View source for American goldfinch

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = American goldfinch
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Late Pleistocene|present}}
| image = Carduelis tristis -Michigan, USA -male-8.jpg
| image_caption = Male
| image2 = American Goldfinch Female (13826)-Relic38.JPG
| image2_caption = Female
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Spinus tristis'' |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T22720407A94669207 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22720407A94669207.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Spinus
| species = tristis
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = 
* ''S. t. tristis''
* ''S. t. pallidus''
* ''S. t. jewetti''
* ''S. t. salicamans''
| synonyms = 
* ''Fringilla tristis'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}
* ''Astragalinus tristis'' {{small|(Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758)}}<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dwight, Jonathan Jr. |year=1902 |title=Individual, seasonal, and geographical variations of the American Goldfinch (''Astragalinus tristis'') |journal=[[The Auk]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=149–164 |jstor=4069307 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v019n02/p0149-p0164.pdf |doi=10.2307/4069307 |access-date=22 February 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220143/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v019n02/p0149-p0164.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''Carduelis tristis'' {{small|(Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758)}}
| range_map = Spinus tristis map.svg
| range_map_caption = Approximate distribution map
{{leftlegend|#f18e08|Breeding}}
{{leftlegend|#7162c8|Year-round}}
{{leftlegend|#5f9ed3|Non-breeding}}
}}

The '''American goldfinch''' ('''''Spinus tristis''''') is a small North American [[bird]] in the [[finch]] [[Family (biology)|family]]. It is [[Bird migration|migratory]], ranging from mid-[[Alberta]] to [[North Carolina]] during the [[breeding season]], and from just south of the [[Canada–United States border]] to Mexico during the winter.

The only finch in its [[subfamily]] to undergo a complete [[molt]], the American goldfinch displays [[sexual dichromatism]]: the male is a vibrant [[yellow]] in the summer and an [[olive (color)|olive]] color during the winter, while the female is a dull yellow-brown shade which brightens only slightly during the summer. The male displays brightly colored [[plumage]] during the breeding season to attract a mate.

The American goldfinch is a [[Seed predation|granivore]] and [[adaptation|adapted]] for the consumption of seedheads, with a conical [[beak]] to remove the seeds and agile feet to grip the stems of seedheads while feeding. It is a social bird and will gather in large flocks while feeding and migrating. It may behave [[Territory (animal)|territorially]] during nest construction, but this aggression is short-lived. Its breeding season is tied to the peak of food supply, beginning in late July, which is relatively late in the year for a finch. This species is generally [[Monogamy in animals|monogamous]] and produces one brood each year.

Human activity has generally benefited the American goldfinch. It is often found in residential areas because it is attracted to [[bird feeder]]s, which increase its survival rate in these areas. [[Deforestation]] also creates open [[meadow]] areas, which are its preferred [[habitat]].

