View source for Altitude

{{Short description|Height in relation to a specified reference point}}
{{About||the usage in astronomy|Altitude angle|other uses|}}
{{broader|Vertical position}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Attitude (disambiguation)|Attitude]] or [[Latitude]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}

[[File:Altitude.svg|thumb|Altitude is a vertical measurement between a reference datum and an object.]]
'''Altitude''' is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference [[datum (geodesy)|datum]] and a point or object. The exact definition and reference datum varies according to the context (e.g., aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sport, or atmospheric pressure). Although the term ''altitude'' is commonly used to mean the [[height above sea level]] of a location, in [[geography]] the term [[elevation]] is often preferred for this usage.

In aviation, altitude is typically measured relative to mean sea level or above ground level to ensure safe navigation and flight operations. In geometry and geographical surveys, altitude helps create accurate topographic maps and understand the terrain's elevation. For high-altitude trekking and sports, knowing and adapting to altitude is vital for performance and safety. Higher altitudes mean reduced oxygen levels, which can lead to altitude sickness if proper acclimatization measures are not taken.

Vertical distance measurements in the "down" direction are commonly referred to as ''[[depth (coordinate)|depth]]''.

== In aviation==
{{anchor|Aviation}}
{{See also|Sea level#Aviation|Vertical separation (aviation)}}
{{main category|Altitudes in aviation}}
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2018}}
[[File:Boeing 737 view 1.jpg|alt=A generic Boeing 737-800 cruising at 32,000 feet. Below it are a pack of clouds. Above it is a vivid, ambient blue sky.|thumb|upright=1.5|A [[Boeing 737 Next Generation|Boeing 737-800]] [[cruise (aeronautics)|cruising]] in the [[stratosphere]], where [[airliner]]s typically cruise to avoid [[turbulence]] rampant in the [[troposphere]]. The blue layer is the [[ozone layer]], fading further to the [[mesosphere]]. The [[ozone]] heats the stratosphere, making conditions stable. The stratosphere is also the altitude limit of [[jet aircraft]] and [[weather balloon]]s, as the [[air density]] there is roughly {{fract|1|1000}} of that in the troposphere.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Stratosphere - overview |url=https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/stratosphere-overview#:~:text=Commercial%20jet%20aircraft%20fly%20in,the%20lower,%20more%20humid%20troposphere. |website=scied.ucar.edu |publisher=[[University Corporation for Atmospheric Research]] |access-date=2021-02-06}}</ref>]]

[[File:vertical distances.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|Vertical distance comparison]]

The term ''altitude'' can have several meanings, and is always qualified by explicitly adding a modifier (e.g. "true altitude"), or implicitly through the context of the communication. Parties exchanging altitude information must be clear which definition is being used.

Aviation altitude is measured using either [[mean sea level]] (MSL) or local ground level (above ground level, or AGL) as the reference datum.

[[Pressure altitude]] divided by 100 feet (30&nbsp;m) is the [[flight level]], and is used above the [[transition altitude]] ({{convert|18000|ft|m}} in the US, but may be as low as {{convert|3000|ft|m}} in other jurisdictions). So when the altimeter reads the country-specific flight level on the standard pressure setting the aircraft is said to be at "Flight level XXX/100" (where XXX is the transition altitude). When flying at a flight level, the altimeter is always set to standard pressure (29.92&nbsp;[[Inches of mercury|inHg]] or 1013.25&nbsp;[[Pascal (unit)|hPa]]).

On the flight deck, the definitive instrument for measuring altitude is the pressure [[altimeter]], which is an [[barometer#Aneroid barometers|aneroid barometer]] with a front face indicating distance (feet or metres) instead of [[atmospheric pressure]].

There are several types of altitude in aviation:

* '''Indicated altitude''' is the reading on the altimeter when it is set to the [[QNH|local barometric pressure at mean sea level]]. In UK aviation radiotelephony usage, ''the vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from mean sea level''; this is referred to over the radio as '''altitude'''.(see [[QNH]])<ref name="CAP413">{{cite book | date=1 January 1995 | title=Radiotelephony Manual |publisher=UK Civil Aviation Authority| id=CAP413| isbn=978-0-86039-601-7 }}</ref>
* '''Absolute altitude''' is the vertical distance of the aircraft above the terrain over which it is flying.<ref name="AFM_51-40">{{cite book |title=Air Navigation |date=1 December 1989 |publisher=Department of the Air Force |id=AFM 51-40}}</ref>{{rp|ii}} It can be measured using a [[radar altimeter]] (or "absolute altimeter").<ref name="AFM_51-40" /> Also referred to as "radar height" or feet/metres [[Above Ground Level|above ground level]] (AGL).
* '''True altitude''' is the actual elevation above [[mean sea level]].<ref name="AFM_51-40"/>{{rp|ii}} It is indicated altitude corrected for non-standard temperature and pressure.
* '''Height''' is the vertical distance above a reference point, commonly the terrain elevation. In UK aviation radiotelephony usage, ''the vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from a specified datum''; this is referred to over the radio as '''height''', where the specified datum is the airfield elevation (see [[Mean sea level pressure|QFE]])<ref name="CAP413" />
* '''Pressure altitude''' is the elevation above a standard datum air-pressure plane (typically, 1013.25 millibars or 29.92" Hg). Pressure altitude is used to indicate "flight level" which is the standard for altitude reporting in the U.S. in Class A airspace (above roughly 18,000 feet). Pressure altitude and indicated altitude are the same when the altimeter setting is 29.92" Hg or 1013.25 millibars.
*'''[[Density altitude]]''' is the altitude corrected for non-ISA [[International Standard Atmosphere]] atmospheric conditions. Aircraft performance depends on density altitude, which is affected by barometric pressure, humidity and temperature. On a very hot day, density altitude at an airport (especially one at a high elevation) may be so high as to preclude takeoff, particularly for helicopters or a heavily loaded aircraft.

These types of altitude can be explained more simply as various ways of measuring the altitude:
*'''Indicated altitude''' – the altitude shown on the altimeter.
*'''Absolute altitude''' – altitude in terms of the distance above the ground directly below
*'''True altitude''' – altitude in terms of elevation above sea level
*'''Height''' – vertical distance above a certain point
*'''Pressure altitude''' – the [[air pressure]] in terms of altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere
*'''Density altitude''' – the density of the air in terms of altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere in the air

==In satellite orbits==
{{excerpt|Geocentric_orbit#Altitude classifications}}

==In atmospheric studies==
{{See also|Atmospheric pressure#Altitude variation}}

===Atmospheric layers===
{{main|Atmospheric layers}}
The [[Earth's atmosphere]] is divided into several altitude regions. These regions start and finish at varying heights depending on season and distance from the poles.  The altitudes stated below are averages:<ref>{{cite web | title=Layers of the Atmosphere |work=JetStream, the National Weather Service Online Weather School | publisher=National Weather Service | url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/atmos/layers.htm | access-date=22 December 2005| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051219190158/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/atmos/layers.htm| archive-date= 19 December 2005 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* [[Troposphere]]: surface to {{convert|8000|m|mi}} at the poles, {{convert|18000|m|miles}} at the [[Equator]], ending at the Tropopause
* [[Stratosphere]]: Troposphere to {{convert|50|km|mi}}
* [[Mesosphere]]: Stratosphere to {{convert|85|km|mi}}
* [[Thermosphere]]: Mesosphere to {{convert|675|km|mi}}
* [[Exosphere]]: Thermosphere to {{convert|10000|km|mi}}

The [[Kármán line]], at an altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi}} above [[sea level]], by convention defines represents the demarcation between the atmosphere and [[outer space|space]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fai.org/icare-records/100km-altitude-boundary-for-astronautics|title=The 100&nbsp;km Boundary for Astronautics|author=Dr. S. Sanz Fernández de Córdoba|publisher=[[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]]|date=24 June 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809093537/http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp|archive-date=9 August 2011}}</ref> The thermosphere and exosphere (along with the higher parts of the mesosphere) are regions of the atmosphere that are conventionally defined as space.

===High altitude and low pressure===
{{anchor|High altitude and low air pressure}}
Regions on the [[Earth]]'s surface (or in its atmosphere) that are high above mean sea level are referred to as '''high altitude'''. High altitude is sometimes defined to begin at {{convert|8000|ft|meters|order=flip}} above sea level.<ref name=websterMed>{{cite book|title=Webster's New World Medical Dictionary|url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8578|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-18928-3|year=2008|access-date=27 April 2010|archive-date=8 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208154830/http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8578}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ismmed.org/np_altitude_tutorial.htm |title=An Altitude Tutorial |publisher=International Society for Mountain Medicine |access-date=22 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719194849/http://www.ismmed.org/np_altitude_tutorial.htm |archive-date=19 July 2011  }}</ref><ref name=MedicalProblems/>

