View source for American white pelican

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| name = American white pelican
| image = American White Pelican.jpg
| image_caption = Flying in Dallas, USA
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Pelecanus erythrorhynchos'' |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T22697611A93624242 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22697611A93624242.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| status2 = G4
| status2_system = TNC
| status2_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=Pelecanus erythrorhynchos |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102798/Pelecanus_erythrorhynchos |website=Natureserve Explorer |access-date=17 April 2024}}</ref>
| genus = Pelecanus
| species = erythrorhynchos
| authority = [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1789
| synonyms =
''Pelecanus erythrorhynchus'' <small>(''[[lapsus]]'')</small>
| range_map = Pelecanus erythrorhynchos map.svg
| range_map_caption = {{leftlegend|#FF7F2A|Breeding}}{{leftlegend|#FFDD55|Migration}}{{leftlegend|#7137C8|Year-round}}{{leftlegend|#5F8DD3|Nonbreeding}}
}}

The '''American white pelican''' ('''''Pelecanus erythrorhynchos''''') is a large [[Aquatic animal|aquatic]] soaring bird from the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Pelecaniformes]]. It breeds in interior North America, moving south and to the coasts, as far as Costa Rica, in winter.<ref name = elliott1992/>

==Taxonomy==
The American white pelican was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1789 by the German naturalist [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin]] in his revised and expanded edition of [[Carl Linnaeus]]'s ''[[Systema Naturae]]''. He placed it with the other pelicans in the [[genus]] ''[[Pelecanus]]'' and coined the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Pelecanus erythrorhynchos''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Gmelin | first=Johann Friedrich | author-link=Johann Friedrich Gmelin| year=1789 | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | edition=13th | volume=1, Part 2 | language=Latin | location=Lipsiae [Leipzig] | publisher=Georg. Emanuel. Beer | page=571 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2656064 }}</ref> Gmelin based his description on the "rough-billed pelican" that had been described in 1785 by the English ornithologist [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]]. Latham had access to three specimens that had been brought to London from New York and the [[Hudson Bay]] area of North America.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Latham | first=John | author-link=John Latham (ornithologist) | year=1785 | title=A General Synopsis of Birds | volume=3, Part 2 | publisher=Printed for Leigh and Sotheby | location=London | page=586 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/40079409 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=191 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16108831 }}</ref> The [[scientific name]] means "red-billed pelican", from the [[Latin term]] for a [[pelican]], ''Pelecanus'', and ''erythrorhynchos'', derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] words {{Lang|grc|erythros}} ([[wikt:ἐρυθρός|ἐρυθρός]]) 'red' + {{Lang|grc|rhynchos}} ([[wikt:ῥύγχος|ῥύγχος]]) 'bill'.<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n295/mode/1up 295], [https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n150/mode/1up 150]}}</ref> The species is [[monotypic]]: no [[subspecies]] are recognised.<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=August 2022 | title=Ibis, spoonbills, herons, Hamerkop, Shoebill, pelicans | work=IOC World Bird List Version 12.2 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/pelicans/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=2 December 2022 }}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Pelecanus erythrorhynchos at Las Gallinas Wildlife Ponds.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Adult nonbreeding in [[Marin County, California|Marin County]], [[California]]. Note the lack of "horn" and duller bare parts.]]

[[File:Americanwhitepelican75.jpg|thumb|left|American white pelicans gathering at [[Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge]] in [[Florida]]. Brown pelicans can also be seen in the center, and at the left and right margins.]]

