View source for Anger

{{short description|Intense hostile emotional state of mind}}
{{redirect-several|Angry|Wrath|Anger}}
[[File:Angry-2766265 960 720.jpg|alt=Facial expression of a person having emotions of anger|thumb|[[Facial expression]] of a man having emotions of anger]]
{{emotions}}

'''Anger''' is an intense [[emotion]]al state involving a strong, uncomfortable and non-cooperative response to a perceived provocation, hurt, or threat.<ref>{{cite book |title=Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing |url=https://archive.org/details/psychiatricmenta0000vide_m6b0 |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |last=Videbeck |first=Sheila L. |publisher=[[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins]] |year=2006|isbn=978-0-7817-6033-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alia-Klein |first1=Nelly |last2=Gan |first2=Gabriela |last3=Gilam |first3=Gadi |last4=Bezek |first4=Jessica |last5=Bruno |first5=Antonio |last6=Denson |first6=Thomas F. |last7=Hendler |first7=Talma |last8=Lowe |first8=Leroy |last9=Mariotti |first9=Veronica|last10=Muscatello |first10=Maria R. |last11=Palumbo |first11=Sara |last12=Pellegrini |first12=Silvia |last13=Pietrini |first13=Pietro |last14=Rizzo |first14=Amelia |last15=Verona |first15=Edelyn |title=The feeling of anger: From brain networks to linguistic expressions |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |date=January 2020 |volume=108 |pages=480–497 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.002|pmid=31809773 |doi-access=free |hdl=11568/1022610 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

A person experiencing anger will often experience physical effects, such as increased [[heart rate]], elevated [[blood pressure]], and increased levels of the stress hormones [[epinephrine|adrenaline]] and [[norepinephrine|noradrenaline]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Medicine.net |title=Anger definition |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=33843 |access-date=2008-04-05 }}</ref> Some view anger as an emotion that triggers part of the [[fight-or-flight response|fight or flight]] response.<ref>Harris, W., Schoenfeld, C.D., Gwynne, P.W., Weissler, A.M.,'' Circulatory and humoral responses to fear and anger'', The Physiologist, 1964, 7, 155.</ref> Anger becomes the predominant feeling [[behavior|behaviorally]], [[cognition|cognitively]], and [[physiology|physiologically]] when a person makes the [[conscious]] choice to take action to immediately stop the [[threat]]ening behavior of another outside force.<ref>Raymond DiGiuseppe, Raymond Chip Tafrate, ''Understanding Anger Disorders'', Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 133–159.</ref>

Anger can have many physical and mental consequences. The external expression of anger can be found in [[facial expression]]s, [[body language]], physiological responses, and at times public acts of [[aggression]]. Facial expressions can range from inward angling of the eyebrows to a full [[wiktionary:frown|frown]].<ref name="OxfDic">Michael Kent, ''Anger'', The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-262845-3}}</ref> While most of those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them", psychologists point out that an angry person can very well be mistaken because anger causes a loss in [[self-monitoring]] capacity and objective observability.<ref name="EncPsy">Raymond W. Novaco, ''Anger'', Encyclopedia of Psychology, [[Oxford University Press]], 2000</ref>

Modern psychologists view anger as a normal and natural emotion experienced by virtually all humans at times, and as an emotion that has functional value for individual survival and mutual cooperation.  However, uncontrolled anger can negatively affect personal or social [[Quality of life|well-being]] and may produce deleterious health effects<ref name="EncPsy" /><ref name="Ethics">John W. Fiero, ''Anger'', Ethics, Revised Edition, Vol 1</ref> and negatively impact those around them. While many philosophers and writers have warned against the spontaneous and uncontrolled fits of anger, there has been disagreement over the intrinsic value of anger.<ref name="AngerTheory" /> The issue of dealing with anger has been written about since the times of the earliest philosophers, but modern psychologists, in contrast to earlier writers, have also pointed out the possible ill effects of suppressing anger on one's well-being and [[interpersonal relationship]]s.<ref name="AngerTheory" />

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==Psychology and sociology==
[[File: The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|''The Anger of Achilles'', by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] depicts the Greek hero attacking [[Agamemnon]].]]
Three types of anger are recognized by psychologists:<ref name="EoE">Paul M. Hughes, ''Anger'', Encyclopedia of Ethics, Vol I, Second Edition, Rutledge Press</ref>
#''Hasty and sudden anger'' is connected to the impulse for self-preservation. It is shared by humans and other animals, and it occurs when the animal feels tormented or trapped. This form of anger is episodic.
#''Settled and deliberate anger'' is a reaction to perceived ''deliberate'' harm or unfair treatment by others. This form of anger is episodic.
#''Dispositional anger'' is related more to character traits than to instincts or cognitions. Irritability, sullenness, and churlishness are examples of the last form of anger.

Anger can potentially mobilize psychological resources and boost determination toward correction of wrong behaviors, promotion of [[social justice]], communication of negative sentiment, and redress of grievances. It can also facilitate patience. In contrast, anger can be destructive when it does not find its appropriate outlet in expression. Anger, in its strong form, impairs one's ability to process information{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}} and to exert [[cognitive control]] over one's [[behavior]]. An angry person may lose their objectivity, empathy, prudence or thoughtfulness and may cause harm to themselves or others.<ref name="EncPsy"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=P. |first1=Mohr |last2=Howells |first2=K. |last3=Gerace |first3=A. |last4=Day |first4=A. |last5=Wharton |first5=P. |year=2007 |title=The role of perspective taking in anger arousal |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=507–517 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.019 |hdl=2328/36189 |url=https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12143192300001831 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2022-05-17 |archive-date=2022-08-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820053540/https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12143192300001831 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=A. |last2=Mohr |first2=P. |last3=Howells |first3=K. |last4=Gerace |first4=A. |last5=Lim |first5=L. |s2cid=46542250 |year=2012 |title=The role of empathy in anger arousal in violent offenders and university students |journal=International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=599–613 |doi=10.1177/0306624X11431061 |pmid=22158909 |hdl=2328/35889 |url=https://ap01.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12143192240001831 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2020-08-27 |archive-date=2020-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003080916/https://ap01.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12143192240001831 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> There is a sharp distinction between anger and [[aggression]] (verbal or physical, direct or indirect) even though they mutually influence each other. While anger can activate aggression or increase its probability or intensity, it is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for aggression.<ref name="EncPsy"/>

===Neuropsychological perspective===
Extension of the stimuli of the fighting reactions: At the beginning of life, the human infant struggles indiscriminately against any restraining force, whether it be another human being or a blanket which confines their movements. There is no inherited susceptibility to social stimuli as distinct from other stimulation, in anger. At a later date the child learns that certain actions, such as striking, scolding, and screaming, are effective toward persons, but not toward things. In adults, though the infantile response is still sometimes seen, the fighting reaction becomes fairly well limited to stimuli whose hurting or restraining influence can be thrown off by physical violence.<ref>{{cite book | last=Allport | first=F.H. | title=Social Psychology | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=1924 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=61fmAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42 |chapter=Fundamental Activities—Inherited and Learned}}</ref>

Brain regions which are activated when recognizing threat or provocation, and facilitate autonomic arousal and interoception and activate the stress response, are the salience network (dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula cortex) and subcortical area (the thalamus, the amygdala, and the brain stem).<ref>{{Citation |last=Menon |first=V. |title=Salience Network |date=2015 |work=Brain Mapping |pages=597–611 |publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-397025-1.00052-x |isbn=978-0-12-397316-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seeley |first1=William W. |last2=Menon |first2=Vinod |last3=Schatzberg |first3=Alan F. |last4=Keller |first4=Jennifer |last5=Glover |first5=Gary H. |last6=Kenna |first6=Heather |last7=Reiss |first7=Allan L. |last8=Greicius |first8=Michael D. |date=2007-02-28 |title=Dissociable Intrinsic Connectivity Networks for Salience Processing and Executive Control |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=2349–2356 |doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5587-06.2007 |pmid=17329432 |issn=0270-6474|pmc=2680293 }}</ref>

==Differences between related concepts==
Raymond Novaco of University of California Irvine, who since 1975 has published a plethora of literature on the subject, stratified anger into three modalities: cognitive (appraisals), [[Somatic nervous system|somatic]]-[[affective]] (tension and agitations), and behavioral (withdrawal and antagonism).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Advances in the Study of Aggression|last=Novaco|first=Raymond W.|publisher=Academic Press|year=1986|isbn=978-1-4831-9968-9|editor-last=Blanchard|editor-first=Robert J.|volume=2|pages=1–67|chapter=Anger as a Clinical and Social Problem|doi=10.1016/b978-1-4831-9968-9.50002-x|oclc=899004162|editor2-last=Blanchard|editor2-first=D. Caroline}}</ref>

The words [[annoyance]] and [[Rage (emotion)|rage]] are often imagined to be at opposite ends of an emotional continuum: mild irritation and annoyance at the low end and fury at the high end. Rage problems are conceptualized as "the inability to process emotions or life's experiences"<ref>Parker Hall, 2008, ''Anger, Rage and Relationship: An Empathic Approach to Anger Management'', Routledge</ref> either because the capacity to regulate emotion (Schore, 1994)<ref>Schore AN, 1994, ''Affect Regulation and the Origin of Self'', Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum Associates, Inc</ref> has never been sufficiently developed or because it has been temporarily lost due to more recent trauma. Rage is understood as raw, undifferentiated emotions, that spill out when another life event that cannot be processed, no matter how trivial, puts more [[Stress (biology)|stress]] on the [[organism]] than it can bear.

Anger, when viewed as a protective response or instinct to a perceived threat, is considered as positive. The negative expression of this state is known as aggression commits [[antisocial personality disorder]]<ref>Gottman & Levenson, 1992</ref> and [[Intermittent explosive disorder]]. Acting on this misplaced state is rage due to possible potential errors in perception and judgment.

'''Examples'''

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Expressions of anger used negatively !! Reasoning
|-
| Over-protective instinct and hostility || To avoid conceived loss or fear that something will be taken away.
|-
| Entitlement and frustration || To prevent a change in functioning.
|-
| Intimidation and rationalization || To meet one's own needs.
|}

==Characteristics==

{{Refimprove section|date=November 2025}}


[[File:SERGI01rob-2.jpg|thumb|A visibly angered [[Washington Luís]], President of Brazil (back seat) leaving the [[Guanabara Palace]] after his overthrow during the [[Brazilian Revolution of 1930|Revolution of 1930]] (October 24)]]
William DeFoore, an [[anger management]] writer, described anger as a pressure cooker, stating that "we can only suppress or apply pressure against our happy for so long before it erupts".<ref>{{cite book |title=Anger: Deal with It, Heal with It, Stop It from Killing You |url=https://archive.org/details/angerdealwithith00defo |url-access=registration |edition=1st |last=DeFoore |first=William |publisher=Health Communications, Inc. |year=1991|isbn=978-1-55874-162-1 }}</ref>

One simple trichotomy of anger expression is ''passive anger'' versus ''aggressive anger'' versus ''assertive anger''. These three types of anger have some characteristic symptoms:<ref>{{cite journal|last1=L. |first1=Hedlund |last2=U. |first2=Lindquist |title=The development of an inventory for distinguishing among passive, aggressive, and assertive behavior|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1985-19065-001|access-date=2020-10-08|journal=Behavioral Assessment|date=1984 |language=en|archive-date=2021-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414224051/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1985-19065-001|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Passive anger===
Passive anger can be expressed in the following ways:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Busch |first=Fredric N. |date=July 2009 |title=Anger and depression |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=271–278 |doi=10.1192/apt.bp.107.004937 |issn=1355-5146 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* ''[[Apathy|Dispassion]]'', such as giving someone the [[cold shoulder]] or a fake smile, looking unconcerned or "[[sitting on the fence]]" while others sort things out, dampening feelings with [[substance abuse]], overreacting, oversleeping, not responding to another's anger, frigidity, indulging in sexual practices that depress spontaneity and make objects of participants, giving inordinate amounts of time to machines, objects or intellectual pursuits, talking of frustrations but showing no feeling.
* ''[[Evasion (ethics)|Evasiveness]]'', such as turning one's back in a crisis, avoiding conflict, not arguing back, becoming [[phobia|phobic]].
* ''[[Defeatism]]'', such as [[Setting up to fail|setting people up for failure]], choosing unreliable people to depend on, being [[Accident-proneness|accident prone]], [[Underachiever|underachieving]], [[erectile disfunction|sexual impotence]], expressing frustration at insignificant things but ignoring serious ones.
* ''[[Obsessive compulsive disorder|Obsessive behavior]]'', such as needing to be inordinately clean and tidy, making a habit of constantly checking things, over-dieting or overeating, demanding that all jobs be done perfectly.
* ''[[Psychological manipulation]]'', such as provoking people to aggression and then patronizing them, provoking aggression but staying on the sidelines, [[emotional blackmail]], [[Crocodile tears|false tearfulness]], feigning illness, [[sabotage|sabotaging]] [[Interpersonal relationship|relationships]], using [[promiscuity|sexual provocation]], using a third party to convey negative feelings, withholding money or resources.
* ''[[Secretive|Secretive behavior]]'', such as stockpiling resentments that are expressed behind people's backs, giving the [[silent treatment]] or under-the-breath mutterings, avoiding eye contact, putting people down, [[gossip]]ing, anonymous complaints, [[poison pen letter]]s, [[theft|stealing]], and [[confidence trick|conning]].
* ''[[Self-blame]]'', such as apologizing too often, being overly critical, inviting [[criticism]].

