View source for Andreas Papandreou

{{Short description|Greek economist and politician (1919–1996)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
<!-- DO NOT ADD HONORIFICS OR NUMBERS OF SUCCESSION; THEY ARE NOT USED IN GREECE -->| name                = Andreas Papandreou
| native_name         = {{nobold|{{Lang|el|Ανδρέας Παπανδρέου}}}}
| image               = 1981 Press Photo Andreas Papandreou.png
| caption             = Papandreou in 1981
| office              = [[Prime Minister of Greece]]
| president           = {{unbulleted list| [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]] | [[Konstantinos Stephanopoulos|Kostis Stephanopoulos]] }}
| term_start          = 13 October 1993
| term_end            = 22 January 1996
| predecessor         = [[Konstantinos Mitsotakis]]
| successor           = [[Costas Simitis]]
| president1          = {{unbulleted list| Konstantinos Karamanlis | [[Ioannis Alevras]] (acting) | [[Christos Sartzetakis]] }}
| term_start1         = 21 October 1981
| term_end1           = 2 July 1989
| predecessor1        = [[Georgios Rallis]]
| successor1          = [[Tzannis Tzannetakis]]
| office2             = [[Leader of the Opposition (Greece)|Leader of the Opposition]]
| term_start2         = 11 April 1990
| term_end2           = 13 October 1993
| predecessor2        = ''National Union government''
| successor2          = [[Miltiadis Evert]]
| term_start3         = 2 July 1989
| term_end3           = 23 November 1989
| predecessor3        = Konstantinos Mitsotakis
| successor3          = ''National Union government''
| term_start4         = 28 November 1977
| term_end4           = 21 October 1981
| predecessor4        = [[Georgios Mavros|Giorgos Mavros]]
| successor4          = Georgios Rallis
| office5             = President of the [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement]]
| term_start5         = 3 September 1974
| term_end5           = 23 June 1996
| predecessor5        = Position established
| successor5          = Costas Simitis
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|last=yes|Ministerial offices
|titlestyle = border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder |embed=yes
|office6        = [[Minister for National Defence (Greece)|Minister of National Defence]]
|primeminister6 = Himself
|term_start6    = 21 October 1981
|term_end6      = 25 April 1986
|predecessor6   = [[Evangelos Averoff]]
|successor6     = [[Ioannis Charalambopoulos]]
|office7        = Acting Minister of Coordination 
|primeminister7 = [[Georgios Papandreou]]
|term_start7    = 29 April 1965
|term_end7      = 15 July 1965
|successor7     = Konstantinos Mitsotakis
|primeminister8 = Georgios Papandreou
|term_start8    = 5 June 1964
|term_end8      = 19 November 1964
|predecessor8   = [[Georgios Mavros]]
|office9        = Minister of the Presidency
|primeminister9 = Georgios Papandreou
|term_start9    = 19 February 1964
|term_end9      = 5 June 1964
|predecessor9   = [[Dionysios Zakythinos]]
|successor9     = Dimitrios Papaspirou
{{collapsed infobox section end}}
}}
| office10            = [[Hellenic Parliament|Member of the Hellenic Parliament]]
| term_start10        = 17 November 1974
| term_end10          = 23 June 1996
| term_start11        = 16 February 1964
| term_end11          = 21 April 1967
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1919|2|5|df=y}}<!--{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=1}}-->
| birth_place         = [[Chios]], [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1996|6|23|1919|2|05|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Athens]], Greece
| party               = [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement]]
| mother              = Sofia Mineico
| father              = [[Georgios Papandreou]]
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Christina Rasia|1941|1951|end=div}}
* {{marriage|[[Margaret Chant-Papandreou]]|1951|1989|end=div}}
* {{marriage|[[Dimitra Liani]]|1989}}
}}
| children            = [[George Papandreou|George]]<br />Sofia<br />[[Nikos Papandreou|Nikos]]<br />Andrikos<br />Emilia
| alma_mater          = [[National and Kapodistrian University of Athens|University of Athens]]<br />[[Harvard University]]
| awards              = {{flagicon|Spain}} Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]] (1983){{sfn|Real Decreto 2129/1983}} <br /> {{flagicon|East Germany}} [[Star of People's Friendship]] (1985){{sfn|National Video-audio Archive Mar.|1985}}
| signature           = Andreas-g-papandreou-signature-circa1985.svg
| website             = [http://papandreou.iema.gr/index.html Andreas G. Papandreou Foundation]
| branch              = [[United States Navy]]
}}
{{Andreas Papandreou sidebar}}

'''Andreas Georgiou Papandreou''' ({{langx|el|Ανδρέας Γεωργίου Παπανδρέου}}, {{IPA|el|anˈðreas papanˈðreu|pron}}; 5 February 1919 – 23 June 1996) was a Greek academic and economist who founded the Panhellenic Socialist Movement ([[PASOK]]). He was [[Prime minister of Greece|prime minister]] of [[Third Hellenic Republic|Greece]] from 1981 to 1989 and again from 1993 to 1996.

Papandreou was the son of [[Georgios Papandreou]]. In 1938, Papandreou left Greece for the [[United States]] to escape the [[4th of August Regime]] and became a prominent academic. He returned to Greece in 1959 after years of resisting his father's entreaties to prepare him as successor.{{sfn|Stearns|2021|pp=48–49, 55, 79}} Papandreou's rapid ascension, together with his uncompromising radical rhetoric, amplified Greece's post-[[Greek civil war|Civil War]] political instability, which created the conditions for a group of colonels to stage a [[Coup d'état|coup d'etat]] and rule Greece for seven years.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=84}} Papandreou was imprisoned, then [[exile]]d during the ensuing [[Greek junta|Greek Junta]], with many, including his father, blaming him for the fall of democracy.{{Cref2|i|1}}{{sfn|Miller|2009|pp=136, 144}} In exile, Papandreou developed and spread an [[Anti-Americanism|anti-American]], [[conspiratorial]]{{Cref2|ii|1}} narrative of past events, in which he was a victim of larger forces.{{sfn|Miller|2009|pp=144–146}} 

On his return in 1974, Papandreou created PASOK, the first organised Greek [[Socialism|socialist]] party. Papandreou's [[Populism|populist]] rhetoric resonated with the Greek people who sought a break from the politics of the past, along with the mounting pressure from the [[1970s energy crisis]].{{sfn|Pirounakis|1997|pp=74–75}} PASOK won the [[1981 Greek parliamentary election|1981 elections]] and Papandreou implemented a transformative social agenda, expanding access to education and healthcare, reinforcing [[workers' rights]], and passing a new family law that elevated the [[Women's rights|position of women]] in society and the economy. He secured official recognition of the communist resistance groups in the [[Greek Resistance]], making it easier for communist refugees from the Civil War to return.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=316}} His governance was tarnished by numerous [[corruption]] scandals, a soft stance on [[terrorism]], [[democratic backsliding]],{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=187}} a public divorce and subsequent marriage to an air stewardesses half his age, controversial foreign policy decisions, and a [[1985 Greek constitutional crisis|constitutional crisis]] which he had instigated. Under Papandreou, the Greek economy diverged from the European average because of large-scale [[patronage]], misuse of [[European Union]] funds, and excessive foreign borrowing, which resulted in Greece earning the reputation of Europe's "[[black sheep]]."{{sfn|Featherstone|2005|pp=223–241}}{{sfn|Tsoukalis|1999|pp=65–74}}

Papandreou resigned from the premiership in January 1996 due to ill health and died in June of that year. He transformed Greece's post-junta [[liberal democracy]] into a populist democracy that continues to be popular after his death.{{Cref2|iii|1}}{{sfn|Pappas|2014|pp=9–10}}{{sfn|Pappas|2013|p=37}}{{sfn|Pappas|2019|pp=248–249}} His eldest son, [[George Papandreou]], became the leader of PASOK in February 2004 and served as prime minister from 2009 to 2011.

==Personal life and family==

Papandreou was born on 5 February 1919 on the Greek island of [[Chios]],{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=1}} the son of Zofia (Sofia) Mineyko (1883–1981) and Greek liberal politician and future prime minister [[Georgios Papandreou|George Papandreou]]. His maternal grandfather was [[Polish people|Polish]]-[[Lithuanians|Lithuanian]]-born public figure [[Zygmunt Mineyko]], and his maternal grandmother was Greek. He attended [[Athens College]], a private school in Greece, then the [[National and Kapodistrian University of Athens]] from 1937 until 1938. During the [[4th of August Regime|dictatorship]] led by [[Ioannis Metaxas]], he was arrested for purported [[Trotskyism]].{{sfn|Independent Jun.|1996}} Following representation in court by his father, Papandreou gained an [[Travel visa#Exit visas|exit visa]] through family connections, and went to [[New York City|New York]]. From there he asked for [[Right of asylum|political asylum]] based on the imprisonment by the Metaxas regime.{{sfn|Stearns|2021|p=19}}

Papandreou married Christina Rasia in 1941. In 1948, he entered into a relationship with [[Margaret Chant-Papandreou|Margaret Chant]] a journalism student at [[University of Minnesota]] where he was a professor.{{sfn|Stearns|2021|pp=41–44}} He obtained a divorce from his spouse in 1951 and married Chant later that year. They had three sons and a daughter. Papandreou also had, with Swedish actress and TV presenter {{ill|Ragna Nyblom|sv}}, a daughter [[out of wedlock]], Emilia Nyblom, who was born in 1969 in [[Sweden]].{{sfn|Greek Reporter Jun.|2014}}{{sfn|Washington Post Sep.|1996}} Papandreou divorced Chant in 1989 and married [[Dimitra Liani]], who was 37 years his junior.{{sfn|Los Angeles Times Jul.|1989}}

Papandreou died on 23 June 1996.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=184}} The government declared four days of [[National day of mourning|national mourning]],{{sfn|Ethnos Jun.|2023}} and at his funeral procession produced crowds of "hundreds of thousands."{{sfn|New York Times Jun.|1996}} His [[Will and testament|will]] shocked the public because he left everything to his 41-year-old third wife and left nothing to his family by the second wife, their four children, or his illegitimate Swedish daughter.{{sfn|Washington Post Sep.|1996}}

==Academic career ==

In 1943, Papandreou received a [[PhD]] degree in [[economics]] from [[Harvard University]].{{sfn|Stearns|2021|pp=29–30}} Afterwards, he served in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] and qualified as a hospital corpsman at the [[Bethesda Naval Hospital]].{{sfn|Stearns|2021|p=37}} Papandreou's skills in maths were recognized by an American admiral, who placed him in a statistical control unit planning the [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa invasion]].{{sfn|Stearns|2021|p=37}} He returned to Harvard in 1946 as a student advisor until 1947, when he received an assistant professorship at the [[University of Minnesota]].{{sfn|Stearns|2021|p=41}} Papandreou became a visiting professor at [[Northwestern University]] for 1950–1951.{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=14}} In 1956, he accepted a tenured teaching position at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], where he later became the Department of Economics chair.{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=18}} While in exile, Papandreou worked at [[Stockholm University]] for a year and then at [[York University]] in [[Toronto]] until 1974.{{sfn|Kariotis|1997|p=41}}

==Political career==

===Pre-Junta era (1959–1967)===
====Entry into politics====

While he was chair of the department at Berkeley, Papandreou was pressured by his father to return to Greece to prepare him as his successor.{{sfn|Stearns|2021|pp=48–49, 55, 79}} He returned to Greece in 1959 and headed an economic development research program by invitation of Prime Minister [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]].{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=152}} In 1960, he began leading the Athens Economic Research Center and advising the [[Bank of Greece]].{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=26}}

Papandreou developed an ideology shaped by the [[progressive liberalism]] from his years in the U.S.,{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=80}} aiming to gain support from the non-communist, left-leaning electorate. He viewed this as the only viable path to help his father ascend to prime minister. His vision called for social and economic modernization, pursued through the creation of a mass-based political party.{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=125}} American officials hoped that Papandreou would be a stabilizing force in Greek politics.{{sfn|Wilson Center|Mar. 2006}} He received funding from the [[Ford Foundation]] and [[Rockefeller Foundation]] to promote projects aligned to [[liberal internationalism]].{{sfn|Wilson Center|Mar. 2006}} He later moved away from progressive liberalism and adopted a [[populism|populist]] rhetoric, in which the king, the armed forces, and the Americans are described as having "vested interests" that are not in the best interests of Greece.{{sfn|The New York Times Magazine Mar.|1982}}

====Center Union rise and conflicts====
The [[1963 Greek legislative election]] brought his father, head of the [[Center Union]], to the prime minister. Papandreou became chief economic advisor, renounced his American citizenship, and was elected to the [[Greek Parliament]] in the [[1964 Greek legislative election]].{{sfn|Stearns|2021|p=xvii}} He then became the assistant to the Prime Minister{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=68}} and leader of the party's left wing.{{sfn|Mouzelis|1978|p=126}} Papandreou's rapid ascension, orchestrated by his father, created displeasure among Center Union party members.{{sfn|Draenos|2012|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=70}} The discontent of Center Union members increased as Papandreou's influence grew and his father started to ignore his own [[Cabinet (government)|Cabinet]] on critical political decisions.{{sfn|Draenos|2012|pp=140}}

Papandreous advocated for the liberalization of the rapidly urbanizing Greek society, resulting in large salary increases for police, judges, and teachers. Resentment towards the Papandreous grew among the military as they were excluded from salary increases.{{sfn|Lagos|Othon|2021|p=47}} The Papandreous made a faint attempt to gain military control, which alarmed officers without weakening them.{{sfn|Tsarouhas|2005|p=9}}{{sfn|Mouzelis|1978|p=126}} The latter created friction with the king, who wanted to remain in command of the army. The Papandreous also released all the [[political prisoner]]s towards healing wounds from the Civil War.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=70}}

In foreign policy, Papandreou criticized the presence of American military and intelligence in Greece by describing Greece as a U.S. colony and publicly taking a neutral stand in the [[Cold War]]. Papandreou's rhetoric intensified after his father's visit as Prime Minister to [[Washington DC]] with President [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]] in July 1964 to discuss the [[Cyprus dispute]]. This criticism became politically turbulent with his interview on October 4th,{{Cref2|v}} resulting in his sudden but temporary resignation.{{sfn|Draenos|2012|pp=103–114}}

====Disturbing the political balance====
Papandreou's public attacks against the king and the Americans disturbed the political balance.{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=269}} Conservatives feared that Papandreou was a secret Communist, leading them to another civil war.{{sfn|Stearns|2021|p=84}}{{sfn|Melakopides|1987|p=579}} The U.S. embassy officials, sensitive to these public attacks during the [[Cold War]], and his father repeatedly requested Papandreou tone down his rhetoric.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=84}}{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=258}}{{sfn|Karakatsanis|Swarts|2018|p=26}} Andreas continued actively campaigning, further deepening divisions and prolonging the political instability in the pre-1967 coup period.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=84}} 

Weeks before the coup, his father apologized to the U.S. ambassador [[Phillips Talbot]] for his son's behavior, explaining that his son "would like nothing better than to be arrested" as he would "relish the role of martyr," and that if he were not his son, then he would have been expelled from Center Union.{{sfn|Karakatsanis|Swarts|2018|p=25}} Papandreou became the target of ultra-rightists who feared that his nearly 80-year-old father would win the next election, but Andreas would be the actual focus of power in the party.{{sfn|CIA report, Greek political scene}}{{sfn|Clogg|1996|p=383}}