==Taxonomy==
The American goldfinch was one of the many species originally described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the landmark 1758 [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition]] of his work, ''[[Systema Naturae]]'', where he classified it in the [[genus]] ''Fringilla''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carolus | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | title=Systema Naturae | location=Holmiae | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | year=1758 | page=320 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix0AAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1 | language=la | oclc=174638949 | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-date=21 August 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821234824/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ix0AAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1 | url-status=live }}</ref> It was later placed in the genus ''Spinus'', a group containing New World goldfinches and [[siskin]]s. In 1976, ''Spinus'' was merged into the genus ''[[Carduelis]]'' as a [[subgenus]].<ref name="elib">{{cite journal | author=Committee on Classification and Nomenclature | title=Thirty-third Supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union Check-list of North American Birds | journal=The Auk | volume=93 | issue=4 | year=1976 | url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v093n04/p0875-p0879.pdf | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-date=4 March 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082133/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v093n04/p0875-p0879.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref> Recent studies have resurrected the genus ''Spinus''. Its closest relatives are the [[lesser goldfinch]] (''S. psaltria''), [[Lawrence's goldfinch]] (''S. lawrencei''), and the siskins. Although it shares a name with the [[European goldfinch]], the two are in separate genera and are not closely related.<ref name="Zip code">{{cite web | author=Stang, David | work=The Zipcode Zoo | publisher=BayScience Foundation | title=''Carduelis tristis'' (American Goldfinch) | url=http://zipcodezoo.com/Animals/C/Carduelis_tristis.asp | date=28 January 2008 | access-date=4 February 2008| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080108154849/http://zipcodezoo.com/Animals/C/Carduelis_tristis.asp| archive-date = 8 January 2008}}</ref> ''Carduelis'' is derived from ''carduus'', the [[Latin]] word for '[[thistle]]'; the species name ''tristis'' is Latin for 'sorrowful'.<ref name="Notre Dame">{{cite web | url=http://www.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe?tristis | author=Whitaker, William | title=''Tristis'' | work=Words by William Whitaker | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-date=23 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923221952/http://www.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe?tristis | url-status=live }}</ref> There are four recognized [[subspecies]] of the American goldfinch:<ref name="ITIS"/>
*The '''eastern goldfinch''' (''S. t. tristis'') is the most common of the subspecies. Its summer range is from southern Canada to [[Colorado]], and east to the [[Carolinas]]. Its winter range is from southern Canada south to [[Florida]] and central Mexico.<ref name="BNA">{{cite journal | author=Middleton, Alex L. | title=American Goldfinch ''Carduelis tristis'' | journal=The Birds of North America Online | issue=80 | doi=10.2173/bna.80 | url=https://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/080/articles/introduction | year=1993 | access-date=4 February 2008 | last2=Poole | first2=A. | last3=Gill | first3=F. | editor1-last=Poole | editor1-first=A. | editor2-last=Gill | editor2-first=F. | archive-date=27 April 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427103119/http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/080/articles/introduction | url-status=live | url-access=subscription }}</ref>
*The '''pale goldfinch''' (''S. t. pallidus'') is differentiated from other subspecies by its paler body color, stronger white markings and, in males, a larger black cap. It is slightly larger than ''S. t. tristis''. The summer range is from [[British Columbia]] to western [[Ontario]], south to [[Colorado]] and west to [[Oregon]]. In winter, the range extends from southern Canada and northern [[California]], south to Mexico.<ref name="BNA"/>
*The '''northwestern goldfinch''' (''S. t. jewetti'') is smaller and darker than the other subspecies. It occurs on the coastal slope of the [[Cascade Range|Cascade Mountains]] from southern British Columbia to central California, overlapping with the range of ''S. t. pallidus''.<ref name="BNA"/>
*The '''willow goldfinch'''<ref name="Mcauliffe03">{{cite book|last=McAuliffe|first=Emily|title=Washington Facts and Symbols|publisher=Capstone Press|year=2003|page=13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERobeh3Fp1AC&pg=PA13|isbn=978-0-7368-2277-0|access-date=23 October 2015|archive-date=30 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430151456/https://books.google.com/books?id=ERobeh3Fp1AC&pg=PA13|url-status=live}}</ref> (''S. t. salicamans'') occurs west of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] range during the summer and in the central and southern [[Baja California Peninsula]] to the [[Mojave Desert]] and the [[Colorado Desert]] in the winter. In winter, the plumage of both sexes is browner than the other subspecies and in summer, the male's black cap is smaller than that of the other subspecies.<ref name="BNA"/>

