View source for Altruism

{{Short description|Concern for the well-being of others}}
{{Redirect|Otherism|the philosophical concept|Other (philosophy)}}
{{About||the concept in behavioral ecology|Altruism (biology)|the ethical doctrine|Altruism (ethics)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
[[File:Belisaire demandant l'aumone Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|Giving [[alms]] to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.]]

'''Altruism''' is concern for the [[well-being]], the life, of others, independently of personal benefit or reciprocity.

The word ''altruism'' was popularised (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] (1798-1857) {{circa | 1830}} in French, as {{lang|fr|altruisme}},<ref>
[https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/altruisme/ [...] ce mot aurait été créé vers 1830 soit par A. Comte soit par Andrieux qui fut un de ses professeurs à l'École polytechnique [...].
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as an [[antonym]] of [[egoism]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web |title=altruism (n .) |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=altruism |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper |access-date=27 May 2021}}
|2={{cite book |last =Teske |first =Nathan |title =Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation |date =2009 |publisher =Pennsylvania State University Press |location =University Park, Pa. |isbn =978-0-271-03546-8 |page =101 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=7B38I2UEPa0C}}
}}</ref> He derived it from the Italian {{lang|it|altrui}}, which in turn was derived from Latin {{lang|la|alteri}}, meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else".<ref>{{cite book |last=Ciciloni |first=Ferdinando |title=A Grammar of the Italian Language |date=1825 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog/page/n81 64] |url=https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog}}</ref> Altruism may be considered a synonym of selflessness, the opposite of [[self-centeredness]].

Altruism is an important moral value in many [[culture]]s, ideologies, and [[religion]]s. It can [[Moral circle expansion|expand beyond care for humans]] to include consideration for other [[Sentience|sentient]] beings and [[future generations]].<ref>{{Cite web |last =Samuel |first =Sigal |date =4 April 2019 |title =Should animals, plants, and robots have the same rights as you? |url =https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/4/4/18285986/robot-animal-nature-expanding-moral-circle-peter-singer |access-date =29 December 2024 |website =Vox |language =en-US}}</ref>

[[Altruism (biology) | Altruism in biology]], as observed in populations of organisms, is when an individual performs an action at a cost to itself (in terms of e.g. pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction) that benefits, directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action.<ref>{{Citation |last =Okasha |first =Samir |title =Biological Altruism |date =2020 |encyclopedia =The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last =Zalta |editor-first =Edward N. |url =https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/altruism-biological/ |access-date =5 May 2024 |edition =Summer 2020 |publisher =Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref>

The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of [[sharing]], [[Helping behavior|helping]], or [[Self-sacrifice|sacrificing]] can be "truly" altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether such [[Motivation#Intrinsic and extrinsic|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as "benefits".<ref>{{Cite journal |last =May |first =Joshua |title =Altruism and Psychological Egoism |url =https://philpapers.org/browse/altruism-and-psychological-egoism |website =PhilPapers.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title =ENVS203: Altruism |url =https://learn.saylor.org/mod/page/view.php?id=8333 |access-date =5 May 2024 |website =Saylor Academy}}</ref>

The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]]'' can also refer to a deontological ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with deontological [[ethical egoism|egoism]], which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Low |first1=Kim Cheng Patrick |title=Altruistic CSR |date=2013 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Corporate Social Responsibility |pages=81–91 |editor-last=Idowu |editor-first=Samuel O. |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_186 |isbn=978-3-642-28036-8 |last2=Ang |first2=Sik-Liong |editor2-last=Capaldi |editor2-first=Nicholas |editor3-last=Zu |editor3-first=Liangrong |editor4-last=Gupta |editor4-first=Ananda Das}}</ref>

[[Effective altruism]] is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{Cite web |title =What is effective altruism? {{!}} Effective Altruism |url =https://www.effectivealtruism.org/articles/introduction-to-effective-altruism |access-date =5 May 2024 |website =effectivealtruism.org}}
</ref>

==The notion of altruism ==
The concept of altruism has a history in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] thought. The term was coined in the 19th century by the founding [[sociologist]] and [[philosopher of science]] [[Auguste Comte]], and has become a major topic for [[psychologists]] (especially [[evolutionary psychology]] researchers), [[evolutionary biologists]], and [[ethology|ethologists]]. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them, above oneself.

===Cross-cultural perspectives on altruism===
Cross-cultural perspectives on altruism show that how we view and experience helping others depends heavily on where we come from. In individualistic cultures, like many Western countries, acts of altruism often bring personal joy and satisfaction, as they align with values that emphasize individual achievement and self-fulfillment. On the other hand, in collectivist cultures, common in many Eastern societies, altruism is often seen as a responsibility to the group rather than a personal choice. This difference means that people in collectivist cultures might not feel the same personal happiness from helping others, as the act is more about fulfilling social obligations. Ultimately, these variations highlight how deeply cultural norms shape the way we approach and experience altruism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Weiss-Sidi |first1=Merav |last2=Riemer |first2=Hila |date=23 June 2023 |title=Help others—be happy? The effect of altruistic behavior on happiness across cultures |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |language=English |volume=14 |article-number=1156661 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1156661 |doi-access=free |pmid=37425146 |pmc=10326385 |issn=1664-1078}}</ref>

==Scientific viewpoints<!--linked from 'Evolution of morality'-->==

===Anthropology===
{{expand section|date=July 2023}}
{{See also|Alms|Altruism (ethics)}}
[[Marcel Mauss]]'s essay ''[[The Gift (essay)|The Gift]]'' contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes:

{{blockquote|Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.}}

===Evolutionary explanations===
{{Main|Altruism (biology)|Evolution of morality|Evolutionary ethics}}
[[File:Manner of Francis Wheatley, Giving alms to beggar children.jpg|thumb|upright|Giving alms to beggar children]]
In [[ethology]] (the scientific study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[Sociocultural evolution|social evolution]], altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor.<ref name="Bell2008">{{cite book| last = Bell| first = Graham| title = Selection: the mechanism of evolution| url = https://archive.org/details/selectionmechani00bell_664| url-access = limited| year = 2008| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford| isbn = 978-0-19-856972-5| pages = [https://archive.org/details/selectionmechani00bell_664/page/n381 367]–368 }}</ref> In [[evolutionary psychology]] this term may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as [[Charity (practice)|charity]], [[emergency aid]], help to coalition partners, [[Gratuity|tipping]], [[courtship]] gifts, production of [[Public good (economics)|public good]]s, and [[environmentalism]].<ref name="AEP1">{{Cite book | first=Pat|last=Barcaly| chapter=The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation|editor-last1 = Roberts | editor-first1 = S. Craig | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-958607-3 }}</ref>

The need for an explanation of altruistic behavior that is compatible with evolutionary origins has driven the development of new theories. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and [[evolutionary game theory]]: a mathematical model and analysis of behavioral strategies.