====Iouliana====
In 1965, Papandreou was accused in the [[Iouliana#ASPIDA scandal|Aspida]] scandal within the [[Hellenic Army]]. His father removed the defense minister and assumed the post himself to protect his son from investigations. King [[Constantine II of Greece]] refused to endorse this move since this would create a conflict of interest, which forced George Papandreou's resignation;{{Cref2|vi}} the events following this became known as [[Iouliana]].{{sfn|Lagos|Othon|2021|p=46}} For the next twenty-two months, there was no elected government, and hundreds of [[Political demonstration|demonstrations]] took place, with many injured and killed in clashes with the police.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=108}} The King convinced 45 Center Union party members to support him and his bid to form a government, who were rejected and called apostates by those supporting Papandreous.{{Cref2|iv|2}}{{sfn|Close|2014|p=108}}{{sfn|Hatzivassiliou|2006|pp=129–130}} 

To end the [[Gridlock (politics)|political deadlock]], his father attempted a more moderate approach with the King; in March 1967, Papandreou publicly rejected his father's effort and attacked the whole establishment, preventing any compromise. This attracted the support of 41 members of the Center Union, aimed at securing the party's leadership.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=109}}{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=140}} As the politicians were unable to sort out their differences, on 21 April 1967 anti-Communist Colonels led the [[Greek military junta of 1967–1974]].{{sfn|Clogg|1996|p=383}}{{sfn|Clogg|1987|pp=51–53}}{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=159}}

===Junta and exile (1967–1974) ===
{{further|Greek junta|Turkish invasion of Cyprus}}
[[File:Andreas Papandreou 1968.jpg|thumb|right|Andreas Papandreou in 1968]]
When the [[Regime of the Colonels]] seized power in April 1967, Papandreou was captured and charged with treason. His political colleagues, including his father, blamed him as the person responsible for the fall of Greek democracy.{{Cref2|i|2}}{{sfn|Miller|2009|pp=136, 144}} [[Gust Avrakotos]], a [[Greek-American]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) case officer assigned to Athens, told the Colonels that the U.S. Government wished for Papandreou to be allowed to leave the country with his family. Unofficially, Avrakotos warned them that he would return if they did not execute him.{{sfn|Crile|2003|p=52}} Under heavy pressure from American officials and academics, the military regime released Papandreou on Christmas Day 1967 on condition that he leave the country.{{sfn|Miller|2009|pp=138–139}} He then moved to [[Sweden]] with his wife, four children, and mother, where he accepted a post for one year at [[Stockholm University]].{{sfn|Kariotis|1997|p=41}} Afterward, he moved to Toronto, where he stayed until 1974.{{sfn|Kariotis|1997|p=41}}

[[File:Aankomst Andreas Papandreou op CS te Amsterdam, Bestanddeelnr 921-2793.jpg|thumb|left|Andreas Papandreou in an anti-dictatorial rally, Netherlands, 1968]]
In exile, Papandreou was excluded from the political forces seeking to restore democracy in Greece.{{Cref2|vii}} He actively campaigned, using his American connections, to push for U.S. intervention against the junta, but later reversed his stance and supported military resistance instead.{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=141}} Papandreou accused the CIA of being responsible for the 1967 coup{{Cref2|ii|2}} and was critical of the [[federal government of the United States|U.S. administration]], calling Greece a U.S. "colony" and a Cold War "garrison state."{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=145}}{{sfn|Klarevas|2006|pp=471–508}}{{sfn|Stearns|2021|p=86}} In 1968, Papandreou formed an anti-dictatorship organization, the [[Panhellenic Liberation Movement]] (PAK), which sought to overthrow the military regime.{{sfn|Draenos|2012|p=305}}{{sfn|Featherstone|Sotiropoulos|2020|p=651}} Reacting to the creation of PAK, his father stated, "Political leaders do not head up conspiratorial organizations" and urged his son to work within the Central Union party.{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=141}} His father died in 1968, and Papandreou was not allowed by the junta regime to attend his father's funeral.{{sfn|Stearns|2021|p=86}}

===Return to Greece, Restoration of democracy (1974–1981)===
{{further|Metapolitefsi|PASOK|European Union}}
{{Quote box
|width= 30em |border= 1px |fontsize=85%| bgcolor=#cedff2 |align= right |qalign= left
|quote= 
We are announcing today the inauguration of a new political movement, a movement which we believe represents the desires of and needs of the average Greek: the farmer, the worker, the craftsman, the salaried worker, and our courageous and enlightened youth. The movement belongs to them, and we will call on every exploited Greek to strengthen our ranks, to form cadres and participate in the molding of the movement in order to promote our national independence, popular sovereignty, social liberation, and democracy in all phases of public life.|source=—Papandreou announcing the creation of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement on 3 September 1974.{{sfn|Kariotis|1997|pp=46–47}}
}}
[[File:Pasok-1981.svg|thumb|right|The logo of PASOK in the elections of 1981]]

====Establishing PASOK====
Papandreou returned to Greece after the fall of the junta in 1974, during [[metapolitefsi]]. The dominant and leading political figure in Greece was Karamanlis with the [[New Democracy (Greece)|New Democracy]] political party; Papandreou continued to have the stigma of past events. On 6 August 1974, Papandreou dissolved PAK in [[Winterthur]], Switzerland, without announcing it publicly.{{sfn|The Greek Herald Sep.|2020}} He rejected the leadership of his father's old party, which had evolved into [[Centre Union – New Forces]], and his father's ideological heritage as a [[Venizelism|Venizelist]] liberal, declaring himself a democratic socialist. On 3 September 1974 he established the [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement]] (PASOK) party.{{sfn|Clogg|1996|p=384}} Most former PAK members and other leftist groups joined the new party. Its founding charter advocated social liberation, a radical shift in foreign policy, Greece's withdrawal from [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), the closure of the U.S. [[military base]]s, and rejection of the option of membership in the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC), which was dismissed as a [[capitalism|capitalist]] construct.{{sfn|Clogg|1996|pp=382–387}} In the [[1974 Greek legislative election|1974 elections]], PASOK received 13.5% of the vote.{{sfn|Mavrogordatos|1984|p=157}}

====Opposition to the Constitution and rise in popularity====
A new Constitution, adopted by Parliament and [[Promulgation|promulgated]] on 11 June 1975, established a [[parliamentary republic]] with a president as head of state. While the majority of powers resided with the prime minister, the president had sufficient powers to safeguard the constitution.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|pp=154–155}} Papandreou boycotted the promulgation of the constitution and described it as "[[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]]," advocating instead for a "socialist" constitution without explaining what he meant.{{sfn|Clogg|1985|p=106}} Papandreou's attacks intensified upon the initiation of talks for the entry of Greece into the EEC, accusing the Greek political establishment of "national betrayal."{{sfn|New York Times Jan.|1977}}

Papandreou salvaged his political career by doubling down on his [[Political polarization|polarizing]] pre-junta-developed ideology, combining it with [[nationalism|nationalist]] elements.{{Cref2|viii}} This was assisted by three major events: the U.S. interactions with the junta after the coup and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, which, in his view, reinforced the conspiratorial involvement of the U.S. in the Colonels' junta,{{Cref2|ii|3}}{{sfn|Larrabee|1981|pp=160–161}}{{sfn|Melakopides|1987|p=560}} the [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis in 1973]] and [[1979 oil crisis|1979]], which negatively affected the Greek economy,{{sfn|Pirounakis|1997|pp=74–75}}{{sfn|Larrabee|1981|p=164}} and Karamanlis's election to [[President of Greece]] in 1980, leaving a power vacuum in the upcoming 1981 elections.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=161}} Papandreou promised wide-ranging (and sometimes unrealistic) changes,{{Cref2|ix}} encapsulated in PASOK's slogan "''Change''" ({{langx|el|Αλλαγή}}), which resonated with Greeks who sought a break from past politics. In the [[1977 Greek legislative election|1977 elections]], PASOK received 25.3% of the vote, nearly doubling its size from 1974, and Papandreou became the [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Greece)|leader of the opposition]].{{sfn|Mavrogordatos|1984|p=157}}

====Greece's entry in EEC====
Papandreou's positions, along with his rising popularity, renewed fears of another military coup in the Right and Greece's allies. After the 1977 elections, Karamanlis toured the European capitals, urging for Greece's quicker entry into the EEC, hoping it would reduce the temptation for military intervention if Papandreou implemented his promises once in power.{{sfn|Nafpliotis|2018|p=511}}{{sfn|Karamouzi|2014|pp=27, 91–93, 114, 117–119}} Foreign leaders agreed with Karamanlis on a plan for Greece's entry to the EEC.{{sfn|Karamouzi|2014|pp=118–127}}

Papandreou softened his tone without abandoning his initial positions. He called for a [[referendum]] regarding the entry to EEC after 1977 as he was trying to win a crucial share of the vote from the centrist [[Union of the Democratic Centre (Greece)|Union of the Democratic Centre]] after its disintegration following the 1977 elections, and the entry to EEC was becoming popular among the Greeks.{{sfn|Larrabee|1981|p=164}}{{sfn|Mavrogordatos|1984|p=160}}{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|pp=159–160}}{{sfn|Nafpliotis|2018|pp=517–518}} Legislation to ratify the entry to EEC was passed in the Greek Parliament on 28 June 1979, with PASOK leaving the chamber.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|pp=159–160}} Greece [[1981 enlargement of the European Communities|entered the EEC]] in January 1981.{{sfn|Nafpliotis|2018|p=517}}{{sfn|Larrabee|1981|p=164}} In the [[1981 Greek legislative election|elections of October 1981]], Papandreou won with 48.1% of the vote.{{sfn|Mavrogordatos|1984|p=157}}

===Leading the "Change" (1981–1985)===
{{Quote box
| width = 30em
| border = 1px
| fontsize = 85%
| bgcolor = #cedff2
| align = right
| qalign = left
| quote = Our basic target is a self-sufficient economic and social development, using all the productive forces in combination with a fairer distribution of the national income and wealth... We seek the gradual reform of the structures of the economy so that the basic economic choices are made by the society as a whole. The strategic sectors of the economy must come under substantial social control without overlooking the positive role of private initiative. The crisis in the capitalist system on a world scale, with ever-increasing unemployment and inflation, intensified international competition, the increase in the degree of concentration and the monopolistic structure of many branches, have made the traditional means of economic policy ineffective.
| source = —Papandreou, in his first appearance in the Greek Parliament as the prime minister on 22 November 1981.{{sfn|Kariotis|1997|p=52}}
}}
After the 1981 election, Papandreou's PASOK was the first non-communist party with a mass-based organization, causing more people to participate in political and social institutions.{{sfn|Clogg|1987|pp=122–148}} By the end of his first term, Papandreou moderated his approach by making considerable [[Flip-flop (politics)|U-turns]], either by choice or governmental dysfunction.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=219}} 

====European Economic Community====
[[File:Athens European Council - 1983.jpg|thumb|right|Andreas Papandreou in Athens European Council – 1983. (1st row L-R) [[Bettino Craxi]], [[Wilfried Martens]], [[Gaston Thorn]], [[Margaret Thatcher]], [[François Mitterrand]], Andreas Papandreou, and [[Helmut Kohl]].]]

Papandreou dropped his campaign pledge to hold a referendum on EEC membership and submitted a [[memorandum]] of demands to the EEC in March 1982. The memorandum asked for special treatment and financial support based on Greece's unique characteristics. EEC delayed its response until after the date which Greece could opt out of its entry into the EEC, then rejected the Greek memorandum in March 1983.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=163}} However, the EEC promised support via the newly created "Integrated Mediterranean Programs" and Papandreou declared victory. Greece began to become increasingly dependent on EEC funding, reaching 4.5% of Greece's GDP by 1989. In March 1985, Papandreou stated that Greece would remain in EEC for the foreseeable future because "the cost of leaving would be much higher than the cost of staying," prompting no reaction from within the party.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=164}}

====Economy in the early 80's====
{{further|Economic policies of Andreas Papandreou}}
[[File:Greek debt over GDP, IMF dataset.png|thumb|right|Greek debt over GDP (%) in 1974–2000 period. The colored regions approximately highlight the prime minister's reigns; for 1989–1990, there was no stable government due to Papandreou's change in electoral law. In 1981, Papandreou altered the course of the economy by increasing its dependence on foreign borrowing. The dataset is from the [[International Monetary Fund]] website [https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/DEBT1@DEBT/GRC?zoom=GRC&highlight=GRC].]]
[[File:Greek National Income per decade for 1900-2000.png|thumb|right|Greek National Income per decade for 1900–2000. During Papandreou's tenure from 1981 to 1989, the national income increased at approximately the same rate as it did during the turbulent decade of 1941–1950. Source: The [[Bank of Greece]] and [[Hellenic Statistical Authority|National Statistical Service]], various open source bulletins and reports.{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|p=241}}]]

Papandreou's government introduced [[Redistribution of income and wealth|wealth redistribution policies]]. Public pension spending nearly doubled from 1980 to 1985,{{sfn|Alexiadou|2016|p=220}} while manufacturing wages rose by 10% and the minimum wage jumped 32% in 1982.{{sfn|Psalidopoulos|2024|p=210}}{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=165}} Social welfare, healthcare, and insurance spending increased, credit became more accessible, and labor laws were strengthened.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=164}}{{sfn|Matsaganis|1999|p=7}} A national unemployment support system was established, and public consumption and investment grew by 7% and 10%, respectively, between 1982 and 1985.{{sfn|Jouganatos|1992|p=144}}

Papandreou's pro-worker policies, combined with anti-capitalist rhetoric that hindered foreign investment and a failure to address [[stagflation]], burdened companies in Greece.{{sfn|Close|2014|pp=170–171}} They already faced competitiveness issues and declining profits due to the 1970s oil crises and they were now exposed to European competition. Several multi-national companies left Greece, such as [[Esso]], [[Ethyl Corporation|Ethyl]], [[Pirelli]], and [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company|Goodyear]].{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=329}} [[Shipyard]]s and associated industries employing thousands of workers closed. Companies not already bankrupted encouraged early retirement, further burdening the Greek state, which had to assist the insurance funds.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=330}} In 1983, PASOK [[Nationalization|nationalized]] numerous industries by establishing a restructuring business agency called "Industrial Reconstruction Organisation."{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=329}} These companies continued to operate at a loss without increasing productivity,{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=165}} turning nationalization into [[patronage]].{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=185}} Agriculture also struggled, as Greece shifted from a trade surplus in agricultural products to a deficit by 1986,{{sfn|Close|2014|p=172}} partly due to an artificial increase of wages that led to labor shortages. Papandreou recognized the lack of productivity and increased [[Balance of trade|trade deficits]], admitting that "we consume more than we produce."{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=165}}

Nationalization added to Greece's debt, with the Bank of Greece on the brink of collapse.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=329}} Recovery started when EEC support began in Greece, but growth was sluggish due to corruption and [[clientelism]].{{sfn|Close|2014|p=171}} Unemployment rose sharply from 2.8% in 1980 to approximately 8% by the end of his first term.{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|pp=249–250}} Papandreou did not introduce [[progressive tax]] reform to increase the state's revenues to address the increasing budget deficits due to his policies, and instead used foreign loans.{{sfn|Kofas|2005|p=112}} The [[External debt|foreign debt]] increase caused external debt interest payments to rise from 2.5% of GDP in 1980 to 5.4% of GDP in 1986, more than defense and education combined in his second administration.{{sfn|Kofas|2005|p=112}}

====Foreign policy, NATO, Turkey====
{{further|Foreign policy of Andreas Papandreou}}