At high altitude, [[atmospheric pressure]] is lower than that at sea level. This is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand.<ref name=nova>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/exposure/pressure.html|title=Atmospheric pressure|work=NOVA Online Everest|publisher=Public Broadcasting Service|access-date=23 January 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090125053918/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/exposure/pressure.html| archive-date= 25 January 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>

===Temperature profile===
{{main|Lapse rate}}
{{Further|Atmospheric temperature}}

The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between [[radiation]] and [[convection]]. Sunlight in the [[visible spectrum]] hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If [[radiation]] were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the [[greenhouse effect]] of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly {{convert|333|K|C F}}, and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.<ref name=goodywilson>{{cite book|first1=Richard M.|last1=Goody|first2=James C.G.|last2=Walker|title=Atmospheres|chapter=Atmospheric Temperatures|chapter-url=http://lasp.colorado.edu/~bagenal/3720/GoodyWalker/AtmosCh3sm.pdf|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1972|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-date=29 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729075851/http://lasp.colorado.edu/~bagenal/3720/GoodyWalker/AtmosCh3sm.pdf}}</ref>

However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of [[convection]]. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an [[adiabatic process]], which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the [[adiabatic lapse rate]], which is approximately 9.8&nbsp;°C per kilometer (or {{convert|5.4|F-change|C-change|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} per 1000&nbsp;feet) of altitude.<ref name=goodywilson/>

The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent [[heat of vaporization]]. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes [[Dew point|saturated]] and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming [[cloud]]s), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the [[dry adiabatic lapse rate]] to the [[moist adiabatic lapse rate]] (5.5&nbsp;°C per kilometer or {{convert|3|F-change|C-change|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} per 1000&nbsp;feet).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meteorologytraining.tpub.com/14312/css/14312_47.htm |title=Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate |publisher=tpub.com |access-date=2 May 2016  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603041448/http://meteorologytraining.tpub.com/14312/css/14312_47.htm |archive-date=3 June 2016 }}</ref>
As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an [[international standard atmosphere]] (ISA) with a temperature [[lapse rate]] of 6.49&nbsp;°C per kilometer (3.56&nbsp;°F per 1,000&nbsp;feet).<ref name="ICAO 1993">{{cite book|publisher=[[International Civil Aviation Organization]]|title=Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 feet))|id=Doc 7488-CD|edition=Third|year=1993|isbn=978-92-9194-004-2}}</ref> The actual lapse rate can vary by altitude and by location.

Finally, only the [[troposphere]] (up to approximately {{convert|11|km|ft}} of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes notable convection; in the [[stratosphere]], there is little vertical convection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/stratosphere-overview|title=The stratosphere: overview|publisher=UCAR|access-date=2 May 2016}}</ref>

==Effects on organisms==

===Humans===
{{main|Effects of high altitude on humans}}

Medicine recognizes that altitudes above {{convert|1500|m|ft}} start to affect humans,<ref>{{cite web|title=Non-Physician Altitude Tutorial |publisher=International Society for Mountain Medicine |url=http://www.ismmed.org/np_altitude_tutorial.htm |access-date=22 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051223065508/http://www.ismmed.org/np_altitude_tutorial.htm |archive-date=23 December 2005  }}</ref> and there is no record of humans living at extreme altitudes above {{convert|5500|-|6000|m|ft}} for more than two years.<ref name=highestHabitation>{{cite journal|last=West|first=JB|pmid=12631426|title=Highest permanent human habitation|journal=High Altitude Medical Biology|volume=3|pages=401–407|year=2002|doi=10.1089/15270290260512882|issue=4}}</ref> As the altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, which affects humans by reducing the [[partial pressure]] of [[oxygen]].<ref name=pubmed>{{cite journal|title=Oxygen at high altitude|journal=British Medical Journal|first=Andrew J|last=Peacock|date=17 October 1998|volume=317|pages=1063–1066|pmid=9774298|issue=7165|pmc=1114067|doi=10.1136/bmj.317.7165.1063}}</ref> The lack of oxygen above {{convert|8000|ft|m|order=flip}} can cause serious illnesses such as [[altitude sickness]], [[high altitude pulmonary edema]], and [[high altitude cerebral edema]].<ref name=MedicalProblems>{{cite journal|last1=Cymerman|first1=A|last2=Rock|first2=PB|title=Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers|publisher=U.S. Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-TN94-2|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976|year=1994|access-date=5 March 2009|archive-date=23 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423042510/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976|url-status=usurped}}</ref> The higher the altitude, the more likely are serious effects.<ref name=MedicalProblems/> The human body can [[altitude acclimatization|adapt to high altitude]] by breathing faster, having a higher heart rate, and adjusting its blood chemistry.<ref name=BordenHuman>{{cite book |last1=Young|first1=Andrew J.|last2=Reeves|first2=John T. |title=Human Adaptation to High Terrestrial Altitude. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments |volume=2 |chapter=21 |location=Borden Institute, Washington, DC |year=2002 |chapter-url=http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090111214536/http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html| archive-date= 11 January 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=Acclimatization>{{cite journal |last1=Muza|first1=SR|last2=Fulco|first2=CS|last3=Cymerman|first3=A |title=Altitude Acclimatization Guide |journal=U.S. Army Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report |issue=USARIEM–TN–04–05 |year=2004 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7616 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423042451/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7616 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=23 April 2009 |access-date=5 March 2009 }}</ref> It can take days or weeks to adapt to high altitude. However, above {{convert|8000|m|ft|-3}}, (in the "[[death zone]]"), altitude acclimatization becomes impossible.<ref name="PBS">{{cite web|url= https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2506everest.html|title= Everest:The Death Zone|work= Nova|publisher= PBS|date= 24 February 1998}}</ref>

