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{{Short description|1902–1922 defence pact}}
{{redirect|Anglo-Japanese Treaty|other uses|Anglo-Japanese (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox treaty
| name = Anglo-Japanese Alliance
| long_name = 
| image = Anglo Japanese Alliance 30 January 1902.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Japanese copy of the alliance treaty
| type = [[Military alliance]]
| context = Anti-[[Russian Empire]]
| date_signed = {{Start date|1902|01|30|df=y}}
| location_signed = [[London]], [[United Kingdom]]
| date_effective = {{start date|1902|01|31|df=y}}
| replaced_by = [[Four-Power Treaty|Four-Power Pacific Treaty]]
| date_expiration = {{End date|1923|08|17|df=y}}
| provisional_application = 
| original_signatories = *{{flagicon|UK}} Lord [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne|Lansdowne]], United Kingdom
*{{flagicon|Japanese Empire}} Count [[Hayashi Tadasu]], Japan
| parties = * {{flag|British Empire}}
* {{flag|Japanese Empire}}
| languages = * [[British English|English]]
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
| footnotes = 
}}
[[File:Anglo-Japanese Alliance Postcard Mitsukoshi 1905.png|right|thumb|220px|Commemorative postcard 1905]]
The {{Nihongo|'''Anglo-Japanese Alliance'''|'''日英同盟'''|'''Nichi-Ei Dōmei'''}} was an alliance between the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[Empire of Japan]] which was effective from 1902 to 1923. The treaty creating the alliance was signed at [[Lansdowne House]] in London on 30 January 1902 by British [[Foreign Secretary (United Kingdom)|foreign secretary]] [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne]] and Japanese diplomat [[Hayashi Tadasu]]. After the preceding era of [[unequal treaties]] enforced on Asian countries including Japan,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gordon |first=Andrew |title=A modern history of Japan: from Tokugawa times to the present |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511060-9 |location=New York |pages=46–54}}</ref> the alliance was a military pact concluded on more equal terms between a Western power and non-Western nation. It reflected the success of [[Meiji era]] reforms that modernized and industrialized Japan's economy, society and military, which enabled Japan to extract itself from the inferior position it had previously shared with other Asian countries like China, which had been subordinated to Western empires either through formal colonial acquisition or unequal treaties.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |title=The Japanese colonial empire, 1895-1945 |date=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-05398-1 |editor-last=Myers |editor-first=Ramon Hawley |location=Princeton, N.J |editor-last2=Peattie |editor-first2=Mark R. |editor-last3=Chen |editor-first3=Ching-chih |editor-last4=Joint Committee on Japanese Studies}}</ref>  

One shared motivation for the agreement was that a diplomatic alliance might deter other world powers that might otherwise encroach on British and Japanese imperial interests in Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1057/9780230598959 |title=The History of Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1600-2000 |date=2000-02-17 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-59895-9 |editor-last=Nish |editor-first=Ian |location=Basingstoke |language=en |doi=10.1057/9780230598959 |editor-last2=Kibata |editor-first2=Yoichi}}</ref> For the British, the alliance marked the end of a period of "[[splendid isolation]]" while allowing for greater focus on protecting its [[British Raj|rule over India]] and competing in the [[Anglo-German naval arms race]], as part of a larger strategy to reduce imperial overcommitment and recall the [[Royal Navy]] to defend Britain. By contrast, it came at a time of Japan's ascendancy; Japan had not only successfully abrogated the unequal treaties it was previously subject to by the Western powers, but was now a [[Japanese colonial empire|fledging empire]] in its own right: Japan had imposed its own [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876|unequal treaty on Korea in 1876]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Young-Iob |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/10527 |title=Korea under Siege, 1876-1945 |date=2006-03-09 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York |isbn=0-19-517830-0 |language=en |doi=10.1093/0195178300.001.0001}}</ref> and now [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|controlled Formosa (Taiwan) as a colony]], as Taiwan been ceded by [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]] to Japan in the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]], after the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].<ref name=":9" /> Consequently, Japan was now developing its own imperial sphere of influence, and felt that a conflict with [[Russian Empire|Russia]] was imminent over rival ambitions in [[Manchuria]] and Korea, especially after the [[Triple Intervention]] in 1895, in which Russia, [[French Third Republic|France]], and [[German Empire|Germany]] coerced Japan into relinquishing its claim on the [[Liaodong Peninsula]]. Article 3 of the alliance promised support if either signatory became involved in war with more than one power, and thus deterred France from assisting its ally Russia in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] of 1904–1905. Instead, France concluded the [[Entente Cordiale]] with Britain and limited its support of Russia to providing loans.<ref>{{cite journal |author=James Long |year=1974 |title=Franco-Russian Relations during the Russo-Japanese War |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=52 |number=127}}</ref> Japan also gained international prestige from the alliance and used it as a foundation for their diplomacy for two decades, although the alliance angered the United States and some British [[dominion]]s, whose opinion of Japan worsened and gradually became hostile.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nish |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QcazzQEACAAJ |title=The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The Diplomacy of Two Island Empires, 1894–1907 |year=2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4725-5354-6 |pages=229–245 |language=en}}</ref>

After Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese war and the resulting treaty that granted the Japanese [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905|control over Korea]], the alliance was renewed in 1905 and 1911. In 1914, it enabled Japan's entry into [[Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I|World War I]] and capture of [[German colonial empire|German-held territories]] in Asia. Britain grew increasingly distrustful of Japan over its Asian ambitions, and the alliance was ended with the signing of the [[Four-Power Treaty]] in 1921 and terminated upon its ratification in 1923.<ref>{{cite book|last=Langer|first=William|title=The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902|edition=2nd|year=1950|pages=745–86}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dennis|first=Alfred L. P.|date=1922|title=British Foreign Policy and the Dominions|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400020001/type/journal_article|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=16|issue=4|pages=584–599|doi=10.2307/1943639|jstor=1943639 |s2cid=147544835 |issn=0003-0554|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Búzás|first=Zoltán I.|date=2013|title=The Color of Threat: Race, Threat Perception, and the Demise of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902–1923)|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2013.844514|journal=Security Studies|volume=22|issue=4|pages=573–606|doi=10.1080/09636412.2013.844514|s2cid=144689259 |issn=0963-6412|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Motivations and reservations==
[[File:Tadasu Hayashi c1902.jpg|thumb|[[Tadasu Hayashi|Hayashi Tadasu]],{{efn|name=ratify}} Japanese signatory of the alliance]]
[[File:Vote for the Conservatives Who Gave You the Alliance. (22487157297).jpg|thumb|left|180px|Illustration by E.Huskinson for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] c. 1905–1910.]]
[[File:Marquess of Lansdowne crop.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|[[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne|Lord Lansdowne]], the British signatory]]
{{Events leading to World War I}}
The possibility of an alliance between Great Britain and Japan had been canvassed since 1895, when Britain refused to join the [[Triple Intervention]] of France, Germany and Russia against the Japanese occupation of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]]. While this single event was an unstable basis for an alliance, the case was strengthened by the support Britain had given Japan in its drive towards modernisation and their co-operative efforts to put down the [[Boxer Rebellion]].<ref>G. W. Monger, "The End of Isolation: Britain, Germany and Japan, 1900–1902." ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 13 (1963): 103–121.</ref> Newspapers of both countries voiced support for such an alliance; in Britain, [[Francis Brinkley]] of ''[[The Times]]'' and [[Edwin Arnold]] of ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' were the driving force behind such support, while in Japan the pro-alliance mood of politician [[Ōkuma Shigenobu]] stirred the ''[[Mainichi Shimbun|Mainichi]]'' and ''[[Yomiuri Shimbun|Yomiuri]]'' newspapers into pro-alliance advocacy. The 1894 [[Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation]] had also paved the way for equal relations and the possibility of an alliance.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Steiner|first=Zara S.|title=Great Britain and the Creation of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.|journal=Journal of Modern History|volume=31|issue=1|year=1959|pages=27–36|jstor=1871770 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1871770}}</ref>

In the end, the common interest truly fuelling the alliance was opposition to Russian expansion, such as [[Russian invasion of Manchuria|the invasion of Manchuria]] continuing after the Boxer Rebellion.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Shimamoto |first1=Mayako |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g8PyCQAAQBAJ |title=Historical Dictionary of Japanese Foreign Policy |last2=Ito |first2=Koji |last3=Sugita |first3=Yoneyuki |date=1 July 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-5067-3 |pages=32–33 |language=en}}</ref> This was made clear as early as the 1890s, when the British diplomat [[Cecil Spring Rice]] identified that Britain and Japan working in concert was the only way to challenge Russian power in the region.<ref name=burton>{{cite book|last=Burton|first=David Henry|title=Cecil Spring Rice: A Diplomat's Life|year=1990|page=100|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press|isbn=978-0-8386-3395-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kCGKtLkHnxAC}}</ref> Negotiations began when Russia began to move into [[Qing dynasty|China]]. Nevertheless, both countries had their reservations. Britain was cautious about abandoning its policy of "splendid isolation", wary of antagonizing Russia, and unwilling to act on the treaty if Japan were to attack the United States. There were factions in the Japanese government that still hoped for a compromise with Russia, including the highly powerful political figure [[Hirobumi Itō]], who had served four terms as [[Prime Minister of Japan]]. It was thought that friendship within Asia would be more amenable to the US, which was uncomfortable with the rise of Japan as a power. Furthermore, Britain was unwilling to protect Japanese interests in Korea and likewise, the Japanese were unwilling to support Britain in India.

Hayashi and Lord Lansdowne began their discussions in July 1901, and disputes over Korea and India delayed them until November. At this point, Hirobumi Itō requested a delay in negotiations in order to attempt a reconciliation with Russia. He was mostly unsuccessful in his visit to [[Saint Petersburg]], and Britain expressed concerns over duplicity on Japan's part, so Hayashi hurriedly re-entered negotiations in 1902.  "[[Splendid isolation]]" was ended as for the first time Britain saw the need for a peace-time military alliance.  It was the first alliance on equal terms between East and West.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Harcreaves|first=J.D.|title=The Anglo-Japanese Alliance|journal=History Today|date=April 1952|volume=2|issue=4|pages=252–258}}</ref> For Britain, the revision of "Splendid isolation" spurred by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, culminated in the [[Entente Cordiale]] (1904) with France and [[Anglo-Russian Convention]] of 1907.

==Terms of the 1902 treaty==
[[File:Punch Anglo-Japanese Alliance.jpg|right|thumb|180px| ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' cartoon (1905) accompanied by a quote from [[Rudyard Kipling]] that appeared in the British press after the treaty was renewed in 1905 illustrates the positive light that the alliance was seen in by the British public.]]

The treaty contained six articles:

Article 1
*The High Contracting parties, having mutually recognised the independence of China and Korea, declare themselves to be entirely uninfluenced by aggressive tendencies in either country, having in view, however, their special interests, of which those of Great Britain relate principally to China, whilst Japan, in addition to the interests which she possesses in China, is interested in a peculiar degree, politically as well as commercially and industrially in Korea, the High Contracting Parties recognise that it will be admissible for either of them to take such measures as may be indispensable in order to safeguard those interests if threatened either by the aggressive action of any other Power, or by disturbances arising in China or Korea, and necessitating the intervention of either of the High Contracting Parties for the protection of the lives and properties of its subjects.