After taking office, Papandreou assumed the Ministry of Defense, a typical move in times of war, due to fears of another coup.{{sfn|New York Times Oct.|1981}}{{sfn|Washington Post Oct.|1981}} This made various leaders in the NATO alliance uncomfortable in dealing with Papandreou.{{sfn|Kofas|2003|p=186}} In December 1981, at the [[Defence Planning Committee (NATO)|NATO Defence Planning Committee]], Papandreou demanded NATO guarantees against Turkey, a NATO ally, stating that they were a bigger threat for Greece than Soviet countries. The NATO meeting concluded without publishing a press release for the first time.{{sfn|Duke|1989|p=166}} While this displeased Greece's allies, Papandreou reinforced his image as a patriot in the eyes of concerned Greek voters and military wary of Turkey.{{sfn|New York Times Dec.|1981b}} Despite efforts to appease the military, Papandreou struggled with discipline as two so-called "readiness exercises" in 1982 and 1983, both followed by forced resignations, were likely failed coup attempts.{{sfn|Danopoulos|1985|p=94}}{{sfn|Karakatsanis|1997|p=294}}

Papandreou maintained high military spending levels, at 6.7% of GDP in 1982,{{sfn|New York Times Mar.|1982}} pleasing the Greek military at the expense of the economy. In 1985, his government bought 40 American [[F-16]] and 40 French [[Mirage 2000]] aircraft{{sfn|New York Times Mar.|1985}} at the cost of US$2 billion, committing Greece's defense to long-term dependence on French and American technology.{{sfn|Melakopides|1987|p=573}} The purchase size was unusual given the status of the Greek economy, described in the press as the "purchase of the century" ({{langx|el|η αγορά του αιώνα}}).{{sfn|Kathimerini Mar.|1985}}{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=196}} 

Despite Papandreou's campaign promise to immediately remove U.S. military bases from Greece once in power, the country remained firmly within NATO. This reversal required navigation between domestic expectations—shaped by over a decade of anti-American rhetoric—and geopolitical realities, as removing the bases would have elevated Turkey's strategic value within the NATO alliance. In the 1983 agreement, all four U.S. bases established since 1952 remained in Greece for an additional five years, accompanied by increased military aid—but no guarantees against Turkish aggression.{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|pp=100–101}} Papandreou claimed the deal included a provision for base removal after 1988, granted Greece greater control over foreign bases, and secured U.S. military aid under the 7/10 ratio with Turkey.{{sfn|Duke|1989|p=170}}{{sfn|Dimitras|1985|pp=146–147}} These statements were inaccurate, yet the treaty documents were withheld from the public for two months to sideline the opposition. Afterward, it was revealed that the agreement was nearly identical to his predecessor's beyond minor symbolic concessions.{{sfn|Dimitras|1985|pp=146–147}}

====Social reforms====
{{further|Social reforms of Andreas Papandreou}}

From 1974 to 1981, Greece's healthcare system lagged between Northern Europe and the south. Both major parties aimed to improve access, especially in rural areas, focusing on [[universal access]] and [[Preventive healthcare|prevention]].{{sfn|Tsalikis|1998|p=549}} When PASOK came to power, Papandreou launched the [[Healthcare in Greece|National Healthcare System]] (ESY) in 1983, modeled after the UK's [[National Health Service]]. While it improved access and expanded infrastructure,{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=315}}{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=xxxviii}} reforms were hindered by doctor shortages, union resistance, and budget constraints.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=315}}{{sfn|Nikolentzos|2008|p=137}} Doctors opposed giving up private practice, and loopholes allowed [[fakelaki|informal payments]] and unauthorized private work.{{sfn|Nikolentzos|2008|p=139}} The partial implementation created long-term problems and failed to fully implement a socialist healthcare vision.{{sfn|Nikolentzos|2008|pp=142–143}} Wealthy Greeks, including Papandreou himself in 1988, continued to seek treatment abroad.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=181}}

In education, Papandreou expanded access, abolished entrance exams, removed classical language requirements, and promoted democratic school administration. Vocational training also improved.{{sfn|Kazamias|Roussakis|2003|p=13}} While university attendance doubled,{{sfn|Jouganatos|1992|p=157}} underfunding, declining standards, and politicization of schools led to quality issues.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=181}}{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|pp=313–314}}{{sfn|Maravall|1997|p=183}}{{sfn|Close|2014|p=212}} Promotions were based on seniority and not on [[Merit system|merit]],{{sfn|Mavrogordatos|1997|p=6}} school inspectors were removed or forced to retire, and political favoritism influenced staffing. Public schools declined, and private tutoring and foreign education became widespread.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=211}} By 1999, Greek families were spending more on education than almost any other Europeans, despite constitutional guarantees of free education.{{sfn|Tsakloglou|Cholezas|2005|p=3}}{{sfn|Kanellopoulos|Psacharopoulos|1997|pp=77–78}}

The 1975 Greek Constitution guaranteed equality under the law for men and women{{sfn|Greek Constitution|1975|p=624}} and [[Equal pay for equal work|equal pay]], but many pre-junta laws were outdated. Greek law was also expected to align with European standards under the [[Treaty of Rome]]{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|p=290}} and women's advocacy groups emerged.{{sfn|Close|2014|pp=148–149}}{{sfn|Van Steen|2003|p=245-282}} In the 1980s, Papandreou introduced reforms, emphasizing individuals over the family and reducing Church and state control over private life:{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=289}}{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=314}} legalizing [[civil marriage]],{{Cref2|x}} abolishing dowries, decriminalizing adultery, and legalizing abortion.{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=289}}{{sfn|Charalambis|Maratou-Alipranti|Hadjiyanni|2004|p=110}} Maternity and parental leave policies improved, and women entered education institutions and the workforce in greater numbers,{{sfn|Close|2014|p=149}}{{sfn|Alexiadou|2016|p=232}}{{sfn|Bottomley|1992|p=117}} though under-representation in politics persisted.{{sfn|Clogg|1987|p=161}} [[Total fertility rate]] fell from 2.2 in 1980 to 1.4 in 1989, causing long-term [[population decline]].{{sfn|Vlachadis|Siorti|Petrakos|Panagopoulos|2023|pp=1–8}}{{sfn|Kathimerini Oct.|2016}}{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=360}}

Post-1974 governments aimed to heal Civil War divisions.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=186}} Papandreou removed security screenings in 1982, restored pensions for politically dismissed civil servants in 1985, and granted war veteran status to leftist resistance fighters.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=316}}{{sfn|Siani-Davies|Katsikas|2009|p=569}}{{sfn|Clogg|1993|p=180}} All formal Civil War commemorations were abolished, including ceremonies commemorating [[Dekemvriana]].{{sfn|Fytili|Avgeridis|Kouki|2023|p=15}} Papandreou touted this as "the gravestone of the spirit of national division"; New Democracy deputies, many of whose senior members were participants in the Civil War, denounced these actions as a "shameless attempt to whitewash the communist crimes during and after the war."{{sfn|Siani-Davies|Katsikas|2009|p=569}}

====Constitutional crisis of 1985 and elections====
{{further|1985 Greek constitutional crisis}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Bezoek premier Karamanlis van Griekenland Van Agt in gesprek met Karamanlis, Bestanddeelnr 929-6548 (cropped).jpg
| width1 = 151
| alt1 = 
| caption1 = 
| image2 = Christos Sartzetakis (1989) cropped.jpg
| width2 = 157
| alt2 = 
| caption2 = 
| footer = Presidents of the Hellenic Republic, Konstantinos Karamanlis (left) and Christos Sartzetakis (right).
}}

On March 6, 1985, Papandreou nominated [[Christos Sartzetakis]], a [[Supreme Civil and Criminal Court of Greece|Supreme Court]] judge favored by the Left, for president—despite earlier signaling support for incumbent Karamanlis.{{sfn|Clogg|1985|p=105}}{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=86}} Simultaneously, Papandreou proposed constitutional reforms to reduce presidential powers, arguing against Karamanlis overseeing reforms to a constitution he helped craft. Karamanlis resigned two weeks before the termination of his term, and [[Acting (law)|acting]] president [[Ioannis Alevras]] of PASOK took over.{{sfn|Clogg|1985|p=106}} 

Sartzetakis faced tense parliamentary votes, with opposition leader Mitsotakis accusing Papandreou of violating constitutional protocols.{{sfn|Clogg|1985|pp=108–109}} Mitsotakis and Papandreou had an oral confrontation, with Mitsotakis accusing Papandreou of a lack of respect for the parliament, and Papandreou countering that Mitsotakis did not have the moral authority to speak about respect, invoking memories from [[Iouliana]].{{Cref2|iv|3}}{{sfn|Clogg|1985|p=109}} Sartzetakis was elected in the third round with Alevras casting the decisive vote. Mitsotakis declared the vote illegitimate, which deepened Greece's constitutional crisis. Karamanlis warned of national "confusion and uncertainty"; state media controlled by the governing party suppressed Karamanlis's comments. The polarized confrontation continued into the election campaign.{{sfn|Clogg|1985|pp=110–111}} 

Papandreou won the [[1985 Greek parliamentary election|June 1985 elections]],{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=166}} benefiting from increased support on the far Left from the instigated crisis.{{sfn|Clogg|1985|pp=111–112}}{{sfn|McDonald|1985|p=134}} Mitsotakis accepted Sartzetakis as president.{{sfn|Clogg|1985|p=112}} Papandreou's [[Greek constitutional amendment of 1986|constitutional changes were enacted in 1986]],{{sfn|Greek Constitution|1986}} consolidating power in the office of the prime minister, transformed the [[liberal democracy]] of Greece based on the constitution of 1975 into a '[[populism|populist democracy]]' with a [[majoritarian]] parliamentary system and a prime minister acting as a "parliamentary [[autocracy|autocrat]]."{{sfn|Featherstone|Katsoudas|1987|p=28}}{{sfn|Pridham|1990|p=183}}

=== Stabilization effort and disillusionment (1985–1989)===

Papandreou began his second administration with a comfortable majority in parliament and increased powers. Financial and corruption scandals soon surrounded his premiership while the Greek economy deteriorated. The repeal of anti-terrorism legislation and controversial foreign policy decisions led to a significant rise in terrorist incidents in Greece. Papandreou's extramarital affair and eventual divorce from his wife became a frequent topic of [[yellow journalism|yellow newspapers]] and [[Tabloid journalism|tabloid]]s.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=195, 218}}{{sfn|Kitroeff|1997|p=30}} The retired Karamanlis publicly described the situation at the end of Papandreou's second administration as: "A boundless [[lunatic asylum]],"{{sfn|Close|2014|p=159}} while others refer to the events surrounding 1989 as "dirty '89."{{sfn|Kathimerini Mar.|2003}}

====Failed stabilization of the economy====
{{further|Euro convergence criteria}}
[[File:Greek Inflation in 1974-2000 period.png|thumb|right|Greek inflation (%) in 1974–2000 period. The colored regions approximately highlight the prime minister's reigns; for 1989–1990, there was no stable government due to Papandreou's change in electoral law. In 1987, Papandreou abandoned the austerity measures (the dotted line estimates inflation if he had not) and delayed the convergence of the Greek economy with EEC criteria by more than four years. The 1980–2000 dataset is from the [[International Monetary Fund]] website [https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PCPIPCH@WEO/GRC], the 1974–1979 dataset is from AMECO Database [https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/economic-research-and-databases/economic-databases/ameco-database_en].]]

In 1985, Papandreou's government applied to the EEC for a $1.75 billion loan to address Greece's widening foreign trade deficit (8.7% of GDP). The EEC required a package of economic stabilization measures as a condition for the loan.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=332}} These measures were implemented and included a 15% [[devaluation]] of the drachma, limits on government borrowing, stricter monetary policy, wage controls, and the elimination of some tax exemptions, which effectively reduced incomes to pre-1980 levels.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=167}} Public consumption fell by 2.2% on average, and public investment decreased by 18.2% in 1986 and 1987.{{sfn|Jouganatos|1992|p=144}}

Papandreou presented the loan as essential for Greece, arguing that without it, the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) would impose even harsher austerity measures.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|2017|p=35}} Greece signed the [[Single European Act]] in February 1986, which aimed to create a single EEC market by 1992 through deregulation and reduced state intervention.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=332}} Simitis's policies had the intended outcome, with inflation dropping from 23% in 1986 to 13.5% in 1988,{{sfn|IMF, Greece's inflation rate}} and the Public Sector Borrowing Requirement falling from 18% of GDP in 1985 to 13% in 1987. Papandreou was shaken by the widespread backlash, with long-running strikes and demonstrations by farmers and major unions in early 1987.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=158}} With the elections approaching, Papandreou forced Simitis to resign from his ministerial position in November 1987, and the austerity measures were abandoned,{{Cref2|xi}} violating the loan agreement.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=142}}{{sfn|Matsaganis|1999|p=9}} Greece started to fall behind in terms of economic convergence with EEC goals, competitiveness, and growth, gaining a reputation nationally and in European circles as that of a 'black sheep.'{{sfn|Featherstone|2005|pp=223–241}}{{sfn|Tsoukalis|1999|pp=65–74}}{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=332}}

====Rapprochement with Turkey====
[[File:Davos Declaration - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 1988 - Papandreou - Ozal.jpg|thumb|right|Davos [[World Economic Forum]] Annual Meeting 1988 – Handshake between Prime Ministers Andreas Papandreou and [[Turgut Özal]].]]

Greece and Turkey [[1987 Aegean crisis|nearly entered into war]] over a miscommunication in late March 1987 regarding oil exploration in the [[Aegean Sea]] near the Greek island [[Thasos]]. After the crisis, Papandreou communicated with his Turkish counterpart, [[Turgut Özal]], and discussed over "secret talking points," diffusing the tense atmosphere.{{sfn|Heraclides|2010|p=122}} In January 1988, Papandreou and Özal met at the [[World Economic Forum]] to improve the relations between their two countries. The meeting established a 'no war agreement', a [[hotline]] between the two governments, and joint committees to improve political and economic relations.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=189}} Papandreou sought this agreement to improve his image as a man of peace.{{sfn|Clogg|1993|p=185}} Mitsotakis criticized the meeting for focusing on bilateral disputes in Davos and "shelving" the Cyprus dispute. Papandreou later denounced the Davos process and apologized from the podium of the parliament.{{sfn|Katsoulas|2021|p=195}}{{sfn|Heraclides|2010|p=126}}

====Heart Surgery, Liani, and crowd size====
In August 1988, Papandreou underwent major [[heart surgery]] in London, but he refused to relinquish his power. The operation and recovery lasted three months, leaving the Greek state and party without a leader.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=97}} It was revealed that his wife did not accompany him. Instead,[[Dimitra Liani]], an [[Olympic Airways]] steward aged 33 that he met in 1986, was his companion in the months before the surgery.{{sfn|Allen|1990|p=113}} Papandreou divorced his wife one month before the June 1989 elections and married Liani soon after. Liani became an influential 'gatekeeper' for Papandreou's favor and was involved in appointments in the Prime Minister's Office.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=97}} The sudden elevation of Liani had negative effects on the  government operations and caused discontent within PASOK,{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=113}} in which his sons had key positions.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=81}}

His return from London on 22 October sparked a series of controversies. No family member greeted Papandreou upon his return. Three days later, there was a sudden strike from the [[Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation|Greek Radio and Television Corporation]] (ERT) employees, alleging that PASOK gave prepared texts to ERT's employees to read as live reports at the scene of Papandreou's arrival. The government spokesman publicly declared the strike illegal and criticized the ERT's union for portraying Papandreou's arrival differently (crowd size and enthusiasm) from Karamanlis's return after the fall of the junta.{{sfn|Clive|1989|p=74}}