===Aggressive anger===
The symptoms of aggressive anger are:
* ''[[Bullying]]'', such as threatening people directly, persecuting, insulting, pushing or shoving, using power to oppress, shouting, driving someone off the road, playing on people's [[vulnerability|weaknesses]].
* ''Destruction'', such as destroying objects as in [[vandalism]], [[cruelty to animals|harming animals]], [[child abuse]], destroying a relationship, [[reckless driving]], [[substance abuse]].
* ''[[Grandiosity]]'', such as showing off, expressing [[mistrust]], not delegating, being a sore loser, wanting center stage all the time, not listening, talking over people's heads, expecting kiss and make-up sessions to solve problems.
* ''Hurtfulness'', such as [[violence]], including [[sexual abuse]], [[rape]], [[racism]], [[verbal abuse]], biased or [[vulgarity|vulgar jokes]], breaking confidence, using [[profanity|foul language]], [[apathy|ignoring people's feelings]], willfully [[discrimination|discriminating]], [[blame|blaming]], punishing people for unwarranted deeds, labeling others.
* ''Risk-taking behavior'', such as speaking too fast, walking too fast, driving too fast, reckless spending.
* ''[[Selfishness]]'', such as ignoring others' needs, not responding to requests for help, [[cutting in line|queue jumping]].
* ''[[Threat]]s'', such as [[intimidation|frightening people]] by saying how one could harm them, [[vandalism#Vandalism as crime|their property]] or their prospects, finger pointing, fist shaking, wearing clothes or symbols associated with violent behavior, [[tailgating]], [[road rage|excessively blowing a car horn]], slamming doors.
* ''Unjust [[blame|blaming]]'', such as accusing other people for one's own mistakes, blaming people for person's own feelings, making general accusations.
* ''[[Predictability|Unpredictability]]'', such as explosive rages over minor [[frustration]]s, attacking indiscriminately, dispensing unjust [[punishment]], inflicting harm on others for the sake of it, illogical arguments.
* ''[[revenge|Vengeance]]'', such as being over-punitive. This differs from retributive justice, as vengeance is personal, and possibly unlimited in scale.

===Assertive anger===
* ''[[Blame]]'', such as after a particular individual commits an action that's possibly frowned upon, the particular person will resort to scolding. This is in fact, common in discipline terms.
* ''[[Punishment (psychology)|Punishment]]'', the angry person will give a temporary punishment to an individual like further limiting a child's will to do anything they want like playing video games, watching television, etc., after they did something to cause trouble. Or disciplining a pet.
* ''Sternness'', such as calling out a person on their behaviour, with their voices raised with utter disapproval/disappointment.

===Six dimensions of anger expression===
Anger expression can take on many more styles than passive or aggressive. Ephrem Fernandez has identified six dimensions of anger expression. They relate to the direction of anger, its locus, reaction, modality, impulsivity, and objective. Coordinates on each of these dimensions can be connected to generate a profile of a person's anger expression style. Among the many profiles that are theoretically possible in this system, are the familiar profile of the person with explosive anger, profile of the person with repressive anger, profile of the [[passive aggressive]] person, and the profile of constructive anger expression.<ref>Fernandez, E. (2008). "The angry personality: A representation on six dimensions of anger expression". In G.J .Boyle, D. Matthews & D. Saklofske (eds.). ''International Handbook of Personality Theory and Testing: Vol. 2: Personality Measurement and Assessment'' (pp. 402–419). London: Sage</ref>

===Ethnicity and culture===
Much research has explored whether the emotion of anger is experienced and expressed differently depending on the culture. Matsumoto (2007) conducted a study in which White-American and Asian participants needed to express the emotions from a program called JACFEE (Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion) in order to determine whether Caucasian observers noticed any differences in expression of participants of a different nationality. He found that participants were unable to assign a nationality to people demonstrating expression of anger, i.e. they could not distinguish ethnic-specific expressions of anger.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Matsumoto | first1 = D | year = 2007 | title = Emotion judgments do not differ as a function of perceived nationality | journal = International Journal of Psychology | volume = 42 | issue = 3| pages = 207–214 | doi = 10.1080/00207590601050926 }}</ref> Hatfield, Rapson, and Le (2009) conducted a study that measured ethnic differences in emotional expression using participants from the Philippines, Hawaii, China, and Europe. They concluded that there was a difference between how someone expresses an emotion, especially the emotion of anger in people with different ethnicities, based on frequency, with Europeans showing the lowest frequency of expression of negative emotions.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hatfield | first1 = E. C. | last2 = Rapson | first2 = R. L. | last3 = Le | first3 = Y. L. | year = 2009 | title = Ethnic and gender differences in emotional ideology, experience, and expression | journal = Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 30–57 | doi = 10.5964/ijpr.v3i1.31 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Other research investigates anger within different ethnic groups who live in the same country. Researchers explored whether Black Americans experience and express greater anger than Whites (Mabry & Kiecolt, 2005). They found that, after controlling for sex and age, Black participants did not feel or express more anger than Whites.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mabry | first1 = J. B. | last2 = Kiecolt | first2 = K. J. | year = 2005 | title = Anger in Black and White: Race, alienation, and anger | journal = Journal of Health and Social Behavior | volume = 46 | issue = 1| pages = 85–101 | doi = 10.1177/002214650504600107 | pmid = 15869122 | s2cid = 1575076 }}</ref> Deffenbacher and Swaim (1999) compared the expression of anger in Mexican American people and White non-Hispanic American people. They concluded that White non-Hispanic Americans expressed more verbal aggression than Mexican Americans, although when it came to physical aggression expressions there was no significant difference between both cultures when it came to anger.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Deffenbacher | first1 = J. L. | last2 = Swaim | first2 = R. C. | year = 1999 | title = Anger expression in Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescents | journal = Journal of Counseling Psychology | volume = 46 | issue = 1| pages = 61–69 | doi = 10.1037/0022-0167.46.1.61 }}</ref>

==Causes==
Some animals make loud sounds, attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare.<ref name="Primate">Primate Ethology, 1967, Desmond Morris (Ed.). Weidenfeld & Nicolson Publishers: London, p. 55</ref> The behaviors associated with anger are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior. Rarely does a physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants.<ref name="Primate" /> [[Affect display|Displays]] of anger can be used as a [[psychological manipulation|manipulation]] strategy for [[social influence]].<ref name="Sutton1" /><ref name="Hochschild1" />

People feel really angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended, when they are certain about the nature and cause of the angering event, when they are convinced someone else is responsible, and when they feel they can still influence the situation or [[Coping (psychology)|cope]] with it.<ref>International Handbook of Anger. p. 290</ref> For instance, if a person's car is damaged, they will feel angry if someone else did it (e.g. another driver rear-ended it), but will feel sadness instead if it was caused by situational forces (e.g. a hailstorm) or guilt and shame if they were personally responsible (e.g. they crashed into a wall out of momentary carelessness). Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham defines anger in terms of our expectations and assumptions about the world.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graham |first1=Michael C. |title=Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment |date=2014 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=978-1-4787-2259-5}}</ref> Graham states anger almost always results when we are caught up "...{{nbsp}}expecting the world to be different than it is".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graham |first1=Michael C. |title=Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment |date=2014 |publisher=Outskirts Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-4787-2259-5}}</ref>

Usually, those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them" and in most cases the described provocations occur immediately before the anger experience. Such explanations confirm the illusion that anger has a discrete external cause. The angry person usually finds the cause of their anger in an intentional, personal, and controllable aspect of another person's behavior. This explanation is based on the intuitions of the angry person who experiences a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability as a result of their emotion. Anger can be of multicausal origin, some of which may be remote events, but people rarely find more than ''one'' cause for their anger.<ref name="EncPsy"/> According to Novaco, "Anger experiences are embedded or nested within an environmental-temporal context. Disturbances that may not have involved anger at the outset leave residues that are not readily recognized but that operate as a lingering backdrop for focal provocations (of anger)."<ref name="EncPsy"/> According to Encyclopædia Britannica, an internal [[infection]] can cause [[pain]] which in turn can activate anger.<ref name="Britannica11">"emotion". [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, p. 11</ref> According to [[cognitive dissonance|cognitive consistency]] theory, anger is caused by an inconsistency between a desired, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation, and triggers responses, such as [[aggression|aggressive behavior]], with the expected consequence of reducing the inconsistency.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hebb|first=D.O.|title=The Organisation of Behavior|publisher=Wiley|year=1949|location=New York, NY}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Archer |first=J. |chapter=The organization of aggression and fear in vertebrates |year=1976 |editor1-first=P.P.G. |editor1-last=Bateson |editor2-first=P.H. |editor2-last=Klopfer |title=Perspectives in Ethology (Vol.2) |pages=231–298 |location=New York, NY |publisher=Plenum }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = van Kampen | first = H.S. | year = 2019 | title = The principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour | doi = 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013 | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 159 | pages = 42–54 | pmid = 30562561 | s2cid = 56478466 }}</ref> Sleep deprivation also seems to be a cause of anger.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Why We Sleep|last=Walker|first=Matthew}}</ref>

==Cognitive effects==
{{more citations needed section|date=March 2013}} <!--The whole introduction, from "Anger makes people think..." to "...optimistic risk assessments." needs to be sourced-->
Anger causes a reduction in cognitive ability and the accurate processing of external stimuli. Dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky, ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. Angry people are more likely to make risky decisions, and make less realistic risk assessments. In one study, test subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to have heart disease, and more likely to receive a pay raise, compared to fearful people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jennifer S. Lerner |last2=Dacher Keltner |year=2001 |title=Fear, Anger, and Risk |url=http://sds.hss.cmu.edu/BDRauthors/fear.pdf |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=146–159 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.146 |pmid=11474720 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516023611/http://sds.hss.cmu.edu/BDRauthors/fear.pdf |archive-date=2011-05-16}}</ref> This tendency can manifest in retrospective thinking as well: in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the year following [[9/11]] in retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects thought.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischhoff |first1=Baruch |last2=Gonzalez |first2=Roxana M. |last3=Lerner |first3=Jennifer S. |last4=Small |first4=Deborah A. |year=2005 |title=Evolving Judgments of Terror Risks: Foresight, Hindsight, and Emotion |url=http://content.ksg.harvard.edu/lernerlab/papers/files/Fischhoff_2005_JEP_Paper.pdf |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=134–139 |citeseerx=10.1.1.320.7149 |doi=10.1037/1076-898x.11.2.124 |pmid=15998184 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719205555/http://content.ksg.harvard.edu/lernerlab/papers/files/Fischhoff_2005_JEP_Paper.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-19}}</ref>

In inter-group relationships, anger makes people think in more negative and prejudiced terms about outsiders. Anger makes people less trusting, and slower to attribute good qualities to outsiders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=David DeSteno |last2=Nilanjana Dasgupta |last3=Monica Y. Bartlett |last4=Aida Cajdric |year=2004 |title=Prejudice From Thin Air: The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes |url=http://www.heart-intl.net/HEART/120104/Prejudicefromthinairtheeffe.pdf |journal=Psychological Science |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=319–324 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00676.x |pmid=15102141 |s2cid=666642 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723143149/http://www.heart-intl.net/HEART/120104/Prejudicefromthinairtheeffe.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-23 |access-date=2010-07-01}}</ref>

When a group is in conflict with a rival group, it will feel more anger if it is the politically stronger group and less anger when it is the weaker.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Diane M. Mackie |last2=Thierry Devos |last3=Eliot R. Smith |year=2000 |title=Intergroup Emotions: Explaining Offensive Action Tendencies in an Intergroup Context |url=http://www2.uni-jena.de/svw/igc/download/Mackie_Devos_Smith_JPSP_2000.pdf |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=602–616 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.602 |pmid=11045741 |s2cid=15268023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928032753/http://www2.uni-jena.de/svw/igc/download/Mackie_Devos_Smith_JPSP_2000.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-28}}</ref>

Unlike other negative emotions like sadness and fear, angry people are more likely to demonstrate [[correspondence bias]] – the tendency to blame a person's behavior more on their nature than on their circumstances. They tend to rely more on stereotypes, and pay less attention to details and more attention to the superficial. In this regard, anger is unlike other "negative" emotions such as sadness and fear, which promote analytical thinking.<ref>International Handbook of Anger. Chapter 17</ref>

An angry person tends to anticipate other events that might cause them anger. They will tend to rate anger-causing events (e.g. being sold a faulty car) as more likely than sad events (e.g. a good friend moving away).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=D. DeSteno |last2=R.E. Petty |last3=D.T. Wegener |last4=D.D. Rucker |s2cid=16076868 |year=2000 |title=Beyond valence in the perception of likelihood: The role of emotion specificity. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=397–416 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.397 |pmid=10743870}}</ref>

A person who is angry tends to place more blame on another person for their misery. This can create a feedback, as this extra blame can make the angry person angrier still, so they in turn place yet more blame on the other person.

