View source for Arab citizens of Israel

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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Arab citizens of Israel
| image            = [[File:Map of Arabic speaking localities in Israel.png|418x418px]]
| caption          = Map of [[Arab localities in Israel]], 2015
| population       = [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]], 2023:<br />'''2,065,000''' (21%)<ref name="CBS2023">{{Cite web |title=ישראל במספרים ערב ראש השנה תשפ |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/Pages/2023/ישראל-במספרים-ערב-ראש-השנה-תשפד-נתונים-נבחרים-מהלוחות-השנתיים-2023.aspx |access-date=2023-09-24 |website=www.cbs.gov.il |language=he-IL}}</ref><ref name="Arabs2013">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/hodaot2013n/11_13_097e.pdf |title=65th Independence Day – More than 8 Million Residents in the State of Israel |publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] |date=14 April 2013 |access-date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128173944/http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/hodaot2013n/11_13_097e.pdf |archive-date=28 November 2017}}</ref><hr/>[[East Jerusalem]] and [[Golan Heights]], 2012:<br />'''278,000''' (~3%)
| regions          = {{flag|Israel|name=State of Israel}}
| tablehdr         = 
| languages        = [[Levantine Arabic|Arabic]]{{Efn|Traditionally [[Lebanese Arabic]] in northern Israel, [[Palestinian Arabic]] in central Israel, and [[Northwest Arabian Arabic|Bedouin dialects]] in southern Israel.}} and [[Modern Hebrew|Hebrew]]
| religions        = [[Islam in Israel|Islam]] (84%){{efn|Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]].}}<br />[[Christianity in Israel|Christianity]] (8%){{efn|Predominantly [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem|Greek Orthodox]].}}<br />[[Druze in Israel|Druze]] (8%)<ref name="CBS2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2019/134/11_19_134b.pdf |title=Israel's Independence Day 2019 |publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] |date=1 May 2019 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref>
| native_name      = {{nobold|{{lang|ar|{{Script/Arabic|المواطنون العرب في إسرائيل}}|rtl=yes}}<br />{{lang|he|{{Script/Hebrew|עֲרָבִים אֶזרָחֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל}}|rtl=yes}}}}
| native_name_lang = <!-- ar, he -->
| related_groups   = [[Ethnic groups in the Middle East|Middle Eastern peoples]]
}}

The '''Arab citizens of Israel''' form the country's largest ethnic minority.<ref name="cfrel"/><ref>{{cite web |date=2021-05-13 |title=Arabs of Israel, minority with deep-seated grievances |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210513-arabs-of-israel-minority-with-deep-seated-grievances |access-date=2021-11-29 |website=France 24 |ref={{sfnref | France 24 | 2021}}}}</ref> Their community mainly consists of former [[Palestinian Citizenship Order 1925|Mandatory Palestine citizens]] (and their descendants) who continued to inhabit the territory that was acknowledged as Israeli by the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]].<ref name="TuckerRoberts2008">{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA503 |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History &#91;4 volumes&#93;: A Political, Social, and Military History |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |date=12 May 2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |pages=503}}</ref> Notions of identity among Israel's Arab citizens are complex, encompassing civic, religious, and ethnic components.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rudnitzky |first=Arik |date=12 December 2024 |title=In-Depth Survey of the Arab Public after a Year of War |url=https://dayan.org/content/depth-survey-arab-public-after-year-war |access-date=9 January 2025 |quote=With respect to the personal identity of Arab citizens, three dominant components emerge: Israeli citizenship (33.9%), religious affiliation (29.2%), and Arab identity (26.9%). For a smaller segment of respondents (9%), Palestinian identity is the dominant component of their identity.}}</ref> Some sources report that the majority of Arabs in Israel prefer to be identified as '''Palestinian citizens of Israel'''.<ref name="nyt2012">{{cite news |last=Rudoren |first=Jodi |author-link=Jodi Rudoren |date=2012-07-13 |title=Service to Israel Tugs at Identity of Arab Citizens |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/13/world/middleeast/service-to-israel-tugs-at-arab-citizens-identity.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703055744/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/13/world/middleeast/service-to-israel-tugs-at-arab-citizens-identity.html |archive-date=3 July 2025 |access-date=6 August 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]] |quote=After decades of calling themselves Israeli Arabs, which in Hebrew sounds like Arabs who belong to Israel, most now prefer Palestinian citizens of Israel. |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="cfrel">{{cite news |last1=Robinson |first1=Kali |date=26 October 2023 |title=What to Know About the Arab Citizens of Israel |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-know-about-arab-citizens-israel |access-date=2 March 2024 |work=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}</ref><ref>Israeli government documents and media refer to Arab citizens as “Arabs” or “Israeli Arabs,” and some Arabs use those terms themselves. Global news media usually use similar phrasing to distinguish these residents from Arabs who live in the Palestinian territories. Most members of this community self-identify as "Palestinian citizens of Israel," and some identify just as "Palestinian" rejecting Israeli identity. Others prefer to be referred to as Arab citizens of Israel for various reasons</ref><ref name="PI"/><ref>{{cite news |last=Farzan |first=Antonia Noori |date=2021-05-13 |title=Arab Israelis are rising up to protest. Here's what you need to know about their status in the country. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/05/13/arab-israeli-faq/  |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210514015737/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/05/13/arab-israeli-faq/ |archive-date=14 May 2021 |access-date=2021-11-29 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]  |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