====Koskotas scandal====
{{main|Koskotas scandal}}

During Papandreou's second term as Greek Prime Minister, widespread corruption scandals involving PASOK were revealed, including the [[Bank of Crete (1980–1999)|Bank of Crete]] scandal involving [[George Koskotas]], who embezzled large sums to build a media empire that supported PASOK.{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|p=178}}{{sfn|Garrard|Newell|2006|p=132}} Investigations revealed serious government misconduct, including blocked audits,{{sfn|Clive|1989|p=80}} profiteering from illegal arms sales,{{sfn|Allen|1990|p=114}}{{sfn|Clive|1989|p=80}}{{sfn|New York Times Jun.|1989}} and inflated military purchases with unofficial commissions to PASOK officials.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=196}}{{sfn|Clive|1989|p=80}}{{sfn|Gov News Jan.|2024}}

In 1989, [[Time (magazine)|Time]] magazine published claims by Koskotas alleging that Papandreou directed over $200 million{{Cref2|xii}} in state funds to Koskotas's bank and received $600,000 in a [[Pampers]] box.{{sfn|Time magazine Mar.|1989}}{{sfn|Los Angeles Times Apr.|1989}} Papandreou denied the allegations, blamed U.S. interference, and sued the magazine.{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=300}} Six ministers resigned,{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=97}} and Papandreou barely survived two no-confidence votes.{{sfn|New York Times Mar.|1989}}{{sfn|Dobratz|Whitfield|1992|p=170}} He passed a controversial emergency legislation to shield himself from prosecution.{{sfn|Gunther|Diamandouros|Sotiropoulos|2006|p=185}} On 26 September 1989, tensions escalated when [[Pavlos Bakoyannis]], a key figure in efforts to indict Papandreou, was assassinated by the terrorist group [[Revolutionary Organization 17 November|17 November]], just before a parliamentary debate on indictments.{{sfn|Chicago Tribune Oct.|1989}}{{sfn|New York Times Sep.|1989}} On 28 September 1989, Papandreou and four ministers were indicted by the Parliament, and he publicly denounced his accusers.{{sfn|Chicago Tribune Oct.|1989}}{{sfn|Karyotis|2007|pp=279–280}}{{sfn|New York Times Sep.|1989b}}

Koskotas was extradited to Greece in 1991 for trial, and Papandreou's trial began in Athens on 11 March 1991.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=170}} As a former prime minister, he exercised his constitutional right not to attend the trial and proclaimed it a witch-hunt. In January 1992, the Parliament-appointed tribunal of 13 judges of [[Supreme Civil and Criminal Court of Greece|Supreme Special Court]] acquitted Papandreou of instigating the loss of funds of state companies with a 7–6 vote, and a bribery charge of receiving the proceeds of a crime with a vote of 10–3.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=170}}{{sfn|New York Times Jan.|1992}}{{sfn|Dobratz|Whitfield|1992|p=173}}

====Surveillance state and abuse of power====
In 1989, it was revealed that the [[National Intelligence Service (Greece)|National Information Service]] (EYR), through the state telecommunications organization [[OTE]], had bugged over 46,000 phones of allies and enemies in politics, press, business, and law; Papandreou used the obtained information for PASOK's purposes.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=158}}{{sfn|Garrard|Newell|2006|p=131}}{{sfn|Samatas|1993|p=44-47}} The [[wiretapping]] infrastructure was established in previous decades and used by the junta and lesser degree conservative governments to track suspects that may pose a threat at national level on anti-communist grounds. Papandreou utilized these tools and expanded the potential targets by changing the definition of "[[national security]] threat" to be any Greek citizen raising criticism against him.{{sfn|Samatas|1993|p=45}} The list of potential terrorists, according to Papandreou, included well-respected politicians such as Karamanlis, political opponents Mitsotakis and [[Evangelos Averoff]], senior ministers in PASOK governments who may be potential successors such as Simitis and Gennimatas, newspaper publishers, police chiefs, and PASOK's governmental spokesman.{{sfn|Samatas|1993|p=44 & 68}} A former head of EYR appointed by PASOK claimed that none of these activities would have been possible without the prime minister's approval, implicating Papandreou.{{sfn|Allen|1990|p=114}}{{sfn|Samatas|1993|pp=45–46}}

In 1989, during his catharsis, Junta's files on private citizens were revealed, which were promised by Papandreou to be destroyed before 1981 and proclaimed in 1985. Instead, they were preserved, expanded upon, and updated under his direction to include anyone he viewed as a potential enemy.{{sfn|Samatas|1993|p=41}} This list included political opponents inside and outside PASOK and prominent conservatives and communists. Leaks to pro-PASOK [[Yellow journalism|yellow newspapers]] against Papandreou's opponents originated from these files.{{sfn|Samatas|1993|p=42}} Many on the Left were uncomfortable with Papandreou's threat of using the files to entice their vote by invoking the danger of these files coming into the possession of conservatives. The majority of these files were destroyed in 1989 by the collaborative government of conservatives and communists to prevent future governments from exploiting the files for political gains, as Papandreou did.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|Katsikas|2009|p=571}}

[[File:The gang of four.jpg |thumb|right|Four Greek politicians (L-R: [[Leonidas Kyrkos]], [[Charilaos Florakis]], Mitsotakis, [[Konstantinos Stephanopoulos]]) discuss a time after the Papandreou indictment for the Koskotas scandal. Papandreou called them the "gang of four."]]
Beyond the financial scandals, the public was worried about the government's assertions of arbitrary power. Papandreou used the [[Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation|national broadcasting organization]] as a public relations agency.{{sfn|Clive|1989|p=74}}{{sfn|Kaplan|1994|pp=268–269}} The newspapers that were unfriendly to PASOK were openly threatened by his ministers.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=158}} Six months before the 1989 elections, public appointments were bestowed on about 90,000 people to gain additional votes.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=159}}

===Catharsis (1989–1990) ===
In the [[June 1989 Greek legislative election|June 1989 elections]], PASOK's support dropped to 38%, largely due to the Koskotas scandal.{{sfn|Dobratz|Whitfield|1992|pp=167–180}} Although Mitsotakis's New Democracy secured 43%, it was insufficient to form a government. Papandreou's last-minute change of the electoral vote law required a party to win 50% of the vote to govern independently.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=196}}{{sfn|Magone|2003|p=172}}{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=293}} Papandreou hoped that while PASOK might come second in electoral votes, it could form a government with the support of the other leftist parties, but he was rejected.{{sfn|Clive|1990|pp=115–116}} New Democracy formed an unexpected coalition with the united Leftist parties under [[Synaspismos]]. Despite their opposing ideologies and rivalry that mainly stemmed from the Civil War, both parties sought political catharsis through a thorough investigation of PASOK's corruption.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=159}}{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=170}}{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=197}} The decision carried additional responsibility because if charges were not filed against Papandreou during this term, future prosecutions would be impossible.{{sfn|Pirounakis|1997|p=256}}{{sfn|Sassoon|1997|p=72}} Papandreou ordered his ministers to withhold cooperation during the transition of power, resulting in official documents and state treaties going missing.{{sfn|Kaplan|1994|p=277}} The transitional government was dissolved after the indictment of Papandreou for the Koskotas scandal.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=345}} 

In the [[November 1989 Greek legislative election|November 1989 elections]], New Democracy rose to 46% and could still not form a government. A [[National unity government]] was formed by New Democracy, PASOK, and Synaspismos under 85-year-old former banker [[Xenophon Zolotas]] to break the deadlock and restore public trust. Zolotas resigned in April 1990, unable to reverse the economic decline attributed to Papandreou's earlier policies.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=170}} In the [[1990 Greek legislative election|April 1990 elections]], Mitsotakis secured enough support to form a government, with Papandreou becoming opposition leader.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=170}}

=== Papandreou in opposition (1990–1993) ===
Recovering from the Koskotas scandals and electoral defeat, Papandreou had a relatively quiet opposition strategy (departing from the radical rhetoric in the 1970s and early 1980s). Mitsotakis moved to reverse Papandreou's economic and foreign policies, implementing a series of difficult and unpopular reforms that Papandreou criticized.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=212}}

Upon taking office, Mitsotakis introduced austerity measures reminiscent of Simitis's 1985–87 program, which Papandreou failed to endorse wholeheartedly in his second term, including freezing public-sector salaries and pensions, cutting spending, raising taxes, and repealing the wage price index that had maintained high incomes but fueled inflation.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=345}}{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=302}} To attract investment, his administration liquidated 44 state-controlled companies under the "Industrial Reconstruction Organisation" created by PASOK.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=176}} While the austerity helped the Greek economy move toward Euro convergence, it also deepened public frustration.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|pp=175, 177}} 

Mitsotakis sought to repair relations with the U.S., which were damaged under Papandreou,{{sfn|Gallant|2016|pp=300–301}}{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|pp=100–102}} by signing a defense cooperation agreement in 1990,{{sfn|Gallant|2016|pp=300–301}}{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|p=102}} supporting U.S. operations during the [[Gulf War]], and visiting Washington as the first Greek prime minister since 1964 by Papandreou's father.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=171}} Mitsotakis' government ultimately fell in 1993 after [[Antonis Samaras]] left New Democracy over disagreements on the handling of the [[Macedonia naming dispute]].{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=212}}

Papandreou campaigned to bring back the euphoria of the early 1980s.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=177}} Moreover, PASOK's campaign program had dropped the past socialist ideals and instead presented itself as a "responsible" political party.{{sfn|Spourdalakis|1996|pp=321–322}} The Greek people [[1993 Greek legislative election|voted in October 1993]] the return of Papandreou to power.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=177}} Following the electoral results, Mitsotakis resigned{{Cref2|iv|4}} from the leadership of New Democracy.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=233}}{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=180}}

===Return to power (1993–1996) ===

Papandreou's return to power was less vigorous, as he could work a few hours a day due to his fragile health; for much of 1995, he remained bedridden.{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=304}}{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|pp=345–346}}{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|p=103}} He relied upon Lianni, now officially part of the government as Chief of Staff, alienating many of his senior ministers.{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=304}}{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=346}}{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=98}} Two factions emerged in the party: the reformers faction with a pro-Europe vision and the loyalists faction advocating a populist path.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=231}} Papandreou favored one of the loyalists without specifying which, but party members tended to favor the reformers, reflecting Papandreou losing grip on his party.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=231}}

Papandreou had to bring the Greek economy to converge to Euro convergence criteria,{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=345}} but little time remained to achieve them. He abandoned his campaign promises and continued Mitsotakis's austerity policies with minor alterations, expanding the [[deregulation]] and liberalization of the economy.{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=304}} There was less public reaction to these policies because Papandreou found a compromising position between [[Capital (economics)|capital]] and [[Trade union|unions]],{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=345}}{{sfn|Close|2014|p=241}} and the pace of deregulation was slower than his predecessor.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=231}}

[[File:Bill Clinton and Andreas Papandreou.jpg|thumb|Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou on official visit with United States President [[William J. Clinton]], Washington, April 1994. [[Dimitra Liani]] is in the background on the right.]]
In February 1994, Papandreou ordered an economic [[embargo]] on [[North Macedonia]] due to the ongoing [[Macedonia naming dispute|naming dispute]].{{sfn|Washington Post May|1994}} In April 1994, Papandreou visited the United States to meet with [[President Clinton]], who had recently recognized the new republic, but failed to make any progress towards resolving the naming dispute in a favorable terms for Greece.{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|p=102-103}} Papandreou hoped the embargo would have been a bargaining chip, but it backfired because North Macedonia gained considerable sympathy worldwide at the expense of Greece's reputation.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|pp=181–182}}{{sfn|Close|2014|p=277}} In September 1995, an [[Macedonia naming dispute|interim accord]] was signed between the two countries to temporarily address the name issue and end the 18-month embargo.{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|p=103}} In October 1993, Papandreou announced the "Common Defence Dogma" with the [[Republic of Cyprus]], and the intention of [[Aegean dispute#Territorial waters|expanding the territorial waters to 12 miles]] on November 1994, which further disturbed Turkey.{{Cref2|xiii}} These actions increased the chances for another crisis, as it happened at Imia in January 1996, right after the transition of power from Papandreou to Simitis.{{sfn|Heraclides|2010|pp=133–134}}

On 21 November 1995, Papandreou was hospitalized with advanced [[heart disease]] and [[renal failure]] at [[Onassio Cardiac Surgery Centre]] and refused to retire from office.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=346}} Papandreou's refusal paralyzed the government; Costas Simitis resigned in protest, and Papandreou's eldest son joined the call for his father's resignation.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=218}} Papandreou resigned on 16 January 1996,{{sfn|The New York Times Jan.|1996}} and Simitis was elected as the new party leader on 18 January.{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=304}} Papandreou died on 23 June 1996.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=184}}

==Governance and political features==
===Governance and populism===
{{further|Governance of Andreas Papandreou}}
Papandreou had lifelong experience in [[political campaign]]ing, admired for his political charisma and ability to shape national narratives. However, he had little ministerial experience,{{Cref2|xv}}{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=101}} and spent little time preparing to govern before the 1981 election victory.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=113}} He appointed inexperienced, ideologically loyal ministers and purged senior civil servants, replacing them with party loyalists, thereby erasing institutional memory.{{sfn|Washington Post Oct.|1981}}{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|pp=90, 101}} These choices weakened the state's functionality and had lasting economic and social costs.{{sfn|Lefeber|1989|pp=47–49}}

Papandreou's authority within PASOK was nearly absolute, with critics labeling him as [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]].{{sfn|Close|2014|p=154}}{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=169}}{{sfn|Chilcote|Hadjiyannis|Lopez|Nataf|2015|p=161}} He expelled dissenters and used state-controlled and pro-PASOK media for [[character assassination]]s.{{sfn|Kaplan|1994|pp=268–269}} Throughout the 1980s, he frequently reshuffled his cabinet (13 times in 1981–1989, with over 100 people changing various ministerial positions) creating instability and inefficiency.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=102}} As he became less involved in daily governance, ministers were left without clear direction, and the government increasingly relied on Papandreou's personal authority rather than institutional strength.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|pp=79–115}} His centralized control began to erode after the Koskotas scandal.{{Cref2|xvi}}

Papandreou's populism played a central role in shaping his governance. He framed Greek politics as a battle between the oppressed Left and the privileged Right, invoking the trauma of the Civil War to rally support.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|Katsikas|2009|p=569}}{{sfn|Kriesi|Pappas|2015|p=183}}{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|pp=186–187}}{{sfn|Carabott|Sfikas|2004|p=267}} He claimed to speak for the underprivileged, even at the expense of democratic norms, once declaring, "There are no institutions – only the people rule this country."{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=187}}{{sfn|Kriesi|Pappas|2015|pp=183–185}} His rhetoric vilified conservatives, contributing to a sharply divided political landscape that his opponents later emulated.{{sfn|Cavallaro|Kornetis|2019|p=75}} Papandreou replaced local patronage with a centralized system controlled by PASOK by abolishing the merit-based evaluations in selecting civil servants. Civil service positions became rewards for political loyalty, weakening public institutions' functionality.{{sfn|Kofas|2005|p=112}}{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|pp=316–317}} His 1989 call to Minister of Finance [[Dimitris Tsovolas]] to "give it all [to them]" ({{langx|el|Τσοβόλα δώσ'τα όλα}}){{sfn|Ethnos Apr.|2021}}{{sfn|New Money Apr.|2024}}{{sfn|Papandreou's interview}} ahead of elections symbolized this clientelist approach.{{sfn|Kriesi|Pappas|2015|p=181}}  PASOK reinstated merit-based hiring in 1994, because public organizations were at near collapse after a decade without merit-based evaluations and intensified PASOK's clientelism.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=317}} 