Some of the proposed mechanisms are: 
* [[Kin selection]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Biological Altruism|chapter=Kin Selection and Inclusive Fitness|chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/#KinSelIncFit|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Okasha|first=Samir|year=2013}}</ref> That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs to resemble the faces of study participants more closely increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, which has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior, the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was powerful for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.<ref name=AEP1/>
* Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies and those from similar social [[ingroup]]s suffer or disappear. Helping such group members may, therefore, also benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] threatens the entire ingroup.<ref name=AEP1/>
* [[Reciprocal altruism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trivers |first1=Robert L. |title=The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |date=March 1971 |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=35–57 |doi=10.1086/406755 }}</ref> See also [[Reciprocity (evolution)]].
** Direct [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.7466396 |first1=R|last1=Axelrod|first2=W.D.|last2=Hamilton |title=The evolution of cooperation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=211 |issue=4489 |date=27 March 1981 |pages=1390–1396 |pmid=7466396 |bibcode = 1981Sci...211.1390A|citeseerx=10.1.1.147.9644 }}</ref> Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they will reciprocate the help. The effective [[tit for tat]] strategy is one [[game theory|game theoretic]] example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.<ref name=AEP1/>
**:One consequence is that people are more cooperative with one another if they are more likely to interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others, and this effect tends to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness, such as calling it a "Community Game" instead of a "Wall Street Game".<ref name=AEP1/>
**:A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize, so people become more helpful toward others after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<ref name=AEP1/>
**:People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better cooperativeness assessments or promises exchange. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger-scale competitions, such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<ref name=AEP1/>
** Indirect reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nowak |first1=Martin A. |last2=Sigmund |first2=Karl |title=Evolution of indirect reciprocity |journal=Nature |date=October 2005 |volume=437 |issue=7063 |pages=1291–1298 |doi=10.1038/nature04131 |pmid=16251955 |bibcode=2005Natur.437.1291N |url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/7763/1/IR-05-079.pdf }}</ref> Because people avoid poor reciprocators and cheaters, a person's [[reputation]] is important. A person esteemed for their reciprocity is more likely to receive assistance, even from individuals they have not directly interacted with before.<ref name=AEP1/>
** [[Strong reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gintis |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Gintis|title=Strong Reciprocity and Human Sociality|journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]]|volume=206|issue=2|date=September 2000|pmid=10966755|pages=169–179|doi=10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111|bibcode=2000JThBi.206..169G |hdl=10419/105717|hdl-access=free|citeseerx=10.1.1.335.7226 |s2cid=9260305 }}</ref> This form of reciprocity is expressed by people who invest more resources in cooperation and punishment than what is deemed optimal based on established theories of altruism.
** Pseudo-reciprocity.<ref>{{cite book | chapter=By-product Benefits, Reciprocity, and Pseudoreciprocity in Mutualism|editor-last=Hammerstein | editor-first=Peter | title=Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation | publisher=MIT Press | date=2003 |pages=203–222 | isbn=978-0-262-08326-3 | doi=10.7551/mitpress/3232.003.0013}}</ref> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.
* [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zahavi |first1=Amotz |title=Altruism as a Handicap: The Limitations of Kin Selection and Reciprocity |journal=Journal of Avian Biology |date=1995 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.2307/3677205 |jstor=3677205 }}</ref> Altruism, by diverting resources from the altruist, can act as an "honest signal" of available resources and the skills to acquire them. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also signal interactive and cooperative intentions, since someone who does not expect to interact further in the future gains nothing from such costly signaling. While it's uncertain if costly signaling can predict long-term cooperative traits, people tend to trust helpers more. Costly signaling loses its value when everyone shares identical traits, resources, and cooperative intentions, but it gains significance as population variability in these aspects increases.<ref name=AEP1/>

:Hunters who [[Sharing|share]] meat display a costly signal of ability. The research found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations are ways of demonstrating one's resources. [[Hero]]ic risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.<ref name=AEP1/>

[[File:FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg|thumb|Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the [[Houston Astrodome]], following [[Hurricane Katrina]].]]
:Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on reputation value and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helpful when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, publicly announced, discussed, or observed by someone else. This has been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues, such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. {{dubious|reason=failed to replicate: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8494318/|date=July 2023}} Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<ref name=AEP1/> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as generous. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate the money they know is not needed by the recipient because of reputational concerns.<ref name="AEP2">{{Cite book | last1=Iredal|first1=Wendy | last2=van Vugt|first2=Mark |chapter=Altruism as showing off: a signaling perspective on promoting green behavior and acts of kindness | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-958607-3 }}</ref>

:Typically, women find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When women look for a long-term partner, altruism may be a trait they prefer as it may indicate that the prospective partner is also willing to [[Sharing|share]] resources with her and her children. Men perform charitable acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner, there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in the presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships, which may be because they expect less success.<ref name=AEP1/><ref name=AEP2/>

:People may compete for the social benefit of a burnished reputation, which may cause [[competitive altruism]]. On the other hand, in some experiments, a proportion of people do not seem to care about reputation and do not help more, even if this is conspicuous. This may be due to reasons such as [[psychopathy]] or that they are so attractive that they need not be seen as altruistic. The reputational benefits of altruism occur in the future compared to the immediate costs of altruism. While humans and other organisms generally place less value on future costs/benefits as compared to those in the present, some have shorter time horizons than others, and these people tend to be less cooperative.<ref name=AEP1/>

:Explicit [[extrinsic]] rewards and punishments have sometimes been found to have a counterintuitively inverse effect on behaviors when compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which may make the thus-incentivized behaviors less desirable. People prefer altruism in others when it appears to be due to a personality characteristic rather than overt reputational concerns; simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of action may reduce them. This may be used as a derogatory tactic against altruists ("you're just [[virtue signalling]]"), especially by those who are non-cooperators. A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good.<ref name=AEP1/>
* [[Group selection]]. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as [[David Sloan Wilson]] that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group, even if these adaptations are detrimental at the individual level.<ref name="Wilson1983">{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=D. S. |title=The group selection controversy: History and current status |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |date=1983 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=159–187|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.14.110183.001111 |bibcode=1983AnRES..14..159W }}</ref> Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory, the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while directing prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (see also [[in-group favoritism]]). Many other evolutionary scientists have criticized group selection theory.<ref name="Leigh2010">{{cite journal |last1=Leigh Jr. |first1=E. G. |title=The group selection controversy |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |date=2010 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=6–19|doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01876.x |pmid=20002254 }}</ref>

[[File:Helping the homeless (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|Helping the [[Homelessness|homeless]] in New York City]]
Such explanations do not imply that humans consciously calculate how to increase their [[inclusive fitness]] when doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote certain altruistic behaviors.<ref name=AEP1/>

The benefits for the altruist may be increased, and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than competitors, and to members in-groups than to members of out-groups.<ref name=AEP1/>

The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoeba]]e until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hudson |first1=Richard Ellis |last2=Aukema |first2=Juliann Eve |last3=Rispe |first3=Claude |last4=Roze |first4=Denis |title=Altruism, Cheating, and Anticheater Adaptations in Cellular Slime Molds |journal=The American Naturalist |date=July 2002 |volume=160 |issue=1 |pages=31–43 |doi=10.1086/340613 |pmid=18707497 |bibcode=2002ANat..160...31H |url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02683365/file/2002_Hudson%20et%20al._Am%20Nat_1.pdf }}</ref>

Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Stephanie L. |last2=Brown |first2=R. Michael |title=TARGET ARTICLE: Selective Investment Theory: Recasting the Functional Significance of Close Relationships |journal=Psychological Inquiry |date=January 2006 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01 |s2cid=144718661 }}</ref>

Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics, for example, by the Russian [[Zoology|zoologist]] and [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and moral philosopher [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]]''.

