View source for Apostolic Fathers

{{Short description|Early Christian theologians not included in the New Testament}}
{{for|the writings of the Apostolic Fathers|Ante-Nicene Fathers (book)}}
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The '''Apostolic Fathers''', also known as the '''Ante-Nicene Fathers''', were core [[Christian theology|Christian theologians]] among the [[Church Fathers]] who lived in the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st]] and [[Christianity in the 2nd century|2nd centuries]] AD who are believed to have personally known some of the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Twelve Apostles]] or to have been significantly influenced by them.<ref name=CathEn>{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|last=Peterson|first=John Bertram|wstitle=Apostolic Fathers|author-link=John Bertram Peterson}}</ref> Their writings, though widely circulated in [[History of early Christianity|early Christianity]], were not included in the [[Biblical canon|canon]] of the [[Development of the New Testament canon|New Testament]]. Many of the writings derive from the same time period and geographical location as other works of early [[Christian literature]] which came to be part of the New Testament.

== Background ==
The label ''Apostolic Fathers'' has been applied to these writers only since the [[Christianity in the 17th century|17th century]], to indicate that they were thought of as representing the generation that had personal contact with the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Twelve Apostles]].<ref name=CathEn/> The earliest known use of the term "Apostolic(al) Fathers" was by William Wake in 1693, when he was chaplain [[In ordinary#Royal Household|in ordinary]] to King [[William III of England|William]] and Queen [[Mary II of England|Mary]] of England.<ref>See [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/1025/1/279_099.pdf H.J. de Jonge: On the origin of the term "Apostolic Fathers"]; but note now D. Lincicum, "The Paratextual Invention of the Term 'Apostolic Fathers'," Journal of Theological Studies (2015)</ref> According to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', the use of the term ''Apostolic Fathers'' can be traced to the title of a 1672 work by [[Jean-Baptiste Cotelier]], ''SS. Patrum qui temporibus apostolicis floruerunt opera'' ("Works of the holy fathers who flourished in the apostolic times"), which was abbreviated to ''Bibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum'' (''Library of the Apostolic Fathers'') by L. J. Ittig in his 1699 edition of the same.<ref name=CathEn/> The term "apostolic father" first occurs in the Hogedos of [[Anastasius Sinaita|Anastasius]] of the seventh-century, however states that it was never used to refer to a body of writings until later.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Apostolic Fathers |date=2003 |publisher=Harvard University Press |translator-first1=Bart D. |translator-last1=Ehrman |isbn=0-674-99607-0 |volume=24–25 |location=Cambridge, Mass. |oclc=56058333}}</ref>

The history of the title for these writers was explained by [[J. B. Lightfoot|Joseph Lightfoot]], in his 1890 translation of the Apostolic Fathers' works:<ref>J.B. Lightfoot, ''The Apostolic Fathers'', (1890, second ed., London, Macmillan & Co.) volume&nbsp;1, page&nbsp;3.  See also, David Lincincum, ''The Paratextual Invention of the Term 'Apostolic Fathers','' The Journal of Theological Studies, n.s. vol.&nbsp;66, nr.&nbsp;1 (April 2015) pages 139–148; H.&nbsp;J. de Jonge, ''On the Origin of the Term 'Apostolic Fathers','' The Journal of Theological Studies, n.s. vol.&nbsp;29, nr.&nbsp;2 (Oct. 1978) pages 503–505.</ref>

<blockquote>...[T]he expression ['Apostolic Fathers'] itself does not occur, so far as I have observed, until comparatively recent times.  Its origin, or at least its general currency, should probably be traced to the idea of gathering together the literary remains of those who flourished in the age immediately succeeding the Apostles, and who presumably therefore were their direct personal disciples. This idea first took shape in the edition of [[Jean-Baptiste Cotelier|Cotelier]] during the last half of the seventeenth century (A.D. 1672).  Indeed such a collection would have been an impossibility a few years earlier. The first half of that century saw in print for the first time the Epistles of Clement (A.D. 1633), and of Barnabas (A.D. 1645), to say nothing of the original Greek of Polycarp's Epistle (A.D. 1633) and the Ignatian Letters in their genuine form (A.D. 1644, 1646).  The materials therefore would have been too scanty for such a project at any previous epoch.  In his title page however Cotelier does not use the actual expression, though he approximates to it, ''SS. Patrum qui temporibus Apostolicis floruerunt opera''; but the next editor [Thomas] Ittig (1699), adopts as his title ''Patres Apostolici'', and thenceforward it becomes common.</blockquote>