Despite scandals and economic deterioration, his populism retained strong public appeal{{Cref2|iii|2}}{{sfn|Pappas|2019|pp=248–249}} that was emulated by opponents and admirers.{{sfn|Kriesi|Pappas|2015|p=181}} This appeal allowed his son [[George Papandreou (junior)|George Papandreou]] to become prime minister in the [[2009 Greek parliamentary election|October 2009 parliamentary elections]].{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|pp=190, 197–198}}{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|pp=347, 390}}
George's premiership was marked by turmoil, as Greece was embroiled in a [[Greek government-debt crisis|debt crisis]] that shook the country's political order and weakened PASOK's credibility, giving rise to the term [[Pasokification]].{{sfn|Cox|2019}} After negotiating Greece's first [[First Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece|bailout programme]] with the IMF, Papandreou resigned on 10 November 2011.{{sfn|Telegraph|2011}} 

[[Alexis Tsipras]], who served as Greece's prime minister in 2015–2019, is known for adopting Papandreou's mannerisms{{sfn|Macha-Bizoumi|2020|p=24}} and populist legacy. Tsipras projected himself as an anti-establishment leader, speaking directly to popular frustrations with traditional elites and foreign influence. His rhetoric of national pride and social justice, coupled with his informal demeanor, echoed the emotional appeal that defined Papandreou's era.{{sfn|Kriesi|Pappas|2015|pp=194–195}}{{sfn|Tο ΒHMA|2015}} While Tsipras sought to revive that legacy, his tenure was constrained by economic and political conditions originating from Greece's debt crisis and EU oversight.{{sfn|Alogoskoufis|Featherstone|2021|pp=384, 387–388}}

===Stance on terrorism===
{{further|Terrorism in Greece|EgyptAir Flight 648|City of Poros ship attack}}

After democracy was restored in 1974, Greece faced growing terrorist activity, fueled by economic struggles and radical left-wing sympathies, especially among youth inspired by the [[Athens Polytechnic uprising]]. Prime Minister Karamanlis passed a strict anti-terror legislation in 1978, which was based on the recently enacted Italian and German [[Anti-terrorism legislation|anti-terrorist bills]]. While in opposition, Papandreou criticized the law as unconstitutional and later abolished it in 1983 without offering an alternative, arguing it targeted [[civil liberties]] more than actual terrorists.{{sfn|Kassimeris|1993|pp=298–300}}

[[File:TWA Flight 847 Captain John Testrake with hijacker in Beirut.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|The pilot with one of the hijackers holding a gun, who took the TWA Flight 847 passenger plane from the unguarded Athens airport in June 1985.]]
Papandreou's stance, combined with closer ties to radical Arab regimes, allowed terrorists to operate freely in Greece during the 1980s.{{sfn|Stergiou|2021|pp=166–169}} This led to strained U.S.-Greece relations, especially after the [[TWA Flight 847]] hijacking, which prompted a U.S. travel advisory and a significant decline in tourism.{{sfn|Stearns|2021|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Kaplan|1994|p=272}}{{sfn|Kelly|2021|p=7}} Terrorist acts, including bombings and murders linked to Arab and Palestinian factions, continued.{{sfn|Kaplan|1994|pp=271–272}}{{sfn|Stergiou|2021|p=168}} PASOK often dismissed incidents as American conspiracies, or that the terrorists were [[freedom fighter]]s.{{sfn|Kaplan|1994|pp=271–273}}

[[File:Drapeau de l'Organisation révolutionnaire du 17-Novembre.svg|right|thumb|The symbol of November 17 terrorist organization, which operated largely undisturbed under Papandreou's reign.]]
The primary domestic terrorist organization was the [[Revolutionary Organization 17 November|17 November]] (17N), targeted prominent businessmen{{sfn|Kassimeris|2001|p=73}}{{sfn|Kassimeris|1993|pp=295–296}} and Western diplomats with military or intelligence roles and operated from 1975 to 2002.{{sfn|Close|2014|p=150}} Papandreou closed down the police unit investigating 17N,{{sfn|Kaplan|1994|p=270}} and his anti-West rhetoric likely aligned with their goals since 17N ceased attacks during the first two years of his administration.{{sfn|Kassimeris|1993|p=292}} Once he allowed U.S. bases to remain, 17N turned against him,{{sfn|Kassimeris|1993|p=292}}{{sfn|Kassimeris|2007|p=133}} reaching its peak in late-1980s with the assassination of New Democracy Member of Parliament [[Pavlos Bakoyannis]] during the Koskotas scandal.{{sfn|Chicago Tribune Oct.|1989}}{{sfn|New York Times Sep.|1989}}

Throughout the 1980s, [[Greek police]] were underfunded and weakened by Papandreou's anti-authoritarian stance, resulting in few convictions.{{sfn|Close|2014|pp=150–151}}{{sfn|Kassimeris|1993|p=305}} State surveillance was used to monitor Papandreou's political rivals instead of terrorists.{{sfn|Samatas|1993|p=44, 68}} A policy shift came under Mitsotakis in the 1990s, who reinstated Karamanlis' anti-terror legistation{{sfn|Kassimeris|1993|pp=300–306}} and expelled terrorist groups.{{sfn|Borgeas|2016|pp=170–171}} PASOK repealed it again in 1993.{{sfn|Borgeas|2016|p=187}}

===Cultural and political image===
Papandreou was a charismatic orator and adept at shaping perceptions to achieve his political goals.{{sfn|Chilcote|Hadjiyannis|Lopez|Nataf|2015|p=160}} Despite his aristocratic and academic background, Papandreou could converse with Greeks of any social status. It was challenging to interpret his intentions and used a form of [[doublespeak]], absent in the Greek political language at the time, where the meanings of terms could change depending on the situation.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=312}} Supporters and critics referred to him by his first name, "Andreas," a break from tradition in Greek politics that allowed him to distance himself from his family name,{{sfn|Chilcote|Hadjiyannis|Lopez|Nataf|2015|p=160}} associated with the political upheavals preceding the 1967 dictatorship and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus.{{sfn|Papandreou|1971|pp=24, 312}}{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=84}}

In the 1970s, Papandreou made headlines by pairing business suits with [[turtleneck]] sweaters instead of the usual shirt and tie.{{sfn|Macha-Bizoumi|2020|pp=22–24}}{{sfn|Chilcote|Hadjiyannis|Lopez|Nataf|2015|p=160}} His first appearance in Parliament in a black turtleneck was seen by conservatives as disrespectful. The controversy boosted his popularity, symbolizing his image as a "rebel" against the conservative establishment. Once in power, he adopted the more conventional style of politicians.{{sfn|Macha-Bizoumi|2020|pp=22–24}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Grave of Andreas Papandreou.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Papandreou's grave in the [[First Cemetery of Athens]]. On his grave is written "''Greece belongs to the Greeks.''"]]

Papandreou was a realist on core political issues but a leftist ideologue on peripheral matters. In foreign policy, he continued Karamanlis's policy to remain in the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]], both of which he vehemently opposed for years. Complementing this political realism, Papandreou's ability to publicly reject American positions gave Greeks a sense of national independence and psychological self-worth.{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=210}} His frequent radical and combative rhetoric frustrated existing allies and did not recruit new allies (Arab states{{sfn|Stergiou|2021|pp=166–169}} or countries from the [[eastern bloc]]), leaving Greece diplomatically isolated and unable to advance a solution on the [[Cyprus problem]].{{sfn|Bellou|Couloumbis|Kariotis|2003|p=100}}{{sfn|Loulis|1984|pp=375–391}}

In domestic issues, Papandreou shifted political power from the conservatives, who dominated Greek politics for decades, to a more populist and [[centre-left]] locus. His social policies expanded access to healthcare and education, strengthened women's rights, and ended the sociopolitical and economic exclusion of social classes. This shift helped the Greek society become more pluralistic and converge to the Western European countries' social norms.{{sfn|Close|2014|pp=161–163}}{{sfn|Troitiño|de la Guardia|Sánchez|2022|pp=253–257}}{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=171}}

His early achievements were tarnished by controversial decisions leading to a constitutional crisis{{sfn|Featherstone|Katsoudas|1987|p=28}} and numerous corruption scandals. The revelation Papandreou's extended use of junta's surveillance infrastructure for political gains,{{sfn|Samatas|1993|pp=42–45}} his soft stance on terrorism,{{sfn|Kassimeris|1993|pp=295–300}} damaging the legitimacy of democratic institutions,{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=187}} and his public family drama dominated public discourse. Papandreou's populism, under the guise of inclusionist social policies, became part of PASOK's patronage, greatly expanded through the misuse of EEC funds and an unprecedented rate of foreign borrowing, which brought the Greek economy to the verge of bankruptcy twice (in 1985 and 1989). His mishandling of the Greek economy's reconstruction became a central problem for future governments. Papandreou had little impact on improving the Greek state and its institutions, and his governance became a negative reference point.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|pp=113–115}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
'''Books'''
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou|first=Andreas|title = The Location and Scope of the Entrepreneurial Function |publisher= Harvard University|location=Boston|date=1943 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QvITHAAACAAJ |ref=none}}
* {{cite book<!-- Citation bot bypass--> |last1=Papandreou|first1=Andreas|author-mask=7|last2=Wheeler|first2 =John T.| title = Competition and its regulation | date= 1954| publisher=Prentice-Hall|location= Summit St. Kent| url=https://archive.org/details/competitionitsre0000papa/mode/2up |ref=none}} 
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last1=Papandreou |first1=Andreas |author-mask=7| last2=Sauerlender | first2 =Owen H. | title =A test of a stochastic theory of choice|series=University of California publications in economics | publisher=  University of California Press |location=Oakland|date= 1957|url=https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130282271715561088|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas|author-mask=7 | title =Economics as a Science| publisher=  Lippincott |location=Philadelphia |date= 1958|url=https://archive.org/details/economicsasscien0000papa/mode/2up|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas|author-mask=7 | title = A Strategy for Greek Economic Development| publisher=  Center of Economic Research |date= 1962|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_CEYAAAAIAAJ|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title = Fundamentals of model construction in macro-economics| publisher=  Center of Economic Research |date= 1962 <!-- | isbn={{Format ISBN|9781014372611}} -->|url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofmo0000papa|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title =The Political Element in Economic Development| publisher=  Almqvist & Wiksell |location=Stockholm |date= 1966|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-89AAAAYAAJ|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title = Δημοκρατία και εθνική αναγέννηση |trans-title= Democracy and National Rebirth| publisher= Fexis|location= Athens |date= 1966|language=el|url=https://www.kardamitsa.gr/product/1042/dimokratia-kai-ethniki-anagennisi.html |ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title = Man's freedom| publisher= Columbia University Press |location= New York |date= 1970 |url = https://archive.org/details/mansfreedom0000papa|ref=none}}
*{{Cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> |last=Papandreou |first=Andreas|author-mask=7 |title=Democracy at Gunpoint|date=1971 |publisher=Deutsch |location=New York |language=en<!-- |isbn={{Format ISBN|9780233963013}} -->|url=https://archive.org/details/democracyatgunpo0000papa}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title = Paternalistic Capitalism| publisher= The University of Minnesota Press |location= Minneapolis |date= 1972 <!-- |isbn={{Format ISBN|9781452911038}} -->| url=https://archive.org/details/paternalisticcap0000papa/mode/2up|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title = Economic Development - Rhetoric and Reality| publisher= The University of British Columbia |location= Vancouver |date= 1973 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last1=Papandreou |first1=Andreas |author-mask=7| last2= Zohar | first2 = Uri| title = Project Selection for National Plans| publisher= Praeger Publishers |location= New York |date= 1974 <!-- |isbn = {{Format ISBN|9780275085902}} --> |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5-3sAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Project%20Selection%20for%20National%20Plans%22|ref=none}}
*{{Cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> |last=Papandreou |first=Andreas|author-mask=7|title=The Impact Approach to Project Selection|date=1974 |publisher=York University |location=Toronto|language=en |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL9349079W/The_impact_approach_to_project_selection?edition=key%3A/books/OL21534245M|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title = Ιμπεριαλισμός και οικονομική ανάπτυξη |trans-title= Imperialism and Economic Development| publisher= Livanis |location= Athens |date= 1975|language=el <!-- |isbn={{Format ISBN|9789602361535}} -->|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title = Η Ελλάδα στους Έλληνες |trans-title= Greece to the Greeks| publisher= Karanasis|location= Athens |date= 1976|language=el <!-- |isbn={{Format ISBN|9780008470036}} -->|ref=none}} 
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass--> | last=Papandreou |first=Andreas |author-mask=7| title = Μετάβαση στο σοσιαλισμό |trans-title= Transition to Socialism| publisher= Αιχμή |location= Athens |date= 1977|language=el|ref=none}}

'''Articles'''
* {{cite journal | last = Papandreou | first = Andreas | title =Economics and the social sciences | journal =  The Economic Journal | date = 1950 | volume=60|issue=240|pages=715–723|jstor=2226710|doi=10.2307/2226710|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal | last = Papandreou | first = Andreas |author-mask=7| title=An experimental test of an axiom in the theory of choice |journal = Econometrica | date = 1953 | volume=21|issue=3|page=477|ref=none}}
<!-- hard time to find this ''The Method of Repercussions in Investment Selection'', Praeger Publishers, New York, 1974 -->
<!-- this  ''Toward a Totalitarian World?'', Norstedts, Stockholm, 1969 appears to be a contribution to a book... url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Social_Issues_in_Regional_Policy_and_Pla/EnG7NmcVvzkC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Toward+a+Totalitarian+World%3F%22,+Norstedts,+Stockholm,+1969+papandreou%5C&pg=PA527&printsec=frontcover -->
<!-- This is to be removed ''Externality and Institutions,'' Oxford University Press, 1994, it appears it is from a different author having the same name see url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/Externality_and_Institutions/hjsNE_QjPuEC?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=Externality%20and%20Institutions,%20Oxford%20University%20Press,%201994 -->
<!-- I cannot find this anywhere...   ''Mediterranean Socialism'', Lerici, Cosenza, 1977 -->
{{refend}}