<!-- History -->
In the wake of the [[1948 Palestine war]], the Israeli government [[Israeli citizenship law#Status of Palestinian Arabs|conferred Israeli citizenship upon all Palestinians]] who had [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight|remained or were not expelled]]. However, they were subject to discrimination by being placed under martial law until 1966, while other Israeli citizens were not. In the early 1980s, Israel granted citizenship eligibility to the Palestinians in [[East Jerusalem]] and the Syrian citizens of the [[Golan Heights]] by annexing both areas, though they remain internationally recognized as part of the [[Israeli-occupied territories]], which came into being after the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967.<ref name="Question of Palestine: Jerusalem">{{cite web|title=Question of Palestine: Jerusalem |publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/qpalnew/glossarycollapsible.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922184949/http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/qpalnew/glossarycollapsible.htm |archive-date=22 September 2009 }}</ref> Acquisition of Israeli citizenship in East Jerusalem has been scarce, as only 5% of Palestinians in East Jerusalem were Israeli citizens in 2022, largely due to Palestinian society's disapproval of naturalization as [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|complicity with the occupation]]. Israel has made the process more difficult, approving only 38% of new Palestinian applications from 2002 to 2022.<ref name="e-jer-cit">{{Cite news |last=Hasson |first=Nir |date=2022-05-29 |title=Just 5 Percent of E. Jerusalem Palestinians Have Received Israeli Citizenship Since 1967 |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2022-05-29/ty-article/why-so-few-palestinians-from-jerusalem-have-israeli-citizenship/00000181-0c46-d090-abe1-ed7fefc20000 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220529163915/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2022-05-29/ty-article/why-so-few-palestinians-from-jerusalem-have-israeli-citizenship/00000181-0c46-d090-abe1-ed7fefc20000 |archive-date=29 May 2022 |access-date=2025-08-10 |website=[[Haaretz]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

<!-- Statistics -->
According to the [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]], the Israeli Arab population stood at 2.1 million people in 2023, accounting for 21% of Israel's total population.<ref name="CBS2023"/> The majority of these Arab citizens identify themselves as Arab or Palestinian by nationality and as Israeli by citizenship.<ref name="ICG">{{cite journal|title=Identity Crisis: Israel and its Arab Citizens |journal=Middle East Report |issue= 25 |date=4 March 2004 |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/israel-palestine/025-identity-crisis-israel-and-its-arab-citizens.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313112806/http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/israel-palestine/025-identity-crisis-israel-and-its-arab-citizens.aspx |archive-date=13 March 2011 |access-date=14 April 2011 }}. "The issue of terminology relating to this subject is sensitive and at least partially a reflection of political preferences. Most Israeli official documents refer to the Israeli Arab community as "minorities". The Israeli National Security Council (NSC) has used the term "Arab citizens of Israel". Virtually all political parties, movements and non-governmental organisations from within the Arab community use the word "Palestinian" somewhere in their description – at times failing to make any reference to Israel. For consistency of reference and without prejudice to the position of either side, ICG will use both Arab Israeli and terms the community commonly uses to describe itself, such as Palestinian citizens of Israel or Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel."</ref><ref name=Marcus>{{cite news|title=Israeli Arabs: 'Unequal citizens'|author=Johnathan Marcus|work=BBC News|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4493525.stm |date=2 May 2005|access-date=6 December 2007}}</ref><ref name="Ynetidentity">An IDI Guttman Study of 2008 shows that most Arab citizens of Israel identify as Arabs (45%). While 24% consider themselves Palestinian, 12% consider themselves Israelis, and 19% identify themselves according to religion. [http://www.ynet.co.il/english/articles/0,7340,L-3540049,00.html Poll: Most Israelis see themselves as Jewish first, Israeli second]</ref> They mostly live in [[Arab localities in Israel|Arab-majority towns and cities]], some of which are among the poorest in the country, and generally attend schools that are separated to some degree from those attended by [[Israeli Jews|Jewish Israelis]].<ref>[https://www.jta.org/2016/04/12/news-opinion/israel-middle-east/4-ways-jews-and-arabs-live-apart-in-israeli-society 4 ways Jews and Arabs live apart in Israeli society], Ben Sales, 12 April 2016, Jewish Telegraphic Agency</ref> Arab political parties traditionally did not join governing coalitions until 2021, when the [[United Arab List]] became the first to do so.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kershner |first=Isabel |date=2 June 2021 |title=The Arab party Raam makes history within coalition |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/02/world/middleeast/arab-party-raam-coalition.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703055818/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/02/world/middleeast/arab-party-raam-coalition.html |archive-date=3 July 2025 |access-date=13 June 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The [[Druze in Israel|Druze]] and the [[Negev Bedouin|Bedouin]] in the [[Negev]] and the [[Galilee]] have historically expressed the strongest non-Jewish affinity to Israel and are more likely to identify as Israelis than other Arab citizens.<ref>{{cite journal|title=New Identity/Identities Formulation in a Post-Nomadic Community: The Case of the Bedouin of the Negev|author=Steven Dinero|journal=National Identities|year=2004|volume=6|issue=3|pages=261–275|doi=10.1080/1460894042000312349|bibcode=2004NatId...6..261D |s2cid=143809632 | issn = 1460-8944 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.jcpa.org/jl/hit06.htm ''The Druze Minority in Israel in the Mid-1990s'', by Gabriel Ben-Dor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012125647/http://www.jcpa.org/jl/hit06.htm |date=12 October 2017 }}, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 1995-06-01. Retrieved on 2012-01-23.</ref><ref>Mya Guarnieri, [http://www.alternativenews.org/english/index.php/news/opinion/4127-where-is-the-bedouin-intifada.html Where is the Bedouin Intifada?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054915/http://www.alternativenews.org/english/index.php/news/opinion/4127-where-is-the-bedouin-intifada.html |date=21 September 2013 }} The Alternative Information Center (AIC), 9 February 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.uktaskforce.org/docs/120613-israel-experience-pack.pdf Israel's ''Arab citizens: Key facts and current realities''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003622/http://uktaskforce.org/docs/120613-israel-experience-pack.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}, UK Task Force, June 2012.</ref>