==List of works==
{{New Testament Apocrypha}}

The following writings are generally grouped together as having been written by the Apostolic Fathers (in italics are writings whose authors are unknown):<ref>"Apostolic Fathers, The". In Cross, F. L., and Livingstone, E.A., eds. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. Oxford University Press (1974).</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=25em}} 
*Letters attributed to [[Clement of Rome]]
**The [[First Epistle of Clement]]
**The ''[[Second Epistle of Clement]]'' (contested authorship; see [[Apostolic Fathers#Clement of Rome|§ Clement of Rome]])
*Seven epistles of [[Ignatius of Antioch]]
*The ''[[Martyrium Ignatii]]''
*The [[Epistle of Polycarp]]
*The ''[[Martyrdom of Polycarp]]''
*Fragments of the writings of [[Papias of Hierapolis]], which have survived as quotations in later writers
*One short fragment of the Apology of [[Quadratus of Athens]]
*The ''[[Didache]]''
*The ''[[Epistle of Barnabas]]''
*The ''[[Epistle to Diognetus]]''<ref group="note">Some editors place the Epistle to Diognetus among the apologetic writings, rather than among the Apostolic Fathers (Stevenson, J. ''A New Eusebius'' SPCK (1965) p. 400).</ref>
*The [[The Shepherd of Hermas|''Shepherd of Hermas'']]
{{div col end}}

Additionally some have argued that the [[Odes of Solomon]] was written by a student of the [[John the Apostle|Apostle John]] around the middle of the first century.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=27900527 | title=The Disciples of John and the Odes of Solomon | last1=Smith | first1=Preserved | journal=The Monist | year=1915 | volume=25 | issue=2 | pages=161–199 | doi=10.5840/monist191525235 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1590583 }}</ref>

All or most of these works were originally written in Greek. Older English translations of these works can be found online in the ''[[Ante-Nicene Fathers (book)|Ante-Nicene Fathers]]'' series on the [[Christian Classics Ethereal Library]] website.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.html|title=The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus|website=[[Christian Classics Ethereal Library]]|publisher=Harry Plantinga|access-date=30 June 2016}}</ref> Published English translations have also been made by various scholars of early Christianity, such as Joseph Lightfoot, [[Kirsopp Lake]], [[Bart D. Ehrman]] and [[Michael W. Holmes]].<ref group="note">For a review of the most recent editions of the Apostolic Fathers and an overview of the current state of scholarship, see Timothy B. Sailors, {{cite news |title=Bryn Mawr Classical Review: Review of ''The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations'' |url=http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2009/2009-07-08.html |accessdate=21 May 2023}}</ref> The first English translation of the Apostolic Fathers' works was published in 1693, by [[William Wake]], then rector of [[Westminster St James]], later [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]''.''<ref group="note">The translation was entitled ''The Genuine Epistles of the Apostolical Fathers, St.&nbsp;Barnabas, St.&nbsp;Clement, St.&nbsp;Ignatius, St.&nbsp;Polycarp, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Martyrdoms of St.&nbsp;Ignatius and St.&nbsp;Polycarp written by Those who were Present at Their Sufferings''.</ref> It was virtually the only English translation available until the mid-19th century. Since its publication many better manuscripts of the Apostolic Fathers' works have been discovered.<ref group="note">Wake's 1693 translation is still available to this day, reprinted in a volume (first published in 1820) now being sold under the title ''[[The Lost Books of the Bible and the Forgotten Books of Eden]]'', which is described at length in chapter 15 of [[Edgar J. Goodspeed]], ''Modern Apocrypha'' (Boston: [[Beacon Press]], 1956).</ref>