==Notes==
{{Cnote2 Begin|liststyle=lower-roman|30em}}
{{Cnote2|i|n=2|Andreas Papandreou wrote at his 1971 book, ''Democracy at Gunpoint'', that his father, on the night of the Colonels' coup, blamed Andreas for the coup, and Andreas himself wondered whether he had crossed the line with his radical campaign.{{sfn|Papandreou|1971|pp=24, 312}}{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=84}}}}
{{Cnote2|ii|n=3| There is a long-standing debate on whether the [[Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson administration]] gave the green light for the 1967 coup in Greece.{{sfn|Klarevas|2006|pp=471–508}} Andreas Papandreou and his academic colleagues frequently accused the U.S. administration of being responsible for the coup, and since then, Andreas Papandreou and other Greek elites sold this to the masses as part of nurturing anti-American sentiment, making it a widespread belief among Greeks.{{sfn|Michas|2002|p=94}}{{sfn|Larrabee|1981|p=160}} Others are more skeptical due to the lack of "smoking gun" evidence. Louis Klarevas, based on the declassified documents of the U.S. government and extensive literature review, concluded that there was no official action for the coup, however, additional evidence is required to determine any unofficial activities.{{sfn|Klarevas|2006|pp=471–508}} }}
{{Cnote2|iii|n=2| In a poll conducted by [[Kathimerini]] in 2007, 48% of those polled called Papandreou the "most important Greek prime minister."{{sfn|Kathimerini Dec.|2007a}} In the same poll, the first term of Papandreou's government was voted as the best government Greece ever had after [[Metapolitefsi]].{{sfn|Kathimerini Dec.|2007b}} }}
{{Cnote2|iv|n=4| While Andreas Papandreou and Konstantinos Mitsotakis started from the same political party, and both competed for the leadership of the Center Union,{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=190}} Andreas had vilified Mitsotakis for [[Iouliana]] of 1965 (siding with the king and in the view of Andreas betraying his father) as a "traitor" and a "nightmare" effectively stigmatizing the life-long career of Mitsotakis in Greek politics.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=232}}{{sfn|Washington Post Mar.|1985}} In 1984, Mitsotakis became the New Democracy party leader because he was the only active politician (Karamanlis was President at the time) who could rival Andreas Papandreou.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=232}} From 1984 until 1990, the political conflict between Papandreou and Mitsotakis was both personal and polarized.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=190}} After winning the elections of 1990, Mitsotakis lacked the [[political capital]] and sufficient majority to implement his policies despite his long-term ministerial experience, resulting in Mitsotakis's tenure being short.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=345}} }}
{{Cnote2|v| Andreas Papandreou's interview in Le Monte effectively stated his disagreement in public with the [[Cyprus problem#Peacemaking efforts, 1964–1974|Acheson Plan]] by criticizing the American's efforts in finding a solution to the [[Cyprus problem]] while at the same time siding with [[Makarios]], who was wanted an independent Cyprus and effectively opposed a union with Greece, known as "[[Enosis#Cyprus|Enosis]]" ({{langx|el|Ένωσις}}). The Acheson Plan required a territorial concession (e.g., [[Kastellorizo]]) as a compromise for a union with Cyprus without a military conflict with Turkey, and in retrospect, it was the best Greece could get in the 1960s.{{sfn|Hatzivassiliou|2006|p=183}} The Americans were losing patience with the Papandreous' delays and maneuvering (beforehand, the first version of the Aechelon plan was leaked to Makarios when visiting Athens{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=104}}). The Le Monte interview was the moment when American officials lost trust in both Papandreous.{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=119}} Andreas Papandreou's influence on his father by circumventing the Greek Cabinet unanimously agreement on Achelon's Plan effectively wasted this chance for a peaceful union, and a lack of a solution on Cyprus intensified the political instability in Greece that led to the 1967 Greek junta and the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]].{{sfn|Draenos|2012|pp=105–113, 140}}{{sfn|Brinkley|1992|pp=217–218}}  }}
{{Cnote2|vi| According to the Greek constitution of 1952,{{sfn|Greek Constitution|1952|p=6}} article 31 states that the king hires and fires ministers ({{langx|el|Ο βασιλεύς διορίζει και παύει τους υπουργούς αυτού}}). This created confusion as the prime minister was chosen by popular election, with the king forced to work with, but at any moment, the king could dissolve the government and parliament and call new elections. Two prime ministers in the 1950s had raised the question as to who governs the state, the king or the prime minister,{{sfn|Dervitsiotis|2019|p=240}} echoing the disagreements between [[Eleftherios Venizelos]] and [[Constantine I of Greece|Constantine I]] during the [[National Schism]].}}
{{Cnote2|vii| American officials and friends like [[Carl Kaysen]], while willing to aid efforts to secure his release from the junta's imprisonment, had written him off as a [[demagogue]] and untrustworthy. Similarly, the British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office|Foreign Office]] also ignored the exiled Papandreou because he was unreliable and expressed anti-Western views.{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=140}} Karamanlis declined Papandreou's requests for a meeting by commenting that Andreas Papandreou could not be ignored nor be trusted.{{sfn|Miller|2009|p=141}} U.S. Ambassador [[Phillips Talbot]] stated that his political colleagues are virtually unanimous in their hostility toward Andreas Papandreou. He concluded that "Andreas would probably have been wiser to return to the university for the indefinite future."{{sfn|Draenos|2014|p=32}} }}
{{Cnote2|viii| Unable to challenge Karamanlis's foreign policy directly, Papandreou channeled Greece's nationalist sentiments and widespread post-junta feelings of humiliation and betrayal into fiery rhetoric targeting NATO and the EEC.{{sfn|Nafpliotis|2018|p=516}} Papandreou's campaign slogan, "Greece belongs to the Greeks", sharply contrasted with Karamanlis's assertion that "Greece belongs to the West." According to political scientist Takis Pappas, Papandreou saw radical polarization and political extremism as the only way to secure his path to power, believing that inflaming divisions within Greek politics would rally support for his cause.{{sfn|Pappas|2009|pp=77–87}}}}
{{Cnote2|ix| Beyond the anti-NATO and anti-EEC rhetoric, Papandreou's campaign promises include higher wages for workers, more jobs, improvements in transportation, reform of Greece's antiquated education system, cheaper housing, higher prices for farm goods, and an end to corruption and inefficiency in the state bureaucracy.{{sfn|Clogg|1982|pp=95–96}}{{sfn|Clogg|2013|pp=177–178}} He also promised to decentralize the government and give more control to local authorities.{{sfn|Larrabee|1981|pp=159}} The [[smog]] covering Athens would disappear once PASOK was in power, though the smog got worse in the 1980s.{{sfn|Clogg|2013|p=178}}{{sfn|Gallant|2016|p=289}}  }}
{{Cnote2|x|Civil marriage was a novelty in Greek culture, and it was strongly opposed by the [[Church of Greece]],{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=85}} which was the only institution in Greece that legally performed marriages before this. Couples seeking a civil marriage had to get married outside Greece, generally in [[Italy]]. }}
{{Cnote2|xi|Earnings rose higher than inflation in 1988, compensating workers for their loss of purchasing power.{{sfn|Jouganatos|1992|p=141}} At the same time, the consumption rate per capita had progressively increased since 1981 but remained well below the EEC average, and savings per capita reached the lowest rate since 1971.{{sfn|Jouganatos|1992|p=163}} The money supply rose by 23% while the drachma appreciated in real terms. This expansionary policy encouraged growth in the short term, with a rise in domestic demand and a rise in real GDP by 4.3%. In addition, private investment rose by 12% and public investment by 1.6%. Due to revenue shortfalls and high public spending, however, the Public Sector Borrowing Requirement reached 16% of GDP. In addition, total public sector debt went above 100% of GDP by the end of 1988.{{sfn|U.S. Dept. of Commerce|1990|p=5}}  }}
{{Cnote2|xii| The total amount of money was substantial, approximately {{frac|1|280}} of the Greek economy, based on Greece's GDP in 1986 of US$56 billion.{{sfn|World Bank, Greece's GDP}} }}
{{Cnote2|xiii|In response to Papandreou's declaration that Greece intended to expand to 12 miles, in June 1995, the [[Turkish Parliament]] voted for a "[[casus belli]]" license, meaning the Turkish government could take any necessary action (including military) if Greece exercised its right (according to [[Law of the sea#UN Convention of the Law of the Sea|Law of the Sea]]) to expand.{{sfn|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2009|p=174}} }}
{{Cnote2|xiv| Laliotis was often called the Papandreou's "fifth child" due to his youth and privileged access to Papandreou.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=87}} }}
{{Cnote2|xv| Papandreou's ministerial experience amounted to just 18 months, serving while his father was prime minister from February 1964 to July 1965.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=101}} By contrast, Konstantinos Mitsotakis and Costas Simitis each had roughly seven years of ministerial experience before becoming prime ministers.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=117}} Karamanlis had three years as Minister of Public Works, though as prime minister he was surrounded by more seasoned ministers.{{sfn|Featherstone|Papadimitriou|2015|p=59}}  }}
{{Cnote2|xvi| Papandreou's weak health after the heart surgery in London and Koskotas affair, were the first cracks in Papandreou's complete authority over PASOK. While he remained popular, he had no more the luxury to expel critics from PASOK due to the pressure from the Left- and Right-wings on the growing corruption scandals and the smaller margins between PASOK and New Democracy parties.{{sfn|McDonald|1989|pp=195–197}} By 1995, his health started to deteriorate at which point the party support effectively vanished.{{sfn|Liakos|Doumanis|2023|p=346}} }}
{{Cnote2 End}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== References ==
===Constitutions of Greece===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite news |publisher=[[:el:Εθνικό Τυπογραφείο|National Printing Office]] |work=[[Government Gazette (Greece)]] ΦΕΚ A 1/1952 |title=Greek Constitution of 1952 |language=el |url=https://search.et.gr/el/fek/?fekId=659990 |ref={{harvid|Greek Constitution|1952}}}}
* {{cite news |publisher=[[:el:Εθνικό Τυπογραφείο|National Printing Office]] |work=[[Government Gazette (Greece)]] ΦΕΚ A 111/1975 |title=Greek Constitution of 1975 |language=el |url=https://search.et.gr/el/fek/?fekId=685799 |ref={{harvid|Greek Constitution|1975}}}}
* {{cite news |publisher=[[:el:Εθνικό Τυπογραφείο|National Printing Office]] |work=[[Government Gazette (Greece)]] ΦΕΚ A 23/1986 |title=Greek Constitution of 1986 |language=el |url=https://search.et.gr/el/fek/?fekId=709872 |ref={{harvid|Greek Constitution|1986}}}}
{{refend}}

===Books=== <!-- Place them in alphabetical order (of the first author) the books references -->
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Alexiadou |first=Despina |title=Ideologues, partisans, and loyalists: Ministers and policymaking in parliamentary cabinets |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-107234-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi3nCwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Louis |title=Political Scandals and Causes Celebres Since 1945 |date=1990 |publisher=Longman |location=Essex |language=en |isbn=978-0-582-03065-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalscandal1945unse}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Alogoskoufis |editor-first1=Georgios |editor-last2=Featherstone |editor-first2=Kevin |title=Greece and the Euro. From crisis to recovery |year=2021 |publisher=Hellenic Observatory |url=https://www.dept.aueb.gr/sites/default/files/imop/attachments/Greece-and-the-Euro.pdf}} 
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Bellou |editor-first1=Fotini |editor-last2=Couloumbis |editor-first2=Theodore A. |editor-last3=Kariotis |editor-first3=Theodore C. |title=Greece in the twentieth century |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=London & New York |language=en |isbn=978-0-203-04589-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VAhSDS3w9s4C}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bottomley |first=Gillian |title=From Another Place Migration and the Politics of Culture |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |language=en |isbn=978-0-521-41014-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gahpgrhou58C}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brinkley |first=Douglas |author-link=Douglas Brinkley |title=Dean Acheson, The Cold War Years, 1953-71 |date=1992 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven & London |language=en |isbn=978-0-300-06075-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QeqXIPB6SHYC}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Carabott |editor-first1=Philip |editor-last2=Sfikas |editor-first2=Thanassis D. |title=The Greek Civil War: essays on a conflict of exceptionalism and silences |date=2004 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Surrey |language=en |isbn=978-0-7546-4132-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VvocAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Charalambis |first1=Dimitris |last2=Maratou-Alipranti |first2=Laura |last3=Hadjiyanni |first3=Andromachi |title=Recent Social Trends in Greece 1960-2000 |date=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP |location=Montreal |language=en |isbn=978-0-7735-6932-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vt8-8PESahUC}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Chilcote |first1=Ronald H. |last2=Hadjiyannis |first2=Stylianos |last3=Lopez |first3=Fred A. III |last4=Nataf |first4=Daniel |last5=Sammis |first5=Elizabeth |display-authors=3 |title=Transitions from Dictatorship to Democracy, Comparative Studies of Spain, Portugal, and Greece |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=New York |language=en |isbn=978-1-317-84104-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVACwAAQBAJ}} 
* {{Cite book |last=Clogg |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Clogg |title=Parties and elections in Greece: the search for legitimacy |date=1987 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=North Carolina |language=en |isbn=0-8223-0794-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nia7QgAACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Clogg |editor-first=Richard |author-link=Richard Clogg |editor-mask=6 |title=Greece, 1981–89: The Populist Decade |date=1993 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London & New York |language=en |isbn=978-1-349-23056-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzdAjwEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Clogg |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Clogg |author-mask=6 |title=A Concise History of Greece |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |language=en |isbn=978-1-107-65644-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M492AgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Close |first=David H. |title=Greece since 1945: Politics, Economy and Society |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |language=en |location=London & New York |isbn=978-1-317-88001-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4kugBAAAQBAJ}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Crile |first=George |author-link=George Crile III |title=Charlie Wilson's War |date=2003 |publisher=Grove Press |location=New York |language=en |isbn=0-8021-4124-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKhXPgAACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |title=Greece, A Country Study |date=1995 |publisher=Library of Congress |location=Maryland |language=en |isbn=1-4904-3623-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QcW0zwEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dervitsiotis |first=Alkis |title=Η έννοια της Κυβέρνησης |date=2019 |publisher=P.N. Sakkoulas SA |location=Athens |language=el |isbn=978-960-420-800-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwvbDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Draenos |first=Stan |title=Andreas Papandreou: The Making of a Greek Democrat and Political Maverick |date=2012 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=New York |language=en |isbn=978-1-78076-080-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvhTzAEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Cavallaro |editor-first1=Maria E. |editor-last2=Kornetis |editor-first2=Kostis |title=Rethinking Democratisation in Spain, Greece and Portugal |date=2019 |publisher=Palgrave Mcmillan |location=Cham |isbn=978-3-030-11108-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3eUDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Duke |first=Simon |title=United States military forces and installations in Europe |date=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-829132-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzKr3mSKyIgC}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Featherstone |editor-first1=Kevin |editor-last2=Katsoudas |editor-first2=Dimitrios K. |title=Political change in Greece: Before and after the colonels |date=1987 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London & New York |language=en |isbn=978-1-000-99214-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DR7QEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |author1-mask=6 |title=Prime Ministers in Greece, The Paradox of Power |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-871717-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lO6kCQAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |last2=Sotiropoulos |first2=Dimitri A. |author1-mask=6 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Greek Politics |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-882510-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TZr9DwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gallant |first=Thomas W. |author-link=Thomas Gallant (historian) |title=Modern Greece: From the war of independence to the present |date=2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |location=London |language=en |isbn=978-1-350-01451-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eXWbzwEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Garrard |editor-first=James |editor-last2=Newell |editor-first2=John |title=Scandals in past and contemporary politics |date=2006 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester |language=en |isbn=978-0-7190-6551-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nDksFA0DYVAC}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Gunther |editor-first1=Richard |editor-last2=Diamandouros |editor-first2=Nikiforos |editor-link2=Nikiforos Diamandouros |editor-last3=Sotiropoulos |editor-first3=Dimitri |title=Democracy and the state in the new southern Europe |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-151396-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQVREAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Heraclides |first=Alexis |author-link=Alexis Heraclides |title=The Greek-Turkish Conflict in the Aegean |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London |language=en |isbn=978-0-230-28339-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LPGADAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hatzivassiliou |first=Evanthis |author-link=:el:Ευάνθης Χατζηβασιλείου |title=Greece and the Cold War Front Line State, 1952-1967 |date=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London & New York |language=en |isbn=978-1-134-15488-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dyl9AgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Jouganatos |first1=George A. |title=The Development of the Greek Economy, 1950-1991, An Historical, Empirical, and Econometric Analysis |date=1992 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport & London |language=en |isbn=978-0-313-28344-4 |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/development-of-the-greek-economy-19501991-9780313283444/}} <!-- academic review: https://doi.org/10.1353/mgs.2010.0402 -->
* {{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Robert D. |title=Balkan Ghosts, A Journey Through History |date=1994 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=London |language=en |isbn=0-679-74981-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRJqbvaC3x8C}}
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* {{cite book |<!-- last1 = Pappas | first1 = Takis S. | last2=Aslanidis | first2= Paris | chapter=Greek populism: A political drama in five acts | --> editor-last1=Kriesi |editor-first1=Hanspeter |editor-last2=Pappas |editor-first2=Takis S. |year=2015 |title=European populism in the shadow of the great recession |publisher=ECPR Press |location=Colchester |isbn=978-1-78552-138-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hBcfEQAAQBAJ}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Pappas |first=Takis S. |title=Το χαρισματικό κόμμα: ΠΑΣΟΚ, Παπανδρέου, Εξουσία |date=2009 |publisher=Patakis |location=Athens |language=el |isbn=978-960-16-3256-8 |url=https://www.patakis.gr/product/498741/vivlia-anthropistikes-kai-koinonikes-episthmes-istoria-arxaiologia/To-xarismatiko-komma-PASOK-Papandreou-Eksousia/}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pappas |first=Takis S. |author-mask=6 |title=Populism and liberal democracy: A comparative and theoretical analysis |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-257489-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nTGPDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pirounakis |first=Nicholas |title=The Greek Economy Past, Present and Future |date=1997 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London |language=en |isbn=978-0-333-65422-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLODDAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Pridham |editor-first=Geoffrey |title=Securing Democracy, Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe |year=1990 |publisher=Routledge |location=London & New York |isbn=9780415023269 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2L2Fq5I404C}}
* {{Cite book |last=Psalidopoulos |first=Michalis |title=A History of Modern Greek Economic Thought |date=2024 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London & New York |language=en |isbn=978-1-315-41340-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Dn3EAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Sassoon |editor-first=Donald |title=Looking left: European socialism after the Cold War |date=1997 |publisher=I.B. Taurus |location=London |language=en |isbn=1-86064-179-2 |url=https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130000796123363200}}
* {{Cite book |last=Siani-Davies |first=Peter |title=Crisis in Greece |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-091153-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pWlNDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stearns |first=Monteagle |author-link=Monteagle Stearns |title=The enigma of Andreas Papandreou |date=2021 |publisher=Potomac Books |location=Sterling |language=en |isbn=978-1-64012-329-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nIDEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stergiou |first=Andreas |title=Greece's Ostpolitik Dealing With the 'Devil' |date=2021 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location=Cham |language=en |isbn=978-3-030-61129-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrUYEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Troitiño |editor1-first=David R. |editor2-last=de la Guardia |editor2-first=Ricardo M. |editor3-last=Sánchez |editor3-first=Guillermo A. P. |title=The European Union and its political leaders |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location=Cham |language=en |isbn=978-3-030-96662-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1F1oEAAAQBAJ}}
{{refend}}