<!-- Identity -->
Speakers of both [[Arabic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], their traditional vernacular is mostly [[Levantine Arabic]], including [[Lebanese Arabic]] in northern Israel, [[Palestinian Arabic]] in central Israel, and [[Northwest Arabian Arabic|Bedouin Arabic]] across the [[Negev]]. Because the modern Arabic dialects of Israel's Arabs have absorbed multiple Hebrew loanwords and phrases, it is sometimes called the [[Arabic language in Israel|Israeli Arabic dialect]].<ref>Mendel, Y. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWOoBAAAQBAJ&dq=Israeli+Arabic+dialect&pg=PA139 The Creation of Israeli Arabic]. Springer 2014.</ref> By religious affiliation, the majority of Arab Israelis are Muslims, but there are significant Christian and Druze minorities, among others.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Arab Population in Israel|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/statistical/arab_pop08e.pdf|publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]]|access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref> Arab citizens of Israel have a wide variety of self-identification: as Israeli or "in Israel"; as Arabs, Palestinians, or Israelis; and as [[Muslims|Muslim]]s, [[Christians|Christian]]s or [[Druze]].<ref name="The New York Times 2021">{{Cite news|last=Cohen|first=Roger|author-link=Roger Cohen|date=2021-08-01|title=Riots Shatter Veneer of Coexistence in Israel's Mixed Towns|website=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/01/world/middleeast/israel-arabs-jews-palestinians-riots.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703055833/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/01/world/middleeast/israel-arabs-jews-palestinians-riots.html |archive-date=3 July 2025 |access-date=2022-07-09 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Terminology and identity==
{{Main|Terms for Palestinian citizens of Israel}}

[[File:Arabs Israel 2018.png|thumb|Arabs in Israel, by natural region (2018).]]
The choice of terms to refer to Arab citizens of Israel is a highly politicized issue, and there is a broad range of labels that members of this community use to self-identity.<ref name=HRW/><ref name=Lowrance>{{cite journal|title=Identity, Grievances, and Political Action: Recent Evidence from the Palestinian Community in Israel|author=Sherry Lowrance|journal=International Political Science Review|volume=27, 2|pages=167–190|year=2006 |url=https://uga.academia.edu/SherryLowrance/Papers/82564/Identity_Grievances_and_Political_Action_Recent_Evidence_from_the_Palestinian_Community_in_Israel|quote=There are a number of self-identification labels currently in use among Palestinian Israelis. Seven of the most commonly used were included in the 2001 survey. They range from "Israeli" and "Israeli Arab", indicating some degree of identification with Israel to "Palestinian," which rejects Israeli identification and wholeheartedly identifies with the Palestinian people. ...<br /> According to the author's survey, approximately 66 percent of the sample of Palestinian Israelis identified themselves in whole or in part as Palestinian. The modal identity is "Palestinian in Israel", which rejects "Israeli" as a psychological identification, but accepts it as a descriptive label of geographical location. ... <br /> The establishment-favoured "Israeli Arab" is the second-most popular response in the survey, reflecting its dominance in Israeli social discourse. About 37 percent of respondents identified themselves in some way as "Israeli", double-counting the "Israeli Palestinian" category as both "Israeli" and "Palestinian". Although much smaller than the percentage identifying themselves as Palestinian a nevertheless considerable number include "Israeli" as part of their identity, despite the hardships placed upon them by the Israeli state. }}</ref> Generally speaking, supporters of Israel tend to use ''Israeli Arab'' or ''Arab Israeli'' to refer to this population without mentioning Palestine, while critics of Israel (or supporters of Palestinians) tend to use ''Palestinian'' or ''Palestinian Arab'' without referencing Israel.<ref name=Peleg/> According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', most preferred to identify themselves as Palestinian citizens of Israel rather than as Israeli Arabs, as of 2012.<ref name="SI"/><ref>'After decades of calling themselves Israeli Arabs, which in Hebrew sounds like Arabs who belong to Israel, most now prefer Palestinian citizens of Israel.'</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' uses both 'Palestinian Israelis'<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 November 2020 |title=Editorial, Israel's Embattled Democracy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/22/opinion/sunday/israels-embattled-democracy.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703055839/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/22/opinion/sunday/israels-embattled-democracy.html |archive-date=3 July 2025 |access-date=21 July 2012 |website=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=subscription |quote=Israeli Palestinians are not required to join the army, and most do not. Many feel like second-class citizens and are deeply conflicted about their place in Israeli society. }}</ref> and 'Israeli Arabs' to refer to the same population.