==Description==
[[File:Female american goldfinch.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Female]]
[[File:20231011 american goldfinch south meadows PND06713-topaz-enhance-3600w.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Non-breeding plumage]]
The American goldfinch is a small [[finch]], {{convert|11|-|14|cm|in|sp=us|abbr = on}} long, with a [[wingspan]] of {{convert|19|-|22|cm|in|sp=us|abbr = on}}. It weighs between {{convert|11|-|20|g|oz|sp=us|abbr = on}}.<ref name="Georgia Wildlife Guide">{{cite web|url=http://dromus.nhm.uga.edu/~GMNH/gawildlife/index.php?page=speciespages/species_page&key=ctristis |work=Georgia Wildlife Web |publisher=The Georgia Museum of Natural History |title=''Carduelis tristis'' |access-date=4 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703155849/http://dromus.nhm.uga.edu/~GMNH/gawildlife/index.php?page=speciespages%2Fspecies_page&key=ctristis |archive-date=3 July 2009 }}</ref> Among standard measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{convert|6.5|to|7.8|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[tail]] is {{convert|4.2|to|5.1|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] is {{convert|0.9|to|1.1|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{convert|1.2|to|1.4|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Clement">{{cite book |title=Finches and Sparrows |first=Peter |last=Clement |publisher= Princeton University Press |date= 1999 |pages=236–237|isbn=978-0-691-04878-9}}</ref> The beak is small, conical, and pink for most of the year, but turns bright orange with the spring molt in both sexes.<ref name="Cornell Bird Guide"/>
The shape and size of the beak aid in the extraction of [[seed]]s from the seed heads of thistles, [[sunflower]]s, and other plants.<ref name="Hinterlands"/>

The American goldfinch undergoes a [[Moult|molt]] in the spring and autumn. It is the only cardueline finch to undergo molting twice a year.<ref name="ChipperWoods"/> During the winter molt it sheds all its feathers; in the spring, it sheds all but the wing and tail feathers, which are dark brown in the female and black in the male.<ref name="Hinterlands"/> The markings on these feathers remain through each molt, with bars on the wings and white under and at the edges of the short, notched tail.<ref name="Cornell Bird Guide"/> The [[sexual dimorphism]] displayed in plumage coloration is especially pronounced after the spring molt, when the bright color of the male's summer plumage is needed to attract a mate.<ref name="Hinterlands"/>

Once the spring molt is complete, the body of the male is a brilliant lemon yellow, a color produced by [[carotenoid]] [[pigment]]s from plant materials in its diet,<ref>{{cite journal | last=McGraw | first=Kevin |author2=Hill, Geoffrey|author3= Parker, Robert S. | title=The physiological costs of being colourful: nutritional control of carotenoid utilization in the American goldfinch, ''Carduelis tristis'' | journal=Animal Behaviour | volume=69 | issue=3 | pages=653–660 | year=2005 | doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.05.018 | s2cid=45919907 }}</ref> with a striking jet black cap and white rump that is visible during flight.<ref name="DNR">{{cite web|url=http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0,1607,7-153-10370_12145_12202-61327--,00.htm |publisher=State of Michigan |author=Department of Natural Resources |title=American Goldfinch (''Carduelis tristis'') |access-date=4 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224233422/http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0%2C1607%2C7-153-10370_12145_12202-61327--%2C00.htm |archive-date=24 December 2007}}</ref> The female is mostly brown, lighter on the underside with a yellow bib.<ref name="ChipperWoods">{{cite web | title=American Goldfinch | work=Chipper Woods Bird Observatory | publisher=Wild Birds Unlimited | url=http://www.wbu.com/chipperwoods/photos/goldfinch.htm | date=10 December 2007 | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-date=13 May 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513105956/http://www.wbu.com/chipperwoods/photos/goldfinch.htm }}</ref> After the autumn molt, the bright summer feathers are replaced by duller plumage, becoming [[Buff (colour)|buff]] below and olive-brown above, with a pale yellow face and bib. The autumn plumage is almost identical in both sexes, but the male has yellow shoulder patches.<ref name="SDNHM"/>

The immature bird has a dull brown back, and the underside is pale yellow. The shoulders and tail are a dull black with buff-colored, rather than white, markings on wings and rump. This coloration is the same in both sexes.<ref name="SDNHM">{{cite journal | author=Unitt, Philip |author2=Perretta, Nicole | title=Focus on American, Lawrence's, and Lesser Goldfinches | journal=Wrendering |date=Winter 2001 | url=http://www.sdnhm.org/research/birdatlas/focus/goldfinches.html | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219093124/http://www.sdnhm.org/research/birdatlas/focus/goldfinches.html | archive-date=19 December 2007}}</ref>