There are several Greek text editions:
* The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 1. I Clement. II Clement. Ignatius. Polycarp. Didache. Barnabas. [[Loeb Classical Library]]. Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]], 1912 [[Kirsopp Lake]]
* The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 2. Shepherd of Hermas. Martyrdom of Polycarp. Epistle to Diognetus. [[Loeb Classical Library]]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1913 [[Kirsopp Lake]]
* The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 1. I Clement. II Clement. Ignatius. Polycarp. Didache. [[Loeb Classical Library]]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003 [[Bart Ehrman]] (replaced Lake)
* The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 2. Epistle of Barnabas. Papias and Quadratus. Epistle to Diognetus. The Shepherd of Hermas. [[Loeb Classical Library]]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005 [[Bart Ehrman]] (replaced Lake)
*The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations. 3rd Edition. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007 [[Michael W. Holmes|Michael Holmes]]
*Die Apostolischen Väter. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992 Andreas Lindemann and Henning Paulsen (German)

==Fathers==

===Clement of Rome===
[[Clement of Rome]] ({{Circa|35}}–99) was [[bishop of Rome]] from 88 to 99. [[Irenaeus]] and [[Tertullian]] list him as the fourth bishop after [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[Pope Linus|Linus]] and [[Pope Anacletus|Anacletus]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Cross|first1=Frank Leslie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA363|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church|last2=Livingstone|first2=Elizabeth A.|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280290-3|language=en}}</ref> He was said to have been consecrated by Peter the Apostle, and he is known to have been a leading member of the Church in Rome in the late 1st century.<ref name="CathEnClement">{{CathEncy|wstitle= Pope St. Clement I |volume= 9 |last= Chapman |first= Henry Palmer |author-link= |short=1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100–325 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc2.v.xv.iv.html|access-date=2021-09-04|website=www.ccel.org}}</ref>

The [[First Epistle of Clement]] ({{Circa|AD 96}})<ref name="CC">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]] (1972). ''Caesar and Christ''. New York: [[Simon & Schuster]].</ref> was copied and widely read and is generally considered to be the oldest [[Christianity|Christian]] [[epistle]] in existence outside of the [[New Testament]]. The letter is extremely lengthy, twice as long as the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]],<ref group="note">The Lightfoot translation of the [[First Epistle of Clement]] is 13,316 words; the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] is only 7,300–7,400 words (depending on the translation).</ref> and it demonstrates the author's familiarity with many books of both the [[Old Testament]] and New Testament. The epistle repeatedly refers to the Old Testament as scripture<ref>B. Metzger, ''Canon of the New Testament'' (Oxford University Press) 1987:43.</ref> and includes numerous references to the [[Book of Judith]], thereby establishing usage or at least familiarity with Judith in his time. Within the letter, Clement calls on the [[Early centers of Christianity#Greece|Christians of Corinth]] to maintain harmony and order.<ref name="CC" /> Tradition identifies the author as Clement, bishop of Rome, and scholarly consensus is overwhelmingly in favor of the letter's authenticity.<ref>Louth 1987:20; preface to both epistles in William Jurgens ''The Faith of the Early Fathers'', vol 1", pp 6 and 42 respectively.</ref>

The [[Second Epistle of Clement]] was traditionally ascribed by some ancient authors to Clement, but it is now generally considered to have been written later, {{Circa|AD 140–160}}, and therefore could not be the work of Clement, who died in 99.<ref name="CathEnClement"/> Doubts about the authorship of the letter had already been expressed in antiquity by [[Eusebius]] and [[Jerome]].<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'', Book 3, Chapter 16</ref><ref>Jerome, ''[[De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)|De Viris Illustribus]]'', Chapter 15</ref> Whereas 1 Clement was an epistle, 2 Clement appears to be a transcript of an oral [[homily]] or [[sermon]],<ref name="CathEnClement" /> making it the oldest surviving Christian sermon outside of the New Testament.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}}