===Neurobiology===
{{See also|Compassion}}
Jorge Moll and [[Jordan Grafman]], neuroscientists at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network, provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research,<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Moll | first1=Jorge | last2=Krueger | first2=Frank | last3=Zahn | first3=Roland | last4=Pardini | first4=Matteo | last5=de Oliveira-Souza | first5=Ricardo | last6=Grafman | first6=Jordan | title=Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=103 | issue=42 | date=17 October 2006 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0604475103 | pages=15623–15628 | pmid=17030808 | pmc=1622872 | bibcode=2006PNAS..10315623M | doi-access=free }}</ref> they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another [[brain circuit]] was also selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/[[septal region]]. These structures are related to social attachment and bonding in other species. The experiment suggested that altruism is not a higher moral faculty overpowering innate selfish desires, but a fundamental, ingrained, and enjoyable trait in the brain.<ref name="brain">{{cite news
|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701056.html
|title=If It Feels Good to Be Good, It Might Be Only Natural
|newspaper=The Washington Post
|date=28 May 2007
|first=Shankar
|last=Vedantam
|access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> One brain region, the subgenual [[anterior cingulate cortex]]/[[basal forebrain]], contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in people with a propensity for [[empathy]].<ref name="PMID_27528669">{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal |last1 = Lockwood |first1 = Patricia L |last2 = Apps |first2 = Matthew A J |last3 = Valton |first3 = Vincent |last4 = Viding |first4 = Essi |last5 = Roiser |first5 = Jonathan P |year = 2016 |title = Neurocomputational mechanisms of prosocial learning and links to empathy. |journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |quote = . fMRI revealed that activity in a posterior portion of the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain (sgACC) drives learning only when we are acting in a prosocial context |pmid = 27528669 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1603198113 |volume=113 |issue = 35 |pages=9763–8|pmc = 5024617 |bibcode = 2016PNAS..113.9763L |doi-access = free}}
|2={{lay source |template=cite news |date=15 August 2016 |title=Finding the Brain's Generosity Center |url=https://neurosciencenews.com/generosity-empathy-neuroscience-4850/ |work=Neuroscience News}}
}}</ref><ref name="neurons">{{cite news |last=Svoboda |first=Elizabeth |date=5 September 2013 |title=Scientists Are Finding That We Are Hard-Wired for Giving |url=https://generosityresearch.nd.edu/news/hard-wired-for-giving/ |access-date=7 August 2017 |publisher=University of Notre Dame}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shepelenko |first1=A. Yu. |last2=Kosonogov |first2=V. V. |date=1 February 2023 |title=Cerebral Support for Making Donation-Related Decision with Altruistic and Egoistic Motives |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11055-023-01413-9 |journal=Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=242–246 |doi=10.1007/s11055-023-01413-9 |issn=1573-899X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Bill Harbaugh, a [[University of Oregon]] economist, in an fMRI scanner test conducted with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions as Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in charity, such as a person's environment and values.<ref name="neurons"/>

A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=Cutler |first2=Jo |last3=Marsh |first3=Abigail A |title=A feature-based network analysis and fMRI meta-analysis reveal three distinct types of prosocial decisions |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=30 December 2021 |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1214–1233 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsab079 |pmid=34160604 |pmc=8717062 }}</ref> The results of this study confirmed that altruism is supported by distinct mechanisms from giving motivated by reciprocity or by fairness. This study also confirmed that the right ventral striatum is recruited during altruistic giving, as well as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and bilateral anterior [[Insular cortex|insula]], which are regions previously implicated in [[empathy]].

[[Abigail Marsh]] has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the [[amygdala]] in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Stoycos |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Brethel-Haurwitz |first3=Kristin M. |last4=Robinson |first4=Paul |last5=VanMeter |first5=John W. |last6=Cardinale |first6=Elise M. |date=21 October 2014 |title=Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=111 |issue=42 |pages=15036–15041 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408440111 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4210306 |pmid=25225374|bibcode=2014PNAS..11115036M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brethel-Haurwitz |first1=Kristin M. |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoianova |first4=Maria |last5=Stoycos |first5=Sarah A. |last6=Lozier |first6=Leah M. |last7=VanMeter |first7=John W. |last8=Marsh |first8=Abigail A. |date=25 October 2017 |title=Amygdala–midbrain connectivity indicates a role for the mammalian parental care system in human altruism |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=284 |issue=1865 |article-number=20171731 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1731 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=5666102 |pmid=29070724}}</ref> This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Berluti |first3=Kathryn |last4=Ploe |first4=Montana L |last5=Elizabeth |first5=Hannah S |last6=Amormino |first6=Paige |last7=Li |first7=Joanna L |last8=Dutton |first8=Mary Ann |last9=VanMeter |first9=Ashley Skye |last10=Marsh |first10=Abigail A |title=Neural responses underlying extraordinary altruists' generosity for socially distant others |journal=PNAS Nexus |date=3 July 2023 |volume=2 |issue=7 |article-number=pgad199 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad199  |doi-access=free|pmc=10321390 |pmid=37416875 }}</ref> This is consistent with the findings of research in non-human animals, which has identified neurons within the amygdala that specifically encode the value of others' outcomes, activity in which appears to drive altruistic choices in monkeys.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dal Monte |first1=Olga |last2=Chu |first2=Cheng C. J. |last3=Fagan |first3=Nicholas A. |last4=Chang |first4=Steve W. C. |date=April 2020 |title=Specialized medial prefrontal–amygdala coordination in other-regarding decision preference |journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=565–574 |doi=10.1038/s41593-020-0593-y |pmid=32094970 |pmc=7131896 |issn=1546-1726|hdl=2318/1730693 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Putnam |first1=Philip T. |last2=Chu |first2=Cheng-Chi J. |last3=Fagan |first3=Nicholas A. |last4=Dal Monte |first4=Olga |last5=Chang |first5=Steve W.C. |title=Dissociation of vicarious and experienced rewards by coupling frequency within the same neural pathway |journal=Neuron |date=August 2023 |volume=111 |issue=16 |pages=2513–2522.e4 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2023.05.020 |pmid=37348507 |pmc=10527039 }}</ref>

===Psychology===
The ''International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences'' defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state to increase another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia|article=Altruism|encyclopedia = International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences|editor-first= William A. Jr. |editor-last = Darity|edition= 2nd |volume = 1|location = Detroit|publisher = Macmillan Reference USA|date= 2008|pages = 87–88}}</ref> In keeping with this, research in real-world altruists, including altruistic kidney donors, bone marrow donors, humanitarian aid workers, and [[hero]]ic rescuers findings that these altruists are primarily distinguished from other adults by unselfish traits and decision-making patterns. This suggests that human altruism reflects genuinely high valuation of others' outcomes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A. |last2=Vekaria |first2=Kruti M. |last3=O'Connell |first3=Katherine |last4=Elizabeth |first4=Hannah S. |last5=Rand |first5=David G. |last6=Kozak Williams |first6=Megan N. |last7=Marsh |first7=Abigail A. |date=31 March 2023 |title=Unselfish traits and social decision-making patterns characterize six populations of real-world extraordinary altruists |journal=Nature Communications|volume=14 |issue=1 |page=1807 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-37283-5 |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free |pmid=37002205 |pmc=10066349 }}</ref>

There has been some debate on whether humans are capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">{{cite book|last=Batson|first=C.|year=2011|title=Altruism in humans|location=New York, N.Y. U.S.|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">{{cite book|last=Batson|first= C. Daniel |date=2012|chapter = A history of prosocial behavior research |editor1-first = Arie W.|editor1-last= Kruglanski|editor2-link=Wolfgang Stroebe|editor2-first=Wolfgang|editor2-last = Stroebe|title = Handbook of the history of social psychology |pages = 243–264|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|isbn =978-1-84872-868-4 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MOlUSV2koMcC&pg=PA242}}</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is difficult to prove. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs to the self.<ref name="noaltruism">{{cite journal |last1=Maner |first1=Jon K. |last2=Luce |first2=Carol L. |last3=Neuberg |first3=Steven L. |last4=Cialdini |first4=Robert B. |last5=Brown |first5=Stephanie |last6=Sagarin |first6=Brad J. |title=The Effects of Perspective Taking on Motivations for Helping: Still No Evidence for Altruism |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |date=November 2002 |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=1601–1610 |doi=10.1177/014616702237586 }}</ref>