===Journals===  <!-- Place them in alphabetical order (of the first author) the journal references -->
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite journal |last=Borgeas |first=Andreas |journal=Journal of International and Comparative Law |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=161–208 |date=2016 |title=The Evolution of Greece's Security Legislation and Policy |url=https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1018&context=jicl}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clive |first=Nigel |journal=Government and Opposition |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=74–80 |date=1989 |title=Letter from Greece—mid-December 1988 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-7053.1989.tb00108.x |jstor=44482421}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clive |first=Nigel |author1-mask=6 |journal=Government and Opposition |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=115–122 |date=1990 |title=The Dilemmas of Democracy in Greece |doi=10.1111/j.1477-7053.1990.tb00750.x |jstor=44482490}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clogg |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Clogg |journal=Electoral Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=95–99 |date=1982 |title=The Greek elections of 1981 |doi=10.1016/0261-3794(82)90132-9}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clogg |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Clogg |author-mask=6 |journal=The Journal of Modern Hellenism |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=103–112 |date=1985 |title=The 1985 Constitutional Crisis in Greece |url=https://journals.sfu.ca/jmh/index.php/jmh/article/download/51/45}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clogg |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Clogg |author-mask=6 |journal=Mediterranean Politics |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=382–387 |date=1996 |title=Andreas Papandreou – A political profile |doi=10.1080/13629399608414596}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cox |first=Jacob S. |year=2019 |title=PASOKification: Fall of the European Center Left or a Transformation of the System |journal=Governance: The Political Science Journal |volume=6 |issue=5 |url=https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=governance-unlv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Danopoulos |first=Constantine |journal=Journal of Political & Military Sociology |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=83–98 |date=1985 |title=From balconies to tanks: post-junta civil-military relations in Greece |jstor=45371219}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dimitras |first=Panayote E. |journal=Foreign Policy |volume=58 |pages=134–150 |date=1985 |title=Greece: A New Danger |issue=58 |doi=10.2307/1148656 |jstor=1148656}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dobratz |first1=Betty A. |last2=Whitfield |first2=Stefanie |journal=European Sociological Review |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=167–180 |date=1992 |title=Does Scandal Influence Voters' Party Preference? The Case of Greece during the Papandreou Era |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.esr.a036630 |jstor=522295}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Draenos |first=Stan |journal=The Historical Review/La Revue Historique |volume=11 |pages=35–66 |date=2014 |title=Andreas Papandreou's Exile Politics: The First Phase (1968-1970) |doi=10.12681/hr.332 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Featherstone |first=Kevin |journal=West European Politics |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=223–241 |date=March 2005 |title=Introduction: 'Modernisation' and the Structural Constraints of Greek Politics |doi=10.1080/01402380500058753}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Fytili |first1=Magdalini |last2=Avgeridis |first2=Manos |last3=Kouki |first3=Eleni |journal=Contemporary European History |pages=1365–1383 |date=2023 |title=Heroes or Outcasts? The Long Saga of the State's Recognition of the Greek Resistance (1944–2006) |volume=33 |issue=4 |doi=10.1017/S0960777323000395 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kanellopoulos |first1=Costas |last2=Psacharopoulos |first2=George |journal=International Journal of Educational Development |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=73–81 |date=1997 |title=Private education expenditure in a 'free education' country: the case of Greece |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0738059396000302 |doi=10.1016/S0738-0593(96)00030-2 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last=Karakatsanis |first=Niovi |journal=Armed Forces & Society |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=289–313 |date=1997 |title=Do Attitudes Matter? The Military and Democratic Consolidation in Greece |doi=10.1177/0095327X9702400205 |jstor=45346811}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kariotis |first=Theodore C. |journal=Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=33–58 |date=1997 |title=Andreas G. Papandreou: the economist |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265668512}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Karyotis |first=Georgios |journal=Cooperation and Conflict |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=271–293 |date=September 2007 |title=Securitization of Greek Terrorism and Arrest of the 'Revolutionary Organization November 17' |doi=10.1177/0010836707079932 |jstor=45084485}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kassimeris |first=George |date=1993 |title=The Greek state response to terrorism |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=288–310 |doi=10.1080/09546559308427230 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546559308427230 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kassimeris |first=George |author-mask=6 |date=2001 |title=Europe's Last Red Terrorists: The Revolutionary Organization 17 November, 1975–2000 |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=67–84 |doi=10.1080/09546550109609681 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546550109609681 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kassimeris |first=George |author-mask=6 |title=For a place in history: Explaining Greece's revolutionary organization 17 November |journal=Journal of Conflict Studies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=129–145 |date=2007 |url=https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/jcs/2007-v27-n2-jcs_27_2/jcs27_2art09.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kazamias |first1=Andreas M. |last2=Roussakis |first2=Yiannis |year=2003 |title=Crisis and reform in Greek education: The modern Greek Sisyphus |journal=European Education |volume=35 |pages=7–30 |doi=10.2753/EUE1056-493435037}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kelly |first=Luke |journal=K4D Helpdesk Report |location=Brighton: UK |publisher=Institute of Development Studies |date=2021 |title=Threats to civilian aviation since 1975 |doi=10.19088/K4D.2021.019 |url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/ndownloader/files/48079639}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kitroeff |first=Alexander |journal=Journal of Hellenic Diaspora |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=7–32 |date=1997 |title=Andreas G. Papandreou: A Brief Political Biography |hdl=10066/13131 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10066/13131}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Klarevas |first=Louis |title=Were the eagle and the phoenix birds of a feather? The United States and the Greek coup of 1967 |date=2006 |journal=Diplomatic History |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=471–508 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.2006.00562.x |jstor=24915022}}
* {{cite journal |last=Larrabee |first=F. Stephen |journal=Foreign Policy |volume=45 |pages=158–174 |date=1981 |title=Dateline Athens: Greece for the Greeks |issue=45 |doi=10.2307/1148318 |jstor=1148318}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lefeber |first=Louis |journal=International Journal of Political Economy |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=32–55 |date=1989 |title=The Socialist Experience in Greece |doi=10.1080/08911916.1989.11643783 |jstor=40470531}}
* {{cite journal |last=Loulis |first=John C. |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=375–391 |date=1984 |title=Papandreou's Foreign Policy |doi=10.2307/20042189 |jstor=20042189}}
* {{cite journal |last=Macha-Bizoumi |first=Nadia |journal=Mediterranean and European Linguistic Anthropology |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=17–34 |date=2020 |title=The Attire of Politicians in Modern Greece: A Language of Communication |url=https://jomela.pub/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2-4-2-The-Attire-of-Politicians-in-Modern-Greece.pdf |doi=10.47298/jomela.v2-i4-a2 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Matsaganis |first1=Manos |journal=Oficina do CES |volume=149 |pages=1–23 |date=1999 |title=Welfare Policies in Greece since the early 1980s |url=https://estudogeral.uc.pt/bitstream/10316/90558/1/Welfare%20Policies%20in%20Greece.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mavrogordatos |first=George |journal=West European Politics |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=156–169 |date=1984 |title=The Greek Party System: A Case of "Limited but Polarised Pluralism"? |doi=10.1080/01402388408424501}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mavrogordatos |first=George |author-mask=6 |journal=South European Society and Politics |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=1–26 |date=1997 |title=From traditional clientelism to machine politics: The impact of PASOK populism in Greece |doi=10.1080/13608749708539516}}
* {{cite journal |last=McDonald |first=Robert |journal=The World Today |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=133–136 |date=1985 |title=Greece after PASOK's Victory |jstor=40395748}}
* {{cite journal |last=McDonald |first=Robert |journal=The World Today |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=194–197 |date=1989 |title=Greece's Year of Political Turbulence |jstor=40396066}}
* {{cite journal |last=Melakopides |first=Constatine |journal=International Journal |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=559–584 |date=1987 |title=The logic of Papandreou's foreign policy |doi=10.1177/002070208704200306 |jstor=40202471}}
* {{cite journal |last=Michas |first=Takis |journal=The National Interest |volume=67 |pages=94–102 |date=2002 |title=America the despised |issue=67 |jstor=42897404}}
* {{cite journal |last=Nafpliotis |first=Alexandros |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=509–528 |date=2018 |title=From radicalism to pragmatism via Europe: PASOK's stance vis-à-vis the EEC, 1977–1981 |journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies |doi=10.1080/14683857.2018.1519686 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pappas |first=Takis S. |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=31–45 |date=2013 |title=Why Greece Failed |journal=Journal of Democracy |doi=10.1353/jod.2013.0035 |url=https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/why-greece-failed/ |url-access=subscription |hdl=1814/26694 |hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pappas |first=Takis S. |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |date=2014 |title=Populist Democracies: Post-Authoritarian, Greece and Post-Communist Hungary |journal=Government and Opposition |doi=10.1017/gov.2013.21}}
* {{cite journal |last=Samatas |first=Minas |journal=Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=31–70 |date=1993 |title=The Populist Phase of an Underdeveloped Surveillance Society: Political Surveillance in Post-Dictatorial Greece |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317837964}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siani-Davies |first1=Peter |last2=Katsikas |first2=Stefanos |journal=Journal of Peace Research |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=559–575 |date=2009 |title=National reconciliation after civil war: The case of Greece |doi=10.1177/0022343309334611 |jstor=25654436}}
* {{cite journal |last=Spourdalakis |first=Michalis |journal=Mediterranean Politics |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=320–336 |date=1996 |title=PASOK's second chance |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629399608414591 |doi=10.1080/13629399608414591 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Tsakloglou |first1=Panos |last2=Cholezas |first2=Ioannis |journal=IZA Discussion Papers |article-number=1582 |date=2005 |title=Education and inequality in Greece |location=Bonn |publisher=Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) |url=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/33369/1/486061450.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last=Tsalikis |first=George |journal=International Journal of Health Services |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=543–561 |date=1998 |title=Evaluation of the socialist health policy in Greece |doi=10.2190/M3TE-L30H-TYHW-HKQH |jstor=45131620 |pmid=3235242}}
* {{cite journal |last=Tsoukalis |first=Loukas |journal=The National Interest |volume=55 |pages=65–74 |date=Spring 1999 |title=Greece: Like Any Other European Country? |issue=55 |jstor=42897144}}
* {{cite journal |last=Tsarouhas |first=Dimitris |journal=Southeast European Politics |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |date=2005 |title=Explaining an activist military: Greece until 1975 |url=https://gpsg.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/2005-P2-Tsarouhas1.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last=Van Steen |first=Gonda |journal=Journal of Modern Greek Studies |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=245–282 |date=2003 |title=Margarita Papandreou: Bearing Gifts to the Greeks? |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/47677 |doi=10.1353/mgs.2003.0021 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Vlachadis |first1=Nikolaos |last2=Siorti |first2=Maria |last3=Petrakos |first3=Georgios |last4=Panagopoulos |first4=Periklis |last5=Kornarou |first5=Eleni |last6=Barbouni |first6=Anastasia |last7=Antonakopoulos |first7=Nikolaos |last8=Tigka |first8=Maria |last9=Lykeridou |first9=Aikaterini |last10=Vrachnis |first10=Nikolaos |journal=Cureus |volume=15 |issue=1 |article-number=e34040 |date=2023 |title=Tracing Time Trends of Births in Greece |doi=10.7759/cureus.34040 |doi-access=free |pmc=9940775 |pmid=36814739 |display-authors=3}}
{{refend}}