===Ignatius of Antioch===
[[Ignatius of Antioch]] (also known as Theophorus, from the Greek for ''God-bearer'') ({{Circa|35–110}})<ref>See "Ignatius" in ''The Westminster Dictionary of Church History'', ed. Jerald Brauer (Philadelphia:Westminster, 1971) and also David Hugh Farmer, "Ignatius of Antioch" in ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Saints'' (New York:Oxford University Press, 1987).</ref> was [[Patriarch of Antioch|bishop of Antioch]].<ref>"Ignatius, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> He may have known the apostle [[John the Apostle|John]] directly, and his thought is certainly influenced by the tradition associated with this apostle.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/282296/Saint-Ignatius-of-Antioch Saint Ignatius of Antioch]" in the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> En route to his martyrdom in [[Rome]], Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved as an example of the theology of the earliest Christians. Important topics addressed in these letters include [[ecclesiology]], the [[sacrament]]s, the role of [[bishop]]s,<ref>Eph 6:1, Mag 2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2, Tr 3:1, Smy 8:1,9:1</ref> and the nature of [[biblical Sabbath]].<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.iii.ix.html Ignatius's Letter to the Magnesians 9]: "Let us therefore no longer keep the Sabbath after the Jewish manner"</ref> He clearly identifies the local-church hierarchy composed of bishop, [[presbyters]], and [[deacons]] and claims to have spoken in some of the churches through the [[Biblical inspiration|inspiration]] of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]]. He is the second after Clement to mention the [[Pauline epistles]].<ref name="CC" />

===Polycarp of Smyrna===
[[File:Burghers michael saintpolycarp.jpg|right|thumb|St. Polycarp, depicted with a book as a symbol of his writings.]]
[[Polycarp]] ({{Circa|AD 69}} – {{Circa|155}}) was bishop of [[Smyrna]] (now [[İzmir]] in Turkey).<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Polycarp, Saint |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_sim_024618 |access-date=2022-10-26 |website=Religion Past and Present|doi=10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_sim_024618 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> His student Irenaeus wrote that he "was not only instructed by the apostles, and conversed with many who had seen the Lord, but was also appointed bishop by apostles in Asia and in the church in Smyrna",<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm CHURCH FATHERS: Against Heresies, III.3 (St. Irenaeus)] ''Adversus haereses'', 3:3:4]</ref> and that he had, as a boy, listened to "the accounts which (Polycarp) gave of his intercourse with John and with the others who had seen the Lord".<ref>Letter to Florinus, quoted in [[Eusebius]], ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'', Book V, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.x.xxi.html chapter 20].</ref> The options for this John are [[John the Apostle|John the son of Zebedee]], traditionally viewed as the author of the Fourth Gospel, or [[John the Presbyter]].<ref>Lake (1912).</ref> Traditional advocates follow Eusebius in insisting that the apostolic connection of [[Papias of Hierapolis|Papius]] was with [[John the Evangelist]], and that this John, the author of the [[Gospel of John]], was the same as the apostle John.

Polycarp tried and failed to persuade [[Pope Anicetus|Anicetus]], bishop of Rome, to have the [[Latin Church|West]] celebrate [[Easter]] on [[Quartodecimanism|14 Nisan]], as in the [[Eastern Christianity|East]].<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Polycarp|volume=22|pages=20–22|first=Herbert Tom|last=Andrews}}</ref> He rejected the bishop's suggestion that the East use the Western date. In 155, the Smyrnans demanded Polycarp's execution as a Christian, and he died a [[martyr]]. His story has it that the flames built to kill him refused to burn him, and that when he was stabbed to death, so much blood issued from his body that it quenched the flames around him.<ref name="CC" /> Polycarp is recognized as a [[saint]] in both the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] churches.

=== Papias of Hierapolis ===
[[Papias of Hierapolis]] ({{Circa|60|130}}) was bishop of [[Hierapolis]] (now [[Pamukkale]] in Turkey). Irenaeus describes him as "an ancient man who was a hearer of [[New Testament people named John#John of Ephesus|John]] and a companion of Polycarp".<ref>Iraeneus, ''[[Against Heresies (Irenaeus)|Against Heresies]]'', Book 5, Chapter 33</ref> Eusebius adds that Papias was Bishop of Hierapolis around the time of Ignatius of Antioch.<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'', Book 3, Chapter 36</ref> The name ''Papias'' (Παπίας) was very common in the region, suggesting that he was probably a native of the area.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huttner|first=Ulrich|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3HZfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA216|title=Early Christianity in the Lycus Valley|date=2013-11-29|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-26428-1|pages=216|language=en}}</ref>

Papias's major work was the ''Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord'' (Greek: Λογίων Κυριακῶν Ἐξήγησις) in five books; it has been lost and only survives in excerpts from Irenaeus and Eusebius. Other fragments come from the works of [[Philip of Side]] and [[George Hamartolos]], but the authenticity of those are dubious.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Richard|first=Bauckham|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tE8xDwAAQBAJ&q=papias+philip+of+side&pg=PA13|title=Jesus and the Eyewitnesses, 2d ed.|date=2017|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-7431-3|language=en}}</ref>