The [[Birdsong|song]] is a series of musical warbles and twitters, often with a long note. A ''tsee-tsi-tsi-tsit'' call is often given in flight; it may also be described as ''per-chic-o-ree''.<ref name="Cornell Bird Guide"/> While the female [[Avian incubation|incubates]] the eggs, she calls to her returning mate with a soft continuous ''tee-tee-tee-tee-tee'' sound. The young begin to use a call of ''chick-kee'' or ''chick-wee'' shortly before [[fledge|fledging]], which they use until they have left the nest entirely.<ref name="Hinterlands"/> There are two defense calls made by adults during nesting; a ''sweet'' call made to rally other goldfinches to the nest and distract [[predator]]s, and a ''bearbee'' used to signal to the nestlings to quiet them and get them to crouch down in the nest to become less conspicuous.<ref>{{cite journal
 | last=Knight | first=R. |author2=Temple, A. | title=Nest defence in the American Goldfinch | journal=Animal Behaviour | volume=34 | issue=3 | pages=887–897 | year=1987 | doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80075-6| s2cid=53174480 }}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:30goldfinch.ogg|right|thumb|American goldfinch call]]
The American goldfinch prefers open country where weeds thrive, such as [[field (agriculture)|fields]], meadows, [[flood plain]]s, as well as roadsides, [[orchards]], and gardens. It may also be found in open [[deciduous]] and [[Riparian zone|riparian]] woodlands and areas of [[Secondary forest|secondary growth]].<ref name="Terres">{{cite book | last=Terres | first=John K. | author-link=John Kenneth Terres | title=The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds | publisher=Knopf | year=1980 | location=New York | page=[https://archive.org/details/audubonsocietyen00terr/page/329 329] | isbn=978-0-394-46651-4 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/audubonsocietyen00terr/page/329 }}</ref> This [[habitat]] preference continues during the spring and autumn migrations.<ref name="Cornell Bird Guide"/>

The summer [[breeding range]] stretches across North America from coast to coast. It is bounded on the north by [[Saskatchewan]] and stretches south across North America to [[North Carolina]] on the east coast, and northern [[California]] on the west coast.<ref name="Cornell Bird Guide">{{cite web | url=https://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/American_Goldfinch_dtl.html | work=All About Birds | publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology | title=American Goldfinch | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-date=23 April 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423123941/http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/American_Goldfinch_dtl.html | url-status=live }}</ref> The American goldfinch is a short-distance migrant, moving south in response to colder weather and lessened food supply. According to ornithologist [[Marc Parnell]], this responsive, southerly migratory pattern is thought to begin to occur as daily low temperatures approach freezing, and particularly as these temperatures near 0&nbsp;°F.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parnell |first=Marc |title=Birds of Greater Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Buffalo (The Birding Pro's Field Guides) |publisher=Naturalist & Traveler Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-954228-00-9 |pages=262–263 |author-link=Marc Parnell}}</ref> The migration is completed in compact [[flock (birds)|flocks]], which travel in an erratic, wavelike flight pattern.<ref name="Smithsonian"/>

Its winter range includes southern Canada and stretches south through the United States to parts of Mexico. In winter, in the northern part of its range, the finch may move nearer to [[bird feeder|feeders]] if they are available. In southern ranges, during winter, they remain in areas like fields and flood plains where they live during the summer months.<ref name="ADW">{{cite web | author=Dewey, T. |author2=Roof, J. | title=''Carduelis tristis'' | work=[[Animal Diversity Web]] | publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology | url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Carduelis_tristis.html | year=2007 | access-date=4 February 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080208083801/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Carduelis_tristis.html| archive-date= 8 February 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>