[[File:Land day sakhneen.jpg|thumb|250px|Israeli Arabs at a [[Land Day]] rally in [[Sakhnin]], 30 March 2010]]The relationship of Arab citizens to the State of Israel is often fraught with tension and can be regarded in the context of relations between [[minority group|minority]] populations and state authorities elsewhere in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=State-Controlled Education and Identity Formation Among the Palestinian Arab Minority in Israel|journal=American Behavioral Scientist|author=Ismael Abu-Saad|volume=49|issue=8|pages=1085–1100|year=2006|doi=10.1177/0002764205284720|s2cid=144236547}}</ref> Arab citizens consider themselves to be an [[indigenous peoples|indigenous people]].<ref>{{cite web|title=UN Commission on Human Rights: Working Group on Minorities|author=Mossawa Center: The Advocacy Center for Arab Citizens of Israel|publisher=[[UN Commission on Human Rights]]|date=30 May – 3 June 2005|url=http://www.ohchr.org/english/issues/minorities/docs/11/Mossawa_3a.doc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926132059/http://www.ohchr.org/english/issues/minorities/docs/11/Mossawa_3a.doc|archive-date=26 September 2007}}</ref>

===List of demonyms===
Arab/Palestinian citizens of Israel may refer to themselves by a wide range of terms. Each of these names, while referring to the same group of people, connotes a different balance in what is often a multilayered identity assigning varying levels of priority or emphasis to the various dimensions which may be historic-geographic ("[[Palestine (region)]]"), "national" or ethnoreligious (Palestinian, Arab, Israeli, Druze, Circassian), linguistic (Arabic-speaking), civic (feeling "Israeli" or not), etc.:<ref name=icenter/>
* '''Palestinian citizens of Israel'''<ref name=icenter/><ref name=cjr1>{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Miriam |title=Palestinian citizens of Israel struggle to tell their stories |url=https://www.cjr.org/analysis/palestinian-citizens-of-israel-musawa.php |website=Columbia Journalism Review |access-date=4 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref> is a term that most [[Israeli Arabs|Arab citizens of Israel]] prefer to refer to themselves,<ref name="cfrel"/><ref name="nyt2012" /> and which some media ([[BBC]], ''[[New York Times]]'', ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[NBC News]])<ref name=honest>{{cite news |last1=Koningsveld |first1=Akiva Van |title=Newsflash, Media: Israel's Arab Minority Does Not 'Largely Identify as Palestinian' |url=https://honestreporting.com/newsflash-media-israels-arab-minority-does-not-largely-identify-as-palestinian/ |access-date=2 March 2024 |work=HonestReporting |date=6 October 2021}}</ref> and other organizations use to refer to Israeli Arabs, either consistently or alternating the use of other terms for Israeli Arabs.
* Palestinian Arabs<ref name=cjr1/>
* Palestinian Arabs in Israel<ref name=ICG/><ref name="Amara"/><ref name=LDE/>
* Palestinian Israelis<ref name=itfiai>{{cite web |title=Exploring the Topics of Arab Citizens and Jewish-Arab Relations in Israel |url=https://www.iataskforce.org/sites/default/files/resource/resource-2098.pdf |website=Israeli Arab Task Force |date=2022 |quote=Arab citizens’ identities are more nuanced than either “Israeli” or “Palestinian.” Members of this population group describe themselves (and are described by others) with many terms. Some common terms include: Arab Israelis, Israeli Arabs, Palestinian citizens of Israel, Arab citizens of Israel, 48ers, Palestinian Israelis}}</ref>
* Palestinians in Israel<ref name=cjr1/>
* Israeli Arabs<ref name=itfiai/><ref name=cjr1/><ref name=icenter>{{cite web |title=FAQ:Arab citizens of Israel |url=https://theicenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Arab-Citizens-of-Israel-2.pdf |website=The iCenter for Israel Education |access-date=4 March 2024 |quote=What are some names for Arab citizens of Israel? Palestinian citizens of Israel, Israeli Arabs, Israeli Palestinians, Arab Israelis, and Palestinian Israelis. Each of these names, while referring to the same group of people, connotes something different.1}}</ref>
* Israeli Palestinian Arabs<ref name=ICG/><ref name="Amara"/><ref name=LDE/>
* Israeli Palestinians<ref name=icenter/>
* Arab citizens of Israel<ref name=itfiai/>
* Arab Israelis<ref name=itfiai/>
* 48ers,<ref name=itfiai/><ref name=icenter/> '48 Arabs<ref name=cjr1/>

Two appellations, among others listed above, are not applied to the [[East Jerusalem]] Arab population or the [[Druze]] in the [[Golan Heights]], as these territories were occupied by Israel in 1967:
* ''the Arabs inside the Green Line''<ref name=ICG/><ref name="Amara"/><ref name=LDE/>
* ''the Arabs within'' ({{langx|ar|عرب الداخل|‘Arab al-Dākhil|links=no}}).<ref name=ICG/><ref name="Amara"/><ref name=LDE/>

===Demonym preferences===
According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', as of 2012, most Israeli Arabs preferred to identify themselves as '''Palestinian citizens of Israel''' rather than as Israeli Arabs.<ref name="nyt2012" /> The ''[[Council on Foreign Relations]]'' also states that most members of the Israeli Arab community prefer this term.<ref name="cfrel"/> The ''[[Washington Post]]'' asserted in 2021 that "surveys showed" that Israeli Arabs preferred the term "Palestinian citizen of Israel" and that "for people who often feel caught between two worlds, however, the contours of what it means to be a Palestinian citizen of Israel remain a work in progress."<ref name="PI"/> However, these findings conflict with a 2017 [[Tel Aviv University]] poll which showed most Israelis self-identify as either Arab-Israeli or simply Israeli.<ref name="2017poll">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_51217-544-2-30.pdf?171228130254|title=Citizenship, Identity and Political Participation: Measuring the Attitudes of the Arab Citizens in Israel|date=December 2017|pages=22, 25, 28|quote=The positions of the participants in the focus groups reflect the strength of Palestinian-Arab identity among Arab citizens and the fact that they do not see a contradiction between Palestinian-Arab national identity and Israeli civic identity. The designation "Israeli-Arab" aroused great opposition in the focus groups, as did Israel's Independence Day. A comparison of views expressed in the focus groups with the general results of the survey points to differences between collective positions and memory and individual feelings and attitudes. The collective position presented in the focus group discussions finds expression in the public sphere and emphasizes the Palestinian national identity. Conversely, the responses of the survey participants reveal individual attitudes that assign a broader (albeit secondary, identity) dimension to the component of Israeli civic identity}}</ref>