[[File:American white pelican, Brunswick, GA, US.jpg|thumb|left|With wings spread, showing black remiges]]

The American white pelican rivals the [[trumpeter swan]], with a similar overall length, as one of the longest birds native to North America. Both very large and plump, it has an overall length of about {{convert|50|-|70|in|cm|abbr=on}}, courtesy of the huge beak which measures {{convert|11.3|-|15.2|in|mm|abbr=on}} in males and {{convert|10.3|-|14.2|in|mm|abbr=on}} in females. It has a wingspan of about {{convert|95|-|120|in|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref name="HBW">{{cite book |title=Handbook of the Birds of the World |last1=del Hoyo |first1=J | last2=Elliot | first2 = A | last3=Sargatal | first3 = J | year=1996 |publisher=[[Lynx Edicions]] |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-87334-20-2|volume=3|title-link=Handbook of the Birds of the World }}</ref> The species also has the second-largest average wingspan of any North American bird, after the [[California condor]]. This large wingspan allows the bird to easily use soaring flight for migration.  Body weight can range between {{convert|7.7|and|30|lb|kg|abbr=on}}, although typically these birds average between {{convert|11|and|20|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name= CRC>''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), {{ISBN|978-0-8493-4258-5}}.</ref> One mean body mass of {{convert|15.4|lb|kg|abbr=on}} was reported.<ref name= CRC/> Another study found mean weights to be somewhat lower than expected, with eleven males averaging {{convert|13.97|lb|kg|abbr=on}} and six females averaging {{convert|10.95|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name= CRC2>''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), {{ISBN|978-1-4200-6444-5}}.</ref> Among standard measurements, the wing chord measures {{convert|20|-|26.7|in|cm|abbr=on}} and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] measures {{convert|3.9|-|5.4|in|cm|abbr=on}} long.<ref>Dorr, Brian S.; King, D. Tommy; Gerard, Patrick; and Spalding, Marilyn G. (2005) [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc/9 "The Use of Culmen Length to Determine Sex of the American White Pelican"]. USDA National Wildlife Research Center – Staff Publications. Paper 9.</ref> The [[plumage]] is almost entirely bright white, except for the black primary and secondary [[remiges]], which are hardly visible except in flight. From early spring until after breeding has finished in mid-late summer, the breast feathers have a yellowish hue. After [[moult]]ing into the eclipse plumage, the upper head often has a grey hue, as blackish feathers grow between the small wispy white [[Crest (feathers)|crest]].<ref name = elliott1992 />

The [[beak|bill]] is huge and flat on the top, with a large throat sac below, and, in the breeding season, is vivid orange in color, as is the bare skin around the eye and the feet. [[Iris (anatomy)|Iris]] coloration depends upon age and season, ranging from bright white to hazel to blue-gray.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kinney |first1=Matthew E. |last2=Ericsson |first2=Aaron C. |last3=Franklin |first3=Craig L. |last4=Whiting |first4=Rebecca E.H. |last5=Pearce |first5=Jacqueline W. |date=2017 |title=OCULAR FINDINGS AND SELECT OPHTHALMIC DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN CAPTIVE AMERICAN WHITE PELICANS ( ''PELECANUS ERYTHRORHYNCHOS'' ) |journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine |language=en |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=675–682 |doi=10.1638/2016-0256.1 |issn=1042-7260 |pmc=6312112 |pmid=28920779}}</ref> In the breeding season, both sexes grow a [[Anatomical terms of location|lateral]]ly flattened keratinous "horn" on the upper bill, located about one-third the bill's length behind the tip. This is the only one of the eight species of pelican to have a bill "horn". The horn is shed after the birds have mated and laid their eggs. Outside the breeding season, the bare parts become duller in color, with the naked facial skin yellow and the bill, pouch, and feet a dull pink-orange.<ref name = elliott1992 />

Apart from the difference in size, males and females look exactly alike. Immature birds have light grey plumage with a darker brownish nape and [[Flight feather|remiges]]. Their bare parts are dull grey. Chicks are naked at first, then grow white [[down feather]]s all over, before moulting to the immature plumage.<ref name = elliott1992 />

==Distribution and ecology==
[[File:American White Pelican (Las Gallinas Wildlife Ponds).jpg|thumb|right|Non-breeding adult wintering in California]]
[[File:White pelicans at Palo Alto Baylands.jpg|thumb|Summer at [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] Baylands]]