Attempts were made to introduce the American goldfinch into [[Bermuda]] in the 19th century and [[Tahiti]] in 1938, but the species failed to become established in either place.<ref>{{cite book |title=Introduced Birds of the World: The worldwide history, distribution and influence of birds introduced to new environments |last=Long |first=John L. |year=1981 |publisher=Reed |location=Terrey Hills, Sydney |isbn=978-0-589-50260-7|page=449}}</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:American Goldfinch-27527.jpg|thumb|right|Male (left) and female (right) at a [[thistle feeder]]]]
[[File:American goldfinch.webm|thumb|thumbtime=48|right|Eating [[Echinacea|coneflower]] seeds and taking flight, including slow motion.]]
[[File:20241004 american goldfinch pleasant valley wm.webm|thumb|right|Eating [[hyssop]] seed]]
The American goldfinch flies in a distinctive undulating pattern, creating a wave-shaped path. This normally consists of a series of wing beats to lift the bird, then folding in the wings and gliding in an arc before repeating the pattern. Birds often vocalize during the flapping phase of the pattern and then go silent during the coasting phase. The call made during flight is "per-twee-twee-twee", or "ti-di-di-di", punctuated by the silent periods.<ref name="ADW"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/facts/american-goldfinch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921205810/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/facts/american%2Dgoldfinch |archive-date=21 September 2021 |title=American Goldfinch |publisher=National Geographic |date=29 April 2014 |access-date=June 30, 2023}}</ref> They communicate with several distinct vocalizations, including one that sounds like "po-ta-to-chip" to the listener.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/facts/american-goldfinch|title=American Goldfinch|date=8 May 2017|website=National Geographic Kids|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref>

Birds do not act aggressively toward predators within their territory; their only reaction is [[alarm call]]ing. Predators include [[snake]]s, [[weasel]]s, [[squirrel]]s, and [[blue jay]]s, which may destroy eggs or kill young, and [[hawk]]s and [[cat]]s, which pose a threat to both young and adults. The oldest known American goldfinch was 10 years and 5 months old.<ref name="Cornell">[https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/American_Goldfinch/overview American Goldfinch, All About Birds – Cornell Lab of Ornithology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929155836/https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/American_Goldfinch/overview |date=29 September 2018 }}. Allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 29 September 2018.</ref>

===Sociality===
<!-- Talk about sociality and aggressiveness over time -->
The American goldfinch is [[Sociality|gregarious]] during the nonbreeding season when it is often found in large flocks, usually with other finches.<ref name="Sullivan"/> The social hierarchy, measured by how many aggressive encounters are won by each individual, tends towards the male being dominant in the nonbreeding season.<ref name="Coutlee1967">{{Cite journal| issn = 0043-5643| volume = 79| issue = 1| pages = 89–109| last = Coutlee| first = Ellen L.| title = Agonistic behavior in the American goldfinch| journal = The Wilson Bulletin| year = 1967}}</ref> During the breeding season, this finch lives in loose [[Bird colony|colonies]]. While the nest is being constructed, the male will act aggressively toward other males who intrude into his territory, driving them away, and the female reacts in the same way toward other females. This aggressiveness subsides once the eggs have been laid.<ref name="Sullivan">{{cite book | author=Sullivan, J. | title=Hunting for Frogs and Elston, and Other Tales from Field & Street | publisher=University of Chicago Press | location=Chicago | page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2ENJUxG5cQwC&pg=PA207 207] | year=1980 | isbn=978-0-226-77993-5 }}</ref> The social hierarchy in the breeding season generally has the female dominant over the male.<ref name="Coutlee1967"/> Dominance may change based on the value of a resource; a study published in 1987 found that starved subordinate birds were sometimes dominant in competitions over feeder access.<ref name="Popp1987">{{cite journal|last1=Popp|first1=James W.|title=Resource value and dominance among American goldfinches|journal=Bird Behavior|volume=7|issue=2|year=1987|pages=73–77|issn=0156-1383|doi=10.3727/015613887791918088}}</ref>