When people are in a certain emotional state, they tend to pay more attention to, or remember, things that are charged with the same emotion; so it is with anger. For instance, if a person is trying to persuade someone that a tax increase is necessary, if the person is currently feeling angry, they would do better to use an argument that elicits anger ("more criminals will escape justice") than, say, an argument that elicits sadness ("there will be fewer welfare benefits for disabled children").<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=DeSteno| first1=D. |last2=Petty |first2=R.E. |last3=Rucker |first3=D.D. |last4=Wegener |first4=D.T. |last5=Braverman |first5=J. |year=2004 |title=Discrete emotions and persuasion: The role of emotion-induced expectancies |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=43–56 |citeseerx=10.1.1.138.452 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.43 |pmid=14717627}}</ref> Also, unlike other negative emotions, which focus attention on all negative events, anger only focuses attention on anger-causing events.

Anger can make a person more desiring of an object to which their anger is tied. In a 2010 Dutch study, test subjects were primed to feel anger or fear by being shown an image of an angry or fearful face, and then were shown an image of a random object. When subjects were made to feel angry, they expressed more desire to possess that object than subjects who had been primed to feel fear.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aarts |first1=Henk |last2=Ruys |first2=Kirsten I. |last3=Veling |first3=Harm |last4=Renes |first4=Robert A. |last5=De Groot |first5=Jasper H.B. |last6=Van Nunen |first6=Anna M. |last7=Geertjes |first7=Sarit |date=2010-11-01 |title=Anger makes people want things more |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101101151730.htm |journal=Psychological Science |volume=21 |issue=10 |pages=1406–1410 |doi=10.1177/0956797610384152 |pmid=20855898 |s2cid=30481336 |access-date=2013-01-03 |archive-date=2013-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117035441/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101101151730.htm |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Expressive strategies==
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|caption1 = Anger combined with other primary emotions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adliterate.com/archives/Plutchik.emotion.theorie.POSTER.pdf |title=Robert Plutchik's Psychoevolutionary Theory of Basic Emotions |website=Adliterate.com |access-date=2017-06-05 |archive-date=2017-06-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609162958/http://www.adliterate.com/archives/Plutchik.emotion.theorie.POSTER.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Turner2000">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Turner|title=On the Origins of Human Emotions: A Sociological Inquiry Into the Evolution of Human Affect|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEeSmDRsXkcC&pg=PA76|date=1 June 2000|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-6436-0|page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=A Fuzzy Inference System for Synergy Estimation of Simultaneous Emotion Dynamics in Agents|journal=International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research|volume=2|issue=6|date=June 2011|url=http://www.ijser.org/paper/A_Fuzzy_Inference_System_for_Synergy_Estimation_of_Simultaneous_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Agents.html|author1=Atifa Athar|author2=M. Saleem Khan|author3=Khalil Ahmed|author4=Aiesha Ahmed|author5=Nida Anwar|access-date=2019-01-09|archive-date=2016-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112191413/http://www.ijser.org/paper/A_Fuzzy_Inference_System_for_Synergy_Estimation_of_Simultaneous_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Agents.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}As with any emotion, the display of anger can be feigned or [[exaggerated]]. Studies by Hochschild and Sutton have shown that the show of anger is likely to be an effective manipulation strategy in order to change and design attitudes. Anger is a distinct strategy of social influence and its use (e.g. belligerent behaviors) as a goal achievement mechanism proves to be a successful strategy.<ref name="Sutton1">Sutton, R.I. ''Maintaining norms about expressed emotions: The case of bill collectors'', Administrative Science Quarterly, 1991, 36:245–268</ref><ref name="Hochschild1">Hochschild, AR, ''The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling'', [[University of California Press]], 1983</ref>

Larissa Tiedens, known for her studies of anger, claimed that expression of feelings would cause a powerful influence not only on the [[perception]] of the expresser but also on their [[power position]] in the [[society]]. She studied the [[correlation]] between anger expression and social influence perception. Previous researchers, such as Keating, 1985 have found that people with angry face expression were perceived as powerful and as in a high [[social position]].<ref name="Tiedens 2001">{{cite journal |last=Tiedens L.Z |title=Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11195894&dopt=Citation |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=January 2001 |access-date=2015-11-27 |volume=80 |number=1 |pages=86–94 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.86 |pmid=11195894}}</ref> Similarly, Tiedens et al. have revealed that people who compared scenarios involving an angry and a sad character, attributed a higher [[social status]] to the angry character.<ref name="Tiedens et al., 2000"/> Tiedens examined in her study whether anger expression promotes status attribution. In other words, whether anger contributes to perceptions or legitimization of others' behaviors. Her findings clearly indicated that participants who were exposed to either an angry or a sad person were inclined to express support for the angry person rather than for a sad one. In addition, it was found that a reason for that decision originates from the fact that the person expressing anger was perceived as an ability owner, and was attributed a certain social status accordingly.<ref name="Tiedens 2001"/>

Showing anger during a negotiation may increase the ability of the anger expresser to succeed in [[negotiation]]. A study by Tiedens et al. indicated that the anger expressers were perceived as stubborn, dominant and powerful. In addition, it was found that people were inclined to easily give up to those who were perceived by them as powerful and stubborn, rather than soft and submissive.<ref name="Tiedens et al., 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Tiedens |first1=Ellsworth |last2=Tiedens |first2=Mesquita |title=Sentimental Stereotypes: Emotional Expectations for High-and Low-Status Group Members |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=560–575 |year=2000 |doi=10.1177/0146167200267004 |s2cid=56077921 |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2645&context=articles |access-date=2018-12-19 |archive-date=2018-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720114733/https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2645&context=articles |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Based on these findings Sinaceur and Tiedens have found that people conceded more to the angry side rather than for the non-angry one.<ref>M Sinaceur, LZ Tiedens, Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2006</ref>

A question raised by Van Kleef et al. based on these findings was whether expression of emotion influences others, since it is known that people use emotional information to conclude about others' limits and match their demands in negotiation accordingly. Van Kleef et al. wanted to explore whether people give up more easily to an angry opponent or to a happy opponent. Findings revealed that participants tended to be more flexible toward an angry opponent compared with a happy opponent. These results strengthen the argument that participants analyze the opponent's emotion to conclude about their limits and carry out their decisions accordingly.<ref>Van Kleef, De Dreu and Manstead, ''The Interpersonal Effects of Anger and Happiness in Negotiations'', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2004, Vol. 86, No. 1, 57–76</ref>

==Coping strategies==
{{Main|Anger management}}

===Therapy and behavioral strategies===
According to Leland R. Beaumont, each instance of anger demands making a choice.<ref>Leland R. Beaumont, Emotional Competency, [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/anger.htm#path Anger, An Urgent Plea for Justice and Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629210133/http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/anger.htm#path |date=2017-06-29 }}, Entry describing paths of anger</ref> A person can respond with [[hostility|hostile]] action, including overt [[violence]], or they can respond with hostile inaction, such as withdrawing or stonewalling. Other options include initiating a dominance contest; harboring [[resentment]]; or working to better understand and constructively resolve the issue.

According to Raymond Novaco, there are a multitude of steps that were researched in attempting to deal with this emotion. In order to manage anger the problems involved in the anger should be discussed, Novaco suggests. The situations leading to anger should be explored by the person.<ref name="AngerTheory"/><ref>Novaco, R. (1975). Anger control: The development and evaluation of an experimental treatment. Lexington, MA: Heath.</ref>

Conventional therapies for anger involve restructuring thoughts and beliefs to bring about a reduction in anger. These therapies often come within the schools of CBT (or [[cognitive behavioral therapy]]) like modern systems such as REBT ([[rational emotive behavior therapy]]). Research shows that people with excessive anger often harbor and act on dysfunctional [[attribution (psychology)|attributions]], assumptions and [[evaluation]]s in specific situations. It has been shown that with therapy by a trained professional, individuals can bring their anger to more manageable levels.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Richard |last2=Fernandez |first2=Ephrem |title=Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in the Treatment of Anger: A Meta-Analysis |journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=63–74 |year=1998 |url=http://www.acu.edu/img/assets/6655/Cognitive-Behavioral%20in%20the%20Treatment%20of%20Anger%20(A%20Meta-analysis).pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060905115446/http://www.acu.edu/img/assets/6655/Cognitive-Behavioral%20in%20the%20Treatment%20of%20Anger%20(A%20Meta-analysis).pdf |archive-date=2006-09-05 |access-date=2007-02-05 |doi=10.1023/A:1018763902991 |s2cid=5209157 }}</ref> The therapy is followed by the so-called "stress inoculation" in which the clients are taught relaxation skills to control their arousal and various cognitive controls to exercise on their attention, thoughts, images, and feelings. "Logic defeats anger, because anger, even when it's justified, can quickly become irrational." ([[American Psychological Association]]). In other words, although there may be a rational reason to get angry, the frustrated actions of the subject can become irrational. Taking deep breaths is regarded as the first step to calming down. Once the anger has subsided a little, the patient will accept that they are frustrated and move on. Lingering around the source of frustration may bring the rage back.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apa.org/topics/anger/control |title=Control anger before it controls you |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=20 July 2022 |archive-date=27 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727085305/https://www.apa.org/topics/anger/control |url-status=live }}</ref>

The skills-deficit model states that poor [[social skills]] is what renders a person incapable of expressing anger in an appropriate manner.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Frederiksen | first1 = L.W. | last2 = Eisler | first2 = R.M. | year = 1977 | title = The control of explosive behavior: A skill development approach. In D. Upper (Ed.), Perspectives in Behavior Therapy. Kalamazoo, MI: Behaviordelia. Ranhiam, S., LeFebre, C., and Jenkins, J.O. 1980. The effects of social skills training on behavioral and cognitive components of anger management | journal = Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry | volume = 11 | pages = 3–8 }}</ref> Social skills training has been found to be an effective method for reducing exaggerated anger by offering alternative coping skills to the angry individual. Research has found that persons who are prepared for aversive events find them less threatening, and excitatory reactions are significantly reduced.<ref>Leventhal, H.. Emotions: A basic problem for social psychology. In C. Nemeth (Ed.), Social psychology: Classic and contemporary integrations. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1974.</ref> In a 1981 study, that used modeling, behavior rehearsal, and videotaped feedback to increase anger control skills, showed increases in anger control among aggressive youth in the study.<ref>Kolko, D.J., Dorsett, P.G., and Milan, M. (1981). A total assessment approach to the evaluation of social skills training: The effectiveness of an anger control program for adolescent psychiatric patients. Behavioral Assessment, 3, 383–402.</ref> Research conducted with youthful offenders using a social skills training program (aggression replacement training), found significant reductions in anger, and increases in anger control.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Glick | first1 = B. | last2 = Goldstein | first2 = A.P. | year = 1987 | title = Aggression replacement training | journal = Journal of Counseling and Development | volume = 65 | issue = 7| pages = 356–361 | doi = 10.1002/j.1556-6676.1987.tb00730.x }}</ref> Research has also found that antisocial personalities are more likely to learn avoidance tasks when the consequences involved obtaining or losing tangible rewards. Learning among antisocial personalities also occurred better when they were involved with high intensity stimulation.<ref>Reid, D., Dorr, J., Walker & J Bonner (eds.), New York: Norton (1971).</ref> [[Social learning theory]] states that positive stimulation was not compatible with hostile or aggressive reactions.<ref>Bandura, A. Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973.</ref> Anger research has also studied the effects of reducing anger among adults with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), with a social skills program approach that used a low fear and high arousal group setting. This research found that low fear messages were less provocative to the ASPD population, and high positive arousal stimulated their ability to concentrate, and subsequently learn new skills for anger reduction.<ref>Sanderlin, T.K., and Cellini, H.R., "Anger Management Intervention with Offender Populations". Offender Programs Report, Vol. 2. No. 4, November/December 1998.</ref>

A new integrative approach to anger treatment has been formulated by Fernandez (2010).<ref>"Toward an Integrative Psychotherapy for Maladaptive Anger", ''International Handbook of Anger''.</ref> Termed CBAT, for cognitive behavioral affective therapy, this treatment goes beyond conventional relaxation and reappraisal by adding cognitive and behavioral techniques and supplementing them with effective techniques to deal with the feeling of anger. The techniques are sequenced contingently in three phases of treatment: prevention, intervention, and postvention. In this way, people can be trained to deal with the onset of anger, its progression, and the residual features of anger.