=== Quadratus of Athens ===
[[Quadratus of Athens]] (died {{Circa|129}}) was bishop of [[Athens]]. Eusebius reports that he was a disciple of the apostles (''auditor apostolorum'') and that he was appointed as bishop after the martyrdom of his predecessor [[Saint Publius|Publius]].<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Chronicon (Eusebius)|Chronicon]]''</ref><ref>Eusebius, ''Church History'', Book 4, Chapter 23</ref> Quadratus's major work is the ''Apology'', which was apparently read to Emperor [[Hadrian]] to convince him to improve imperial policy toward Christians. It has been lost and only survives in an excerpt from Eusebius.<ref>Eusebius, ''Church History'', Book IV, Chapter 3</ref>

== Other sub-apostolic literature ==

===''Didache''===
The ''[[Didache]]'' ({{Langx|grc|Διδαχή,|Didakhé|Teaching}})<ref>[[Henry George Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]]; Scott, Robert (1940). "διδαχή". ''[[A Greek–English Lexicon]]''. Revised and augmented throughout by Sir [[Henry Stuart Jones]], with the assistance of [[Roderick McKenzie]]. [[Oxford]]: [[Clarendon Press]].</ref> is a brief early Christian [[treatise]], dated anywhere from as early as AD 50 to the end of the 1st century.<ref>Cross, edited by F.L. (2005). The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd rev. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 482. {{ISBN|978-0192802903}}. Retrieved 8 March 2016</ref> It contains instructions for Christian communities. The text, parts of which may have constituted the first written [[catechism]], has three main sections dealing with Christian lessons, rituals such as [[baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]], and church organization. It was considered by some of the [[Church Fathers]] as part of the New Testament<ref>[[Apostolic Constitutions]] "Canon 85" (approved at the Orthodox [[Quinisext Council|Synod of Trullo]] in 692); [[Tyrannius Rufinus|Rufinus]], ''Commentary on Apostles Creed 37'' (as Deuterocanonical) c. 380; [[John of Damascus]] ''Exact Exposition of Orthodox Faith'' 4.17; and the 81-book canon of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] which includes the [[Didascalia]] which is based on the ''Didache''.</ref> but rejected as [[Apocrypha#Spurious writings|spurious]] (non-canonical) by others.<ref>[[Athanasius]], [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xxv.iii.iii.xxv.html ''Festal Letter 39''] (excludes them from the canon, but recommends them for reading) in 367; Rejected by 60 Books Canon and by [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople|Nicephorus]] in ''[[Stichometry of Nicephorus|Stichometria]]''</ref> Scholars knew of the ''Didache'' through references in other texts, but the text had been lost; it was rediscovered in 1873 by Philotheos Bryennios, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, in the [[Codex Hierosolymitanus]].

===''Shepherd of Hermas''===
The 2nd-century [[The Shepherd of Hermas|''The'' ''Shepherd of Hermas'']] was popular in the early church and was even considered [[Bible|scriptural]] by some of the Church Fathers such as Irenaeus<ref>Robert Davidson & A.R.C. Leaney, ''Biblical Criticism'': p. 230</ref> and Tertullian. It was written in Rome in [[Koine Greek]]. The ''Shepherd'' had great authority in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The work comprises five visions, 12 mandates, and 10 parables. It relies on [[allegory]] and pays special attention to the Church, calling the faithful to repent of the sins that have harmed it.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/hermas | title=Hermas }}</ref>

===''Epistle to Diognetus''===
The [[Epistle to Diognetus]], sometimes called Mathetes or Epistle of Mathetes to Diogentus, is the first extant Christian apology. In the apology, the anonymous author explains to a pagan friend who wants to know more about the new religion. The epistle talks mainly about the incarnation of [[Logos]] (Jesus Christ), the errors of paganism and Judaism, and explain about the Christian lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0101.htm | title=Mathetes }}</ref> This work is thought to have been written around 130 AD.<ref>{{Citation | first = Cyril C. | last = Richardson | title = Early Christian Fathers | year = 1953 | pages = 206–10}}.</ref>