Article 2
*Declaration of neutrality if either signatory becomes involved in war through Article 1.

Article 3
*Promise of support if either signatory becomes involved in war with more than one Power.

Article 4
*Signatories promise not to enter into separate agreements with other Powers to the prejudice of this alliance.

Article 5
*The signatories promise to communicate frankly and fully with each other when any of the interests affected by this treaty are in jeopardy.

Article 6
*Treaty to remain in force for five years and then at one years' notice, unless notice was given at the end of the fourth year.<ref>{{cite web|author= Michael Duffy |url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/anglojapanesealliance1902.htm|title=First World War.com – Primary Documents – Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 30 January 1902 |date=2009-08-22 |access-date=2010-05-05}}</ref>

Articles 2 and 3 were most crucial concerning war and mutual defense.

The treaty laid out an acknowledgment of Japanese interests in Korea without obligating Britain to help if a conflict arose where Japan only had one adversary. Japan was likewise not obligated to defend British interests unless there were two adversaries.

Although written using careful and clear language, the two sides understood the treaty slightly differently. Britain saw it as a gentle warning to Russia, while Japan was emboldened by it. From that point on, even those of a moderate stance refused to accept a compromise over the issue of Korea. Extremists saw it as an open invitation for imperial expansion, many in Japan having long desired a showdown with Russia. The provision on the involvement of more than one power (article 3) recalled the [[Triple Intervention]] by the Russian-French-German coalition in 1895, and strengthened Japan's hand both diplomatically and militarily against a potential European coalition.<ref name=NishOri>{{cite book|title=The Origins of the Russo-Japanese war|last=Nish|first = Ian|year=1985|chapter = 8: Kurino, Komura and Korea (1902-3)|publisher=Longman |isbn=9780582491144}}</ref>

This treaty was signed by Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne]], and [[Hayashi Tadasu|Count Hayashi Tadasu]]{{efn|name=ratify|As Envoy Extraordinary to the [[Court of St. James]] and Minister Plenipotentiary of the emperor, he held the authority to make state agreements effective immediately without the ratification by cabinet. For this reason, the signed document of this treaty and its revisions are called {{Nihongo|'''Anglo-Japanese Alliance ratification papers'''|日英同盟批准書|Nichi-Ei Dōmei Hijunsho}} in Japan.}} on 30 January, effective 31 January 1902 for five years.

==Intelligence Agreements==
[[File:General Fukushima Yasumasa, Kommandeur der japanischen Truppen in China 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Major General [[Fukushima Yasumasa]] in 1900.]]
In May 1902, Major General [[Fukushima Yasumasa]], who was a senior intelligence officer of the [[Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office|Army General Staff]] and the initial commander of the Japanese Army sent to China to stop the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in 1900, was sent to London to wrap up informal discussions on military intelligence cooperation.  [[Directorate of Military Intelligence (United Kingdom)#Directors of Military Intelligence|Director General of Mobilisation and Military Intelligence]], Sir [[William Nicholson, 1st Baron Nicholson|William Nicholson]] headed the British side of the negotiation, and various intelligence cooperation agreements were signed between the two in July.  Fukushima represented [[Emperor Meiji]] at the [[Coronation of Edward VII and Alexandra|coronation]] of King [[Edward VII]] on 9 August and stayed until September 1902 to work on the details. The existence and contents of the agreements were not made public.<ref>{{cite book|title=Japan as seen from Kasato Maru|page=52|last=Usami|first=Shozo|location=Tokyo|publisher=Kaibundo Publishing|date=15 Feb 2007|isbn=978-4-303-63440-7|edition=First|language=ja}}</ref>

== 1905 Revision ==
The alliance was renewed and expanded in 1905.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldjpn.net/documents/texts/pw/19050812.T1E.html|title=Agreement of Alliance of 1905|website=Database of Japanese Politics and International Relations}}</ref> This was partly prompted by Japan's gains in the [[Russo-Japanese War]], and by the British suspicion about Russian intentions in South Asia, leading to Britain considering asking Japan to help defend India.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |title =India in Anglo-Japanese Relations During the First World War| first = T.G. | last = Fraser| journal = History| year = 1978| volume=63|number=209| pages = 366–382 | jstor = 24410551 |url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/24410551}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Sugawara |first=Takeshi |title=Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902-23) |date=3 May 2018 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118885154.dipl0010 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Diplomacy |pages=1–4 |editor-last=Martel |editor-first=Gordon |place=Oxford, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118885154.dipl0010 |isbn=978-1-118-88791-2 |access-date=2022-05-18|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This August 1905 revision additionally called for Japanese support of British interests in India (if Britain faced more than one adversary as stipulated in the original).

This revision was signed by Lords Lansdowne and Hayashi on 12 August 1905, effective 13 August for 10 years.

Within four months after the signing of this revision, [[Korean Empire|Korea]] became a Japanese protectorate, and Itō Hirobumi was posted as the Resident-General to [[Seoul]] in February 1906.

