro7.com/news/faa-cockpit-pilot-requirements/43326524|title=Q & A: FAA cockpit, pilot requirements|last=EndPlay|date=2015-03-26|website=KIRO|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706145040/https://www.kiro7.com/news/faa-cockpit-pilot-requirements/43326524|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Air marshal service ===
{{See also|Sky marshal}}
Some countries operate a marshal service, which puts members of [[law enforcement]] on high-risk flights based on intelligence.<ref name=":7" /> Their role is to keep passengers safe, by preventing hijackings and other criminal acts committed on a plane. [[Federal Air Marshal Service|Federal marshals]] in the U.S. are required to identify themselves before boarding a plane; marshals of other countries often are not.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/2014/08/07/5-myths-about-air-marshals/13724331/|title=Five myths about air marshals|website=USA TODAY|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706134542/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/2014/08/07/5-myths-about-air-marshals/13724331/|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[Congressional Research Service]], the budget for the U.S. Federal Air Marshal Service was US$719 million in 2007.<ref name=":7" /> Marshals often sit as regular passengers, at the front of the plane to allow observation of the cockpit. Despite the expansion of the marshal service, they cannot be on every plane, and they rarely face a real threat on a flight. Critics have questioned the need for them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/05/17/tsa-air-marshal-training-terrorism-planes/601236002/|title=Terror in the skies: TSA's air marshals are 'last line of defense', but is the program really needed?|website=USA TODAY|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706134542/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/05/17/tsa-air-marshal-training-terrorism-planes/601236002/|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Air traffic control===
There is no generic or set of rules for handling a hijacking situation. [[Air traffic controller]]s are expected to exercise their best judgement and expertise when dealing with the apparent consequences of an unlawful interference or hijack.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Unlawful_Interference:_Guidance_for_Controllers|title=Unlawful Interference: Guidance for Controllers - SKYbrary Aviation Safety|website=www.skybrary.aero|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706134547/https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Unlawful_Interference:_Guidance_for_Controllers|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|website=govinfo.library.unt.edu|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514052417/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm|archive-date=2008-05-14|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Emergency_Transponder_Codes|title=Emergency Transponder Codes - SKYbrary Aviation Safety|website=www.skybrary.aero|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706134543/https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Emergency_Transponder_Codes|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Depending on the jurisdiction, the controller will inform authorities, such as the military, who will escort the hijacked plane. Controllers are expected to keep communications to a minimum and clear the [[runway]] for a possible landing.<ref name=":10" />

==Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft==
[[File:Canadian CF18 Hornet aircraft and Russian Su-27 aircraft are practicing procedures to transfer a simulated hijacked airplane during the NORAD Exercise VIGILANT EAGLE 13 130828-F-XX999-007.jpg|thumb|[[Royal Canadian Air Force]] and [[Russian Air Force]] [[fighter aircraft]] during a [[training exercise]] for intercepting and transferring a hijacked airliner between Russian and American airspace in 2013]]

===Germany===
In January 2005, a federal law came into force in [[Germany]], called the {{Lang|de|[[Luftsicherheitsgesetz]]}}, which allows "direct action by armed force" against a hijacked aircraft to prevent a September 11–style attack. However, in February 2006 the [[Federal Constitutional Court]] struck down these provisions of the law, stating such preventive measures were unconstitutional and would essentially be state-sponsored murder, even if such an act would save many more lives on the ground. The main reason behind this decision was that the state would effectively be killing innocent hostages in order to avoid a terrorist attack.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/EN/2006/02/rs20060215_1bvr035705en.html|title=Bundesverfassungsgericht - Decisions - Authorisation to shoot down aircraft in the Aviation Security Act void|last=First Senate|date=2006-02-15|website=www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706145039/https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/EN/2006/02/rs20060215_1bvr035705en.html|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> The Court also ruled that the [[Federal Ministry of Defence (Germany)|Minister of Defense]] is constitutionally not entitled to act in terrorism matters, as this is the duty of the state and federal police forces.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2006-02-15 |title=German court rejects hijack law |website=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4715878.stm |url-status=live |access-date=2006-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629200323/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4715878.stm |archive-date=2006-06-29}}</ref> [[President of Germany]] [[Horst Köhler]] urged judicial review of the constitutionality of the ''Luftsicherheitsgesetz'' after he signed it into law in 2005.