==Theology==
The writings of the Apostolic Fathers reveal the development of distinct theological schools or orientations: Asia Minor and Syria, Rome, and Alexandria. The school of Asia Minor (represented by the [[Johannine literature]], Ignatius, Polycarp, and Papias) stressed union with Christ for attaining [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref>{{cite book | last = González | first = Justo L. | author-link = Justo L. González | title = A History of Christian Thought | publisher = Abingdon Press | volume = 1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon | edition = revised | year = 1987 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yMlwT9_KRz4C | isbn = 0-687-17182-2|pages=92–93}}</ref> For Ignatius, the [[eucharist]] unites the believer to the [[passion of Christ]]. He wrote that it was "the medicine of immortality, the antidote which results not in dying but in living forever in Jesus Christ".<ref>[[wikisource:Ante-Nicene Christian Library/Epistle to the Ephesians|Ign. Eph.]] chapter 20 quoted in {{harvtxt|González|1987|p=78}}.</ref> The writings of Papias taught [[historic premillennialism]]—the belief that the [[Second Coming]] will inaugurate Jesus' thousand year reign on earth (the [[Millennialism|millennium]]).{{Sfn|González|1987|p=82}}

Roman Christianity (represented by Clement and Hermas) was influenced by Stoicism and stressed ethics and morality.{{Sfn|González|1987|pp=93–94}} Hermas taught that a person could be forgiven once for postbaptismal sin (sins committed after [[baptism]]).{{Sfn|González|1987|p=88}} Hermas also introduced the idea of [[Works of Supererogation|works of supererogation]] (to do more than the commandments of God require). This concept would contribute to the later development of the [[treasury of merit]] and the [[Western Christianity|Western Church's]] penitential system.{{Sfn|González|1987|pp=88–89}}

The Alexandrian school (represented by the ''[[Epistle of Barnabas]]'') was influenced by [[Middle Platonism]] and [[Neoplatonism]]. It combined a focus on ethics with an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament in the tradition of [[Philo]].{{Sfn|González|1987|pp=94–95}} The author of the ''Epistle of Barnabas'' used an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament to harmonize it with Christian teachings. The stories of the Old Testament were understood to be [[Typology (theology)|types]] that point to the saving work of Jesus.{{Sfn|González|1987|p=85}}

The Apostolic Fathers, all of whom were Gentiles, struggled with the authority of the [[Old Covenant]] and the relationship between Judaism and Christianity. The [[wikisource:Epistle of Barnabas (Lake translation)#CHAPTER 14|''Epistle of Barnabas'' 14.3-4]] claimed the [[Tablets of Stone|tablets of the covenant]] were destroyed at [[Mount Sinai (Bible)|Sinai]] and that Israel had no [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] with God.<ref>{{cite book | last = Pelikan | first = Jaroslav | author-link = Jaroslav Pelikan | title = The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine | publisher = University of Chicago Press | volume = 1: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600) | year = 1971 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=abpTDwAAQBAJ | isbn = 9780226028163 |page=14}}</ref>