== 1911 Revision ==
Although the "second" alliance in 1905 was effective for a decade, the alliance was revised earlier in 1911.<ref name=1911r>{{cite web|url=https://worldjpn.net/documents/texts/pw/19110713.T1E.html|title=Agreement of Alliance of 1911|website=Database of Japanese Politics and International Relations}}</ref>

As a background, [[William McKinley]] won the [[1896 United States presidential election]], succeeding [[Grover Cleveland]], who was a friend of Queen [[Liliʻuokalani]] of Hawaii. This [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] victory led to [[Great Rapprochement|British-American rapprochement]], and the annexation of the [[Republic of Hawaiʻi]] by the US, giving impetus to expansionists in the US. As a result of 1898 [[Spanish–American War]], the [[Mariana Islands]] (including [[Guam]]) came under the United States control in December 1898. The Empire of Japan fought and lost against the US in 1899–1902, supporting the Philippines in [[Philippine–American War]], which resulted in establishing [[Military Government of the Philippine Islands|control of the Philippine Islands by the US]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Emma Helen|author2-link=James Alexander Robertson |last2=Robertson|first2=James Alexander|title=The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898|publisher=[[Arthur H. Clark Company]]|location=Cleveland, Ohio|year=1903 |author1-link=Emma Helen Blair }}</ref>  The expansionistic policy of the Republican US administration was carried over to [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in 1901.<br>
Great power politics substantially changed following the [[Anglo-Russian Convention|Anglo-Russian entente of 1907]], which settled the Russo-British [[Great Game]]; continued Japanese negotiations in the wake of the [[Russo-Japanese War]], including a 1907 partitioning of Manchuria with Russia; and the [[Anglo-German naval arms race|UK's growing rivalry]] with the [[German Empire]].

With the increasing Japanese and the US influence not only in the Pacific but also in global politics in this context, Britain negotiated a "third" Anglo-Japanese alliance to carefully remove the United States from the possible 'adversary' in the agreement (ARTICLE 4<ref name=1911r />),<ref>{{Citation|last=Nakatsuka|first=Akira|title=日英同盟|trans-title=Anglo-Japanese Alliance|encyclopedia=改訂新版 世界大百科事典|date=September 2007|publisher=Heibonsha|lang=ja|isbn=978-4-582-03400-4}}</ref> and Japan agreed in return for restoring Japan's tariff autonomy.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gowen|first=Robert Joseph|title=British Legerdemain at the 1911 Imperial Conference: The Dominions, Defense Planning, and the Renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.|journal=Journal of Modern History|volume=52|issue=3|year=1980|pages=385–413|jstor=1876925 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1876925}}</ref> [[Komura Jutarō]] and later Prime Minister [[Katō Takaaki]] were major negotiators during this 1911 revision.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=70ueDwAAQBAJ |title=A History of Russo-Japanese Relations: Over Two Centuries of Cooperation and Competition |date=7 June 2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-40085-6 |pages=97–98 |language=en}}</ref>

This revision was signed by Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs [[Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon|Edward Grey]] and Japanese Ambassador to London, Count [[Katō Takaaki]]{{efn|As Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the emperor, he had the authority to make an agreement effective immediately on behalf of the Japanese government, without the additional step of ratification after signing.}} on 13 July, effective 14 July 1911, with a 10 year term until July 1921.

==Effects==

=== Forming alliance and rivalries ===
[[File:Prince Arthur of Connaught Offering the Order of the Garter to the Emperor Meiji.jpg|thumb|The [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji Emperor]] receiving the [[Order of the Garter]] in 1906, as a consequence of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.]]
The first version of the alliance was announced on 12 February 1902.<ref>Sydney Morning Herald, 13 February 1902.</ref> In response, Russia sought to form alliances with France and Germany, which Germany declined. The French also were reluctant to become more deeply involved with Russia in east Asia. On 16 March 1902, a joint Franco-Russian declaration was issued responding to the alliance, reserving their right to intervene in and around China to defend their interests. The British and later historians found this declaration to be "anodyne", signaling that France was reconsidering its military obligations towards Russia.<ref name=NishOri /> China and the United States were strongly opposed to the alliance.

=== Unofficial role in Russo-Japanese War ===
The [[Russo-Japanese War]] broke out in 1904, as Japan sought to halt the expansion of the Russian Empire's colonies in China.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |date=1980 |title=British Assistance to the Japanese Navy during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–5 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41562319 |journal=The Great Circle |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=44–54 |jstor=41562319 |issn=0156-8698}}</ref> Britain did not officially join the Russo-Japanese War, but supported Japan in espionage,<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |title=Russia : war, peace and diplomacy : essays in honour of John Erickson |year=2005 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |last1=Erickson|first1=John|last2=Erickson|first2=Ljubica|last3=Erickson|first3=Mark |isbn=0-297-84913-1 |location=London |oclc=56805979}}</ref> ship design,<ref name=":5" /> finance,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Best |first=Gary Dean |year=1972 |title=Financing a Foreign War: Jacob H. Schiff and Japan, 1904–05 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23880523 |journal=American Jewish Historical Quarterly |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=313–324 |jstor=23880523 |issn=0002-9068}}</ref> and diplomacy during the war.{{efn|The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was not activated, because its terms stipulated a promise of support only if a signatory entered war with ''more than one'' power, whereas Japan was only at war with Russia. However, the nature of the alliance meant that Russia's then [[Franco-Russian Alliance|closest ally]], France, was unable to come to Russia's aid as this would have meant going to war with Britain. This was considered Britain's diplomatic contribution in favour of Japan, and as a result of these factors many Russians blamed the British for their defeat. Outright war between Russia and Britain came close during the [[Dogger bank incident]]. Japan, for its part, did not attempt to involve the British, instead going to great pains to show their victories were their own.<ref name=":5" />}}