===India===
India published its anti-hijacking policy in August 2005.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4150640.stm "India adopts tough hijack policy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314140955/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4150640.stm |date=2011-03-14 }}. [[BBC News]], 14 August 2005</ref> The policy came into force after approval from the [[Cabinet Committee on Security]] (CCS). The main points of the policy are:
* Any attempt to hijack will be considered an act of aggression against the country and will prompt a response fit for an aggressor.
* Hijackers, if captured alive, will be put on trial, convicted, and sentenced to death.
* Hijackers will be engaged in negotiations only to bring the incident to an end, to comfort passengers and to prevent loss of lives.
* The hijacked plane will be shot down if it is deemed to become a missile heading for strategic targets.
* The hijacked plane will be escorted by armed fighter aircraft and will be forced to land.
* A hijacked grounded plane will not be allowed to take off under any circumstance.

===United States===
Prior to the [[September 11 attacks]], countermeasures were focused on "traditional" hijackings. As such, there were no specific rules for handling suicide hijackings, where aircraft would be used as a weapon.<ref name="comish"/> Moreover, military response at the time consisted of multiple uncoordinated units, each with its own set of rules of engagement with no unified command structure.<ref name="sum"/> Soon after the attacks, however, new rules of engagement were introduced, authorizing the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD), the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] command tasked with protecting U.S. airspace, to shoot down hijacked commercial airliners if the plane is deemed a threat to strategic targets.<ref>{{cite news|title=US pilots train shooting civilian planes|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3161354.stm|work=BBC News|access-date=24 November 2012|date=3 October 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911150226/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3161354.stm|archive-date=11 September 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2003, the military stated that fighter pilots [[Military exercise|exercise]] this scenario several times a week.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/03/us/us-practices-how-to-down-hijacked-jets.html|title=U.S. Practices How to Down Hijacked Jets|last=Schmitt|first=Eric|date=2003-10-03|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-07-06|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706145039/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/03/us/us-practices-how-to-down-hijacked-jets.html|archive-date=2019-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Other countries===

Poland and Russia are among other countries that have had laws or directives for shooting down hijacked planes.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4172487.stm|work=BBC News|title=Poland to down hijacked aircraft|date=13 January 2005|access-date=30 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826081347/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4172487.stm|archive-date=26 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> However, in September 2008 the Polish Constitutional Court ruled that the Polish rules were unconstitutional, and voided them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trybunal.gov.pl/eng/summaries/documents/K_44_07_GB.pdf |title=Trybunał Konstytucyjny |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201044248/http://trybunal.gov.pl/eng/summaries/documents/K_44_07_GB.pdf |archive-date=2010-12-01 }}</ref>

==International law==
===Tokyo Convention===
{{Main|Tokyo Convention}}
The '''Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft''', known as the '''Tokyo Convention''', is an [[international treaty]] which entered force on December 4, 1969. {{As of|2015}}, it has been ratified by 186 parties. Article 11 of the [[Tokyo Convention]] states the following:
{{blockquote|1. When a person on board has unlawfully committed by force or threat thereof an act of interference, seizure, or other wrongful exercise of control of an aircraft in flight or when such an act is about to be committed, Contracting States shall take all appropriate measures to restore control of the aircraft to its lawful commander or to preserve his control of the aircraft.

2. In the cases contemplated in the preceding paragraph, the Contracting State in which the aircraft lands shall permit its passengers and crew to continue their journey as soon as practicable, and shall return the aircraft and its cargo to the persons lawfully entitled to possession.}}
The signatories agree that if there is unlawful takeover of an aircraft, or a threat of it on their territory, then they will take all necessary measures to regain or keep control over an aircraft. The captain can also disembark a suspected person on the territory of any country, where the aircraft lands, and that country must agree to it, as stated in Articles 8 and 12 of the convention.<ref>''Sovereignty and Jurisdiction in Airspace and Outer Space: Legal Criteria for Spatial Delimitation'', by Gbenga Oduntan, [[Routledge]], 2011, pg. 118.</ref>

===Hague Convention===
{{Main|Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation}}
The [[Hague Hijacking Convention|Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft]] (known as the '''Hague Convention''') went into effect on October 14, 1971. {{As of|2013}}, the convention has 185 signatories.