<!-- Talk about mechanisms of aggression -->
Birds indicate their level of aggression through a range of displays. The head-up display, where the neck and legs are slightly extended, shows mild aggression and is often performed by the victor of an encounter. The carpals-raised display has the neck retracted and the carpals raised; displayers are likely to attack their opponent. The head-forward display is where the legs are flexed, the neck extended, and the beak closed. At higher intensities, the neck is lowered, the beak is pointed at the opponent, and one or both wings are raised. In extreme cases, the neck is retracted, the bill opened, the body feathers sleeked, and the tail is fanned and raised slightly. Aggression is also displayed by showing the front of the body to another individual. Attacks include pecking at feathers, supplanting the opponent by landing next to it, and flying vertically with legs and feet extended, beaks open, and necks extended. Avoidance behaviors include showing only the side of the body to an aggressor, leaning away, and flexing the legs, retracting the neck, and pointing the beak down.<ref name="Coutlee1967"/>

===Breeding===
The breeding season begins later in the year than for any other finch and later than any other native North American bird, besides occasionally the [[sedge wren]].<ref name="Hinterlands"/><ref name="Cornell"/> This may be related to the abundance of seeds in the late summer months, as seeds represent most of their diet.<ref name="Sullivan"/>

The courtship rituals include aerial maneuvers and singing by males, who begin courtship in late July. The flight displays begin as the male pursues the female, who flies in zigzagging evasive patterns. The male can signal his quality and fitness, both in the short term (current body condition) and long term (genes), through ornamentation (bill color and plumage).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosen |first=Rafael F. |author2=Tarvin, Keith A. |title=Sexual signals of the male American goldfinch |journal=Ethology |volume=112 |issue=10 |pages=1008–1019 |year=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.2006.01257.x |bibcode=2006Ethol.112.1008R }}</ref> If a female accepts the male as a mate, the pair will fly in wide circles, as the male warbles throughout the flight.<ref name="Hinterlands"/>

Once a male has found a mate, he selects a territory, marking the boundaries by warbling as he flies from perch to perch. After circling the perimeter, he performs two flight displays, first repeating a low, flat flight, then flying in an exaggerated version of normal flight, tucking his wings close to his body, plummeting earthwards and catching himself as he spreads his wings to glide upward in a series of loops. Two or three pairs may group their territories together in a loose colony, perhaps to aid in defense against predators.<ref name="Hinterlands"/>

[[File:Nature neighbors, embracing birds, plants, animals, minerals, in natural colors by color photography, containing articles by Gerald Alan Abbott, Dr. Albert Schneider, William Kerr Higley...and other (14770865733) (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|Nest]]
The nest is built in late summer by the female in the branches of a deciduous shrub or tree at a height of up to {{convert|10|m|ft|sp=us|abbr = on}}. The nest-building lasts approximately six days, during which time the female works in 10–40&nbsp;minute increments. The male frequently flies with the female as she collects nesting materials, and though he may carry some materials back to the nest, he leaves its construction to the female. The outer shell of the nest is built of bark, weeds, vines, and grass.<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite journal |author=Bent, A. C. |author2=Cleveland, Arthur |journal=Smithsonian Institution United States National Museum Bulletin | volume=237 |issue=1 |pages=447–466 |url=http://www.birdsbybent.com/ch41-50/goldfinch.html |title=American Goldfinch ''Carduelis tristis'' |year=1968 |access-date=4 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101145927/http://birdsbybent.com/ch41-50/goldfinch.html |archive-date=1 January 2008 |url-status=live|display-authors=etal}}</ref> The inside diameter of the finished nest is about {{convert|6.5|cm|in|sp=us|abbr = on}}.<ref name="Terres"/> The rim is reinforced with bark bound by [[Spider web|spiderwebs]] and caterpillar silk, and the cup is lined with plant down from [[milkweed]], thistle, or [[cattail]]. The nest is so tightly woven that it can hold water, and it is possible for nestlings to drown following a rainstorm if the parents do not cover the nest.<ref name="ChipperWoods"/>

The clutch is four to six bluish-white [[egg (biology)|eggs]], which are oval in shape and about {{convert|16|x|12|mm|in|abbr = on}}, roughly the size of a [[peanut]].<ref name="Smithsonian"/> It is thought that they are laid during the night.<ref name="ADW"/> The eggs are incubated by the female alone, though the male brings her food as she nests, and most mating pairs raise only one brood each year.<ref name="Smithsonian"/>