American white pelicans nest in colonies of several hundred pairs on islands in remote [[brackish]] and [[freshwater]] lakes of inland North America. The most northerly nesting colony can be found on islands in the rapids of the [[Slave River]] between [[Fort Fitzgerald, Alberta]] and [[Fort Smith, Northwest Territories]]. Several groups have been visiting the bird sanctuary at [[Useless Bay (Washington)|Useless Bay]] in the state of Washington since 2015. About 10–20% of the population uses [[Gunnison Island]] in the [[Great Basin]]'s [[Great Salt Lake]] as a nesting ground. The southernmost colonies are in southeastern [[Ontario]] and western [[Nevada]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tymstra |first1=Y. |last2=Weseloh |first2=D. V. |last3=Moore |first3=David |last4=Crump |first4=Doug |last5=Ludwig |first5=James |date=2024-06-01 |title=American White Pelicans expand breeding range into western Lake Erie, 2016-2018 |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/ontario_birds/vol37/iss1/1/ |journal=Ontario Birds |volume=37 |issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Moulton |first1=Colleen E. |title=Changes in abundance, productivity, and distribution of western American White Pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos), 1981–2014 |date=2018-09-01 |work=Trends and Traditions: Avifaunal Change in Western North America |pages=258–268 |url=https://westernfieldornithologists.org/docs/2020/Avifaunal_Change/Moulton/Moulton_et_al-Avifaunal_Change.pdf |access-date=2024-11-22 |publisher=Western Field Ornithologists |doi=10.21199/swb3.14 |isbn=978-0-9790585-3-0 |last2=Roberts |first2=Shane B. |last3=Horne |first3=Jon S. |last4=Wackenhut |first4=Martha}}</ref>

Approximately 180,000 American white pelicans, which is 40% of the global population, migrate to Canada each spring to breed, nesting from the coast of [[British Columbia]] east to [[Lake of the Woods]] and [[Lake Nipigon]] in [[Ontario]]. Of this large number of pelicans, [[Manitoba]] holds half. Although seen in numerous regions of the province, including cities, nesting colonies concentrate in Manitoba's three largest bodies of water, Lakes [[Lake Winnipeg|Winnipeg]], [[Lake Manitoba|Manitoba]], and [[Lake Winnipegosis|Winnipegosis]]. American white pelicans are a conservation priority in Canada, where efforts are focused on population monitoring and habitat protection. "Large increases have occurred in all [https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/migratory-bird-conservation/regions-strategies.html Canadian Bird Conservation Regions] that host the species and for which there are reasonably reliable results."<ref>{{Citation |title=American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) |url=https://naturecounts.ca/nc/socb-epoc/species.jsp?sp=amwpel |publisher=NatureCounts |access-date=2 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) |url=https://www.birdatlas.mb.ca/accounts/speciesaccount.jsp?sp=AWPE&lang=en#:~:text=Manitoba%20holds%20half%20of%20Canada's,breed%20in%20Texas%20and%20Mexico. |publisher=Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Manitoba |access-date=2 August 2025}}</ref>

They winter on the Pacific and [[Gulf of Mexico]] coasts from central California and [[Florida]] south to [[Costa Rica]], and along the [[Mississippi River]] at least as far north as [[St. Paul, Minnesota]]. In winter quarters, they are rarely found on the open seashore, preferring [[estuaries]], bays, and lakes. They cross deserts and mountains but avoid the open ocean on [[bird migration|migration]].<ref name = elliott1992 /> But stray birds, often blown off course by [[hurricanes]], have been seen in the Caribbean. In [[Colombia]]n territory, it was recorded first on February 22, 1997, on the [[Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina|San Andrés Island]], where they might have been swept by [[Hurricane Marco (1996)|Hurricane Marco]], which passed nearby in November 1996. Since then, there have also been a few observations likely to pertain to this species on the Colombian mainland, for example, at [[Calamar, Bolívar|Calamar]].<ref name= Estela/>