Meanwhile, even before the war, British and Japanese intelligence had co-operated against Russia due to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. During the war, [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] stations in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and China often intercepted and read wireless and telegraph cable traffic relating to the war, which was shared with the Japanese. In their turn, the Japanese shared information about Russia with the British with one British official writing of the "perfect quality" of Japanese intelligence. In particular, British and Japanese intelligence gathered much evidence that Germany was supporting Russia in the war as part of a bid to disturb the balance of power in Europe, which led to British officials increasingly perceiving that country as a threat to the international order.<ref name=":6" />

=== World War I ===
[[Image:NisshinMalta.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese armoured cruiser ''[[Japanese cruiser Nisshin|Nisshin]]'' of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]], in the [[Mediterranean]] ([[Colony of Malta|Malta]], 1919).]]
The alliance's provisions for mutual defence required Japan to enter the First World War on the British side. The Treaty made possible the Japanese seizure of [[German colonial empire|German possessions]] in the Pacific north of the equator during the War. Japan attacked the [[Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory|German base at Qingdao]] in 1914 and forced the Germans to surrender (see [[Siege of Tsingtao]]). Japanese officers onboard British warships were casualties at the [[Battle of Jutland]] in 1916,<ref>1916 newspaper casualty lists, Toronto Public Library.</ref> and on [[HMS Vanguard (1909)|HMS Vanguard]] in 1917.<ref>[[Eto Kyōsuke]]</ref> In 1917, Japanese warships were sent to the [[Mediterranean naval engagements during World War I|Mediterranean]] and assisted in the protection of Allied shipping near [[Colony of Malta|Malta]] from U-boat attacks. A memorial at the [[Kalkara Naval Cemetery]] in Malta is dedicated to the 72 Japanese sailors who died in the conflict,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Zammit|first1=Roseanne|title=Japanese lieutenant's son visits Japanese war dead at Kalkara cemetery|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20040327/local/japanese-lieutenants-son-visits-war-dead-at-kalkara-cemetery.126734|access-date=25 May 2015|publisher=Times of Malta|date=27 March 2004}}</ref> including the 1917 torpedoing of the [[Japanese destroyer Sakaki (1915)|Japanese destroyer ''Sakaki'']].

=== Cultural exchanges ===
{{See also|Anglo-Japanese style}}
[[File:Beardsley-peacockskirt.PNG|thumb|''[[The Peacock Skirt]]'', by [[Aubrey Beardsley]], shows significant Japanese influence]]
The alliance formed the basis for positive trading and cultural exchanges between Britain and Japan.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />  Japanese agencies published numerous English-language releases and publications.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNb0f3ab0HYC&q=alliance |title=The History of Anglo-Japanese Relations 1600–2000: Social and Cultural Perspectives |last2=Tsuzuki |first2=C. |year=2002|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-37360-0 |pages=9–10 |language=en}}</ref> Rapid industrialisation and the development of the Japanese armed forces provided significant new export opportunities for British shipyards and arms manufacturers. Japanese educated in Britain brought new knowledge in science, engineering, and medicine to Japan, such as advances in [[fluid dynamics|fluid-]] and [[thermo-dynamics]],{{efn|e.g. the works of [[Osborne Reynolds]], [[William Rankine]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]], etc.}} and [[ophthalmology]]. British artists of the time such as [[James McNeill Whistler]], [[Aubrey Beardsley]] and [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]] were heavily inspired by Japanese [[kimono]], [[Japanese swords|swords]], [[Japanese handicrafts|crafts]] and [[Japanese architecture|architecture]].

Unique cultural exchanges included that the author Yoshimoto Tadasu (b. 1878, d. 1973), who wrote ''True Britain'' (Shin no Eikoku) in 1902, was the first blind person in Japan to receive higher education, and brought some British ideas on public welfare to Japan. The clergyman Kumagai Tetsutaro (b. 1883, d. 1979) praised the book as having a major impact on opportunities for people with blindness.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |last=Koyama |first=Noboru |title=Shin no Eikoku|trans-title=Cultural exchange at the time of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance: and blind people |date=2003 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203316672-15/cultural-exchange-time-anglo-japanese-alliance-noboru-koyama-shin-eikoku |work=The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902–1922 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203316672-15 |isbn=978-0-203-31667-2 |access-date=2022-05-18|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The [[Japan–British Exhibition]] in 1910 in [[White City, London]] had eight million visitors. It sought to promote knowledge of Japan's modernization and the idea of an 'alliance of peoples' between Britain and Japan. It featured Japanese fine arts, musicians, [[Sumo]] demonstrations, and influenced by [[Edwardian era|Edwardian]] expectations, it featured exhibitions of [[Ainu people|Ainu]], Taiwanese and Japanese 'villages'. The organizers portrayed a cultural-historical parallel between Britain and Japan as symmetrical "Island Empires" in East and West. Organized by the Japanese government, it was one of the largest such expositions at its time.<ref name=":4" />

==Limitations==
Despite the purportedly friendly relations between Britain and Japan during the early 20th century, the relationship started to strain over various issues. One such strain was the issue of the "[[Racial Equality Proposal|racial equality clause]]" as proposed by the Japanese delegation at the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]]. The clause, which was to be attached to the [[Covenant of the League of Nations]], was compatible with the British stance of equality for all subjects as a principle for maintaining imperial unity; however, there were significant deviations in the stated interests of Britain's [[dominion]]s, notably [[Australia]], and the British delegation ultimately acceded to imperial opposition and declined to support the clause.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shimazu|first=Naoko|title=Japan, Race and Equality|year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-17207-1}}</ref>