[[Daniel Batson]], a psychologist, examined this question and argued against the social exchange theory. He identified four significant motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that [[empathy]]-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name="baston2">{{cite book|last1=Batson|first1= C. Daniel|last2= Ahmad|first2= Nadia|last3= Stocks|first3= E. L. |date = 2011|chapter = Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism|editor-first = David|editor-last =Dunning|title = Social motivation |pages = 103–126|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gOB4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|isbn = 978-1-136-84720-2}}</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' states that psychological altruism exists and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with personal distress, which compels people to reduce their unpleasant emotions and increase their positive ones by helping someone in need. Empathy is thus not selfless since altruism works either as a way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings and have positive, pleasant feelings when triggered by others' need for help or as a way to gain social reward or avoid social punishment by helping. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid allowing it unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>

Helping behavior is seen in humans from about two years old when a toddler can understand subtle emotional cues.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Svetlova|first1=M.|last2=Nichols|first2=S. R. |last3= Brownell|first3=C. A.|year=2010|title=Toddlers prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping|journal=Child Development |volume=81|issue=6|pages=1814–1827|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x|pmid=21077866|pmc=3088085}}</ref>

[[File:Peace Corps Volunteer swearing in Cambodia, 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Peace Corps]] trainees swearing in as volunteers in [[Cambodia]], 4 April 2007]]
In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through [[prosocial behavior]]s such as [[Helping behavior|helping]], comforting, [[sharing]], cooperation, [[philanthropy]], and [[community service]].<ref name="prosocial"/> People are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. The number of bystanders witnessing pain or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the ''[[Bystander effect]]''). More significant numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility.<ref name="encyclopedia"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hudson | first1 = James M. | last2 = Bruckman | first2 = Amy S. | year = 2004 | title = The Bystander Effect: A Lens for Understanding Patterns of Participation | journal = Journal of the Learning Sciences | volume = 13 | issue = 2| pages = 165–195 | doi = 10.1207/s15327809jls1302_2 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.72.4881 | s2cid = 16442298 }}</ref> However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>

Many studies have observed the effects of [[volunteering|volunteerism]] (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found that those who exhibit volunteerism also have better current and future health and well-being.<ref name="volunteer1">{{cite journal|last1=Musick|first1=M. A.|last2=Wilson|first2=J.|year=2003|title=Volunteering and depression: The role of psychological and social resources in different age groups|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=56|issue=2|pages=259–269|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00025-4|pmid=12473312}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Koenig | first1 = L. B. | last2 = McGue | first2 = M. | last3 = Krueger | first3 = R. F. | last4 = Bouchard | year = 2007 | title = Religiousness, antisocial behavior, and altruism: Genetic and environmental mediation | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 75 | issue = 2| pages = 265–290 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00439.x | pmid = 17359239 }}</ref> In a study of older adults, those who volunteered had higher life satisfaction and will to live, and less [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[anxiety (mood)|anxiety]], and [[somatization]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hunter|first1=K. I.|last2=Hunter|first2=M. W.|year=1980|title=Psychosocial differences between elderly volunteers and non-volunteers|journal=The International Journal of Aging & Human Development|volume=12|issue=3|pages=205–213|doi=10.2190/0H6V-QPPP-7JK4-LR38|pmid=7216525|s2cid=42991434}}</ref> Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages.<ref name="volunteer1"/><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Kayloe | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Krause | first2 = M. | year = 1985 | title = RARE FIND: or The value of volunteerism | journal = Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 49–56 | doi=10.1037/h0099659}}
|2={{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=S. L.|last2=Brown|first2=R.|last3=House|first3=J. S.|last4=Smith|first4=D. M.|year=2008|title=Coping with spousal loss: Potential buffering effects of self-reported helping behavior|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=34|issue=6|pages=849–861|doi=10.1177/0146167208314972|pmid=18344495|s2cid=42983453}}
}}</ref><ref name="volunteer5">{{cite journal|last1=Post|first1=S. G.|year=2005|title=Altruism, Happiness, and Health: It's Good to Be Good|journal=International Journal of Behavioral Medicine|volume=12|issue=2|pages=66–77|doi=10.1207/s15327558ijbm1202_4|pmid=15901215|citeseerx=10.1.1.485.8406|s2cid=12544814}}</ref> One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over 30 years and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moen |first1=P. |last2=Dempster-Mcclain |first2=D. |last3=Williams |first3=R. M. |s2cid=4828775 |year=1992|title=Successful aging: A life-course perspective on women's multiple roles and health|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=97|issue=6|pages=1612–1638|doi=10.1086/229941}}</ref> A study on adults aged 55 and older found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Oman|first1=D.|last2=Thoresen|first2=C. E.|last3=McMahon|first3=K.|year=1999|title=Volunteerism and mortality among the community-dwelling elderly|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=301–316|doi=10.1177/135910539900400301|pmid=22021599|doi-access=free}}</ref> Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. Happier people are kinder and more grateful, kinder people are happier and more grateful and more grateful people are happier and kinder, the study suggests.<ref name="countingkindness">{{cite journal|last1=Otake|first1=K.|last2=Shimai|first2=S.|last3=Tanaka-Matsumi|first3=J.|last4=Otsui|first4=K.|last5=Fredrickson|first5=B. L.|year=2006|title=Happy people become happier through kindness: A counting kindnesses intervention|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=361–375|doi=10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z|pmid=17356687|pmc=1820947}}</ref>

While research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies found that [[generosity]] increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.<ref name="moodandgenerosity">{{cite journal|last1=Underwood|first1=B.|last2=Froming|first2=W. J.|last3=Moore|first3=B. S.|year=1977|title=Mood, attention, and altruism: A search for mediating variables|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=13|issue=5|pages=541–542|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.13.5.541}}</ref>

Feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has negative effects on health and happiness.<ref name="volunteer5"/> For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant).<ref name="overwhelmed">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=C.|last2=Meisenhelder|first2=J.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.|last4=Reed|first4=G.|year=2003|title=Altruistic Social Interest Behaviors Are Associated With Better Mental Health|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=65|issue=5|pages=778–785|doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000079378.39062.D4|pmid=14508020|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.7780|s2cid=20644442}}</ref>

Older humans were found to have higher altruism.<ref name="w730">{{cite journal | last1=Sparrow | first1=Erika P. | last2=Swirsky | first2=Liyana T. | last3=Kudus | first3=Farrah | last4=Spaniol | first4=Julia | title=Aging and altruism: A meta-analysis. | journal=Psychology and Aging | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=36 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=1939-1498 | doi=10.1037/pag0000447 | pages=49–56| pmid=33705185 }}</ref>