===Montreal Convention===
{{main|Montreal Convention}}
The '''Montreal Convention''' is a [[multilateral treaty]] adopted by a diplomatic meeting of [[ICAO]] member states in 1999. It amended important provisions of the [[Warsaw Convention]]'s regime concerning compensation for the victims of air disasters.

==In popular culture==
*The 1942 [[Superman]] film ''[[Japoteurs]]'' depicts Superman saving Metropolis from a bombardier hijacked by Japanese spies during World War II.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Darowski |first1=John |title=Adapting Superman: essays on the transmedia man of steel |date=2021 |publisher=McFarland & company |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |isbn=9781476642390 |page=33}}</ref>
*The 1997 Hollywood film ''[[Air Force One (film)|Air Force One]]'' is based on the fictional hijacking of [[Air Force One]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118571/|title=Air Force One|author=IMDb|publisher=IMDb|access-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610075748/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118571/|archive-date=2018-06-10|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Hijacking is a central theme in the ''[[Turbulence (1997 film)|Turbulence]]'' movie trilogy.
*In ''[[Mission: Impossible 2]]'', one of the film's antagonists hijacks a plane at the start of the movie. 
*The 2006 film ''[[United 93 (film)|United 93]]'' is based on the real events onboard [[United Airlines Flight 93]] one of the four airlines hijacked during the September 11 attacks.
*The 2012 film ''[[The Dark Knight Rises]]'' features an opening sequence of hijacking and crashing an aircraft for the purpose of kidnapping a man and faking his death.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1345836/|title=The Dark Knight Rises|author=IMDb|publisher=IMDb|access-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713204838/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1345836/|archive-date=2018-07-13|url-status=live}}</ref>
*The film ''[[Con Air]]'' features a U.S. Marshals aircraft being hijacked by the maximum-security prisoners on board.
*''[[The Taking of Flight 847: The Uli Derickson Story]]'' was a made-for-TV film based on the actual hijacking of [[TWA Flight 847]], as seen through the eyes of the chief flight attendant [[Uli Derickson]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0096216/|title=The Taking of Flight 847: The Uli Derickson Story|publisher=IMDb|access-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728223041/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0096216/|archive-date=2018-07-28|url-status=live}}</ref>
*''[[Passenger 57]]'' depicts an airline security expert trapped on a passenger jet when terrorists seize control.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105104/|title=Passenger 87|publisher=IMDb|access-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730140108/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105104/|archive-date=2018-07-30|url-status=live}}</ref>
*''[[Executive Decision]]'' depicts a Boeing 747 carrying 400 passengers being hijacked by Algerian terrorists, and U.S. marine and Army special forces use a reconnaissance aircraft to re-take the plane.
*''[[Skyjacked (film)|Skyjacked]]'' is a 1972 film about a crazed Vietnam War veteran hijacking an airliner, demanding to be taken to the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0069278/ |title=Skyjacked |date=26 August 1972 |publisher=IMDb |access-date=2018-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616191309/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0069278/ |archive-date=2018-06-16 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*The 1986 film ''[[The Delta Force]]'' depicted a Special Forces squad tasked with retaking a plane hijacked by Lebanese terrorists, loosely based on the hijacking of [[TWA Flight 847]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0090927/ |title=The Delta Force |publisher=IMDb |access-date=2018-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803204626/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0090927/ |archive-date=2018-08-03 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*The 2004 film ''[[The Assassination of Richard Nixon]]'', based on a true incident, depicts a disillusioned tire salesman who attempts to hijack a plane in 1974 and crash it into the [[White House]]. His attempt failed and he was mortally wounded by an airport policeman. He killed himself before police stormed the plane.