Another strain was the [[Twenty-One Demands]] issued by Japan to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1915. The demands would have drastically increased Japanese influence in China and transformed the Chinese state into a ''de facto'' [[protectorate]] of Japan. Feeling desperate, the Chinese government appealed to Britain and the U.S., which forced Japan to moderate the demands issued; ultimately, the Japanese government gained little influence in China, but lost prestige amongst the Western nations (including Britain, which was affronted and no longer trusted the Japanese as a reliable ally).<ref>{{cite journal| last =Gowen| first =Robert| title =Great Britain and the Twenty-One Demands of 1915: Cooperation versus Effacement| journal =[[The Journal of Modern History]]| volume =43| issue =1| pages =76–106| publisher =University of Chicago| date =1971| doi =10.1086/240589| s2cid =144501814| issn =0022-2801}}</ref>

Even though Britain was the wealthiest industrialized power, and Japan was a newly industrialized power with a large export market, which would seem to create natural economic ties, those ties were somewhat limited,<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=O'Brien |first=Phillips |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYCT3qi8HNwC |title=The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902-1922 |date=25 Dec 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-34122-1 |pages=5, 181–182, 190–192 |language=en}}</ref> which provided a major limitation of the alliance. British banks saw Japan as a risky investment due to what they saw as restrictive property laws and an unstable financial situation, and offered loans to Japan with high interest rates, similar to those they offered the [[Ottoman Empire]], Chile, China, and [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]], which was disappointing to Japan. The banker and later Prime Minister [[Takahashi Korekiyo]] argued that Britain was implying, through unattractive loan terms, that Japan had reverted from one of the "civilized nations" to "undeveloped nations", referring that Japan had more easily received foreign capital to fund its [[First Sino-Japanese War]] than the [[Russo-Japanese War]].<ref name=":2" /> [[Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild|Nathaniel Rothschild]] was initially skeptical of Japan's economy; however, he would later describe [[Osaka]] as the "Manchester of Japan" and Japan as "one of the countries of the future."<ref name=":2" /> [[Henry Dyer]] wrote after 1906 that Japanese bonds "has aroused keen interest among British investors, who have always been partial to Japanese bonds." Dyer, a recipient of the [[Order of the Rising Sun]] from Emperor Meiji, had played a role in the expansion of industrialization and engineering in Japan as part of a significant foreign investment. Dyer criticized what he saw as widespread British skepticism of Japan's economy.<ref name=":2" /> Meanwhile, influential industrialists in Japan such as businessman [[Iwasaki Yanosuke]] were at times skeptical of foreign investment, which led the Japanese government to channel it through some controlled enterprises acting as intermediaries with the private sector in London and Tokyo, which was seen as excess regulation by some British industrialists.<ref name=":2" /> Nevertheless, Britain did lend capital to Japan during the Russo-Japanese War,<ref name=":7" /> while Japan provided major loans to the Entente during World War I.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

==End of the treaty==
[[File:Japanese surrender Penang.jpg|thumb|Rear Admiral Jisaku Uozumi signs the [[Operation Zipper|surrender of Penang]] aboard the battleship {{HMS|Nelson|28|6}} on 2 September 1945. He fainted shortly afterward and was rushed to hospital. Note the [[Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Service Cross]] ribbon on Uozumi's uniform, which he had earned from the British during the alliance.{{efn|"After some delay, and a failure to attend an earlier meeting, the Japanese local commander, Rear Admiral Jisaku Uzumi, came aboard HMS ''Nelson'' on the evening of 2 September, wearing the DSC he had earned as Britain's ally in the 1914–18 war, and surrendered the garrison. He fainted and was rushed to hospital; the military policemen who carried him there took his sword as a souvenir." Bayly & Harper, page 49}}]]
The alliance was viewed as an obstacle already at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919–1920. On 8 July 1920, the two governments issued a joint statement to the effect that the alliance treaty "is not entirely consistent with the letter of that Covenant (of the League of Nations), which both Governments earnestly desire to respect".<ref>Text of the statement in ''League of Nations Treaty Series'', vol. 1, p. 24.</ref>

The demise of the alliance was signaled by the [[1921 Imperial Conference]], in which British and [[Dominion]] leaders convened to determine a unified international policy.<ref name=Vinson>{{cite journal|last=Vinson|first=J. C.|title=The Imperial Conference of 1921 and the Anglo-Japanese alliance.|journal=Pacific Historical Review|volume=31|issue=3|year=1962|page=258}}</ref> One of the major issues of the conference was the renewal of the Anglo–Japanese Alliance. The conference began with all but [[Prime Minister of Canada|Canadian Prime Minister]] [[Arthur Meighen]] supporting the immediate renewal of an alliance with Japan. The prevailing hope was for a continuance of the alliance with the Pacific power, which could potentially provide security for British imperial interests in the area.<ref name=Vinson /> The Australians feared that they could not fend off any advances from the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]], and desired a continuance of the buildup of naval resources for a possible future conflict as they feared that an alliance with the United States (then in a state of post-war [[isolationism]]) would provide little protection.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brebner|first=J. B.|title=Canada, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the Washington Conference.|journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]]|volume=50|issue=1|year=1935|page=52}}</ref>