The chicks hatch 12–14&nbsp;days after incubation begins. Like all [[passerine]]s, the chicks are [[altricial]]; they are hatched naked, with reddish bodies, pale grey [[down feather|down]], and closed eyes.<ref name="Stanford">{{cite web | author1=Ehrlich, P.R. | author2=D.S. Dobkin | author3=D. Wheye | title=Precocial and Atricial | work=Birds of Stanford | url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/Precocial_and_Altricial.html | year=1988 | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-date=11 April 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411171403/http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/Precocial_and_Altricial.html | url-status=live }}</ref> The mother bird feeds her young [[Regurgitation (digestion)|regurgitated]] seeds and insects as they grow.<ref name="DNR"/> The hatchlings develop quickly, opening their eyes after three days, and completing the growth of olive-brown juvenile plumage after 11–15&nbsp;days, at which time they begin to practice short flights close to the nest. For up to three weeks after fledging, they are still fed by the male, who locates them by listening for their fledging call. The chicks stop giving this call when they become entirely independent.<ref name="Hinterlands"/>

The American goldfinch is occasionally victim to brood parasites, particularly [[brown-headed cowbird]]s. One study found that 9% of nests had brown-headed cowbird eggs in them.<ref name="Middleton1977">{{cite journal | last=Middleton | first=Alex L. | title=Effect of cowbird parasitism on American Goldfinch nesting | journal=Auk | volume=2 | issue=94 | pages=304–307 | year=1977 | url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v094n02/p0304-p0307.pdf | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-date=24 April 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424080556/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v094n02/p0304-p0307.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref> It likely evades parasitism partly because of its late breeding season.<ref name="Hauber2014">{{cite book|last=Hauber|first=Mark E.|title=The Book of Eggs: A Life-Size Guide to the Eggs of Six Hundred of the World's Bird Species|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evQvBAAAQBAJ|date=1 August 2014|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-05781-1|page=629|access-date=5 October 2018|archive-date=1 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401065238/https://books.google.com/books?id=evQvBAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The American goldfinch also makes a very poor host for brood parasites, with studies showing low hatching rates of brown-headed cowbird eggs and no fledging success. This is despite the lack of known behavioral adaptations against brood parasites in this finch. It is thought that the inability of brown-headed cowbird chicks to survive is due to a failure to get enough [[nutrition]]; the seed-rich diet of American goldfinch chicks varies from the usual insect-rich diet of other hosts.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Middleton | first=Alex L. | title=Failure of Brown-headed Cowbird parasitism in nests of the American Goldfinch | journal=Journal of Field Ornithology | volume=2 | issue=62 | pages=200–203 | year=1991 | url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v062n02/p0200-p0203.pdf | access-date=4 February 2008 | archive-date=24 April 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424094511/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v062n02/p0200-p0203.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Feeding===
[[File:Feeding frenzy (15104857137).jpg|thumb|Feeding|alt=Three goldfinches feeding]]
[[File:American goldfinches.jpg|thumb|right|Feeding from sunflower heads|alt=Two feeding from sunflower heads]]
The American goldfinch is a [[Diurnal animal|diurnal]] feeder. According to the [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]], the species is one of the strictest vegetarians in the bird world.<ref name="Cornell"/> It is mainly [[Seed predation|granivorous]], but will occasionally eat insects, which are also fed to its young to provide [[protein]]. Its [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] consists of the seeds from a wide variety of plants, often those of weeds, grasses, and trees, such as thistle, [[teasel]], [[dandelion]], [[ragweed]], [[Verbascum|mullein]], [[Cosmos (plant)|cosmos]], [[Tragopogon|goatsbeard]], sunflower, and [[alder]].<ref name="Terres"/> However, it also consumes tree buds, maple sap, and berries. It will eat at bird feeders provided by humans, particularly in the winter months, preferring [[Guizotia abyssinica|Niger seed]] (commonly and erroneously called thistle seed).<ref name="hearth"/>