===Medication therapy===
{{Main|Serenic}}
{{See also|List of investigational aggression drugs}}

[[File:Nevrovitamine 4 P-FG-ES-01835.jpg|thumb|Early 20th century French advertisement for drugs against anger in children. [[Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy]]]]

[[Systematic review]]s and [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] suggest that certain [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] [[medication]]s may be effective in controlling symptoms of anger, hostility, and irritability.<ref name="pmid30721802">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bak M, Weltens I, Bervoets C, De Fruyt J, Samochowiec J, Fiorillo A, Sampogna G, Bienkowski P, Preuss WU, Misiak B, Frydecka D, Samochowiec A, Bak E, Drukker M, Dom G | title = The pharmacological management of agitated and aggressive behaviour: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Eur Psychiatry | volume = 57 | issue = | pages = 78–100 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30721802 | doi = 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.01.014 | s2cid = 73416580 | url = | doi-access = free | hdl = 10067/1566660151162165141 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid31126061">{{cite journal | vauthors = Romero-Martínez Á, Murciano-Martí S, Moya-Albiol L | title = Is Sertraline a Good Pharmacological Strategy to Control Anger? Results of a Systematic Review | journal = Behav Sci | volume = 9 | issue = 5 | date = May 2019 | page = 57 | pmid = 31126061 | pmc = 6562745 | doi = 10.3390/bs9050057 | url = | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid35470032">{{cite journal | vauthors = Salazar de Pablo G, Jordá CP, Vaquerizo-Serrano J, Moreno C, Cabras A, Arango C, Hernández P, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Simonoff E, Fusar-Poli P, Santosh P, Cortese S, Parellada M | title = Systematic Review and Meta-analysis: Efficacy of Pharmacological Interventions for Irritability and Emotional Dysregulation in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Predictors of Response | journal = J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry | volume = 62| issue = 2| pages = 151–168| date = April 2022 | pmid = 35470032 | doi = 10.1016/j.jaac.2022.03.033 | s2cid = 248371519 | url = | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid19379093">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mercer D, Douglass AB, Links PS | title = Meta-analyses of mood stabilizers, antidepressants and antipsychotics in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: effectiveness for depression and anger symptoms | journal = J Pers Disord | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 156–74 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19379093 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2009.23.2.156 | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid27482998">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim S, Boylan K | title = Effectiveness of Antidepressant Medications for Symptoms of Irritability and Disruptive Behaviors in Children and Adolescents | journal = J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol | volume = 26 | issue = 8 | pages = 694–704 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27482998 | doi = 10.1089/cap.2015.0127 | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid33656478">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rahmani E, Lemelle TM, Samarbafzadeh E, Kablinger AS | title = Pharmacological Treatment of Agitation and/or Aggression in Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review of Reviews | journal = J Head Trauma Rehabil | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = E262–E283 | date = 2021 | pmid = 33656478 | doi = 10.1097/HTR.0000000000000656 | s2cid = 232102347 | url = }}</ref> These include [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]] (SSRI) [[antidepressant]]s like [[sertraline]], certain [[anticonvulsant]] [[mood stabilizer]]s, [[antipsychotic]]s like [[aripiprazole]], [[risperidone]], and [[olanzapine]], and [[benzodiazepine]]s like [[midazolam]], among others.<ref name="pmid30721802" /><ref name="pmid19379093" /><ref name="pmid35470032" /><ref name="pmid27482998" /><ref name="pmid31126061" /><ref name="pmid33656478" /> Another meta-analysis of antidepressants and aggression found no change in aggression in adults and increased aggression in children.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma T, Guski LS, Freund N, Gøtzsche PC | title = Suicidality and aggression during antidepressant treatment: systematic review and meta-analyses based on clinical study reports | journal = BMJ | volume = 352 | issue = | pages = i65 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26819231 | pmc = 4729837 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.i65 | url = }}</ref> [[Psychostimulant]]s like [[methylphenidate]] and [[amphetamine type stimulant|amphetamine]]s as well as the [[atypical antipsychotic]] risperidone are useful in reducing aggression and [[oppositional behavior|oppositionality]] in children and adolescents with [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[antisocial personality disorder]], and [[autism spectrum disorder]] with moderate to large [[effect size]]s and greater effectiveness than other studied medications.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pringsheim T, Hirsch L, Gardner D, Gorman DA | title = The pharmacological management of oppositional behaviour, conduct problems, and aggression in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Part 1: psychostimulants, alpha-2 agonists, and atomoxetine | journal = Can J Psychiatry | volume = 60 | issue = 2 | pages = 42–51 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25886655 | pmc = 4344946 | doi = 10.1177/070674371506000202 | url = }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pringsheim T, Hirsch L, Gardner D, Gorman DA | title = The pharmacological management of oppositional behaviour, conduct problems, and aggression in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Part 2: antipsychotics and traditional mood stabilizers | journal = Can J Psychiatry | volume = 60 | issue = 2 | pages = 52–61 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25886656 | pmc = 4344947 | doi = 10.1177/070674371506000203 | url = }}</ref> Yet another meta-analysis found that methylphenidate slightly reduced [[irritability]] while amphetamines increased the risk of irritability several-fold in children with ADHD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stuckelman ZD, Mulqueen JM, Ferracioli-Oda E, Cohen SC, Coughlin CG, Leckman JF, Bloch MH | title = Risk of Irritability With Psychostimulant Treatment in Children With ADHD: A Meta-Analysis | journal = J Clin Psychiatry | volume = 78 | issue = 6 | pages = e648–e655 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 28682529 | doi = 10.4088/JCP.15r10601 | url = }}</ref> Other research has found no impact of [[amphetamine]] or [[methamphetamine]] on aggression in humans.<ref name="OMalleyHartCasey2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Malley KY, Hart CL, Casey S, Downey LA | title = Methamphetamine, amphetamine, and aggression in humans: A systematic review of drug administration studies | journal = Neurosci Biobehav Rev | volume = 141 | issue = | article-number = 104805 | date = October 2022 | pmid = 35926727 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104805 | url = | hdl = 10072/422156 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

===Suppression===
Modern psychologists point out that [[Expressive suppression|suppression]] of anger may have harmful effects. The suppressed anger may find another outlet, such as a physical symptom, or become more extreme.<ref name="AngerTheory"/><ref>"Anger". Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2nd ed. [[Thomson Gale|Gale Group]], 2001.</ref> John W. Fiero cites [[Los Angeles riots of 1992]] as an example of sudden, explosive release of suppressed anger. The anger was then displaced as violence against those who had nothing to do with the matter. There is also the case of [[Francine Hughes]], who suffered 13 years of domestic abuse. Her suppressed anger drove her to kill her abuser husband. It is claimed that a majority of female victims of domestic violence who suppress their aggressive feelings are unable to recognize, experience, and process negative emotion and this has a destabilising influence on their perception of agency in their relationships.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cupid's Knife: Women's Anger and Agency in Violent Relationships|last=Stein|first=Abby|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-415-52786-6|location=New York|page=1}}</ref> Another example of widespread deflection of anger from its actual cause toward [[scapegoating]], Fiero says, was the blaming of [[Jews]] for the economic ills of [[Germany]] by the [[Nazi]]s.<ref name="Ethics"/>

Some psychologists criticized the catharsis theory of aggression, which suggests that releasing pent-up anger reduces aggression.<ref>Evidence against catharsis theory:
* {{cite news |last=Burkeman |year=2006 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/jan/26/healthandwellbeing.features |title=Anger Management |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=2016-12-13 |archive-date=2016-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424091453/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/jan/26/healthandwellbeing.features |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Green |year=1975 |title=The facilitation of aggression by aggression: Evidence against the catharsis hypothesis |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |display-authors=etal |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.31.4.721 |pmid=1159613 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=721–726|citeseerx=10.1.1.366.6962 }}
Evidence for: {{cite journal |last2=Feshbach |first2=Seymour |last1=Murray |first1=Joan |title=Let's not throw the baby out with the bathwater: The catharsis hypothesis revisited |journal=Journal of Personality |volume=46 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1978.tb01012.x |year=1978 |pages=462–473}}</ref> On the other hand, there are experts who maintain that suppression does not eliminate anger since it merely forbids the expression of anger and this is also the case for repression, which merely hides anger from awareness.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mental Health and Psychiatric Nursing: A Caring Approach|last1=Davies|first1=Janet|last2=Janosik|first2=Ellen|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|year=1991|isbn=978-0-86720-442-1|location=Boston, MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/mentalhealthpsyc0000davi/page/107 107]|url=https://archive.org/details/mentalhealthpsyc0000davi/page/107}}</ref> There are also studies that link suppressed anger and medical conditions such as [[hypertension]], [[coronary artery disease]], and [[cancer]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Anger Disorders: Definition, Diagnosis, And Treatment|last=Kassinove|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Kassinove|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2013|isbn=978-1-56032-352-5|location=Oxon|page=1}}</ref><ref name="Worell-2002" /> Suppressed or repressed anger is found to cause [[irritable bowel syndrome]], [[eating disorder]]s, and [[Depression (mood)|depression]] among women.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bowers|first1=Hannah|last2=Wroe|first2=Abigail|date=2016|title=Beliefs about emotions mediate the relationship between emotional suppression and quality of life in irritable bowel syndrome|journal=Journal of Mental Health|volume=25|issue=2|pages=154–158|via=Taylor and Francis Online|doi=10.3109/09638237.2015.1101414|pmid=26635302|s2cid=24698200}}</ref><ref name="Worell-2002" /> Suppression is also referred to as a form of "self-silencing", which is described as a cognitive activity wherein an individual monitors the self and eliminate thoughts and feelings that are perceived to be dangerous to relationships.<ref name="Worell-2002" /> Anger suppression is also associated with higher rates of suicide.<ref name="Worell-2002">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Women and Gender, Two-Volume Set: Sex Similarities and Differences and the Impact of Society on Gender|last=Worell|first=Judith|publisher=Academic Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-12-227245-5|location=San Diego, CA|page=144|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_g9b9|url-access=limited}}</ref>

==Dual threshold model==
Anger expression might have negative outcomes for individuals and organizations as well, such as decrease of productivity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jehn | first1 = K.A. | year = 1995 | title = A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict | journal = Administrative Science Quarterly | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 256–282 | doi = 10.2307/2393638 | jstor = 2393638 }}</ref> and increase of job stress,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Glomb | first1 = T.M. | year = 2002 | title = Workplace anger and aggression: Informing conceptual models with data from specific encounters | journal = Journal of Occupational Health Psychology | volume = 7 | issue = 1| pages = 20–36 | doi = 10.1037/1076-8998.7.1.20 | pmid = 11827231 }}</ref> It could also have positive outcomes, such as increased work motivation, improved relationships and increased mutual understanding (for ex. Tiedens, 2000).<ref>Tiedens, L.Z. 2000. Powerful emotions: The vicious cycle of social status positions and emotions. In N.M. Ashkanasy, C.E.J. Ha¨ rtel, & W.J. Zerbe (Eds.), Emotions in the workplace: Research, theory and practice: 71–81. Westport, CT: Quorum.</ref> A Dual Threshold Model of Anger in organizations by Geddes and Callister, (2007) provides an explanation on the valence of anger expression outcomes. The model suggests that organizational norms establish emotion thresholds that may be crossed when employees feel anger. The first "expression threshold" is crossed when an organizational member conveys felt anger to individuals at work who are associated with or able to address the anger-provoking situation. The second "impropriety threshold" is crossed if or when organizational members go too far while expressing anger such that observers and other company personnel find their actions socially and/or culturally inappropriate.