Similar terms that Israeli Arabs, media and other organizations may use are ''Palestinian Arabs in Israel'' and ''Israeli Palestinian Arabs''. Amnesty reports that "Arab citizens of Israel" is "an inclusive term used by Israel that describes a number of different and primarily Arabic-speaking groups, including Muslim Arabs", Christian Arabs, Druze and Circassians. They further stated that "considering the number of those defined as Muslim Arabs and Christian Arabs together, the population of Palestinian citizens of Israel amounted to around 1.8 million" in 2019.<ref>{{cite report|title=Israel's Apartheid Against Palestinians: Cruel System of Domination and Crime Against Humanity|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/MDE1551412022ENGLISH.pdf|publisher=[[Amnesty International]]|date=January 2022|access-date=20 January 2024|archive-date=1 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201215719/https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/MDE1551412022ENGLISH.pdf|url-status=live|quote=The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that “Arab citizens of Israel” is an inclusive term that describes a number of different and primarily Arabic-speaking groups, including Muslim Arabs (this classification includes Bedouins), Christian Arabs, Druze and Circassians. According to the ICBS, at the end of 2019, the Druze population stood at approximately 145,000, while according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Circassian population totalled 4,000 people. Considering the number of those defined as Muslim Arabs and Christian Arabs together, the population of Palestinian citizens of Israel amounted to around 1.8 million, that is some 20% of the total population in Israel and occupied East Jerusalem.}}</ref>

There are at least two terms which specifically exclude the [[East Jerusalem]] Arab population and the [[Druze]] and other Arabs in the [[Golan Heights]]: ''the Arabs inside the Green Line'', and ''the Arabs within'' ({{langx|ar|عرب الداخل|‘Arab al-Dākhil|links=no}}).<ref name="ICG"/><ref name="Amara">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LG5seycNTAcC&q=%22palestinians+of+1948%22&pg=PA1 |title=Politics and sociolinguistic reflexes: Palestinian border villages |author=Muhammad Amara |page=1 |edition=Illustrated |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |year=1999 |isbn=978-90-272-4128-3 |quote=Many identity constructs are used to refer to Palestinians in Israel; the Israeli establishment prefer ''Israeli Arabs'' or ''Arabs in Israel''. Others refer to them as ''Israeli Palestinians'', ''Palestinian Arabs in Israel'', the ''Arabs inside the Green Line''. Nowadays the widespread terms among Palestinians are ''Palestinians in Israel'' or ''the Palestinians of 1948''.}}</ref><ref name="LDE">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m8USG9mSa-oC&q=%22palestinians+of+1948%22&pg=PA68 |title=The Logic of Democratic Exclusion: African Americans in the United States and Palestinian citizens in Israel |author=Rebecca B. Kook |publisher= Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-0442-2 |pages=67–68 |quote=The category of "Israeli Arab" was constructed by the Israeli authorities. As it indicates, this category assumes and constructs two levels of identity. The first is that of Arab. Local Palestinians who remained in what became Israel were designated as Arabs rather than Palestinians. This category refers to the realm of culture and ethnicity and not, clearly, politics. The official government intention was for the "Arab" to designate culture and ethnicity and the "Israeli" - to designate the political identity. ... In addition to the category of Israeli Arabs, other categories include "the minorities" and "the Arab sector," or, in certain sectors the more cryptic appellation of "our cousins." The use of these labels denies the existence of any type of political or national identification and the use of "minority" even denies them a distinct cultural identity. With the emergence of a more critical discourse ... the categorization expands to include Israeli Palestinians, Palestinians in Israel, Palestinian Arabs, Israeli Palestinian Arabs, the Palestinians of 1948, and so on. |year=2002}}</ref> These terms clarify that
* Although Israel annexed [[East Jerusalem]] in 1967, the vast majority of its Arab population does not have Israeli citizenship
* Although Israel annexed the [[Golan Heights]], that area was originally part of [[Syria]], not [[Mandatory Palestine]].