There is a significantly lower overall mortality rate for permanent residents at higher altitudes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=West|first=John B.|title=Exciting Times in the Study of Permanent Residents of High Altitude|journal=High Altitude Medicine & Biology|date=January 2011|volume=12|issue=1|page=1|doi=10.1089/ham.2011.12101|pmid=21452955}}</ref> Additionally, there is a dose response relationship between increasing elevation and decreasing obesity prevalence in the United States.<ref name=Voss>{{cite journal|last1=Voss|first1=JD|last2=Masuoka|first2=P|last3=Webber|first3=BJ|last4=Scher|first4=AI|last5= Atkinson|first5=RL|title=Association of Elevation, Urbanization and Ambient Temperature with Obesity Prevalence in the United States|journal=International Journal of Obesity|year=2013|pmid=23357956|doi=10.1038/ijo.2013.5|volume=37|issue=10|pages=1407–1412|doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition, the recent hypothesis suggests that high altitude could be protective against Alzheimer's disease via action of erythropoietin, a hormone released by kidney in response to hypoxia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ismailov|first=RM|title=Erythropoietin and epidemiology of Alzheimer disease|journal=Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord.|date=Jul–Sep 2013|volume=27|issue=3|pages=204–6|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e31827b61b8|pmid=23314061|s2cid=32245379}}</ref>
However, people living at higher elevations have a statistically significant higher rate of suicide.<ref name=Brenner>{{cite journal|last1=Brenner|first1=Barry|last2=Cheng|first2=David|last3=Clark|first3=Sunday|last4=Camargo|first4=Carlos A. Jr|title=Positive Association between Altitude and Suicide in 2584 U.S. Counties|journal=High Altitude Medicine & Biology|date=Spring 2011|volume=12|issue=1|pages=31–5|pmid=21214344|doi=10.1089/ham.2010.1058|pmc=3114154}}</ref> The cause for the increased suicide risk is unknown so far.<ref name=Brenner/>

====Athletes====
For athletes, high altitude produces two contradictory effects on performance. For explosive events (sprints up to 400 metres, [[long jump]], [[triple jump]]) the reduction in atmospheric pressure signifies less atmospheric resistance, which generally results in improved athletic performance.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ward-Smith|year=1983|title=The influence of aerodynamic and biomechanical factors on long jump performance|journal=Journal of Biomechanics|volume=16|pages=655–658|doi=10.1016/0021-9290(83)90116-1|pmid=6643537|first1=AJ|issue=8}}</ref> For endurance events (races of 5,000 metres or more) the predominant effect is the reduction in oxygen which generally reduces the athlete's performance at high altitude. Sports organizations acknowledge the effects of altitude on performance: the International Association of Athletic Federations (IAAF), for example, marks record performances achieved at an altitude greater than {{convert|1000|m|ft}} with the letter "A".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iaaf.net/mm/Document/06/32/50/63250_PDF_English.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022135302/http://www.iaaf.net/mm/Document/06/32/50/63250_PDF_English.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2013 |title=IAAF World Indoor Lists 2012 |date=9 March 2012 |url-status=usurped |publisher=IAAF Statistics Office   }}</ref>