===Genetics and environment===
Both genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199964772.003.0001 |title=Prosocial Development |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-996477-2 |editor-last1=Padilla-Walker |editor-last2=Carlo |editor-first1=Laura M. |editor-first2=Gustavo |chapter=1 The Study of Prosocial Behavior: Past, Present, and Future |pages=3–16 }}</ref> Candidate genes include OXTR ([[gene polymorphism|polymorphism]]s in the [[oxytocin receptor]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=Tania |last2=Snozzi |first2=Romana |last3=Bird |first3=Geoffrey |last4=Petrovic |first4=Predrag |last5=Silani |first5=Giorgia |last6=Heinrichs |first6=Markus |last7=Dolan |first7=Raymond J. |title=Effects of oxytocin and prosocial behavior on brain responses to direct and vicariously experienced pain |journal=Emotion |date=December 2008 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=781–791 |doi=10.1037/a0014195 |pmid=19102589 |pmc=2672051 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Israel |first1=Salomon |last2=Weisel |first2=Ori |last3=Ebstein |first3=Richard P. |last4=Bornstein |first4=Gary |title=Oxytocin, but not vasopressin, increases both parochial and universal altruism |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |date=August 2012 |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1341–1344 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.02.001 |pmid=22377540 |url=http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/49870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barraza |first1=Jorge A. |last2=McCullough |first2=Michael E. |last3=Ahmadi |first3=Sheila |last4=Zak |first4=Paul J. |title=Oxytocin infusion increases charitable donations regardless of monetary resources |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=July 2011 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=148–151 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.04.008 |pmid=21596046 }}</ref> [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[AVPR1A]]<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025274 | doi-access=free | title=AVPR1A Variant Associated with Preschoolers' Lower Altruistic Behavior | date=2011 | last1=Avinun | first1=Reut | last2=Israel | first2=Salomon | last3=Shalev | first3=Idan | last4=Gritsenko | first4=Inga | last5=Bornstein | first5=Gary | last6=Ebstein | first6=Richard P. | last7=Knafo | first7=Ariel | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=6 | issue=9 | article-number=e25274 | pmid=21980412 | pmc=3182215 | bibcode=2011PLoSO...625274A }}</ref> and [[GABRB2]].<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=3871336 | pmid=24132092 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0395 | volume=9 | issue=6 | title=Genes underlying altruism | year=2013 | journal=Biol Lett | article-number=20130395 | last1 = Thompson | first1 = GJ | last2 = Hurd | first2 = PL | last3 = Crespi | first3 = BJ}}</ref> It is theorized that some of these genes influence altruistic behavior by modulating levels of neurotransmitters such as [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]].

According to [[Christopher Boehm]], altruistic behaviour evolved as a way of surviving within a group.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-29744-000 | title=Moral origins: The evolution of virtue, altruism, and shame   | date=2012 | last1=Christopher | first1=Boehm | journal=Apa Psycnet }}</ref>

===Sociology===
{{See also|Public sociology}}
"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society".<ref name="ASA-AMSS">{{Cite web|url=http://www.asanet.org/sections/altruism.cfm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503051933/http://asanet.org/sections/altruism.cfm|publisher=American Sociological Association|title=Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity|archive-date=3 May 2012}}</ref> The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the [[common good]] is a commonly researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges [[public sociology]] saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable".<ref name="ASA-AMSS" /> This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid popular and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies.

How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build the good society". The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; for example, one study links the occurrence of moral outrage to altruistic compensation of victims.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thulin|first1=E.W.|author-link2=Cristina Bicchieri|last2=Bicchieri|first2=C.|title=I'm so angry I could help you: Moral outrage as a driver of victim compensation|journal=Social Philosophy & Policy|year=2016|volume=32|issue=2 |pages=146–160|doi=10.1017/S0265052516000145 |s2cid=148548711 }}</ref> Studies show that [[generosity]] in laboratory and in online experiments is contagious – people imitate the generosity they observe in others.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book |last1=Tsvetkova |first1=Milena |last2=Macy |first2=Michael |chapter=The Contagion of Prosocial Behavior and the Emergence of Voluntary-Contribution Communities |title=Social Phenomena: From Data Analysis to Models |date=2015 |pages=117–134 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-14011-7_7 |isbn=978-3-319-14010-0 |publisher=Springer International Publishing}}
|2={{cite journal |last1=Tagiew |first1=Rustam |last2=Ignatov |first2=Dmitry |title=Gift Ratios in Laboratory Experiments |journal=CEUR Workshop Proceedings |date=2016 |volume=1627 |pages=82–93 |url=http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1627/paper7.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1627/paper7.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live}}
}}</ref>

==Religious viewpoints==
{{See also|Evolutionary origin of religion}}
Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Buddhism]], [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Sikhism]], etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.

===Buddhism===
[[File:Monks collecting alms - Bun Vat Phu.JPG|thumb|Monks collecting alms]]
Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. [[Love]] and [[compassion]] are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" ([[Dalai Lama]]).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama">{{cite web|url=http://www.dalailama.com/page.65.htm|title=The Medicine of Altruism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003223717/http://www.dalailama.com/page.65.htm |archive-date=3 October 2009 }}</ref><ref>The phrase "core of our being" is [[Freudian]]; see {{Cite journal | author = Bettina Bock von Wülfingen | year = 2013 | title = Freud's 'Core of our Being' Between Cytology and Psychoanalysis | journal = Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte | volume = 36 | pages = 226–244 | doi = 10.1002/bewi.201301604 | issue = 3 | pmid = 32545937 }}</ref>

The notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes the practitioner's own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama"/>

In Buddhism, a person's actions cause karma, which consists of consequences proportional to the moral implications of their actions. Deeds considered to be bad are punished, while those considered to be good are rewarded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Todd |url=https://college.holycross.edu/faculty/tlewis/PDFs/Altruism_in_Classical_Buddhism.pdf |title=Altruism in World Religions |date=2005 |publisher=Georgetown UNiversity Press |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |location=Washington, D.C. |publication-date=2005 |page=90|chapter=Chapter 5: Altruism in Classical Bhuddism |editor-last2=Chilton |editor-first2=Bruce D}}</ref>

===Jainism===
{{see also|Ahimsa in Jainism}}
[[File:Ahinsa.jpg|thumb|Sculpture depicting the Jain concept of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} (non-injury)]]
The fundamental principles of [[Jainism]] revolve around altruism, not only for other humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches {{transliteration|sa|[[ahimsa]]}} – to live and let live, not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. The first {{transliteration|sa|[[Tirthankara]]}}, [[Rishabhdev]], introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence, and compassion for all living things.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

The principle of nonviolence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every [[Soul (Jainism)|soul]] as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become {{transliteration|sa|Siddha}} ([[God in Jainism]]). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Jayendrakumar |first=Shah Riddhi |date=8 May 2014 |title=An Analytical Study of Yogadrstisamyccaya of Acarya Haribhadrasuri |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/229009 |publisher=Jain Vishwa Bharati University |hdl=10603/229009 |degree=PhD |language=English}}</ref>

===Christianity===
{{Catholic philosophy}}
[[Thomas Aquinas]] interprets the biblical phrase "You should love your neighbour as yourself"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|19}} and {{Bibleverse|Matthew|22}}</ref> as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others.<ref>Thomas Aquinas, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4</ref> Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship", he quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves",.<ref>Aristotle, [[Nicomachean Ethics]] IX.4 1166a1</ref> Aquinas concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the [[common good]], the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thought we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal [[Beatitudes|beatitude]]: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word "altruism", as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. The aim and focus of Christian life is a life that glorifies God, while obeying Christ's command to treat others equally, caring for them and understanding that eternity in heaven is what Jesus' Resurrection at Calvary was all about.

Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 1:4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellow man, and that hatred of one's fellow man is the same as hatred of God. [[Thomas Jay Oord]] has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being.