The higher probability of negative outcomes from workplace anger likely will occur in either of two situations. The first is when organizational members suppress rather than express their anger—that is, they fail to cross the "expression threshold". In this instance personnel who might be able to address or resolve the anger-provoking condition or event remain unaware of the problem, allowing it to continue, along with the affected individual's anger. The second is when organizational members cross both thresholds—"double cross"— displaying anger that is perceived as deviant. In such cases the angry person is seen as the problem—increasing chances of organizational sanctions against him or her while diverting attention away from the initial anger-provoking incident. In contrast, a higher probability of positive outcomes from workplace anger expression likely will occur when one's expressed anger stays in the space between the expression and impropriety thresholds. Here, one expresses anger in a way fellow organizational members find acceptable, prompting exchanges and discussions that may help resolve concerns to the satisfaction of all parties involved. This space between the thresholds varies among different organizations and also can be changed in organization itself: when the change is directed to support anger displays; the space between the thresholds will be expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing such displays; the space will be reduced.<ref>Geddes, D. & Callister, R. 2007 Crossing The Line(s): A Dual Threshold Model of Anger in Organizations, Academy of Management Review. 32 (3): 721–746.</ref><ref>Geddes, D., Callister, R. R., & Gibson, D. 2020 The Message in the Madness: Functions of workplace anger in organizational life. Academy of Management Perspectives. 34: 28–47. {{doi|10.5465/amp.2016.0158}}</ref>

== Physiology ==
[[File:Anger during a protest by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|An angry exchange between two people, as evidenced by their [[body language]] and [[facial expression]]s. To hear the angry exchange, listen to the audio below.]]
[[File:Ds300004.ogg|thumb|Audio file of an angry exchange at a protest.]]
[[Neuroscience]] has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the [[Human brain|brain]]. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the [[amygdala]] in its travel from the [[Sense|sensory organs]] along certain [[neural pathway]]s towards the [[limbic]] [[forebrain]]. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories occurs when its information is relayed from the [[thalamus]] to the [[neocortex]].<ref name="Britannica11"/> Based on some [[Statistics|statistical analysis]], some scholars have suggested that the tendency for anger may be [[Heredity|genetic]]. Distinguishing between genetic and [[environmental factor]]s requires further research and actual measurement of specific genes and environments.<ref>Xiaoling Wang, Ranak Trivedi, Frank Treiber, and Harold Snieder, ''Genetic and Environmental Influences on Anger Expression, John Henryism, and Stressful Life Events: The Georgia Cardiovascular Twin Study'', Psychosomatic Medicine 67:16–23 (2005)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=81 |title=Understanding Genetics |publisher=Thetech.org |date=2005-01-06 |access-date=2014-04-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319224429/http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=81 |archive-date=2012-03-19 }}</ref>

In [[neuroimaging]] studies of anger, the most consistently activated region of the brain was the lateral [[orbitofrontal cortex]].<ref>International Handbook of Anger. ''Chapt 4: Constructing a Neurology of Anger''. Michael Potegal and Gerhard Stemmler. 2010</ref> This region is associated with approach motivation and positive affective processes.<ref>International Handbook of Anger. ''Chapt 17''. Michael Potegal and Gerhard Stemmler. 2010</ref>

The external expression of anger can be found in physiological responses, facial expressions, [[body language]], and at times in public acts of aggression.<ref name="OxfDic"/> The [[rib cage]] tenses and [[breathing]] through the nose becomes faster, deeper, and irregular.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Philippot|first1=Pierre|last2=Chapelle|first2=Gaëtane|last3=Blairy|first3=Sylvie|title=Respiratory feedback in the generation of emotion|journal=Cognition & Emotion|date=August 2002|volume=16|issue=5|pages=605–627|doi=10.1080/02699930143000392|s2cid=146185970|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232965660|access-date=18 March 2017}}</ref> Anger activates the [[hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moons|first1=Wesley G.|last2=Eisenberger|first2=Naomi I.|last3=Taylor|first3=Shelley E.|title=Anger and fear responses to stress have different biological profiles|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|date=February 2010|volume=24|issue=2|pages=215–219|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2009.08.009|pmid=19732822|s2cid=8099653|url=https://sanlab.psych.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/31/2015/05/Moons2010BrainBehavImmunity.pdf|access-date=18 March 2017|archive-date=18 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318174757/https://sanlab.psych.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/31/2015/05/Moons2010BrainBehavImmunity.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[catecholamine]] activation is more strongly [[norepinephrine]] than [[epinephrin]]e.<ref name="EncPsy"/> Heart rate and blood pressure increase. Blood flows to the hands. Perspiration increases (particularly when the anger is intense).<ref>[[Paul Ekman]], ''Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication'', Holt Paperbacks, {{ISBN|0-8050-7516-X}}, 2004, p. 63</ref> The face flushes. The nostrils flare. The jaw tenses. The brow muscles move inward and downward, fixing a hard stare on the target. The arms are raised and a squared-off stance is adopted. The body is mobilized for immediate action, often manifesting as a subjective sense of strength, self-assurance, and potency. This may encourage the impulse to strike out.<ref name="EncPsy"/>

== Measuring anger ==

=== The Gallup World Poll ===
Every year, [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] asks people in over 140 countries, "did you experience anger during a lot of the day yesterday?" In 2021, Gallup found that 23% of adults experienced a lot of anger, which is up from 18% in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Emotions Report |url=https://www.gallup.com/analytics/349280/gallup-global-emotions-report.aspx |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=Gallup.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809164527/https://www.gallup.com/analytics/349280/gallup-global-emotions-report.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> The countries that experienced the most anger were Lebanon, Turkey, Armenia, Iraq, and Afghanistan; the countries that experience the least anger were Finland, Mauritius, Estonia, Portugal, and the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gidman |first=Jenn |date=2022-08-07 |title=This Is the Angriest Country on Earth |url=https://www.newser.com/story/323806/this-is-the-angriest-country-on-earth.html |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=Newser |archive-date=2022-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808230724/https://www.newser.com/story/323806/this-is-the-angriest-country-on-earth.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Self-reports of Psychological Anger ===
The most common way to measure anger has been through the use of self-report measures. It is currently thought there are just under 50 measures of psychological anger.<ref name="Maltby-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Maltby |first1=John |last2=Norton |first2=Will H. J. |last3=McElroy |first3=Eoin |last4=Cromby |first4=John |last5=Halliwell |first5=Martin |last6=Hall |first6=Sophie S. |date=2022-12-08 |title=Refining Anger: Summarizing the Self-Report Measurement of Anger |journal=Journal of Personality Assessment |volume=105 |issue=6 |pages=752–762 |doi=10.1080/00223891.2022.2152345 |issn=0022-3891 |pmid=36480742|s2cid=254478254 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The Spielberger State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spielberger |first=Charles |title=State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory |website=PsycTESTS Dataset|year=2021 |doi=10.1037/t29496-000 |s2cid=243875065 }}</ref> and the Novaco Anger Scale and Provocation Inventory<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hornsveld |first1=Ruud H. J. |last2=Muris |first2=Peter |last3=Kraaimaat |first3=Floris W. |date=2011 |title=The Novaco Anger Scale–Provocation Inventory (1994 version) in Dutch forensic psychiatric patients. |journal=Psychological Assessment |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=937–944 |doi=10.1037/a0024018 |pmid=21668125 |issn=1939-134X}}</ref> are widely recognized and frequently used self-report measures for assessing anger, focusing on various aspects of anger expression including outward, inward, and controlled expressions. Additionally, various anger scales draw on different perspectives, such as cognitive processes of anger rumination,<ref name="Sukhodolsky-2001">{{Cite journal |last1=Sukhodolsky |first1=Denis G. |last2=Golub |first2=Arthur |last3=Cromwell |first3=Erin N. |date=2001-10-01 |title=Development and validation of the anger rumination scale |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886900001719 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |language=en |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=689–700 |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00171-9 |issn=0191-8869|url-access=subscription }}</ref> anger as behavioral and cognitive responses to avoidance, assertion, and social support,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Linden |first1=Wolfgang |last2=Hogan |first2=Brenda E. |last3=Rutledge |first3=Thomas |last4=Chawla |first4=Anuradha |last5=Lenz |first5=Joseph W. |last6=Leung |first6=Debbie |date=March 2003 |title=There is more to anger coping than "in" or "out". |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.12 |journal=Emotion |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=12–29 |doi=10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.12 |pmid=12899314 |issn=1931-1516|url-access=subscription }}</ref> cognitive and emotional aspects of irritability,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Craig |first1=Kevin J. |last2=Hietanen |first2=Heidi |last3=Markova |first3=Ivana S. |last4=Berrios |first4=German E. |date=2008-06-30 |title=The Irritability Questionnaire: A new scale for the measurement of irritability |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016517810700090X |journal=Psychiatry Research |language=en |volume=159 |issue=3 |pages=367–375 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2007.03.002 |pmid=18374422 |s2cid=8193504 |issn=0165-1781|url-access=subscription }}</ref> functional and dysfunctional responses and goal-oriented behavior in response to anger,<ref name="Kubiak 1–13">{{Cite journal |last1=Kubiak |first1=Thomas |last2=Wiedig-Allison |first2=Monika |last3=Zgoriecki |first3=Sandra |last4=Weber |first4=Hannelore |date=2011-01-01 |title=Habitual Goals and Strategies in Anger Regulation |url=https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/1614-0001/a000030 |journal=Journal of Individual Differences |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1027/1614-0001/a000030 |issn=1614-0001 |access-date=2023-04-22 |archive-date=2023-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430214833/https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/1614-0001/a000030 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> experiences of anger,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sharkin |first1=Bruce S. |last2=Gelso |first2=Charles J. |date=1991 |title=Anger Discomfort Scale |website=PsycTESTS Dataset|doi=10.1037/t06800-000 }}</ref> and positive beliefs about anger.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moeller |first=Stine Bjerrum |date=July 2016 |title=The Metacognitive Anger Processing (MAP) Scale: Preliminary Testing |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioural-and-cognitive-psychotherapy/article/abs/metacognitive-anger-processing-map-scale-preliminary-testing/B1AF90EAD4C6873E8AF1EE676661CA4D |journal=Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy |language=en |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=504–509 |doi=10.1017/S1352465815000272 |pmid=26109253 |s2cid=22886296 |issn=1352-4658 |access-date=2023-04-22 |archive-date=2023-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422084403/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioural-and-cognitive-psychotherapy/article/abs/metacognitive-anger-processing-map-scale-preliminary-testing/B1AF90EAD4C6873E8AF1EE676661CA4D |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some approaches even consider anger as being reciprocally related to frustration and hostility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Birkley |first1=Erica L. |last2=Eckhardt |first2=Christopher I. |date=2015-04-01 |title=Anger, hostility, internalizing negative emotions, and intimate partner violence perpetration: A meta-analytic review |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |language=en |volume=37 |pages=40–56 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.002 |issn=0272-7358 |pmc=4385442 |pmid=25752947}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pawliczek |first1=Christina M. |last2=Derntl |first2=Birgit |last3=Kellermann |first3=Thilo |last4=Gur |first4=Ruben C. |last5=Schneider |first5=Frank |last6=Habel |first6=Ute |date=2013-10-18 |title=Anger under Control: Neural Correlates of Frustration as a Function of Trait Aggression |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=8 |issue=10 |article-number=e78503 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078503 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3799631 |pmid=24205247 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...878503P |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trip |first1=Simona |last2=Bora |first2=Carmen Hortensia |last3=Roseanu |first3=Gabriel |last4=McMahon |first4=James |date=2021-06-01 |title=Anger, Frustration Intolerance, Global Evaluation of Human Worth and Externalizing Behaviors in Preadolescence |journal=Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy |language=en |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=238–255 |doi=10.1007/s10942-020-00369-w |s2cid=254699356 |issn=1573-6563}}</ref>

In 2023, a study<ref name="Maltby-2022" /> revealed that the relationships between 46 subscales of publicly available self-report measures of anger suggest five primary factors. These factors suggest a model of five key dimensions to anger; anger-arousal, anger-rumination, frustration-discomfort, anger-regulation, and socially constituted anger.<ref name="Maltby-2022" /> The proposed five-factor model is based on various theoretical contexts and provides a useful framework for examining the distinct domains of anger.<ref name="Maltby-2022" />