====Identification as Palestinian====
While known officially by the Israeli government only as "Israeli Arabs" or "Arab Israelis", the development of Palestinian nationalism and identity in the 20th and 21st centuries has been met by a marked evolution in self-identification, reflecting a rising identification with Palestinian identity alongside Arab and Israeli signifiers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smooha |first1=Sammy |title=Still Playing by the Rules|journal=Index of Arab-Jewish Relations in Israel|date=2019 |pages=87–88 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1_34-SJamMXAeHAJG6kgZS2WCC0HA1XPN/view |access-date=21 December 2023 |publisher=University of Haifa |quote=The three of the nine most attractive identities to the Arabs are: Palestinian Arabs in Israel – 27.1%, Israeli Arabs – 14.9% and Palestinian Arabs – 12.8% These three identities represent three categories: 35.9% of the Arabs in 2019 (unchanged from 31.6% in 2017) chose Israeli Arab identities without a Palestinian component (Israeli, Arab, Arab in Israel, Israeli Arab), 47.1% (increase from 38.4%) chose Palestinian88 Still Playing by the Rules: Index of Arab-Jewish Relations in Israel 2019 identities with an Israeli component (Israeli Palestinian, Palestinian in Israel, Palestinian Arab in Israel), and 14.8% (down from 21.9%) chose Palestinian identities without an Israeli component (Palestinian, Palestinian-Arab). The identity of 83.0% of the Arabs in 2019 (up from 75.5% in 2017) has an Israeli component and 61.9% (unchanged from 60.3%) has a Palestinian component. However, when these two components were presented as competitors, 69.0% of the Arabs in 2019 chose exclusive or primary Palestinian identity, compared with 29.8% who chose exclusive or primary Israeli Arab identity.}}</ref><ref name="ICG" /><ref name="Ynetidentity"/> A number of Palestinian citizens of Israel have family ties to Palestinians in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] as well as to [[Palestinian refugees]] in [[Jordan]], [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].<ref name="TuckerRoberts2008">{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA503 |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History &#91;4 volumes&#93;: A Political, Social, and Military History |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |date=12 May 2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |pages=503}}</ref>

Between 1948 and 1967, few Arab citizens of Israel identified openly as "Palestinian", and an "Israeli-Arab" identity, the preferred phrase of the Israeli establishment and public, was predominant.<ref name=Peleg/> Public expressions of Palestinian identity, such as displays of the [[Palestinian flag]] or the singing and reciting of nationalist songs or poetry were illegal.<ref name=Torstrickp13/> With the end of military administrative rule in 1966 and following the 1967 war, national consciousness and its expression among Israel's Arab citizens spread.<ref name=Peleg/><ref name=Torstrickp13/> A majority then self-identified as Palestinian, preferring this descriptor to Israeli Arab in numerous surveys over the years.<ref name=Peleg>{{cite book|title=Israel's Palestinians: The Conflict Within |author=Ilan Peleg |author2=Dov Waxman|edition=illustrated|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-521-15702-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oIi3BK_mT5YC&q=israel's+palestinians|pages=2–3 (note 4), 26–29|quote=In numerous surveys conducted over many years, the majority of Arab citizens define themselves as Palestinian rather than 'Israeli Arab.'}}</ref><ref name="Waxmanp12">{{cite journal|title=A Dangerous Divide: The Deterioration of Jewish-Palestinian Relations in Israel|author=Waxman, Dov|journal=Middle East Journal|volume=66|issue=1|pages=11–29|date=Winter 2012|quote=Identifying the Arab minority as Palestinian has now become common practice in academic literature. This is because most Israeli citizens of Arab origin increasingly identify themselves as Palestinian, and most Arab NGOs and political parties in Israel use the label "Palestinian" to describe the identity of the Arab minority. My use of the term "Palestinian is in accordance with the [[self-identification]] of the majority of the Arab community in Israel.|doi=10.3751/66.1.11|s2cid=145591627}}</ref><ref name=Torstrickp13/> In a 2017 telephone poll, 40% of Arab citizens of Israel identified as "Arab in Israel / Arab citizen of Israel", 15% identified as "Palestinian", 8.9% as "Palestinian in Israel / Palestinian citizen of Israel", and 8.7% as "Arab";<ref name=2017poll/><ref name="PV"/> the focus groups associated with the poll provided a different outcome, in which "there was consensus that Palestinian identity occupies a central place in their consciousness".<ref name="2017poll"/> A November 2023 poll asked respondents from this demographic what the most important "component in their personal identity" was to them; 33 percent answered "Israeli citizenship", 32 percent "Arab identity", 23 percent "religious affiliation", and 8 percent "Palestinian identity".<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Arik Rudnitzsky |date=2023-12-03 |title=In-depth Survey of Arab Society's Views on the War between Israel and Hamas |url=https://dayan.org/content/depth-survey-arab-societys-views-war-between-israel-and-hamas |website=The Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies |access-date=2025-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=In-depth Survey of Arab Society's Views on the War between Israel and Hamas (pdf) |url=https://dayan.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/kap-survey-of-arab-citizens_november-2023_eng.pdf |date=2023-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Philologos (pen name) |title="Israeli Arabs," "Palestinian Citizens of Israel," or "Israeli Palestinians"? |url=https://mosaicmagazine.com/observation/israel-zionism/2021/06/israeli-arabs-palestinian-citizens-of-israel-or-israeli-palestinians/ |access-date=6 March 2024 |work=Mosaic |date=23 June 2021}}</ref>

University of Haifa professor [[Sammy Smooha]] commented in 2019, "The largest now and the most growing identity is a hybrid identity, which is 'Palestinian in Israel' or a similar combination. I think that’s what’s going to take over."<ref name="foreignpolicy">{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Miriam |title=Palestinian in Israel |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/01/18/palestinian-in-israel/ |access-date=6 March 2024 |work=Foreign Policy |date=8 March 2024 |quote=“I don’t use the term Arab-Israeli,” said the 30-year-old journalist, who was born in the Galilee and now lives in the northern city of Haifa. “We are Palestinians with Israeli citizenship. It’s very important for us, the terms and the terminology we use.”  For Eid, the term Arab-Israeli is too removed from politics. Or, as he sees it, “It puts the Arab disconnected from the Palestinian identity.”  Arab-Israeli—the official media and Israeli government term for the 20 percent of Israel’s almost 9 million citizens who are Arab-Palestinian—is increasingly unpopular among the people it’s meant to describe. Only 16 percent of this population wants to be called “Israeli Arab,” according to a 2017 survey by the University of Haifa professor Sammy Smooha provided to Foreign Policy.  “The largest now and the most growing identity is a hybrid identity, which is ‘Palestinian in Israel’” or a similar combination, Smooha said. “I think that’s what’s going to take over.”}}</ref>