German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one's own life and existence".<ref name=Ressentiment>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961}}</ref>{{rp|88–89}} Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love,... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people's business".{{r|Ressentiment|pages=95–96}} At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."{{r|Ressentiment|pages=96–97}}

===Islam===
In the [[Arabic language]], "{{transliteration|ar|'iythar}}" (إيثار) means "preferring others to oneself".<ref>'iythar [https://translate.google.com/?sl=ar&tl=en&text=%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1&op=translate Google Translate]</ref>

On the topic of donating blood to non-Muslims (a controversial topic within the faith), the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] religious professor, [[Fadhil al-Milani]] has provided theological evidence that makes it positively justifiable. In fact, he considers it a form of religious sacrifice and ''ithar'' (altruism).<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Schmiedel|first1=Ulrich|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJhMDwAAQBAJ&q=fadhil+al-milani&pg=PA296|title=Religion in the European Refugee Crisis|last2=Smith|first2=Graeme|date=15 February 2018|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-67961-7|pages=295–96}}</ref>

For [[Sufism|Sufis]], 'iythar means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by [[God in Islam|God]] on the human body, considered to be property of God alone. The importance of 'iythar (also known as {{transliteration|ar|īthār}}) lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing {{transliteration|ar|īthār}} as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.<ref>{{cite book| first = M. Fethullah|last=Gülen| title = Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart| year = 2004| publisher = Fountain| location = Rutherford, N.J.| isbn = 978-1-932099-75-1| pages = 10–11 }}</ref>
This is similar to the notion of [[chivalry in Islam|chivalry]]. A constant concern for God results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.<ref name="Neusner2005">{{cite book| last = Neusner| first = Jacob Eds| title = Altruism in World Religions| year = 2005| publisher = Georgetown Univ. Press| location = Washington, D.C.| isbn = 978-1-58901-065-9| pages = 79–80 }}</ref>

===Judaism===
Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation.{{Cn|date=November 2024}} Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity.<ref>{{cite book |first2=Ben Zion |last2=Bokser |last1=Kook |first1=Abraham Isaac| title = Abraham Isaac Kook: The lights of penitence, The moral principles, Lights of holiness, essays, letters, and poems|url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamisaackook00benz |url-access=registration | year = 1978| publisher = Paulist Press| isbn = 978-0-8091-2159-5| pages = [https://archive.org/details/abrahamisaackook00benz/page/135 135–136]}}</ref> Love is defined as [[Tzedakah|bestowal]], or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. [[Kabbalah]] defines God as the force of giving in [[existence]]. Rabbi [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]] focused on the "purpose of creation" and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this force of giving.<ref>{{cite book| last = Luzzatto| first = Moshe Ḥayyim| title = The way of God| year = 1997| publisher = Feldheim Publishers| isbn = 978-0-87306-769-0| pages = 37–38}}</ref>

Modern [[Kabbalah]] developed by Rabbi [[Yehuda Ashlag]], in his writings about the [[future generation]], focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework.<ref name=Ashlag>{{cite book| last = Ashlag| first = Yehuda| title = Building the Future Society| url = http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main| year = 2006| publisher = Laitman Kabbalah Publishers| location = Thornhill, Canada| isbn = 978-965-7065-34-1 }}</ref>{{rp|120–130}} Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to [[divinity]].{{r|Ashlag|pages = 175–180 }}

===Sikhism===
Altruism is essential to the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed anyone can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities such as love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, and truthfulness. {{transliteration|sa|[[Sevā]]}}, or [[selfless service]] to the community for its own sake, is an important concept in Sikhism.<ref name="DictofSikhism">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/APopularDictionaryOfSikhism |title=A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism |publisher=Curzon Press|author1=Cole, W. Owen |author2=Sambhi, Piara Singh |pages=[https://archive.org/details/APopularDictionaryOfSikhism/page/n46 38]–39, 84 |date=1990|access-date=2 December 2018}}</ref>

The fifth [[Guru]], [[Guru Arjan|Guru Arjun]], sacrificed his life to uphold "22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity", according to the [[Guru Granth Sahib]]. The ninth Guru, [[Tegh Bahadur]], sacrificed his life to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity.

In the late seventeenth century, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] (the tenth Guru in Sikhism), was at war with the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, [[Bhai Kanhaiya]], attended the troops of the enemy.<ref name="GobindSingh">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofthesikh025030mbp/page/n7 |title=A History of the Sikhs |publisher=Oxford University Press|first= Joseph Davey|last= Cunningham |date=1918 |page=ix |access-date=30 November 2018}}</ref> He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. "What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them", replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru."

Under the tutelage of the Guru, Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism, which is still engaged today in doing good to others and in training new recruits for this service.<ref>{{cite book| first = O. P.|last= Ralhan| title = The great gurus of the Sikhs| year = 1997| publisher = Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd.| location = New Delhi| isbn = 978-81-7488-479-4| page = 253 }}</ref>

===Hinduism===
In Hinduism, selflessness ({{transliteration|sa|Atmatyag}}), love ({{transliteration|sa|Prema}}), kindness ({{transliteration|sa|Daya}}), and forgiveness ({{transliteration|sa|Kshama}}) are considered as the highest acts of humanity or "{{transliteration|sa|Manushyattva}}". Giving alms to the beggars or poor people is considered as a divine act or "{{transliteration|sa|Punya}}" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or "{{transliteration|sa|Paapa}}" and will led them to heaven or "{{transliteration|sa|Swarga}}" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various Hindu mythology and religious poems and songs. Mass donation of clothes to poor people ({{transliteration|sa|Vastraseva}}), or blood donation camp or mass food donation ({{transliteration|sa|Annaseva}}) for poor people is common in various Hindu religious ceremonies.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

A key concept that captures the spirit of altruism in Hinduism is ''seva,'' a Sanskrit term meaning selfless service. Derived fro the root words ''saha'' (with that) and ''eva'' (too), seva means "together with" implying unity with the divine and with others through service. It can manifest in many forms such as physical, mental, and spiritual. ''Seva'' is grounded in action performed without any expectation of return, which aligns directly with altruism. Ultimately, it arises not from a desire for social status, but from gratitude, love for humanity, and devotion to God.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pragat |first1=Patel |title=Examining the Intersection of Seva and Public Health Policy |url=https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaphcm/international-archives-of-public-health-and-community-medicine-iaphcm-7-090.php?jid=iaphcm |access-date=2025-08-27 |journal=International Archives of Public Health and Community Medicine |date=2023 |volume=7 |doi=10.23937/2643-4512/1710090 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The [[Bhagavad Gita]] supports the doctrine of karma yoga (achieving oneness with God through action) and [[Nishkama Karma]] or action without expectation or desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and well received in Hindu literature and are central to Hindu morality.<ref>Sivananda, Swami. ''Phaladhikaranam, Topic 8'', Sutras 38–41.</ref>

==Philosophy==
{{main|Altruism (ethics)}}
There is a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically.<ref>{{Citation |last=Kraut |first=Richard |title=Altruism |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/altruism/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=16 January 2024 |edition=Fall 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref> The opposing view is [[ethical egoism]], which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with [[utilitarianism]], which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants.

A related concept in [[descriptive ethics]] is [[psychological egoism]], the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. [[Rational egoism]] is the view that [[rationality]] consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations).

In his book ''I am You: The Metaphysical Foundations for Global Ethics'', [[Daniel Kolak]] argues that [[open individualism]] provides a rational basis for altruism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kolak |first=Daniel |url=https://digitalphysics.ru/pdf/Kaminskii_A_V/Kolak_I_Am_You.pdf |title=I Am You: The Metaphysical Foundations for Global Ethics |date=3 November 2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-3014-7 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906163443/https://digitalphysics.ru/pdf/Kaminskii_A_V/Kolak_I_Am_You.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Rp|page=552}} According to Kolak, egoism is incoherent because the concept of a [[future self]] is incoherent, similar to the idea of [[anattā]] in Buddhist philosophy, and everyone is in reality the same being. [[Derek Parfit]] made similar arguments in the book ''[[Reasons and Persons]]'', using thought experiments such as the [[teletransportation paradox]] to illustrate the philosophical problems with [[personal identity]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parfit |first=Derek |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116300637661/page/n5/mode/2up |title=Reasons and persons |date=1984 |isbn=0-19-824615-3 |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |oclc=9827659}}</ref>

===Effective altruism===
{{See also|Effective altruism|Earning to give|Giving What We Can}}
[[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacAskill |first1=William |title=Effective Altruism: Introduction |journal=Essays in Philosophy |date=2017 |volume=18 |issue=1 |doi=10.7710/1526-0569.1580 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values.<ref name="vox">{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/4/24/8457895/givewell-open-philanthropy-charity|title = You have $8 billion. You want to do as much good as possible. What do you do?|last = Matthews|first = Dylan|author-link = Dylan Matthews|date = 24 April 2015|access-date = 27 April 2015|website = [[Vox (website)|Vox]]}}</ref> It is the broad, evidence-based, and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or [[Charity (practice)|charity]].<ref name="bcg">{{cite web|last1=Bennett|first1=Nicole|last2=Carter|first2=Ashley|last3=Resney|first3=Romney|last4=Woods|first4=Wendy|title=How Tech Entrepreneurs Are Disrupting Philanthropy|url=https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/innovation-strategy-how-tech-entrepreneurs-are-disrupting-philanthropy/|website=BCG Perspectives|publisher=Boston Consulting Group|access-date= 11 March 2017}}</ref> Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]].