Unlike some finch species, the American goldfinch uses its feet extensively in feeding. It frequently hangs from seedheads while feeding to reach the seeds more easily. In the spring, the American goldfinch feeds on the [[catkin]]s hanging from birches and alders by pulling one up with its beak and using its toes to hold the catkin still against the branch. This dexterity enables it to take advantage of food sources relatively inaccessible to potential competitors, increasing its chances of survival.<ref name="Hinterlands">{{cite web |url=http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=24 |author=Hayakawa, E. |title=American Goldfinch |work=Hinterland Who's Who |publisher=Canadian Wildlife Service & Canadian Wildlife Federation |access-date=4 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117171220/http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=24 | archive-date=17 January 2008}}</ref>

== Status ==
The American goldfinch has a large range, with an estimated global extent of about {{convert|11300000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and an increasing population. The species is evaluated as [[least concern]] on the 2016 [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name="iucn"/>

==Relationship with humans==
The American goldfinch is found in residential areas throughout its range. Backyard [[Birdwatching|birders]] attract it using feeders containing [[niger seed]],<ref name="hearth"/> or by planting grasses and [[perennial plant]]s, such as [[zinnias]], cosmos, [[bee balm]], or [[globe thistle]], which produce seedheads favored by finches.<ref name="hearth">{{cite web|author=Hollis, Elece |title=Backyard Birdwatching: The American Goldfinch |work=Garden and Hearth |url=http://www.gardenandhearth.com/Bird-Watching/American-Goldfinch.htm |access-date=4 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529075507/http://www.gardenandhearth.com/Bird-Watching/American-Goldfinch.htm |archive-date=29 May 2007 }}</ref>


The American goldfinch is not threatened by human activity and is widespread throughout its range.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name="ITIS">{{ITIS |id=179236 |taxon=''Carduelis tristis'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |access-date=4 February 2008}}</ref> The clearing of forests by humans, though harmful to many species, has benefited the American goldfinch. Clearing of woodlands causes declines in numbers of [[neotropical]] [[bird migration|migrants]] while favoring short-distance migrants and permanent residents.<ref>{{cite web|author=Droege, Sam |title=Birds and Landscape Changes in Northeastern Forests |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division |url=https://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/ne120.htm |year=2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927144731/http://biology.usgs.gov/s%2Bt/SNT/noframe/ne120.htm |archive-date=27 September 2006 |access-date=4 February 2008 }}</ref> This benefits the American goldfinch both because it is a short-distance migrant and because the created open areas are the preferred environment of the bird, where weeds thrive which produce the primary food source of the American goldfinch.<ref name="ChipperWoods"/>

==State bird==

The American goldfinch is the [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]] of [[Iowa]] and [[New Jersey]], where it is called the eastern goldfinch, and [[Washington (state)|Washington]], where it is called the willow goldfinch.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tveten, John L.|author2=Tveten, Gloria|title=Our life with birds: a nature trails book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Atd_Y1OrarIC&pg=PA75|page=75|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-1-58544-380-2|access-date=17 May 2011|archive-date=3 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603203922/http://books.google.com/books?id=Atd_Y1OrarIC&pg=PA75|url-status=live}}</ref> It was chosen by schoolchildren in Washington in 1951.<ref name="Mcauliffe03"/>

==References==<!-- AnimalBehaviour67:27. -->
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|American Goldfinch (enwiki).ogg|date=13 April 2009}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Spinus tristis|American goldfinch}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Carduelis tristis}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|american-goldfinch-carduelis-tristis|American goldfinch}}
* {{VIREO|american+goldfinch|American goldfinch}}

{{Taxonbar |from=Q27075861}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Spinus (genus)|American goldfinch]]
[[Category:Birds of North America]]
[[Category:Birds of the United States]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of North America]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of the United States]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758|American goldfinch]]
[[Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus|American goldfinch]]
[[Category:Symbols of New Jersey]]
[[Category:Extant Late Pleistocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Symbols of Iowa]]