The [[Trinitarianism in the Church Fathers|Apostolic Fathers use Trinitarian language]], such as that written by Clement: "Have we not one God and one Christ and one Spirit of grace, the Spirit that has been poured out on us?"<ref>[[wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume IX/The Epistles of Clement/The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians/Chapter 46|1 Clement 46]] quoted on page 25 in {{cite book | last = Lampe | first = G. W. H. | author-link = Geoffrey Hugo Lampe | chapter = Christian Theology in the Patristic Period | year = 1978 | title = A History of Christian Doctrine | editor-last = Cunliffe-Jones | editor-first = Hubert | editor-link = Hubert Cunliffe-Jones | pages = 23–180 | publisher = T & T Clark | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OVWvAwAAQBAJ | isbn= 0567043932}}</ref> While [[Christology]] remained undeveloped, the Apostolic Fathers agreed on the [[pre-existence of Christ]], as well as both his divinity and humanity.{{Sfn|González|1987|p=95}} Ignatius referred to Jesus as "our God" and wrote that "The one God manifested himself through Jesus Christ his Son who is his Word that proceeded from silence".<ref>[[wikisource:Ante-Nicene Christian Library/Epistle to the Ephesians|Ign. Eph.]] preface and [[wikisource:Ante-Nicene Christian Library/Epistle to the Magnesians|Ign. Mag.]] chapter 8 quoted in {{harvtxt|Lampe|1978|p=26}}.</ref> When opposing [[Docetism]]—a movement that denied the humanity of Jesus and therefore his [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]]—Ignatius wrote, "There is one Physician: both flesh and spirit, [[Monogenēs|begotten]] and unbegotten, in man, God, in death, true life, both from Mary and from God, first passible and then [[impassible]], Jesus Christ our Lord".<ref>[[wikisource:Ante-Nicene Christian Library/Epistle to the Ephesians|Ign. Eph.]] chapter 7 quoted in {{harvtxt|González|1987|p=75}}.</ref> In ''The Shephard of Hermas'', the pre-incarnation Son of God is referred to as: "the holy pre-existent Spirit which created the whole creation God made to dwell in flesh that he desired. This flesh therefore in which the Holy Spirit dwelt was subject to the Spirit{{nbsp}}... He chose this flesh as a partner with the Holy Spirit".<ref>[[wikisource:Shepherd of Hermas: Book of Similitudes (Lightfoot translation)#CHAPTER VI.|''The Shepherd'' sim. 5.6]] quoted in {{harvtxt|Lampe|1978|p=27}}.</ref> The usage of the term "Holy Spirit" in ''The Shepherd of Hermas'' is often not specific to the third Person of the Trinity, and sometimes refers to a human spirit made holy by the grace of God.<ref>[[wikisource:Shepherd of Hermas: Book of Similitudes (Lightfoot translation)#CHAPTER XIII|''The Shepherd'' sim. 9.13]].</ref>

The Apostolic Fathers do not seem to share a single concept of [[church polity]] or organization.{{Sfn|González|1987|p=95}} In the ''Didache'', [[prophet]]s are the preeminent leaders of the church with [[bishop]]s and [[deacon]]s in subordinate roles. It is possible this arrangement represents "a period of transition between the primitive system of [[charismatic authority]] and the hierarchical organization that was slowly developing within the church".{{Sfn|González|1987|p=71}} Other writers stress the importance of bishops as leaders of the church. In an early articulation of [[apostolic succession]], Clement teaches that the apostles appointed bishops (or [[presbyter]]s) and deacons to lead the church.{{Sfn|González|1987|p=65}} Ignatius provided the earliest description of a [[monarchical bishop]],{{Sfn|González|1987|p=77}} writing that "all are to respect the deacons as Jesus Christ and the bishop as a copy of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and the band of the apostles. For apart from these no group can be called a church".<ref>''[[wikisource:Ante-Nicene Christian Library/Epistle to the Trallians|Trallians]]'' 3 quoted in {{harvtxt|González|1987|p=77}}.</ref>

The Apostolic Fathers placed great importance on baptism. According to theologian [[Geoffrey Hugo Lampe]], the Fathers considered baptism to be "the seal with which believers are marked out as God's people, the way of death to sin and demons and of rebirth to resurrection-life, the new white robe which must be preserved undefiled, the shield of Christ's soldier, the sacrament of the reception of the Holy Spirit."{{Sfn|Lampe|1978|p=27}} The Apostolic Fathers also clearly considered the eucharist to be the center of Christian worship.{{Sfn|González|1987|p=95}} Ignatius identified the eucharist closely with the death and resurrection of Christ—"it is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins and which the Father raised up".<ref>''[[wikisource:Ante-Nicene Christian Library/Epistle to the Smyrnaeans|Smyrnaeans]]'' 6 quoted in {{harvtxt|Lampe|1978|p=27}}.</ref>

==See also==

{{Portal|Christianity}}
* [[Christian apologetics#Apostolic and post-apostolic period|Christian apologetics]]
* [[Doctor of the Church]]
* ''[[Ante-Nicene Fathers (book)]]''
* [[Ecumenical Councils]]
* ''[[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]]''

==References==

===Notes===
{{reflist|group=note|2}}

===Citations===
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Apostolic Fathers|volume=2|pages=201–204|first=James Vernon|last=Bartlet}} This contains a more detailed exegesis of the writings.
*[http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=a&word=APOSTOLICFATHERS Apostolic Fathers] in the Christian Cyclopedia
*[https://sites.google.com/site/sblapostolicfathers/ SBL Apostolic Fathers Section]
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