===Newspapers and magazines===  <!-- Place them in chronological order the newspaper references -->
{{refbegin}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |author=Steven V. Roberts |date=24 January 1977 |title=Greece Is Facing an Uphill Fight For Admission to Common Market |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/01/24/archives/greece-is-facing-an-uphill-fight-for-admission-to-common-market.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Jan.|1977}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Loren Jenkins |title=Papandreou takes over, warns the military |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1981/10/22/papandreou-takes-over-warns-military/a1d5c07f-5931-4429-9bc6-0d149a1e4d62/ |newspaper=Washington Post |date=21 October 1981 |ref={{harvid|Washington Post Oct.|1981}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Marvine Howe |title=Papandreou at swearing-in calls for change |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/10/22/world/papandreou-at-swearing-in-calls-for-change.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=22 October 1981 |ref={{harvid|New York Times Oct.|1981}}}}
* {{cite news |title=Greece obstructs NATO communique |date=10 December 1981 |work=The New York Times |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/12/10/world/greece-obstructs-nato-communique.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Dec.|1981b}}}}
* {{cite news |title=Greece seeks weapons and an arms industry |date=3 March 1982 |work=The New York Times |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/03/world/greece-seeks-weapons-and-an-arms-industry.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Mar.|1982}}}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Gage |first=Nicholas |date=March 21, 1982 |title=The paradoxical Papandreou |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/21/magazine/the-paradoxical-papandreou.html |magazine=The New York Times Magazine |ref={{harvid|The New York Times Magazine Mar.|1982}}}}
* {{cite news |title=Θεαματική εξαγγελία της αγορά του αιώνα |date=6 March 1985 |publisher=Kathimerini |language=el |url=https://www.kathimerini.gr/k/100yk/1052327/agora-toy-aiona/ |ref={{harvid|Kathimerini Mar.|1985}}}}
* {{cite news |title=New issues raised for US on Greece |date=11 March 1985 |work=The New York Times |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/03/11/world/new-issues-raised-for-us-on-greece.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Mar.|1985}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Jonathan C. Randal |date=13 March 1985 |newspaper=Washington Post |title=Greek Opposition Leader Gladdened by Papandreou's Shift |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1985/03/14/greek-opposition-leader-gladdened-by-papandreous-shift/4d76307a-de5f-4740-9797-64c46dfefe40 |ref={{harvid|Washington Post Mar.|1985}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Robert Ajemian |date=13 March 1989 |title=Scandals The Looting of Greece |work=TIME magazine |url=https://time.com/archive/6702074/scandals-the-looting-of-greece |ref={{harvid|Time magazine Mar.|1989}}}}
* {{cite news |date=14 March 1989 |title=Papandreou Survives No-Confidence Motion |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/14/world/papandreou-survives-no-confidence-motion.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Mar.|1989}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Doyle McManus |date=16 April 1989 |work=Los Angeles Times |title=Koskotas Implicates Premier in Payoffs, Bribery: Ex-Banker's Tale May Be Greek Tragedy |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-04-16-mn-2514-story.html |ref={{harvid|Los Angeles Times Apr.|1989}}}}
* {{cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |title=Grave Scandal for Greece |date=18 June 1989 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/18/world/grave-scandal-for-greece.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Jun.|1989}}}}
* {{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-07-13-mn-4750-story.html |title=Papandreou Marries 34-Year-Old Mistress |website=Los Angeles Times |date=13 July 1989 |ref={{harvid|Los Angeles Times Jul.|1989}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Marlise Simons |title=Greek lawmaker is slain in Athens |newspaper=The New York Times |date=27 September 1989 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/27/world/greek-lawmaker-is-slain-in-athens.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Sep.|1989}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Marlise Simons |title=Corruption Trial for Papandreou Is Ordered by Greece's Parliament |newspaper=The New York Times |date=28 September 1989 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/28/world/corruption-trial-for-papandreou-is-ordered-by-greece-s-parliament.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Sep.|1989b}}}}
* {{cite news |title=Papandreou Trial a Modern Drama |work=Chicago Tribune |date=5 October 1989 |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1989/10/05/papandreou-trial-a-modern-drama/ |ref={{harvid|Chicago Tribune Oct.|1989}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Marlise Simons |title=Greek ex-premier not guilty in bank scandal |newspaper=The New York Times |date=17 January 1992 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/17/world/greek-ex-premier-not-guilty-in-bank-scandal.html |ref={{harvid|New York Times Jan.|1992}}}}
* {{cite news |newspaper=Washington Post |author=Steve Vogel |date=25 May 1994 |title=Greek blockade, U.N. embargo threaten Macedonia's future |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1994/05/25/greek-blockade-un-embargo-threaten-macedonias-future/ba3ebab3-8035-44cd-8853-4f0f7b768b23/ |ref={{harvid|Washington Post May|1994}}}}
* {{cite news |date=22 September 1996 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1996/09/22/papandreous-wills-a-modern-greek-drama/7ac4b51d-303f-4c1e-b7fc-d992e8c01dab/ |title=Papandreou's Wills: A Modern Greek Drama |newspaper=The Washington Post |ref={{harvid|Washington Post Sep.|1996}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Clogg, Richard |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-andreas-papandreou-1338574.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-andreas-papandreou-1338574.html |archive-date=7 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Papandreou Obituary |newspaper=The Independent |date=24 June 1996 |access-date=23 February 2014 |ref={{harvid|Independent Jun.|1996}}}}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |date=27 June 1996 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/27/world/greece-gives-a-last-sad-farewell-to-papandreou.html |title=Greece gives a last sad farewell to Papandreou |ref={{harvid|New York Times Jun.|1996}}}}
* {{cite news |last=Bohlen |first=Celestine |title=Ailing Papandreou Resigns, Asking Quick Election of Successor |newspaper=The New York Times |date=16 January 1996 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/16/world/ailing-papandreou-resigns-asking-quick-election-of-successor.html |page=5 |ref={{harvid|The New York Times Jan.|1996}}}}
* {{cite news |newspaper=Kathimerini |author=Dimitris Kapranos |title=Greece's tradition of spectacular trials |date=4 March 2003 |url=https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/12581/greece-s-tradition-of-spectacular-trials/ |ref={{harvid|Kathimerini Mar.|2003}}}} 
* {{cite news |last=Μαυρής |first=Γιάννης |title=Τομή στη Μεταπολίτευση το 1981 |url=https://www.kathimerini.gr/politics/308896/tomi-sti-metapoliteysi-to-1981 |newspaper=Kathimerini |date=30 December 2007 |language=el |ref={{harvid|Kathimerini Dec.|2007a}}}}
* {{cite news |title=Μεγάλες αλλαγές αλλά και μεγαλύτερες κοινωνικές ανισότητες |url=https://www.kathimerini.gr/politics/308840/megales-allages-alla-kai-megalyteres-koinonikes-anisotites |newspaper=Kathimerini |date=30 December 2007 |language=el |ref={{harvid|Kathimerini Dec.|2007b}}}}
* {{cite news |title=George Papandreou resigns as Greece's prime minister |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financialcrisis/8879647/George-Papandreou-resigns-as-Greeces-prime-minister.html |newspaper=The Telegraph |access-date=11 November 2011 |date=9 November 2011 |location=London |archive-date=10 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110195907/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financialcrisis/8879647/George-Papandreou-resigns-as-Greeces-prime-minister.html |url-status=live |ref={{harvid|Telegraph|2011}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Nikoleta Kalmouki |title=Remembering Andreas Papandreou 18 years later |newspaper=Greek Reporter Times |date=23 June 2014 |url=https://greekreporter.com/2014/06/23/remembering-andreas-papandreou-18-years-later/ |language=en |ref={{harvid|Greek Reporter Jun.|2014}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Stavros P. Psycharis |title=Alexis or Andreas |date=11 October 2015 |publisher=Tο ΒHMA |language=en |url=https://www.tovima.gr/2015/10/11/international/alexis-or-andreas/ |ref={{harvid|Tο ΒHMA|2015}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Yiannis Elafros |title=Greece in 2050 a country for old men |newspaper=Kathimerini |date=16 October 2016 |url=https://www.ekathimerini.com/society/212854/greece-in-2050-a-country-for-old-men/ |language=en |ref={{harvid|Kathimerini Oct.|2016}}}}
* {{cite news |last=Simos |first=Adriana |newspaper=[[The Greek Herald]] |title=On This Day in 1974: PASOK was established |date=3 September 2020 |url=https://greekherald.com.au/culture/history/on-this-day-in-1974-pasok-was-established/ |ref={{harvid|The Greek Herald Sep.|2020}}}}
* {{cite news |title=Σαν σήμερα: Ακούγεται στο Περιστέρι το σύνθημα του Ανδρέα Παπανδρέου "Τσοβόλα δώσ' τα όλα" |date=19 April 2021 |publisher=Ethnos |language=el |url=https://www.ethnos.gr/history/article/154149/sanshmeraakoygetaistoperisteritosynthhmatoyandreapapandreoytsoboladose28099taola |ref={{harvid|Ethnos Apr.|2021}}}}
* {{cite news |newspaper=Ethnos |title=Τριήμερο εθνικό πένθος: Τι είναι και τι προβλέπει – Πότε κηρύσσεται |url=https://www.ethnos.gr/greece/article/266055/trihmeroethnikopenthostieinaikaitiproblepeipotekhryssetai |date=14 June 2023 |language=el |ref={{harvid|Ethnos Jun.|2023}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Νίκος Μποζιονέλος |title=Η "αγορά του αιώνα": Κατασκοπία και σκάνδαλα για F-16 και Mirage επί εποχής Ανδρέα Παπανδρέου |date=31 January 2024 |publisher=Gov News |language=el |url=https://govnews.gr/press-on/x-files/121416/i-agora-tou-aiona-kataskopia-kai-skandala-gia-f-16-kai-mirage-epi-epochis-andrea-papandreou/ |ref={{harvid|Gov News Jan.|2024}}}}
* {{cite news |title=Σαν σήμερα πριν 35 χρόνια ο Ανδρέας Παπανδρέου αναφωνεί το "Τσοβόλα δώσ' τα όλα" |date=20 April 2024 |publisher=New Money |language=el |url=https://www.newmoney.gr/roh/politiki/san-simera-prin-35-chronia-o-aimnistos-andreas-papandreou-anafoni-to-tsovola-dos-ta-ola-vids/ |ref={{harvid|New Money Apr.|2024}}}}
{{Div col end}} 
{{refend}}

===Web and other sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.avarchive.gr/portal/digitalview.jsp?get_ac_id=3014&thid=16335 |title=Εθνικό Οπτικοακουστικό Αρχείο, Επίσημη επίσκεψη του Προέδρου του Κρατικού Συμβουλίου της Λαϊκής Δημοκρατίας της Γερμανίας Έριχ Χόνεκερ στην Ελλάδα |trans-title=National Video-audio Archive, Official visit of General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party [[Erich Honecker]] in Greece |language=el |ref={{harvid|National Video-audio Archive Mar.|1985}}}}
* {{cite web |publisher=Wilson Center |title=Breaking Ranks: Andreas Papandreou, American Liberalism, and Neo-Conservatism |date=14 March 2006 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/breaking-ranks-andreas-papandreou-american-liberalism-and-neo-conservatism |ref={{harvid|Wilson Center|Mar. 2006}}}}
* {{cite web |title=Greece's GDP over the years |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?end=2023&locations=GR&start=1960 |publisher=World Bank |ref={{harvid|World Bank, Greece's GDP}}}}
<!--* {{cite web|title=Greece's debt over GDP (%)|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/DEBT1@DEBT/GRC?zoom=GRC&highlight=GRC|access-date=5 February 2023|publisher=International Monetary Fund | ref = {{harvid|IMF, Greece's debt}} }}
* {{cite web|title=Greece's unemployment (%)|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/LUR@WEO/GRC?zoom=GRC&highlight=GRC|publisher=International Monetary Fund | ref = {{harvid|IMF, Greece's unemployment}} }} -->
* {{cite web |title=Greece's inflation rate (%) |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PCPIPCH@WEO/GRC |publisher=International Monetary Fund |ref={{harvid|IMF, Greece's inflation rate}}}} 
* {{cite web |title=Greek political scene on eve of parliamentary session |url=https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000227057.pdf |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) |ref={{harvid|CIA report, Greek political scene}}}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Prepared by American Embassy Athens |title=Foreign Economic Trends and Their Implications for the United States, Greece |date=1990 |journal=U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of International Commerce |language=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PycRHZEX5YC&dq=Greece+1988+PSBR+hit+16+percent+of+GDP&pg=PA5 |ref={{harvid| U.S. Dept. of Commerce | 1990}}}}
* {{cite web |title=Ο Ανδρέας για το "Τσοβώλα δώστα όλα" |language=el |url=https://www.facebook.com/100044428329697/videos/%CE%BF-%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%B1%CF%83-%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1-%CF%84%CE%BF-%CF%84%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B1-%CE%B4%CF%89%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1-%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B1-/350429032710445/ |ref={{harvid|Papandreou's interview}}}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1983/08/09/pdfs/A22039-22039.pdf |title=Real Decreto 2129/1983, BOE-A-1983-21630 |date=9 August 1983 |website=[[Boletín Oficial del Estado]] |ref={{harvid|Real Decreto 2129/1983}}}}
{{refend}}

==Additional reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Boggs |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Boggs |title=The socialist tradition: from crisis to decline |date=1995 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |language=en |isbn=978-0-415-90670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_pHOQT2wbE8C |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Francis |title=Western European political parties: a comprehensive guide |date=1989 |publisher=Addison-Wesley Longman Limited |location=London |language=en |isbn=978-0-582-00113-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOSJAgAAQBAJ |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kassimeris |first=George |year=2019 |title=Greek Everyman: Andreas Papandreou at 100 |journal=The Political Quarterly |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=304–309 |doi=10.1111/1467-923X.12685 |url=https://wlv.openrepository.com/server/api/core/bitstreams/1c13248e-b6cf-4ac6-b171-15d151963947/content |ref=none |hdl=2436/622589 |hdl-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kutlay |first=Mustafa |title=The Political Economies of Turkey and Greece: Crisis and Change |date=2018 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location=London |language=en |isbn=978-3-319-92788-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eF1oDwAAQBAJ |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pantazopoulos |first=Andreas |title=For the people and the nation - the moment of Andreas Papandreou |trans-title=Για το λαό και για το έθνος - η στιγμή του Ανδρέα Παπανδρέου 1965–1989 |date=2001 |publisher=Ekdoseis Polis |location=Athens |language=el |isbn=978-960-8132-32-0 |ref=none}} 
* {{cite book |last=Veremis |first=Thanos |title=Ανδρέας Παπανδρέου: Μεγάλες Προσδοκίες |date=2017 |trans-title=Andreas Papandreou: Great expectations |publisher=Pataki |location=Athens |isbn=978-960-16-7206-9 |url=https://www.patakis.gr/books/9789601672069-andreas-papandreou-megales-prosdo/ |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Williams |editor-first1=Allan M. |editor-last2=Gallagher |editor-first2=Tom |title=Southern European Socialism Parties, Elections, and the Challenge of Government |date=1989 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester |language=en |isbn=978-0-7190-2500-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCG8AAAAIAAJ |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Andreas Papandreou}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{cite news| title = Collection of articles about Andreas Papandreou from Kathimerini | url = https://www.kathimerini.gr/investigations/special-reports/563199247/50-chronia-pasok-o-andreas-kai-to-komma-toy-pera-apo-ton-mytho|language=el}}
* {{cite web| title = ERT archives; Andreas Papandreou' interview after the 1977 elections |url = https://archive.ert.gr/46278/ | language=el}}
* {{cite web| title= The rise of modern populism |author =T. Pappas |date =August 2020 |website=[[TED (conference)|TED]] | url=https://www.ted.com/talks/takis_s_pappas_the_rise_of_modern_populism/transcript?subtitle=en }}
* {{cite web| title= Videos of Andreas Papandreou | website = British Pathé | url=https://www.britishpathe.com/search/?searchQuery=andreas+papandreou}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-new|office}}
{{s-ttl|title=President of the [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement]]|years=1974–1996}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Costas Simitis]]}}
|-
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Georgios Mavros]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Greece)|Leader of the Opposition]]|years=1977–1981}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Georgios Rallis]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Georgios Rallis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|years=1981–1989}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Tzannis Tzannetakis]]}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Evangelos Averoff]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Minister for National Defence (Greece)|Minister for National Defence]]|years=1981–1986}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ioannis Charalambopoulos]]}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Greece)|Leader of the Opposition]]|years=1989}}
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{{s-bef|before=National Union government}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Greece)|Leader of the Opposition]]|years=1990–1993}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Miltiadis Evert]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Konstantinos Mitsotakis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|years=1993–1996}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Costas Simitis]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Andreas Papandreou}}
{{Heads of government of Greece}}
{{Presidents of the European Council}}
{{Leaders of the Opposition of Greece}}
{{Leaders of PASOK}}
{{Social democracy in Greece}}
{{Socialism in Greece}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Papandreou, Andreas}}
[[Category:Andreas Papandreou| ]]
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