* Anger-arousal, which acknowledges the commonly observed existence of anger expressions in everyday life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beames |first1=Joanne R. |last2=O'Dean |first2=Siobhan M. |last3=Grisham |first3=Jessica R. |last4=Moulds |first4=Michelle L. |last5=Denson |first5=Thomas F. |date=May 2019 |title=Anger regulation in interpersonal contexts: Anger experience, aggressive behavior, and cardiovascular reactivity |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=1441–1458 |doi=10.1177/0265407518819295 |s2cid=150663606 |issn=0265-4075 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This domain highlights the tendency for frequent and intense anger experiences and offers a means to examine how anger can represent an individual's stable and predictable responses to different situations.<ref name="Maltby-2022" />
* Anger-rumination, which centers around the cognitive and emotional processes that occur within an individual regarding anger and the cognitive appraisals and action tendencies in response to perceived wrong-doings.<ref name="Sukhodolsky-2001" /> This domain offers an opportunity to examine anger within the broader context of rumination and explore how metacognitive beliefs about emotional stress, like anger, can lead to behavioral and emotional dysregulation, such as depression.<ref name="Maltby-2022" />
* Frustration-discomfort, which reflects measures that are tailored to Rational-Emotive Behavior Theory,<ref name="Ellis" /> which explore absolutistic and demand-related beliefs related to entitlement, achievement, and alleviating discomfort.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harrington |first=Neil |date=September 2005 |title=The Frustration Discomfort Scale: development and psychometric properties |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cpp.465 |journal=Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy |language=en |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=374–387 |doi=10.1002/cpp.465 |issn=1063-3995 |access-date=2023-04-22 |archive-date=2023-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422085905/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cpp.465 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This domain provides an opportunity to examine how our cognitive beliefs give rise to expressions of anger.<ref name="Maltby-2022" />
* Anger-regulation, which reflects cognitive strategies or processes that modify the expression and experience of anger.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Gilam |first1=Gadi |title=Deconstructing Anger in the Human Brain |date=2017 |work=Social Behavior from Rodents to Humans: Neural Foundations and Clinical Implications |pages=257–273 |editor-last=Wöhr |editor-first=Markus |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/7854_2015_408 |isbn=978-3-319-47429-8 |last2=Hendler |first2=Talma |volume=30 |pmid=26695163 |editor2-last=Krach |editor2-first=Sören}}</ref> This domain provides a chance to examine coping strategies, such as avoidance, seeking distraction, and downplaying, which are common ways of managing stressful situations related to anger.<ref name="Kubiak 1–13"/>
* Socially constituted anger, which takes a socially constructed perspective on anger, and views anger as operating within social dominance and conflict dynamics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Averill |first=James R. |date=1983 |title=Studies on anger and aggression: Implications for theories of emotion. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0003-066X.38.11.1145 |journal=American Psychologist |language=en |volume=38 |issue=11 |pages=1145–1160 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.38.11.1145 |pmid=6650969 |issn=1935-990X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Craig A. |last2=Bushman |first2=Brad J. |date=February 2002 |title=Human Aggression |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=27–51 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 |pmid=11752478 |s2cid=227846 |issn=0066-4308 |access-date=2023-04-22 |archive-date=2022-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126071215/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This approach recognizes that the recognition of anger in others can reveal their possible motivations and highlight potential disagreements between individuals' values; particularly in terms of within the protection and enhancement of the self, social norms, and the extent to which anger is constructed via joint understandings of the world.<ref name="Maltby-2022" />

The study<ref name="Maltby-2022" /> suggests a number of existing subscales that can be used to measure these five domains of anger.

==Philosophical perspectives==
[[File:FLAXMAN John The Fury Of Athamas.jpg|thumb|right|''The Fury of [[Athamas]]'' by [[John Flaxman]] (1755–1826)]]

===Ancient history===
Ancient Greek philosophers, describing and commenting on the uncontrolled anger, particularly toward slaves, in their society generally showed a hostile attitude towards anger. [[Galen]] and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] regarded anger as a kind of madness. They all rejected the spontaneous, uncontrolled fits of anger and agreed on both the possibility and value of controlling anger. There were disagreements regarding the value of anger. For Seneca, anger was "worthless even for war". Seneca believed that the disciplined [[Roman army]] was regularly able to beat the [[Germanic peoples|Germans]], who were known for their fury. He argued that "...{{nbsp}}in sporting contests, it is a mistake to become angry".<ref name="AngerTheory"/>

[[Aristotle]] on the other hand, ascribed some value to anger that has arisen from perceived injustice because it is useful for preventing injustice.<ref name="AngerTheory"/><ref>According to Aristotle: "The person who is angry at the right things and toward the right people, and also in the right way, at the right time and for the right length of time is morally praiseworthy." cf. Paul M. Hughes, ''Anger'', Encyclopedia of Ethics, Vol I, Second Edition, Rutledge Press</ref> Furthermore, the opposite of anger is a kind of insensibility, Aristotle stated.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> The difference in people's temperaments was generally viewed as a result of the different mix of qualities or humors people contained. Seneca held that "red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors".<ref name="AngerTheory"/> Ancient philosophers rarely refer to women's anger at all, according to Simon Kemp and K.T. Strongman perhaps because their works were not intended for women. Some of them that discuss it, such as Seneca, considered women to be more prone to anger than men.<ref name="AngerTheory"/>

====Control methods====
{{wikisource|Of Anger}}
[[Seneca the younger|Seneca]] addresses the question of mastering anger in three parts: 1. how to avoid becoming angry in the first place 2. how to cease being angry and 3. how to deal with anger in others.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> Seneca suggests, to avoid becoming angry in the first place, that the many faults of anger should be repeatedly remembered. One should avoid being too busy or dealing with anger-provoking people. Unnecessary hunger or thirst should be avoided and soothing music be listened to.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> To cease being angry, Seneca suggests {{Blockquote|one to check speech and impulses and be aware of particular sources of personal irritation. In dealing with other people, one should not be too inquisitive: It is not always soothing to hear and see everything. When someone appears to slight you, you should be at first reluctant to believe this, and should wait to hear the full story. You should also put yourself in the place of the other person, trying to understand his motives and any extenuating factors, such as age or illness."<ref name="AngerTheory"/>}}

Seneca further advises daily self-inquisition about one's [[Behavioral addiction|bad habit]].<ref name="AngerTheory"/> To deal with anger in others, Seneca suggests that the best reaction is to keep calm. A certain kind of deception, Seneca says, is necessary in dealing with angry people.<ref name="AngerTheory"/>

Galen repeats Seneca's points but adds a new one: finding a guide and teacher can help the person in controlling their passions. Galen also gives some hints for finding a good teacher.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> Both Seneca and Galen (and later philosophers) agree that the process of controlling anger should start in childhood on grounds of malleability. Seneca warns that this education should not blunt the spirit of the children nor should they be humiliated or treated severely. At the same time, they should not be pampered. Children, Seneca says, should learn not to beat their playmates and not to become angry with them. Seneca also advises that children's requests should not be granted when they are angry.<ref name="AngerTheory"/>

===Post-classical history===
{{See also|The four humours}}
During the period of the [[Roman Empire]] and the [[Middle Ages]], philosophers elaborated on the existing conception of anger, many of whom did not make major contributions to the concept. For example, many medieval philosophers such as [[Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna), [[Roger Bacon]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]] agreed with ancient philosophers that animals cannot become angry.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> On the other hand, [[al-Ghazali]] (Algazel), who often disagreed with Aristotle and Ibn Sina on many issues, argued that animals do possess anger as one of the three "powers" in their [[Qalb|heart]], the other two being [[appetite]] and [[Impulse (psychology)|impulse]]. He also argued that animal [[Will (philosophy)|will]] is "conditioned by anger and appetite" in contrast to human will which is "conditioned by the [[Intelligence|intellect]]".<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Amber |last=Haque |year=2004 |title=Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=357–377 [367] |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z |s2cid=38740431 }}</ref> A common medieval belief was that those prone to anger had an excess of yellow bile or choler (hence the word "choleric").<ref name="AngerTheory"/> 

====By gender====
Wrath was sinful because of the social problems it caused, sometimes even homicide. It served to ignore those who are present, contradicts those who are absent, produces [[insult]]s, and responds harshly to insults that are received.<ref>In the Garden of Evil: Vices and Culture in the Middle Ages. Richard Newhauser. PIMS, 200</ref> Aristotle felt that anger or wrath was a natural outburst of self-defense in situations where people felt they had been wronged. Aquinas felt that if anger was justified, it was not a sin. For example, "He that is angry without cause, shall be in danger; but he that is angry with cause, shall not be in danger: for without anger, teaching will be useless, judgments unstable, crimes unchecked. Therefore to be angry is not always an evil."<ref>St. Thomas Aquinas Blackfriars; McGraw-Hill, N.Y.K. 1963, Question 158</ref>

The concept of wrath contributed to a definition of gender and power. Many medieval authors in 1200 agreed the differences between men and women were based on complexion, shape, and disposition. Complexion involved the balance of the four fundamental qualities of heat, coldness, moistness, and dryness. When various combinations of these qualities are made they define groups of certain people as well as individuals. Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen all agreed on that, in terms of biology and sexual differentiation, heat was the most important of the qualities because it determined shape and disposition. Disposition included a balance of the previous four qualities, the four elements and the four humors. For example, the element of fire shared the qualities of heat and dryness: fire dominated in yellow bile or choler, meaning a choleric person was more or hot and dry than others. Hot and dry individuals were active, dominant, and aggressive. The opposite was true with the element of water. Water, is cold and moist, related closely to phlegm: people with more phlegmatic personalities were passive and submissive. While these trait clusters varied from individual to individual most authors in the Middle Ages assumed certain clusters of traits characterized men more than women and vice versa.<ref name="In the Garden of Evil">In the Garden of Evil: Vices and Culture in the Middle Ages. Richard Newhauser. PIMS, 2005</ref>

=====Women=====
Scholars posted that females were seen by authors in the Middle Ages to be more phlegmatic (cold and wet) than males, meaning females were more sedentary and passive than males.<ref name="In the Garden of Evil"/> Women's passive nature appeared "natural" due to their lack of power when compared to men. Aristotle identified traits he believed women shared: female, feminine, passive, focused on matter, inactive, and inferior. Thus medieval women were supposed to act submissively toward men and relinquish control to their husbands.<ref name="In the Garden of Evil"/>

=====Men=====
Medieval scholars believed most men were choleric, or hot and dry. Thus they were dominant and aggressive. (Barton) Aristotle also identified characteristics of men: male, masculine, active, focused on form, potent, outstanding, and superior. Men were aware of the power they held. Given their choleric "nature", men exhibited hot temperatures and were quick to anger.<ref name="In the Garden of Evil"/> [[Peter of Albano]] once said, "The male's spirit, is lively, given to violent impulse; [it is] slow getting angry and slower being calmed." Medieval ideas of gender assumed men were more rational than women. Masculinity involved a wide range of possible behaviors, and men were not angry all the time. Every man's [[humorism|humoral]] balance was different, some men were strong, others weak, also some more prone to wrath than others.<ref name="In the Garden of Evil"/> There are those who view anger as a manly act. For instance, David Brakke maintained:{{blockquote|because anger motivated a man to action in righting wrongs to himself and others, because its opposite appeared to be passivity in the face of challenges from other males, because – to put it simply – it raised the body's temperature, anger appeared to be a characteristic of masculinity, a sign that a man was indeed a manly man.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Behold the Man: Jesus and Greco-Roman Masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/beholdmanjesusgr00conw_914|url-access=limited|last=Conway|first=Colleen|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19-532532-4|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/beholdmanjesusgr00conw_914/page/n40 28]}}</ref> }}

====Control methods====
[[Maimonides]] considered being given to uncontrollable passions as a kind of illness. Like Galen, Maimonides suggested seeking out a philosopher for curing this illness just as one seeks out a physician for curing bodily illnesses. Roger Bacon elaborates Seneca's advices. Many medieval writers discuss at length the evils of anger and the virtues of temperance. In a discussion of [[Confession (religion)|confession]], [[John Mirk]], an English 14th-century [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] writer, tells priests how to advise the [[penance|penitent]] by considering the spiritual and social consequences of anger:<ref name="AngerTheory"/>
{{column
|1=
{{blockquote|<poem>''Agaynes wraþþe hys helpe schal be,''
''Ʒef he haue grace in herte to se''
''How aungelus, when he ys wroth,''
''From hym faste flen and goth,''
''And fendes faste to hym renneth,''
''And wyþ fuyre of helle hys herte breneth,''
''And maketh hym so hote & hegh,''
''Þat no mon may byde hym negh.''<ref>Edward Peacock (editor), revised by F.J. Furnivall (1902). [https://archive.org/stream/instructionsfor00furngoog#page/n67/mode/2up ''Instructions for Parish Priests by John Myrc'', p.48, lines 1567–74], Trübner, accessed 15 December 2014 at [[Internet Archive]].</ref></poem>}}
|2=
{{blockquote|<poem>'Against wrath his help shall be,
if he has grace in heart to see,
how angels, should his anger rise,
flee fast from him and go
and demons run to him in haste;
hell's fury burns his heart
and makes him so hot and high
that none may stand him nigh.</poem>}}
}}
In ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) modified the theory of [[temperament]]s and argued that anger heralded the transition of [[melancholia]] to mania, and explained that [[humidity]] inside the head can contribute to such [[mood disorder]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Amber |last=Haque |year=2004 |title=Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=357–377 [366] |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z |s2cid=38740431 }}</ref>