Wild American white pelicans may live for more than 16 years. In captivity, the record lifespan stands at over 34 years.<ref name = elliott1992 />

===Food and feeding===
[[File:American White Pelicans fishing in a group.webmhd.webm|thumb|American white pelicans fishing in a group near Corte Madera, California]]
Unlike the [[brown pelican]] (''P. occidentalis''), the American white pelican does not dive for its food. Instead, it catches its prey while swimming. Each bird eats more than {{convert|4|lbs|kg|spell=in}} of food a day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/057|title=American white pelican - Pelecanus erythrorhynchos|last=Knopf, Fritz L. and Roger M. Evans|date=2004|website=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service}}</ref> The fish taken by pelicans can range from the size of [[minnow]]s to 3.5-pound [[Esox|pickerel]]s.<ref>Bent, Arthur Cleveland. Life histories of North American petrels and pelicans, and their allies. Vol. 121. US Government Printing Office, 1922.</ref> Typical fish prey include [[Cypriniformes]] like [[common carp]] (''Cyprinus carpio''), Lahontan [[tui chub]] (''Gila bicolor obesa''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://truckeeriverguide.org/species/american-white-pelican/|title=American White Pelican|website=Truckee River Guide|date=24 June 2023 }}</ref> [[minnow]]s,<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pelecanus_erythrorhynchos/ | title=Pelecanus erythrorhynchos (American white pelican) | website=[[Animal Diversity Web]] }}</ref> and [[shiner (fish)|shiners]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v094n01/p0101-p0109.pdf|title=NOCTURNAL FORAGING IN THE AMERICAN WHITE PELICAN'|last=BLAIR F. MCMAHON AND ROGER M. EVANS|date=1992|website=Searchable Ornithological Research Archive}}</ref> [[Perciformes]] like [[Sacramento perch]] (''Archoplites interruptus'') or [[yellow perch]] (''Perca flavescens''),<ref name=":0" /> [[Salmoniformes]] like [[rainbow trout]] (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'') and [[salmon]],<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> [[Siluriformes]] (catfish),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fieldguide.mt.gov/speciesDetail.aspx?elcode=ABNFC01010|title=American White Pelican - Pelecanus erythrorhynchos|last=Montana Natural Heritage Program and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks.|date=2018|website=Montana Field Guide}}</ref> and [[Carangidae|jackfish]].<ref name=Dronen/> Other animals eaten by these birds are [[crayfish]], amphibians, and sometimes larval salamanders.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dan A. Tallman |author2=David L. Swanson |author3=Jeffrey S. Palmer|title=Birds of South Dakota|date=2002|publisher=Midstates/Quality Quick Print|location=Aberdeen, South Dakota|isbn=0-929918-06-1|page=10}}</ref> Birds nesting on saline lakes, where food is scarce, will travel great distances to better feeding grounds.<ref name = elliott1992 />

American white pelicans like to come together in groups of a dozen or more birds to feed, as they can thus cooperate and corral fish for one another. When this is not easily possible – for example, in deep water, where fish can escape by diving out of reach – they prefer to forage alone. But the birds also steal food on occasion from other birds, a practice known as [[kleptoparasitism]]. White pelicans are known to steal fish from other pelicans, [[gull]]s, and [[cormorant]]s from the surface of the water and, in one case, from a [[great blue heron]] while both large birds were in flight.<ref name = elliott1992 /><ref>{{cite journal|title=Kleptoparasitism of great blue herons by American white pelicans |author1=Nesbitt, S.A. |author2=Folk, M.J. |year=2003 |journal=Florida Field Naturalist |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=19–45 |url=http://research.myfwc.com/engine/download_redirection_process.asp?file=03nesbitt_2420.pdf&objid=61282&dltype=publication |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503151344/http://research.myfwc.com/engine/download_redirection_process.asp?file=03nesbitt_2420.pdf&objid=61282&dltype=publication |archive-date=2014-05-03 }}</ref>