Meighen, fearing that a conflict could develop between Japan and the United States, demanded the [[British Empire]] remove itself from the treaty to avoid being forced into a war between the two nations. The rest of the delegates agreed that it was best to court America and try to find a solution that the American government would find suitable, but only Meighen called for the complete abrogation of the treaty.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vinson|first=J. C.|title=The Imperial Conference of 1921 and the Anglo-Japanese alliance.|journal=Pacific Historical Review|volume=31|issue=3|year=1962|page=257}}</ref> The American government feared that the renewal of the Anglo–Japanese Alliance would create a Japanese-dominated market in the Pacific, and close China off from American trade.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Spinks|first=Charles N.|title=The Termination of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.|journal=Pacific Historical Review|volume=6|issue=4|year=1937|page=324}}</ref> These fears were elevated by the news media in America and Canada, which reported alleged secret anti-American clauses in the treaty, and advised the public to support abrogation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Spinks|first=Charles N.|title=The Termination of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.|journal=Pacific Historical Review|volume=6|issue=4|year=1937|page=326}}</ref>

The press, combined with Meighen's convincing argument of Canadian fears that Japan would attack imperial assets in China, caused the Imperial Conference to shelve the alliance.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nish|first=Ian H.|title=Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations 1908–23.|location=London|publisher=The Athlone Press|year=1972|page=334}}</ref> The conference communicated their desire to consider leaving the alliance to the [[League of Nations]], which stated that the alliance would continue, as originally stated with the leaving party giving the other a twelve-month notice of their intentions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nish|first=Ian H.|title=Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations 1908–23.|location=London|publisher=The Athlone Press|year=1972|page=337}}</ref>

Empire delegates convinced America to invite several nations to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] to participate in talks regarding Pacific and Far East policies, specifically naval disarmament.<ref>Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline, 381.</ref> When Japan came to the [[Washington Naval Conference]], there was significant distrust of Britain in the press and public opinion, even amongst Japanese papers that had previously been more supportive of the Anglo-Japanese alliance.<ref>Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline, 354.</ref> 

Despite the growing rift, Japan joined the conference in hopes of avoiding a war with the United States.<ref>Nish, Ian H. ''Alliance in Decline'', 381</ref> The Pacific powers of the United States, Japan, [[Interwar France|France]] and [[Interwar Britain|Britain]] would sign the [[Four-Power Treaty]], and adding on various other countries such as China to create the [[Nine-Power Treaty]]. The Four-Power Treaty would provide a minimal structure for the expectations of international relations in the Pacific, as well as a loose alliance without any commitment to armed alliances.<ref>Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline, 378.</ref> The Four-Power Treaty at the Washington Conference made the Anglo–Japanese Alliance defunct in December, 1921; however, it would not officially terminate until all parties ratified the treaty on 17 August 1923,<ref>Nish, Ian H. ''Alliance in Decline'', 383.</ref> as Britain did not notify Japan, nor did Japan notify the UK, of the termination after the July 1921 end of term, as required by ARTICLE 6 of the [[#1911 Revision|1911 revision]].

[[File:Toyama Mitsuru honors Rash Behari Bose.jpg|thumb|[[Toyama Mitsuru]] honours exiled Indian revolutionary [[Rash Behari Bose]], 1915]]
At that time, the Alliance was officially terminated, as per Article IV in the Anglo–Japanese Alliance Treaties of 1902 and 1911.<ref>Spinks, Charles N. "The Termination of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance." Pacific Historical Review 6, no. 4 (1937): 337</ref> The distrust between the British Empire and Japan, as well as the manner in which the Anglo–Japanese Alliance concluded, have been suggested by some as being the leading causes of Japan's involvement in [[World War II]], and that had the alliance not been terminated, Anglo-Japanese ties would not have deteriorated to that degree.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Malcolm D.|title=The Estrangement of Great Britain and Japan|location=Los Angeles|publisher=University of California Press|year=1969|page=56}}</ref> 

However, more recent scholarship has argued that such an interpretation amounts to historical myth-making,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Best |first=Antony |date=2006 |title=The 'Ghost' of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance: An Examination into Historical Myth-Making |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0018246X06005528/type/journal_article |journal=The Historical Journal |language=en |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=811–831 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X06005528 |issn=0018-246X}}</ref> because it neglects how the political rivalry resulting from Japan and Britain's increasingly overlapping spheres of imperial influence had already substantially strained the alliance's political rationale for years before its termination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nish |first=Ian |title=Alliance in Decline: A Study of Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1908-23 |date=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-78093-520-1 |series=Bloomsbury Academic Collections: Japan |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Best |first=Antony |date=2006 |title=The 'Ghost' of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance: An Examination into Historical Myth-Making |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0018246X06005528/type/journal_article |journal=The Historical Journal |language=en |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=811–831 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X06005528 |issn=0018-246X}}</ref> One key line of evidence is that Japan-British imperial interests had substantially conflicted before 1921 because Japan was already perceived to be undermining European colonial rule over Asia. Britain had specifically become increasingly suspicious of a potential Japanese threat to its Asian colonies and interests due to growing Japanese ambitions in China,<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Guoqi |first=Xu |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/10172 |title=Asia and the Great War: A Shared History |date=2016-11-24 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-965819-0 |pages=182 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199658190.001.0001}}</ref> the rise in [[Pan-Asianism]], as demonstrated by the support shown by Japanese state and non-state actors for [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|Indian revolutionaries]], and the presence of Japanese propagandists in Malaya and India.<ref name="Best 2006 811–831">{{Cite journal |last=Best |first=Antony |date=2006 |title=The 'Ghost' of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance: An Examination into Historical Myth-Making |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0018246X06005528/type/journal_article |journal=The Historical Journal |language=en |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=811–831 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X06005528 |issn=0018-246X}}</ref><ref>Guoqi, Xu, ''Asia and the Great War: A Shared History'', The Greater War (Oxford, 2016; online edn, Oxford Academic, 22 Dec. 2016), {{doi|10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199658190.001.0001}}, accessed 11 Jan. 2024.</ref> Therefore, the end of the Alliance would instead be symptomatic of the already-present political reality of eroding ties between both countries, rather than its cause.<ref name="Best 2006 811–831" />  