*The 2006 film ''[[Snakes On a Plane]]'' is a fictional story about aircraft piracy through the in-flight release of venomous snakes.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0417148/|title=Snakes on a Plane|author=IMDb|publisher=IMDb|access-date=2018-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626001348/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0417148/|archive-date=2018-06-26|url-status=live}}</ref>
*In ''[[Harold and Kumar 2]]'', two U.S. [[Federal Air Marshal Service|Air Marshal]]s subdue Harold and Kumar on board a plane after mistaking them for terrorists.
*The 2011 film ''[[Payanam (2011 film)|Payanam]]'' is a movie entirely based on the negotiations and rescue operations done by the Indian security forces in response to a flight hijacking incident.
*In the 2013 video game ''[[Grand Theft Auto V]]'' the player is tasked with hijacking a [[cargo plane]] carrying a large shipment of weapons by crashing a [[crop duster]] into the cargo bay mid-flight and fighting to seize control of the aircraft. The cargo plane is later shot down by the [[US Air Force]], requiring the player to bail out.
*The 2014 film ''[[Non-Stop (film)|Non-Stop]]'' depicts an aircraft hijacking.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2024469/ |title=Non-Stop |date=28 February 2014 |publisher=[[IMDb]] |access-date=2018-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803143912/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2024469/ |archive-date=2018-08-03 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*The Indian film ''[[Neerja]]'' is based on the hijacking of [[Pan Am Flight 73]] in Karachi.
*In 2016, German television broadcast the film ''{{ill|The Verdict (2016 film)|de|Terror – Ihr Urteil|lt=The Verdict}}'', in which a [[Bundeswehr]] military pilot shoots down a hijacked passenger plane with 164 people on board that was heading towards a stadium filled with 70,000 people. Following the broadcast, a public vote was called for in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and 86.9% of viewers voted that the pilot was not guilty of murder.<ref>[http://www.daserste.de/unterhaltung/film/terror-ihr-urteil/sendung/terror-ihr-urteil-100.html Terror - Ihr Urteil - ARD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612152350/http://www.daserste.de/unterhaltung/film/terror-ihr-urteil/sendung/terror-ihr-urteil-100.html |date=2017-06-12 }} (German) | retrieved 20 June 2017</ref>
*The 2019 film [[7500 (film)|''7500'']] depicts the struggle of a pilot to land an aircraft and maintain control of its cockpit during a hijacking.
*The 2023 [[Apple TV+]] original series ''[[Hijack (TV series)|Hijack]]'' stars [[Idris Elba]] as Sam, a talented business negotiator, who embarks on a mission to broker a peaceful end to a hijacking of his 7-hour flight from Dubai to London.
*The 2024 Indian [[Netflix]] web-series ''[[IC 814: The Kandahar Hijack]]'' reconstructs the real events onboard [[Indian Airlines Flight 814]]
*The 2025 Vietnamese movie ''{{ill|Flight To The Death On The Air (2025 film)|vi|Tử chiến trên không|lt=Flight To The Death On The Air}}'' reconstructs the hijacking of [[List of Vietnam Airlines accidents and incidents#Hijackings and threats|Vietnam Civil Aviation Flight 501]], which is considered as the first Vietnamese movie about aircraft hijacking.

==See also==
{{Portal|Aviation|Law}}
* [[List of aircraft hijackings]]
* [[Air pirate]]
* [[Airport security]]
* [[El Al]]
* [[List of Cuba–United States aircraft hijackings]]
* [[Palestinian political violence]]
* [[Terrorism]]

==References==
{{Reflist|33em}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120119012735/http://www.fortnightjournal.com/dolan-morgan/258-the-first-hijacking-myth.html "The First Hijacking Myth" at Fortnight Journal]
* [https://mikedashhistory.com/2014/12/30/americas-first-highjacking/ "America's first highjacking" at A Blast From the Past]

{{Authority control}}
{{Terrorism topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hijacking}}
[[Category:Aircraft hijacking| ]]
[[Category:Aircraft hijackings| ]]
[[Category:Aviation risks]]
[[Category:Aviation security]]
[[Category:Terrorism tactics]]