While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the [[nonprofit sector]], the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit.<ref name="doing-good-better">{{cite book|last1=MacAskill|first1=William|title=Doing Good Better|date=2015|publisher=Avery|isbn=978-1-59240-910-5}}</ref> People associated with the movement include philosopher [[Peter Singer]],<ref name="blog.ted.com">{{cite web|last1=Walters|first1=Helen|title=The why and how of effective altruism: Peter Singer's talk visualized|url=https://blog.ted.com/why-how-effective-altruism-peter-singer-visualized/|website=TED Blog|date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Facebook co founder [[Dustin Moskovitz]],<ref name="Washington Post on Dustin Moskovitz and Cari Tuna">{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/billionaire-couple-give-plenty-to-charity-but-they-do-quite-a-bit-of-homework/2014/12/26/19fae34c-86d6-11e4-b9b7-b8632ae73d25_story.html | title=Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy | date=26 December 2014 | newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Cari Tuna]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/tech-philanthropy/2013/9/12/meet-cari-tuna-the-woman-giving-away-dustin-moskovitzs-faceb.html|title=Meet Cari Tuna, the Woman Giving Away Dustin Moskovitz's Facebook Fortune|first=Favid|last=Callahan|work=Inside Philanthropy|date=12 September 2013|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107202041/https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/tech-philanthropy/2013/9/12/meet-cari-tuna-the-woman-giving-away-dustin-moskovitzs-faceb.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]-based researchers [[William MacAskill]]<ref name="The Atlantic article The Greatest Good">{{cite news|last1=Thompson|first1=Derek|title=The Greatest Good|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/what-is-the-greatest-good/395768/#b06g25t20w15|work=The Atlantic|date=15 June 2015}}</ref> and [[Toby Ord]],<ref name="Peter Singer The Most Good You Can Do">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBWWX4ViD3E|via=YouTube|title=Peter Singer: "The Most Good You Can Do" &#124; Talks at Google|date=22 April 2015 }}</ref> and professional poker player [[Liv Boeree]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite web|url=https://www.pokerstrategy.com/news/world-of-poker/Liv-Boeree-on-Effective-Altruism_100487/|title=News: Liv Boeree on Effective Altruism|website=pokerstrategy.com|date=8 April 2017 |access-date=11 April 2017}}
|2={{Cite web|url=http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|title=Effective Altruism {{!}} Liv Boeree|website=livboeree.com|access-date=11 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411220914/http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|archive-date=11 April 2017}}
}}</ref>

== Extreme altruism ==

===Pathological altruism===
Pathological altruism is altruism taken to an unhealthy extreme, such that it either harms the altruistic person or the person's well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good.

The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''.

Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Occupational burnout|burnout]] seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, [[animal hoarding]], and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199738571.001.0001 |title=Pathological Altruism |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973857-1 |editor-last1=Oakley |editor-last2=Knafo |editor-last3=Madhavan |editor-last4=Wilson |editor-first1=Barbara |editor-first2=Ariel |editor-first3=Guruprasad |editor-first4=David Sloan |pages=3–9 |chapter=Chapter 1: Pathological Altruism — An Introduction |first1=Barbara |last1=Oakley |first2=Ariel |last2=Knafo |first3=Michael |last3= McGrath }}</ref>

Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[hero]]ism), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Waal |first1=Frans B.M. |title=Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=1 January 2008 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |pmid=17550343 }}</ref>

One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as "hard-core" altruism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=John P. |title=Motivation, modeling, and altruism: A Person × Situation analysis. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=December 1976 |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=1078–1086 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078 }}</ref> This form is characterised by impulsive actions directed towards others, typically a stranger and lacking incentives for reward. Since then, several papers have mentioned the possibility of such altruism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Piliavin |first1=Jane Allyn |last2=Charng |first2=Hong-Wen |title=Altruism: A Review of Recent Theory and Research |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |date=1990 |volume=16 |pages=27–65 |doi=10.1146/annurev.so.16.080190.000331 |jstor=2083262 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krebs |first1=Dennis L. |title=Altruism and Egoism: A False Dichotomy? |journal=Psychological Inquiry |date=1991 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=137–139 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0202_9 |jstor=1449250 }}</ref>

In 21st century the progress in the field slowed down due to adopting ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions (see [[Declaration of Helsinki]]). Consequently, much research has based their studies on living organ donations and the actions of [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero medal Recipients]], actions which involve high risk, high cost, and are of infrequent occurrences.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stromberg |first=Joseph |date=15 October 2014 |title=The science of extreme altruism: why people risk their lives to save strangers |url=https://www.vox.com/2014/10/15/6973971/extreme-altruism-risk-life |access-date=9 January 2025 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}</ref> A typical example of extreme altruism would be non-directed kidney donation—a living person donating one of their kidneys to a stranger without any benefits or knowing the recipient.

However, current research can only be carried out on a small population that meets the requirements of extreme altruism. Most of the time the research is also via the form of self-report which could lead to self-report biases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rusch |first=Hannes |date=1 February 2022 |title=Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=43 |pages=238–243 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024 |pmid=34454246 |issn=2352-250X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Due to the limitations, the current gap between high stakes and normal altruism remains unknown.<ref name=":3" />

=== Characteristics of extreme altruists ===

* Norms

In 1970, Schwartz hypothesised that extreme altruism is positively related to a person's moral norms and is not influenced by the cost associated with the action.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Rusch |first=Hannes |date=2022 |title=Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology|volume=43 |pages=238–243 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024|pmid=34454246 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This hypothesis was supported in the same study examining [[Bone marrow donation|bone marrow donors]]. Schwartz discovered that individuals with strong personal norms and those who attribute more responsibility to themselves are more inclined to participate in bone marrow donation.<ref name=":3" /> Similar findings were observed in a 1986 study by Piliavin and Libby focusing on blood donors.<ref name=":8" /> These studies suggest that personal norms lead to the activation of moral norms, leading individuals to feel compelled to help others.<ref name=":3" />

* Enhanced Fear Recognition

Abigail Marsh has described [[Psychopathy|psychopaths]] as the "opposite" group of people to extreme altruists<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |title=Understanding amygdala responsiveness to fearful expressions through the lens of psychopathy and altruism |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research |date=June 2016 |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=513–525 |doi=10.1002/jnr.23668 |pmid=26366635 }}</ref> and has conducted studies comparing these two groups of individuals. Utilising techniques such as brain imaging and behavioural experiments, Marsh's team observed that kidney donors tend to have larger amygdala sizes and exhibit better abilities in recognizing fearful expressions compared to psychopathic individuals.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, an improved ability to recognize fear has been associated with an increase in prosocial behaviours, including greater charity contribution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Kozak |first2=Megan N. |last3=Ambady |first3=Nalini |date=2007 |title=Accurate identification of fear facial expressions predicts prosocial behavior |journal=Emotion |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.239 |pmc=2743452 |pmid=17516803 }}</ref>

* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism

Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero Medal]] recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the [[Dual process theory|Dual Process Theory]], which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Rand |first1=David G. |last2=Epstein |first2=Ziv G. |title=Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism |journal=PLOS ONE |date=15 October 2014 |volume=9 |issue=10 |article-number=e109687 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0109687 |pmid=25333876 |doi-access=free |pmc=4198114 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j9687R }}</ref> Additionally, a separate by Carlson et al. indicated that such prosocial behaviours are prevalent in emergencies where immediate actions are required.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Ryan W. |last2=Aknin |first2=Lara B. |last3=Liotti |first3=Mario |title=When is giving an impulse? An ERP investigation of intuitive prosocial behavior |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=July 2016 |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1121–1129 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsv077 |pmc=4927032 |pmid=26084530 }}</ref>

This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-33799-4 |title=Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe |date=2013 |last1=Lopp |first1=Leonie |isbn=978-3-642-33798-7 |page=15 }}</ref> As observed in extreme altruists, these decisions are made intuitively, which may reflect insufficient consideration. Critics are concerned about whether this rapid decision encompasses a thorough cost-benefit analysis and question the appropriateness of exposing donors to such risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman Ross |first1=Lainie |last2=Glannon |first2=Walter |last3=Josephson |first3=Michelle A. |last4=Thistlethwaite |first4=J. Richard |title=Should all living donors be treated equally? |journal=Transplantation |date=August 2002 |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=418–421 |doi=10.1097/00007890-200208150-00025 |pmid=12177627 }}</ref>

* Social discounting

Social discounting is the decrease in generosity between a decision maker and a recipient as the [[social distance]] between the two increase. One finding suggests how extreme altruists exhibit lower levels of social discounting in their interactions as compared to others. With that meaning extreme altruists place a higher value on the welfare of strangers than a typical person does.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vekaria |first1=Kruti M. |last2=Brethel-Haurwitz |first2=Kristin M. |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoycos |first4=Sarah A. |last5=Marsh |first5=Abigail A. |title=Social discounting and distance perceptions in costly altruism |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=28 April 2017 |volume=1 |issue=5 |article-number=0100 |doi=10.1038/s41562-017-0100 }}</ref>

* Low Social-Economic Status

Analysis of 676 Carnegie Hero Award recipients<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ronald C. |title=Attributes of carnegie medalists performing acts of heroism and of the recipients of these acts |journal=Ethology and Sociobiology |date=September 1996 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=355–362 |doi=10.1016/S0162-3095(96)00059-3 }}</ref> and another study on 243 rescuing acts<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last1=Lyons |first1=Minna T. |title=Who are the Heroes? Characteristics of People Who Rescue Others |journal=Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology |date=September 2005 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=245–254 |doi=10.1556/JCEP.3.2005.3-4.2 }}</ref> reveal that a significant proportion of rescuers come from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Johnson attributes the distribution to the high-risk occupations that are more prevalent between lower socioeconomic groups.<ref name=":5" /> Another hypothesis proposed by Lyons is that individuals from these groups may perceive they have less to lose when engaging in high-risk extreme altruistic behaviours.<ref name=":6" />

=== Possible explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315690100 |title=Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-42611-0 |url=https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf |editor-last1=Allison |editor-last2=Goethals |editor-last3=Kramer |editor-first1=Scott T. |editor-first2=George R. |editor-first3=Roderick M. |chapter= Why Heroism Exists: Evolutionary Perspectives on Extreme Helping |first1=Sara |last1=Kafashan |first2=Adam |last2=Sparks |first3=Amanda |last3=Rotella |first4=Pat |last4=Barclay |pages=36–57 }}</ref> As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour.

* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours

Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Susan |last2=Dunbar |first2=R. I. M. |title=Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women's mate choice |journal=Human Nature |date=June 2001 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |pmid=26192164 }}</ref> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious "signal" to showcase superior power and ability compared to ordinary individuals.<ref name=":7" /> When an extreme altruist survives a high-risk situation, they send an "honest signal" of quality.<ref name=":7" /> Three qualities hypothesized to be exhibited by extreme altruists, which could be interpreted as "signals", are: (1) traits that are difficult to fake, (2) a willingness to help, and (3) generous behaviours.<ref name=":7" />

* Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

The empathy altruism hypothesis appears to align with the concept of extreme altruism without contradiction. The hypothesis was supported with further brain scanning research, which indicates how this group of people demonstrate a higher level of empathy concern. The level of empathy concern then triggers activation in specific brain regions, urging the individual to engage in heroic behaviours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=FeldmanHall |first1=Oriel |last2=Dalgleish |first2=Tim |last3=Evans |first3=Davy |last4=Mobbs |first4=Dean |date=January 2015 |title=Empathic concern drives costly altruism |journal=NeuroImage|volume=105 |pages=347–356 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.043 |pmc=4275572 |pmid=25462694}}</ref>

* Mistakes and Outliers

While most altruistic behaviours offer some form of benefit, extreme altruism may sometimes result from a mistake where the victim does not reciprocate.<ref name=":7" /> Considering the impulsive characteristic of extreme altruists, some researchers suggest that these individuals have made a wrong judgement during the cost-benefit analysis.<ref name=":4" /> Furthermore, extreme altruism might be a rare variation of altruism where they lie towards to ends of a normal distribution.<ref name=":7" /> In the US, the annual prevalence rate per capita is less than 0.00005%, this shows the rarity of such behaviours.<ref name=":1" />

==Digital altruism==
Digital altruism is the notion that some are willing to freely share information based on the principle of [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]] and in the belief that in the end, everyone benefits from [[sharing]] information via the [[Internet]].<ref name="Klisanin">{{Cite journal|last=Klisanin|first=Dana|author-link=Dana Klisanin|year=2011|title=Is the Internet Giving Rise to New Forms of Altruism|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/files/attachments/85256/internetaltruism-klisanin.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.psychologytoday.com/files/attachments/85256/internetaltruism-klisanin.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |journal=Media Psychology Review|volume=3|number=1|pages=1–11}}</ref>

There are three types of digital altruism: (1) "everyday digital altruism", involving expedience, ease, moral engagement, and conformity; (2) "creative digital altruism", involving creativity, heightened moral engagement, and cooperation; and (3) "co-creative digital altruism" involving creativity, moral engagement, and meta cooperative efforts.<ref name="Klisanin"/>

==See also==
{{div col |colwidth=20em}}
* {{annotated link|[[Altruria, California]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Bounded rationality]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Charitable organization]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Consideration]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Egotism]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Family economics]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Gene-centered view of evolution]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Golden Rule]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Humanity (virtue)]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Misanthropy]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Mutual aid (organization theory)]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Non nobis solum]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Philanthropy]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Prisoner's dilemma]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Prosocial behavior]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Random act of kindness]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Reciprocal altruism]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Sign of contradiction]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Social preferences]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Social psychology]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Social support]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Solidarity (sociology)]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Spite (game theory)]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Tragedy of the commons]]}}
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==

* Cappelen, Alexander W.; Enke, Benjamin; Tungodden, Bertil (2025). "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20230038 Universalism: Global Evidence]". ''American Economic Review''. '''115''' (1): 43–76.

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|2}}
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{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=altruism}}
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*{{In Our Time|Altruism|p0038x9c|Altruism}}
*{{cite episode|series=Radiolab |title=The Good Show|url=https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/radiolab/episodes/103951-the-good-show/|station=WNYC|location=New York|air-date=14 December 2011|season=9|number=1}}
* {{cite web|first=Richard|last=Kraut|year=2020|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/|title=Altruism|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}
* {{cite web|first=Samir|last=Okasha|year=2013|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/|title=Biological Altruism|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}
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