Such tensions were also evident in then-contemporary British political figures, such as [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]], who stated in 1920 that the main reason for the alliance with the "insidious and unscrupulous" Japanese was to keep them in order, rather than rooted in a friendly relations and diplomatic trust.<ref>CID 134th meeting, 14 Dec. 1920, NA CAB2/3. </ref> These views were also reflected in British papers such as ''[[The Times]]'', which even questioned Japanese contributions to the Allied side, and expressed suspicion towards Japan and sympathy with China in the aftermath of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference.<ref>The Times, May 27, 1919. </ref><ref name=":8" /> 

According to Zoltan Buzas, racially shaped threat perceptions led the British and the Americans to push for the termination of the alliance.<ref name=":0"/>

==See also==
*[[Military alliance]]
*[[List of military alliances]]
*[[Anglo-German naval arms race]]
*[[Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation]]
*[[Eight-Nation Alliance]]
*[[History of Japanese foreign relations]]
*[[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905]]
*[[Japan–United Kingdom relations]]
*[[Japanese entry into World War I]]
*[[Japan during World War I]]
*[[Root–Takahira Agreement]]
*[[Open Door Policy]]
*[[Treaty of Portsmouth]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Brebner, J. B. "Canada, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the Washington Conference." ''Political Science Quarterly'' 50#1 (1935): 45–58. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2143412 online]
* Daniels, Gordon, Janet Hunter, Ian Nish, and David Steeds. (2003). ''Studies in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902–1923)'': [[London School of Economics]] (LSE), Suntory and Toyota International Centres for Economics and Related Disciplines (STICERD) Paper No. IS/2003/443: Read [http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/is/is443.pdf Full paper (pdf) – May 2008]
* Davis, Christina L. "Linkage diplomacy: economic and security bargaining in the Anglo-Japanese alliance, 1902–23." ''International Security'' 33.3 (2009): 143–179. [https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/cldavis/files/davis2008-09_intlsecurity.pdf online]
* Fry, Michael G. "The North Atlantic Triangle and the Abrogation of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance." ''Journal of Modern History'' 39.1 (1967): 46–64. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1877667 online]
* Harcreaves, J. D. "The Anglo-Japanese Alliance." ''History Today'' (1952) 2#4 pp 252–258 
* Langer, William.  ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902'' (2nd ed. 1950), pp.&nbsp;745–86. [https://archive.org/details/diplomacyofimper0000lang online free to borrow]
* Lister-Hotta, Ayako, Ian Nish, and David Steeds. (2002). ''Anglo-Japanese Alliance'': LSE STICERD Paper No. IS/2002/432: Read [http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/is/IS432.pdf Full paper (pdf) – May 2008]
* Lowe, Peter. ''Great Britain and Japan 1911–15: A Study of British Far Eastern Policy'' (Springer, 1969). 
* [[Ian Nish|Nish]], Ian Hill. (1972). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XJsgAAAAMAAJ&q=Alliance+in+Decline:+A+Study+in+Anglo-Japanese+Relations+1908-23  ''Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations 1908–23.'']  London: Athlone Press.  {{ISBN|978-0-485-13133-8}} (cloth)
* [[Ian Nish|Nish]], Ian Hill. (1966).  [https://books.google.com/books?id=KmM0AAAAIAAJ&q=The+Anglo-Japanese+Alliance:+The+diplomacy+of+two+island+empires+1894-1907  ''The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The diplomacy of two island empires 1894–1907.''] London: [[Athlone Press]]. [reprinted by [[RoutledgeCurzon]], London, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-415-32611-7}} (paper)]
* O'Brien, Phillips Payson. (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNbDqOzSvpkC&q=The+Anglo-Japanese+Alliance,+1902-1922  ''The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902–1922.''] London: [[RoutledgeCurzon]].  {{ISBN|978-0-415-32611-7}} cloth)
* [[Ernest Satow|Satow]], Ernest and George Alexander Lensen. (1968). [https://books.google.com/books?id=arBAAAAAIAAJ&q=Korea+and+Manchuria+between+Russia+and+Japan+1895-1904:+The+Observations+of+Sir+Ernest+Satow ''Korea and Manchuria between Russia and Japan 1895–1904: The Observations of Sir Ernest Satow, British Minister Plenipotentiary to Japan (1895–1900) and China (1900–1906).''] Tokyo: Sophia University Press/Tallahassee, Florida: Diplomatic Press. {{ASIN|B0007JE7R6}}; {{ASIN|B000NP73RK}}
*Spinks, Charles N. "The Termination of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance." ''Pacific Historical Review'' 6#4 (1937): 321–340. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3633877 online]
* Steiner, Zara S. "Great Britain and the Creation of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance." ''Journal of Modern History'' 31.1 (1959): 27–36. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1871770 online]

==External links==
*[http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/anglojapanesealliance1902.htm Main points of the Anglo-Japanese agreements] – by FirstWorldWar.com
*[http://www.jacar.go.jp/nichiro/uk-japan.htm Text of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902] (bilingual)
* Beasley, W. G. (1962). [https://books.google.com/books?id=nIc4AAAAIAAJ&q=The+Modern+History+of+Japan  ''The Modern History of Japan.''] Boston: [[Houghton Mifflin|Frederick A. Praeger]]. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000HHFAWE ASIN B000HHFAWE] (cloth) – {{ISBN|978-0-03-037931-4}} (paper)

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