Athletes also can take advantage of altitude acclimatization to increase their performance. The same changes that help the body cope with high altitude increase performance back at sea level.<ref name="pmid16497842">{{cite journal |last1=Wehrlin|first1=JP|last2=Zuest|first2=P|last3=Hallén|first3=J|last4=Marti|first4=B |title=Live high—train low for 24 days increases hemoglobin mass and red cell volume in elite endurance athletes |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=100 |issue=6 |pages=1938–45 |date=June 2006 |pmid=16497842 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.01284.2005 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17805094">{{cite journal |last1=Gore|first1=CJ|last2=Clark|first2=SA|last3=Saunders|first3=PU |title=Nonhematological mechanisms of improved sea-level performance after hypoxic exposure |journal=Med Sci Sports Exerc |volume=39 |issue=9 |pages=1600–9 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17805094 |doi=10.1249/mss.0b013e3180de49d3 |doi-access=free }}</ref> These changes are the basis of [[altitude training]] which forms an integral part of the training of athletes in a number of endurance sports including track and field, distance running, triathlon, cycling and swimming.

===Other organisms===
{{main|Organisms at high altitude}}
Decreased oxygen availability and decreased temperature make life at high altitude challenging. Despite these environmental conditions, many species have been successfully [[high-altitude adaptation|adapted at high altitudes]]. Animals have developed physiological adaptations to enhance oxygen uptake and delivery to tissues which can be used to sustain metabolism. The strategies used by animals to adapt to high altitude depend on their [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] and [[phylogeny]]. For example, small mammals face the challenge of maintaining body heat in cold temperatures, due to their small volume to surface area ratio. As oxygen is used as a source of metabolic heat production, the hypobaric hypoxia at high altitudes is problematic.

There is also a general trend of smaller body sizes and lower [[species richness]] at high altitudes, likely due to lower oxygen partial pressures.<ref name=macroinvertrichness>{{cite journal|last=Jacobsen|first=Dean|title=Low oxygen pressure as a driving factor for the altitudinal decline in taxon richness of stream macroinvertebrates|journal=Oecologia|volume=154|pages=795–807|doi=10.1007/s00442-007-0877-x|issue=4|pmid=17960424|date=24 September 2007|bibcode=2008Oecol.154..795J|s2cid=484645}}</ref> These factors may decrease [[Productivity (ecology)|productivity]] in high altitude habitats, meaning there will be less energy available for consumption, growth, and activity.<ref name="trout">{{cite journal|last1=Rasmussen|first1=Joseph B.|first2=Michael D.|last2=Robinson|first3=Alice|last3=Hontela|first4=Daniel D.|last4=Heath|title=Metabolic traits of westslope cutthroat trout, introduced rainbow trout and their hybrids in an ecotonal hybrid zone along an elevation gradient|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|pages=56–72|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01768.x|date=8 July 2011|doi-access=free}}</ref>

However, some species, such as birds, thrive at high altitude.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCracken|first1=K. G.|last2=Barger|first2=CP|last3=Bulgarella|first3=M|last4=Johnson|first4=KP|last5=Sonsthagen|first5=SA|last6=Trucco|first6=J|last7=Valqui|first7=TH|last8=Wilson|first8=RE|last9=Winker|first9=K|display-authors=4|title=Parallel evolution in the major haemoglobin genes of eight species of Andean waterfowl|journal=Molecular Evolution|date=October 2009|volume=18|issue=19|pages=3992–4005|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04352.x|pmid=19754505|last10=Sorenson|first10=M. D.|bibcode=2009MolEc..18.3992M |s2cid=16820157}}</ref> Birds thrive because of physiological features that are advantageous for high-altitude flight.

==See also==
* [[Atmosphere of Earth]]
* [[Coffin corner (aerodynamics)]] At higher altitudes, the air density is lower than at sea level. At a certain altitude it is very difficult to keep an airplane in stable flight.
* [[Geocentric altitude]]
* [[Near space]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|33em}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web| title=Altitude pressure calculator | publisher=Apex (altitude physiology expeditions) | url=http://www.altitude.org/air_pressure.php | access-date = 8 August 2006}}
* {{cite web|title=The Race to the Stratosphere |publisher=U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission |url=http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Lighter_than_air/race_to_strato/LTA11.htm |access-date=25 January 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060309085716/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Lighter_than_air/race_to_strato/LTA11.htm |archive-date=9 March 2006  }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20011109004014/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/01mgg04.html Downloadable ETOPO2 Raw Data Database (2 minute grid)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19970705075458/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/93mgg01.html Downloadable ETOPO5 Raw Data Database (5 minute grid)]

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[[Category:Aerospace]]
[[Category:Physical geography]]
[[Category:Topography]]
[[Category:Vertical position]]