===Reproduction===
As noted above, they are colonial breeders, with up to 10,000 pairs per site.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Kijowski |first1=Ashley M. |title=American White Pelicans of Gunnison Island, Great Salt Lake, Utah |date=2020 |work=Great Salt Lake Biology: A Terminal Lake in a Time of Change |pages=311–344 |editor-last=Baxter |editor-first=Bonnie K. |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-40352-2_10 |access-date=2024-11-22 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-40352-2_10 |isbn=978-3-030-40352-2 |last2=Neill |first2=John |last3=Wickline |first3=Adam |last4=Swift |first4=Jessica |last5=Butler |first5=Jaimi K. |last6=Kimberly |first6=David A. |last7=Van Leeuwen |first7=Jim |last8=Luft |first8=John |last9=Stone |first9=Kyle |editor2-last=Butler |editor2-first=Jaimi K.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The birds arrive on the breeding grounds in March or April; nesting starts between early April and early June. During the breeding season, both males and females develop a pronounced bump on the top of their large beaks. This conspicuous growth is shed by the end of the breeding season.

The nest is a shallow depression scraped in the ground, into which some twigs, sticks, reeds, or similar debris have been gathered. After about one week of courtship and nest-building, the female lays a [[clutch (eggs)|clutch]] of usually two or three eggs, sometimes just one, sometimes up to six.

Both parents [[incubate (bird)|incubate]] for about one month. The young leave the nest 3–4 weeks after hatching; at this point, usually only one young per nest has survived. They spend the following month in a [[Crèche (zoology)|creche]] or "pod", moulting into immature plumage and eventually learning to fly. After [[fledging]], the parents care for their offspring for some three more weeks, until the close family bond separates in late summer or early fall, and the birds gather in larger groups on rich feeding grounds in preparation for the migration to the winter quarters. They migrate south by September or October.<ref name = elliott1992 />

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:American White Pelican (breeding) in Green Bay, WI, 2013.JPG|American white pelican (breeding) in Green Bay, WI, 2013
File:American White Pelican Nest.jpg|Nest at [[Chase Lake National Wildlife Refuge|Chase Lake]]
File:White Pelican.jpg|Adults on their nests, already in nonbreeding plumage (note dark nape)
File:St James's Park Pelicans.jpg|A captive American white pelican (right) alongside two [[great white pelican]]s (''Pelecanus onocrotalus'') in [[St James's Park]], [[London]] (note the damaged 'horn')
</gallery>

===Predation===
Occasionally, these pelicans may nest in colonies on isolated islands, which is believed to significantly reduce the likelihood of mammalian predation. [[Red fox]]es and [[coyote]]s prey upon colonies that they can access, and several gulls have been known to prey on pelican eggs and nestlings (including [[American herring gull|herring]], [[Ring-billed gull|ring-billed]], and [[California gull]]), as well as [[common raven]]s. Young pelicans may be hunted by [[great horned owl]]s, [[red-tailed hawk]]s, [[bald eagle]]s, and [[golden eagle]]s. The pelicans react to mammalian threats differently from avian threats. Though fairly approachable while feeding, the pelicans may temporarily abandon their nests if a human closely approaches the colony. If the threat is another bird, however, the pelicans do not abandon the nest and may fight off the interloper by jabbing at it with their considerable bills.<ref>Dewey, Tanya. [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pelecanus_erythrorhynchos.html Pelecanus erythrorhynchos]. Animal Diversity Web</ref> Full-grown pelicans have few predators. Only [[red fox]]es and [[coyote]]s are known to prey on nesting adults on rare occasions.<ref>Knopf, F. L. and R. M. Evans (2020). American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.amwpel.01</ref>

===Status and conservation===
This species is protected by the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918]]. It has the [[California Department of Fish and Game]] protective status [[California species of special concern]] (CSC). On a global scale, however, the species is common enough to qualify as a Species of [[Least Concern]] according to the [[IUCN]].<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