On the other hand, [[Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi]] classified anger (along with aggression) as a type of [[neurosis]],<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Amber |last=Haque |year=2004 |title=Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=357–377 [362] |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z |s2cid=38740431 }}</ref> while al-Ghazali argued that anger takes form in rage, indignation and revenge, and that "the powers of the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] become balanced if it keeps anger under control".<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Amber |last=Haque |year=2004 |title=Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=357–377 [366–368] |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z |s2cid=38740431 }}</ref>

===Modern perspectives===
[[Immanuel Kant]] rejects revenge as vicious. Regarding the latter, [[David Hume]] argues that because "anger and [[hatred]] are passions inherent in our very frame and constitution, the lack of them is sometimes evidence of weakness and imbecility".<ref name="EoE"/> [[Martha Nussbaum]] has also agreed that even "great injustice" is no "excuse for childish and undisciplined behavior".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Srinivasan|first=Amia|date=2016-11-30|title=Would Politics Be Better Off Without Anger?|journal=The Nation|language=en-US|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/a-righteous-fury/|access-date=2020-06-24|issn=0027-8378|archive-date=2020-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626180505/https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/a-righteous-fury/|url-status=live}}</ref> Two main differences between the modern understanding and ancient understanding of anger can be detected, Kemp and Strongman state: one is that early philosophers were not concerned with possible harmful effects of the [[#Suppression|suppression of anger]]; the other is that, recently, studies of anger take the issue of [[gender differences]] into account.<ref name="AngerTheory"/> Soraya Chemaly has in contrast argued that anger is "a critically useful and positive emotion" which "warns us, as humans, that something is wrong and needs to change" when "being threatened with indignity, physical harm, humiliation and unfairness" and therefore "a powerful force for political good".<ref name="Chemaly-2019">{{Cite news|last=Chemaly|first=Soraya|date=2019-05-11|title=How women and minorities are claiming their right to rage|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/may/11/women-and-minorities-claiming-right-to-rage|access-date=2020-06-24|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2020-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714042901/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/may/11/women-and-minorities-claiming-right-to-rage|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, she argues that women and minorities are not allowed to be angry to the same extent as white men.<ref name="Chemaly-2019" /> In a similar vein, [[Rebecca Traister]] has argued that holding back anger has been an impediment to the progress of [[women's rights]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Kipnis|first=Laura|date=2018-10-02|title=Women Are Furious. Now What?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/11/rebecca-traister-good-and-mad/570826/|access-date=2020-06-24|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-06-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627052020/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/11/rebecca-traister-good-and-mad/570826/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The American psychologist [[Albert Ellis]] has suggested that anger, rage, and fury partly have roots in the philosophical meanings and assumptions through which human beings interpret [[wikt:transgression|transgression]].<ref name="Ellis">Ellis, Albert (2001). Overcoming Destructive Beliefs, Feelings, and Behaviors: New Directions for Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. [[Prometheus Books]].</ref> According to Ellis, these emotions are often associated and related to the leaning humans have to absolutistically depreciating and damning other peoples' humanity when their personal rules and domain are transgressed.

==Religious perspectives==
===Judaism===
{{Main|Anger in Judaism}}
In [[Judaism]], anger is a negative trait. In the [[Book of Genesis]], [[Jacob]] condemned the anger that had arisen in his sons Simon and Levi: "Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce; and their wrath, for it was cruel."<ref name="Jewish">[[Kaufmann Kohler]], [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1523&letter=A Anger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206101308/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1523&letter=A |date=2010-02-06 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]]</ref>

Restraining oneself from anger is seen as noble and desirable, as [[Ethics of the Fathers]] states:

{{Blockquote|[[Ben Zoma]] said:
Who is strong? He who subdues his evil inclination, as it is stated,
"He who is slow to anger is better than a strong man, and he who masters his passions is better than one who conquers a city" (Proverbs 16:32).<ref>Ethics of the Fathers 4:1</ref>}}

Maimonides rules that one who becomes angry is as though that person had worshipped idols.<ref>Rambam, Hilchot de'ot 2</ref> Rabbi [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]] explains that the parallel between anger and idol worship is that by becoming angry, one shows a disregard of [[Divine Providence]] – whatever had caused the anger was ultimately ordained from Above – and that through coming to anger one thereby denies the hand of [[God in Judaism|God]] in one's life.<ref>Sefer HaTanya, p. 535</ref>

In its section dealing with ethical traits a person should adopt, the ''[[Shlomo Ganzfried#Kitzur Shulchan Aruch|Kitzur Shulchan Aruch]]'' states: "Anger is also a very evil trait and it should be avoided at all costs. You should train yourself not to become angry even if you have a good reason to be angry."<ref>Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 29:4</ref>

In modern writings, Rabbi [[Harold Kushner]] finds no grounds for anger toward God because "our misfortunes are none of His doing".<ref>Harold S. Kushner, ''When Bad Things Happen to Good People'' (Schocken Books, 1981), 44.</ref> In contrast to Kushner's reading of the [[Bible]], David Blumenthal finds an "abusing God" whose "sometimes evil" actions evoke vigorous protest, but without severing the protester's relationship with God.<ref>{{cite web|first=David |last=Blumenthal |title=Facing the Abusing God: A Theology of Protest (Westminster/John Knox, 1993) |page=223 |url=http://religion.emory.edu/faculty/blumenthal.html |publisher=Religion.emory.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115041028/http://religion.emory.edu/faculty/blumenthal.html |archive-date=2014-01-15 }}</ref>

===Christianity===
Both [[Catholic]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] writers have addressed anger in different perspectives. Anger among mortals is typically seen as a sin, though this contrasts against the righteous [[Divine retribution|wrath of God]].

====Catholic====
[[File:Boschsevendeadlysins.jpg|thumb|''[[The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things]]'', by [[Hieronymus Bosch]] (1485). "Wrath" is depicted at the bottom in a series of circular images. Below the image is the [[Latin]] inscription ''Cave Cave Deus Videt'' ("Beware, Beware, God is Watching").]]
[[File:Rage-and-anger-fresco.jpg|thumb|[[Angel]] with [[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]] and [[Humility]] [[virtue]]s versus [[Devil]] with [[Rage (emotion)|Rage]] and Wrath [[sins]]. A fresco from the 1717 Saint Nicholas [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox church]] in Cukovets, [[Pernik Province]], [[Bulgaria]]]]

''Wrath'' is one of the [[Seven Deadly Sins]] in Catholicism; and yet the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states (canons 1772 and 1773) that anger is among the passions, and that "in the passions, as movements of the sensitive appetite, there is neither good nor evil". The neutral act of anger becomes the sin of wrath when it is directed against an innocent person, when it is unduly unbending or long-lasting, or when it desires excessive punishment. "If anger reaches the point of a deliberate desire to kill or seriously wound a neighbor, it is gravely against charity; it is a mortal sin" (CCC 2302). Hatred is the sin of desiring that someone else may suffer misfortune or evil, and is a mortal sin when one desires grave harm (CCC 2302-03).

[[Christianity in the Middle Ages|Medieval Christianity]] vigorously denounced wrath as one of the seven cardinal, or deadly sins, but some Christian writers at times regarded the anger caused by injustice as having some value.<ref name="Ethics"/><ref name="AngerTheory">Simon Kemp, K.T. Strongman, ''Anger theory and management: A historical analysis'', The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 108, No. 3. (Autumn, 1995), pp. 397–417</ref> [[Basil of Caesarea|Saint Basil]] viewed anger as a "reprehensible temporary madness".<ref name="Ethics"/> Joseph F. Delany in the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] (1914) defines anger as "the desire of vengeance" and states that a reasonable vengeance and passion is ethical and praiseworthy. Vengeance is sinful when it exceeds its limits in which case it becomes opposed to justice and charity. For example, "vengeance upon one who has not deserved it, or to a greater extent than it has been deserved, or in conflict with the dispositions of law, or from an improper motive" are all sinful. An unduly vehement vengeance is considered a [[venial sin]] unless it seriously goes counter to the love of [[God in Christianity|God]] or of one's neighbor.<ref>{{cite CE1913|wstitle=Anger}}</ref>

A more positive view of anger is espoused by Roman Catholic pastoral theologian [[Henri Nouwen|Henri J.M. Nouwen]]. Father Nouwen points to the spiritual benefits in anger toward God as found in both the [[Old Testament]] and [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]]. In the Bible, says Father Nouwen, "it is clear that only by expressing our anger and hatred directly to God will we come to know the fullness of both his love and our freedom".<ref>Henri J.M. Nouwen, "Forward" in ''May I Hate God?'' Pierre Wolff, 2 (Paulist Press, 1979).</ref>

[[Georges Bernanos]] illustrates Nouwen's position in his novel ''The Diary of a Country Priest''. The countess gave birth to the son she had long wanted, but the child died. She was fiercely angry. When the priest called, the countess vented her anger toward her daughter and husband, then at the priest who responded gently, "open your heart to [God]". The countess rejoined, "I've ceased to bother about God. When you've forced me to admit that I [[hate]] Him, will you be any better off?" The priest continued, "you no longer hate Him. Hate is indifference and contempt. Now at last you're face to face with Him{{nbsp}}... Shake your fist at Him, spit in His face, scourge Him." The countess did what the priest counseled. By confessing her hate, she was enabled to say, "all's well".<ref>Georges Bernanos, ''The Diary of a Country Priest'' (London: Fontana Books, 1956), 126–150 passim.</ref>

====Protestant====
[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 093.png|thumb|right|''Saul attacks David'' (who had been playing music to help Saul feel better), 1860 woodcut by [[Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]], a Lutheran]]
Everyone experiences anger, Andrew D. Lester observes, and furthermore anger can serve as "a spiritual friend, a spiritual guide, and a spiritual ally". Denying and suppressing anger is contrary to [[Paul the Apostle|St. Paul's]] admonition in his [[Epistle to the Ephesians]] 4:26.<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew D. |last=Lester |title=Anger: Discovering Your Spiritual Ally – (Westminster John Knox, 2007) |pages=11–12 |url=http://www.acpe.edu/NewPDF/Andy%20Lester%20Tribute.pdf |publisher=Acpe.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017044703/http://www.acpe.edu/NewPDF/Andy%20Lester%20Tribute.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-17 }}</ref> When anger toward God is denied and suppressed, it interferes with an individual's relation with God. Expressing one's anger toward God can deepen the relationship.<ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew D. |last=Lester |title=Coping with Your Anger: A Christian Guide – (Westminster John Knox, 1983) |pages=92–94 |url=http://www.acpe.edu/NewPDF/Andy%20Lester%20Tribute.pdf |publisher=Acpe.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017044703/http://www.acpe.edu/NewPDF/Andy%20Lester%20Tribute.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-17 }}</ref> [[C. FitzSimons Allison]] holds that "we worship God by expressing our honest anger at him".<ref>C. FitzSimons Allison, Guilt, Anger, and God (Regent College Publishing, 2003. 1st published by Seabury Press, 1972), 88.</ref>

[[Bible|Biblical]] scholar Leonard Pine concludes from his studies in the [[Book of Habakkuk]] that "far from being a sin, proper remonstration with God is the activity of a healthy faith relationship with Him".<ref>{{cite journal |first=Leonard |last=Pine |title=Remonstrating with God in Adversity: A Study in Habakkuk |journal=WRS |volume=3:1 (February 1996) 21–26 |url=http://www.wrs.edu/about/faculty-and-staff/ |access-date=2013-10-16 |archive-date=2013-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131201085824/http://www.wrs.edu/about/faculty-and-staff/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Other biblical examples of anger toward God include the following:<ref>[[New Revised Standard Version]]</ref>
* [[Moses]] was angry with God for mistreating his people: "Lord, why have you mistreated [''lit.'' done evil to] this people?" ([[Book of Exodus]] 5:22).
* [[Naomi (Bible)|Naomi]] was angry with God after the death of her husband and two sons: "The Almighty has dealt bitterly with me. The Almighty has brought calamity upon me" ([[Book of Ruth]] 1:20–21 ''abr'').
* [[Elijah]] was angry with God after the son of the widow died: "O Lord my God, have you brought calamity even upon the widow with whom I am staying, by killing her son?" ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 17:20).
* [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]] was angry with God: "You have turned cruel to me; with the might of your hand you persecute me" ([[Book of Job]] 30:21).
* [[Jeremiah]] was angry with God for deceiving his people: "Ah, Lord God, how utterly you have deceived this people and Jerusalem" ([[Book of Jeremiah]] 4:10).