=====Distinction of Druze and Circassian citizens=====
In the [[Amnesty International]] 2022 report "Israel's Apartheid against Palestinians: Cruel System of Domination and Crime against Humanity", the organization excludes the Israeli Arab Druze and non-Arab [[Circassians in Israel|Circassians]] from the term Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel:
* The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)|Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] officially classifies the roughly 2.1 million Palestinian citizens of Israel as "Arab citizens of Israel", reflecting their attributing a racialized non-Jewish, Arab status to all of them
* The term "Arab citizens of Israel" includes Muslim Arabs including [[Bedouins in Israel|Bedouins]], Christian Arabs, the 20–25,000 [[Druze in Israel|Druze]], and even the 4–5,000 [[Circassians in Israel|Circassians]], whose origins are in the [[Caucasus]] but are mostly Muslim.
* According to Amnesty, the Israeli state views and treats Palestinian citizens of Israel differently from the Druze and Circassians, who must for example serve in the army while Palestinian citizens need not serve.
* Nonetheless, Israeli authorities and media refer to those who self-identify as Palestinians – as "Israeli Arabs".

The ''Washington Post'' included the Druze among the Palestinians.<ref name="PI"/><ref>Palestinians living in Israel — a population that includes Muslims, Christians and Druze — have become increasingly vocal in speaking out against what many describe as their second-class status.</ref> The Council of Foreign Relations stated:"The majority of Arab citizens are Sunni Muslims, though there are many Christians and also Druze, who more often embrace Israeli identity."<ref name="cfrel"/>

====Identification as Arab Israeli====
The question of Palestinian identity extends to representation in the Israeli [[Knesset]]. Journalist Ruth Margalit says of [[Mansour Abbas]] of the [[United Arab List]], a member of the [[Thirty-sixth government of Israel|governing coalition]], "The traditional term for this group, Arab Israelis, is increasingly controversial, but it's the one that Abbas prefers."<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/11/01/the-arab-israeli-power-broker-in-the-knesset|title=The Arab-Israeli Power Broker in the Knesset|date=22 October 2021|magazine=The New Yorker}}</ref> Abbas gave an interview to Israeli media in November 2021 and said "My rights don't just come from my citizenship. My rights also come from being a member of the Palestinian people, a son of this Palestinian homeland. And whether we like it or not, the State of Israel, with its identity, was established inside the Palestinian homeland."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/arabs-should-move-past-contesting-israels-jewish-identity-raam-chief-abbas-says/|title=Arabs should move past contesting Israel's Jewish identity, Ra'am chief Abbas says|first=Aaron|last=Boxerman|website=[[The Times of Israel]] |issn=0040-7909}}</ref> [[Sami Abu Shehadeh]] of [[Balad (political party)|Balad]] is "an outspoken advocate of Palestinian identity".<ref name="PI"/><ref name="PQ"/> He says, referring to the [[2021 Israel–Palestine crisis]], "... If the past weeks provided lessons for the international community, then a main one is that they cannot continue to ignore the Palestinian citizens of Israel. Any solution should include full equality for all citizens as well as the respect and recognition of our rights as a national minority."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/palestinian-citizens-of-israel-gaza-conflict-b1858397.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/palestinian-citizens-of-israel-gaza-conflict-b1858397.html |archive-date=24 May 2022 |url-status=live|title=We cannot continue to ignore the Palestinian citizens of Israel|first=Sami|last=Abu Shehadeh|date=2 June 2021|website=The Independent}}</ref>

Some media using the term "Palestinian citizens of Israel" or "Palestinians in Israel" have treated the terms as interchangeable with "Arab citizens of Israel" or "Israeli Arabs", and have not discussed whether Druze and Circassians are exceptions.<ref name=honest/> such as the ''New York Times''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=O'Donoghue |first1=Rachel |title=New York Times Hypocritically Bemoans Lack of Attention Israel's Arab-on-Arab Gun Violence Receives |url=https://honestreporting.com/new-york-times-hypocritically-bemoans-lack-of-attention-israels-arab-on-arab-gun-violence-receives/ |access-date=3 March 2024 |work=HonestReporting |date=4 October 2021 |quote=the Arab minority in Israel, which largely identifies as Palestinian}}</ref><ref name="SI">{{Cite news |last=Rudoren |first=Jodi |date=2012-07-13 |title=Service to Israel Tugs at Identity of Arab Citizens |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/13/world/middleeast/service-to-israel-tugs-at-arab-citizens-identity.html?hpw |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120124803/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/13/world/middleeast/service-to-israel-tugs-at-arab-citizens-identity.html?hpw |archive-date=20 January 2025 |access-date=2024-03-03 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Israeli surveys===
Surveys of Arab-Israeli self-identification are diverse, and have often presented differing if not contradictory results. In 2017 the [[Konrad Adenauer Foundation]]'s Program for Jewish-Arab Cooperation at the [[Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies]] at [[Tel Aviv University]] conducted a telephone poll, in which the results were:<ref name="2017poll"/><ref name="PV">{{cite news |author1=Ben Lynfield |date=2017-09-27 |title=Survey: 60% of Arab Israelis have positive view of state |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/survey-60-percent-of-arab-israelis-have-positive-view-of-state-506150 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |access-date=2025-06-30 |issn=0792-822X}}</ref>
* National identity with Israeli civil component 49.7%, of which
** Palestinian (citizen) of Israel 8.9%
** Arab (citizen) of Israel 40.8%
* Pure national identity 24.1%, of which
** Palestinian 15.4%
** Arab 8.7%
* Civil identity: Israeli 11.4%
* Religious identity 9.5%
* Other / Don't know 5.3%