Habitat loss is the largest known cause of nesting failure, with flooding and drought being recurrent problems. Human-related losses include entanglement in fishing gear, boating disturbance, and [[poaching]] as well as additional habitat degradation.<ref name=Blood/>

There was a pronounced decline in American white pelican numbers in the mid-20th century, attributable to the excessive spraying of [[DDT]], [[endrin]], and other [[organochloride]]s in agriculture as well as widespread draining and pollution of wetlands. But populations have recovered well after stricter [[environmental protection]] laws came into effect, and are stable or slightly increasing today. By the 1980s, more than 100,000 adult American white pelicans were estimated to exist in the wild, with 33,000 nests altogether in the 50 colonies in Canada, and 18,500 nests in the 14–17 United States colonies. Shoreline [[erosion]] at breeding colonies remains a problem in some cases, as are the occasional mass poisonings when [[pesticide]]s are used near breeding or wintering sites.<ref name = elliott1992 />

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=Blood>Blood, Donald A.; Hames, Michael; Graham, Arifin; Pawlas, Richard & Friis, Laura (1993) [http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/pelican.pdf "American White Pelican"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227155831/http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/pelican.pdf |date=February 27, 2009 }} in ''Wildlife in British Columbia at Risk''. Province of British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. {{ISBN|0-7726-7466-3}}</ref>

<ref name=Dronen>{{cite journal |first1=Norman O. |last1=Dronen |first2=Charles K. |last2=Blend |first3=Christy K. |last3=Anderson |name-list-style=amp |title=Endohelminths from the Brown Pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis, and the American White Pelican, Pelecanus erythrorhynchus, from Galveston Bay, Texas, U.S.A., and Checklist of Pelican Parasites |journal=Comparative Parasitology |volume=70 |issue=2 |year=2003 |pages=140–154 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263542845 |doi=10.1654/1525-2647(2003)070[0140:EFTBPP]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=85757144 }}</ref>

<ref name = elliott1992>Elliott, Andrew (1992): 6. American White Pelican. ''In:'' del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): ''[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]]'' (Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks): 310, plate 20. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. {{ISBN|84-87334-10-5}}</ref>

<ref name =Estela>Estela, Felipe A.; Silva, John Douglas & Castillo, Luis Fernando (2005): El pelícano blanco americano (''Pelecanus erythrorhynchus'') en Colombia, con comentarios sobre los effectos de los huracanes en el Caribe [The American White Pelican (''Pelecanus erythrorhynchus'') in Colombia, with comments on the effects of Caribbean hurricanes]. ''Caldasia'' '''27'''(2): 271- 275 [Spanish with English abstract]. [http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/cal/v27n2/v27n2a10.pdf PDF fulltext]</ref>
}}

==External links==
* {{InternetBirdCollection|american-white-pelican-pelecanus-erythrorhynchos|American white pelican}}
* [http://www.nature.org/newsfeatures/specialfeatures/animals/birds/american-white-pelican.xml American white pelican profile] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920071236/http://www.nature.org/newsfeatures/specialfeatures/animals/birds/american-white-pelican.xml |date=2014-09-20 }}) at The Nature Conservancy
* [https://www.flickr.com/groups/birdguide/pool/tags/Pelecanus%20erythrorhynchos American white pelican pictures from 'Field Guide' page] on [[Flickr]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20001205024400/http://www.bird%2Dstamps.org/cspecies/1500600.htm Stamps] (for [[British Virgin Islands]], Canada, [[Cuba]], [[Turks and Caicos]]) – with Range Map at bird-stamps.org
* {{VIREO|American+White+Pelican|American white pelican}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160326033732/http://nigge.com/projects/american_white_pelican_1/thumbnails.html Photos of the American White Pelican] by Klaus Nigge
* {{IUCN_Map|22697611/93624242|Pelecanus erythrorhynchos}}

{{Pelecaniformes}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q735190}}

[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1789|American white pelican]]
[[Category:Birds of North America]]
[[Category:Birds of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Birds of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Canadian Prairies]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Western United States]]
[[Category:Pelecanus]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin]]