===Hinduism===
In [[Hinduism]], anger is equated with sorrow as a form of unrequited desire. The objects of anger are perceived as a hindrance to the gratification of the desires of the angry person.<ref>[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part22/chap11.htm Anger (HinduDharma: Dharmas Common To All)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170528014505/http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part22/chap11.htm |date=2017-05-28 }}, Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham</ref> Alternatively if one thinks one is superior, the result is grief. Anger is considered to be packed with more evil power than desire.<ref>[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2004/7-9/40-49_anger.shtml Anger Management: How to Tame our Deadliest Emotion] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121213147/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2004/7-9/40-49_anger.shtml |date=2008-01-21 }}, by Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami</ref> In the [[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Krishna]] regards greed, anger, and lust as signs of ignorance that lead to perpetual bondage. As for the agitations of the bickering mind, they are divided into two divisions. The first is called avirodha-prīti, or unrestricted attachment, and the other is called virodha-yukta-krodha, anger arising from frustration. Adherence to the philosophy of the Māyāvādīs, belief in the fruitive results of the karma-vādīs, and belief in plans based on materialistic desires are called avirodha-prīti.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spiegelberg|first1=Frederic|last2=Stein|first2=Richard|date=September 1980|title=Sargeant, Winthrop, trans.The Bhagavad Gita. New York, Doubleday, 1979.|journal=The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal|volume=2|issue=1|pages=23–31|doi=10.1525/jung.1.1980.2.1.23|issn=0270-6210}}</ref>

Jñānīs, karmīs and materialistic planmakers generally attract the attention of conditioned souls, but when the materialists cannot fulfill their plans and when their devices are frustrated, they become angry. Frustration of material desires produces anger.<ref>The Nectar of Instruction 1</ref>

===Buddhism===
Anger is defined in [[Buddhism]] as: "being unable to bear the object, or the intention to cause harm to the object". Anger is seen as aversion with a stronger exaggeration, and is listed as one of the [[five hindrances]]. Buddhist monks, such as [[Dalai Lama]], the spiritual leader of Tibetans in exile, sometimes get angry.<ref name="urbandharma">[http://www.urbandharma.org/udnl2/nl030904.html The Urban Dharma Newsletter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001211041/http://www.urbandharma.org/udnl2/nl030904.html |date=2016-10-01 }}, March 9, 2004</ref> Most often a spiritual person is aware of the emotion and the way it can be handled. Thus, in response to the question: "Is any anger acceptable in Buddhism?' the Dalai Lama answered:<ref name="urbandharma"/> {{blockquote|Buddhism in general teaches that anger is a destructive emotion and although anger might have some positive effects in terms of survival or moral outrage, I do not accept that anger of any kind as {{sic}} a virtuous emotion nor aggression as constructive behavior. The [[Gautama Buddha]] {{sic}} has taught that there are three basic [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|kleshas]] at the root of [[samsara]] (bondage, illusion) and the vicious cycle of rebirth. These are greed, hatred, and delusion—also translatable as attachment, anger, and ignorance. They bring us confusion and misery rather than peace, happiness, and fulfillment. It is in our own self-interest to purify and transform them. }}
Buddhist scholar and author Geshe [[Kelsang Gyatso]] has also explained [[Buddha]]'s teaching on the spiritual imperative to identify anger and overcome it by transforming difficulties:<ref>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/product-description/0978906713 How to Solve our Human Problems] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032901/https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/product-description/0978906713 |date=2023-03-26 }}, Tharpa Publications (2005, US ed., 2007) {{ISBN|978-0-9789067-1-9}}</ref>
{{blockquote|
When things go wrong in our life and we encounter difficult situations, we tend to regard the situation itself as our problem, but in reality whatever problems we experience come from the side of the mind. If we responded to difficult situations with a positive or peaceful mind they would not be problems for us. Eventually, we might even regard them as challenges or opportunities for growth and development. Problems arise only if we respond to difficulties with a negative state of mind. Therefore if we want to be free from problems, we must transform our mind.}}
The Buddha himself on anger:<ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an07/an07.060.than.html "Kodhana Sutta: An Angry Person"(AN 7.60), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100430175235/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an07/an07.060.than.html |date=2010-04-30 }}, June 8, 2010</ref>
{{blockquote|
An angry person is ugly & sleeps poorly. Gaining a profit, he turns it into a loss, having done damage with word & deed. A person overwhelmed with anger destroys his wealth. Maddened with anger, he destroys his status. Relatives, friends, & colleagues avoid him. Anger brings loss. Anger inflames the mind. He doesn't realize that his danger is born from within. An angry person doesn't know his own benefit. An angry person doesn't see the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]. A man conquered by anger is in a mass of darkness. He takes pleasure in bad deeds as if they were good, but later, when his anger is gone, he suffers as if burned with fire. He is spoiled, blotted out, like fire enveloped in smoke. When anger spreads, when a man becomes angry, he has no shame, no fear of evil, is not respectful in speech. For a person overcome with anger, nothing gives light.
}}

===Islam===
A verse in the third [[surah]] of the Quran instructs people to restrain their anger.<ref>{{qref|3|134|b=y}}</ref>

Anger (Arabic: غضب, ''ghadab'') in Islam is considered to be instigated by Satan (''[[Devil (Islam)|Shaitan]]'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Muhaiyaddeen |first=M.R. Bawa |title=Islam & World Peace: Explanations of a Sufi |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8grB4SKJrXsC&pg=PA64|isbn=978-0-914390-65-7 |year=2004 |publisher=Fellowship Press }}</ref> Factors stated to lead to anger include selfishness, arrogance and excessive ambition.<ref name="Path">{{cite book |last1=Efendi |first1=Birgivî Mehmet |last2=Bayrak |first2=Tosun |title=The Path Of Muhammad: A Book On Islamic Morals And Ethics |page=182 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GLFZ8f8trUgC&pg=PA182|isbn=978-0-941532-68-6 |year=2005 |publisher=World Wisdom }}</ref> Islamic teachings also state that anger hinders the faith (''[[iman (concept)|iman]]'') of a person.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kınalızade Ali |last1=Çelebi |first2=Muḥammad ibn Muṣṭafá |last2=Khādimī |title=Ethics of Islam |page=128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQP-Nhmq6VIC&pg=PA128|year=2001 |publisher=Smashwords |isbn=978-1-4657-9821-3 }}</ref> The Quran attributes anger to [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]] and believers as well as Muhammad's enemies. It mentions the anger of Moses (''[[Islamic view of Moses|Musa]]'') against his people for worshiping a [[golden calf]] and at the moment when Moses strikes an Egyptian for fighting against an Israelite.<ref>{{qref|7|150|b=y}}</ref> The anger of Jonah (''[[Islamic view of Jonah|Yunus]]'') is also mentioned in the Quran, which led to his departure from the people of [[Nineveh]] and his eventual realization of his error and his repentance.<ref>{{qref|21|87-88|b=y}}</ref> The removal of anger from the hearts of believers by [[God in Islam|God]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: [[Allah|{{lang|ar|الله}}]] ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|Allāh}}'') after the fighting against [[Muhammad]]'s enemies is over.<ref>{{qref|9|15|b=y}}</ref><ref name="AngerQ"/> In general, suppression of anger (Arabic: كَظم, ''kazm'') is deemed a praiseworthy quality in the hadis.<ref name="AngerQ">Bashir, Shahzad. ''Anger'', [[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an]], Brill, 2007.</ref><ref>{{hadith-usc|bukhari|8|73|135}}</ref><ref>Mohammed Abu-Nimer, ''Non-Violence, Peacebuilding, Conflict Resolution and Human Rights in Islam:A Framework for Nonviolence and Peacebuilding in Islam'', Journal of Law and Religion, Vol. 15, No. 1/2. (2000–2001), pp. 217–265.</ref> [[Yusuf ibn abd al-Barr|Ibn Abdil Barr]], the Andalusian Maliki jurist explains that controlling anger is the door way for restraining other blameworthy traits ego and envy, since these two are less powerful than anger. The hadis state various ways to diminish, prevent and control anger. One of these methods is to perform a [[wudu|ritual ablution]], a different narration states that the angry person should lie down and other narrations instruct the angry person to invoke God and seek refuge from the Devil, by reciting ''I take refuge with Allah/God from the accursed Devil.''

[[Ali]], the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad said "A moment of patience in a moment of anger saves a thousand moments of regret" and "Anger begins with madness, and ends in regret."<ref name="Path"/>

===Divine retribution===
[[File:John Martin - The Great Day of His Wrath - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''[[The Great Day of His Wrath]]'', by [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]] (1789–1854)]]
In many religions, anger is frequently attributed to God or gods. Primitive people held that gods were subject to anger and revenge in anthropomorphic fashion.<ref name="DictionaryofR"/> The [[Hebrew Bible]] says that opposition to God's will results in God's anger.<ref name="DictionaryofR">Shailer Mathews, Gerald Birney Smith, A Dictionary of Religion and Ethics, Kessinger Publishing, p.17</ref> [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] [[rabbi]] Kaufmann Kohler explains:<ref name="Jewish"/>
{{blockquote|God is not an intellectual abstraction, nor is He conceived as a being indifferent to the doings of man; and His pure and lofty nature resents most energetically anything wrong and impure in the moral world: "O Lord, my God, mine Holy One{{nbsp}}... Thou art of eyes too pure to behold evil, and canst not look on iniquity."}} Christians believe in God's anger at the sight of evil. This anger is not inconsistent with God's love, as demonstrated in the Gospel where the righteous indignation of Christ is shown in the [[Cleansing of the Temple]].

== See also ==
{{Commons category|Anger}}
{{Wikiversity|Resolving Anger}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Angry Cognitions Scale]]
* [[Fear]] <!-- Fear and anger are related inasmuch as they are part of the fight or flight response. -->
* [[Indignation]]
* [[Moral emotions]]
* [[Outrage (emotion)]]
* [[Rage (emotion)]]

{{clear}} <!-- allows references to fill screen width without interwiki link templates interfering -->

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Further reading===
====Books====
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|chapter=[[s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XI/John Cassian/The Twelve Books/Book VIII|Book VIII: Of the Spirit of Anger]]|title=Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Volume XI|year=1885|publisher=T. & T. Clark in Edinburgh|first=John|last=Cassian|author-link=John Cassian|translator=Philip Schaff}}
* {{cite book|author=Theodore I. Rubin|title=The Angry Book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgCZETo8UAsC|date=1998|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-84201-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Harriet Lerner|title=The Dance of Anger: A Woman's Guide to Changing the Patterns of Intimate Relationships|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hU-zAAAAQBAJ|date=2014|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-232852-6}}
* {{cite book|author=Monica Ramirez Basco|title=Never Good Enough: How to Use Perfectionism to Your Advantage Without Letting it Ruin Your Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2pJrw2lGn7EC&pg=PR1|date=2000|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86293-4}}
* {{cite book|author1=Jesse Wright|author2=Monica Ramirez Basco|title=Getting Your Life Back|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09BNHci_Q-kC|date=2010|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-1486-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Novaco |first1=R. W. |chapter=Chapter 35 – Anger |title=Stress: Concepts, Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior |date=1 January 2016 |pages=285–292 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128009512000352 |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-800951-2.00035-2 |series=Handbook of Stress Series |volume=1 |isbn=978-0-12-800951-2 |editor1-last=Fink |editor1-first=George |access-date=12 October 2019 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414231531/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128009512000352 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book|chapter=[[s:The Sermons of the Curé of Ars/Anger does not travel alone|Anger does not travel alone]]|title=The Sermons of the Curé of Ars|year=1960|publisher=Henry Regnery Company|first=Jean-Marie-Baptiste|last=Vianney|author-link=John Vianney}}
{{refend}}

====Articles====
{{refbegin}}
* [http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/003463730109800403 Maintaining A Good and Healthy Anger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226134337/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/003463730109800403 |date=2018-12-26 }}
* [https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001520967 Managing emotions in the workplace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524163647/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001520967 |date=2012-05-24 }}
* [http://www.apa.org/topics/controlanger.html Controlling Anger – Before It Controls You] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005234312/http://www.apa.org/topics/controlanger.html |date=2007-10-05 }}
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolution-the-self/200807/what-your-anger-may-be-hiding What Your Anger May Be Hiding – Leon F Seltzer Ph.D.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070926065715/http://home.medewerker.uva.nl/g.a.vankleef/bestanden/Van%20Kleef%20et%20al.%20(2004a%20JPSP).pdf The Interpersonal Effects of Anger and Happiness in Negotiations]
* [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=16187961138599497020 Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411063915/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=16187961138599497020 |date=2023-04-11 }}
* [https://www.sridharlaxman.com/how-to-manage-anger-stay-calm-and-live-a-good-life/ How To Manage Anger, Stay Calm And Live A Good Life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722115701/https://www.sridharlaxman.com/how-to-manage-anger-stay-calm-and-live-a-good-life/ |date=2021-07-22 }}
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11195894 Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013070808/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11195894 |date=2019-10-13 }}
{{refend}}

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[[Category:Emotions]]
[[Category:Seven deadly sins]]
[[Category:Violence]]
[[Category:Symptoms or signs involving mood or affect]]