The focus groups associated with the poll provided a different outcome, in which "there was consensus that Palestinian identity occupies a central place in their consciousness". reflecting "the strength of Palestinian-Arab identity", and that they do not see a contradiction between that and Israeli ''civic'' identity. The focus group revealed strong opposition to the term "Israeli-Arab" and to the concept of Israel's "Independence Day". The study concluded that the focus group findings of strong Palestinian national identity, not conflicting with Israeli civic identity, match those seen in the public sphere.<ref name="2017poll"/>

According to a 2019 survey by [[University of Haifa]] professor [[Sammy Smooha]], conducted in Arabic among 718 Arab adults, 47% of the Arab population chose Palestinian identities with an Israeli component ("Israeli Palestinian", "Palestinian in Israel", "Palestinian Arab in Israel"), 36% prefers Israeli Arab identities without a Palestinian component ("Israeli", "Arab", "Arab in Israel", "Israeli Arab"), and 15% chose Palestinian identities without an Israeli component ("Palestinian", "Palestinian Arab"). When these two components are presented as competitors, 69% chose exclusive or primary Palestinian identity, compared with 30% who chose exclusive or primary Israeli Arab identity. 66% of the Arab population agreed that "the identity of 'Palestinian Arab in Israel' is appropriate to most Arabs in Israel."<ref name="Smooha 2019">{{Cite journal|last=Smooha|first=Sammy|title=Still Playing by the Rules: Index of Arab-Jewish Relations in Israel 2019|url=https://www.academia.edu/49106091|journal=Still Playing by the Rules: Index of Arab-Jewish Relations in Israel 2019|date=January 2020 }}</ref>

According to a 2020 survey by [[Camil Fuchs]] of [[Tel-Aviv University]], 51% of Arabs identify as Arab-Israeli, 7% identify as Palestinian, 23% identify as Israeli, 15% identify as Arab, and 4% identify as "other." This significantly differs from their 2019 survey, in which 49% identified as Arab-Israeli, 18% as Palestinian, 27% as Arab, and 5% as Israeli.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fuchs |first1=Camil |title=Jewish People Policy Institute |url=https://jppi.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/2020-Index-English.pdf |website=2020 Pluralism INDEX |access-date=20 April 2024}}</ref>

===Academic practice===
Common practice in contemporary academic literature is to identify this community as ''Palestinian'' as it is how the majority self-identify (See [[Arab citizens of Israel#Self-identification|Self-Identification]] for more).<ref name=Waxmanp12/> Terms preferred by most Arab citizens to identify themselves include ''Palestinians'', ''Palestinians in Israel'', ''Israeli Palestinians'', ''the Palestinians of 1948'', ''Palestinian Arabs'', ''Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel'' or ''Palestinian citizens of Israel''.<ref name=ICG/><ref name=HRW/><ref name=Lowrance/><ref name="Amara"/><ref name="Torstrickp13">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6de4vgxNZqMC&q=bedouin+self-identification+israel&pg=PA13 |page=13 |title=The limits of coexistence: identity politics in Israel |first1=Rebecca L. |last1=Torstrick |edition=Illustrated |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-472-11124-4 |quote=The indigenous Palestinians comprise 20 percent of the total population of Israel. While they were allowed to become citizens, they were distanced from the center of power because the Israeli state was a ''Jewish'' state and Israeli national identity incorporated Jewish symbols and referents. Government officials categorized and labeled them by religion (Muslims, Christians, Druze), region (Galilee Arab, Triangle Arab, Negev Bedouin), and family connections, or ''[[hamula]]'' (Haberer 1985, 145). In official and popular culture, they ceased being Palestinians and were re-created as Israeli Arabs or Arab citizens of Israel. Expressing Palestinian identity by displaying the flag, singing nationalist songs, or reciting nationalist poetry was illegal in "Israel" until only very recently. Self-identification as Palestinians, Israeli Palestinians, or Palestinian citizens of Israel has increased since 1967 and is now their preferred descriptor. It was only under the influence of the ''intifada'', however, that many Israeli Palestinians felt secure enough to begin to refer to themselves publicly this way (as opposed to choosing the label ''Palestinian'' only in anonymous surveys on identity).}}</ref><ref name=Muwasi>{{cite book |title=The Arab minority in Israel, 1967–1991: political aspects |author=Jacob M. Landau |edition=Illustrated, reprint |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-827712-5 |page=171 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wCSfcb9eibgC&q=arab+self-identification+israel&pg=PA173}}</ref> There are, however, individuals from among the Arab citizenry who reject the term ''Palestinian'' altogether.<ref name=HRW>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0UBl1X5YdzMC&q=arab+self-identify+israel&pg=PA8 |page=8 |title=Second class: Discrimination against Palestinian Arab children in Israel's Schools |author=Human Rights Watch |publisher=Human Rights Watch |year=2001}}</ref> A minority of Israel's Arab citizens include "Israeli" in some way in their self-identifying label; the majority identify as [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] by nationality and Israeli by [[citizenship]].<ref name=Marcus/><ref name=Lowrance/>

===Israeli establishment===
The Israeli establishment prefers ''Israeli Arabs'' or ''Arabs in Israel'', and also uses the terms ''the minorities'', ''the Arab sector'', ''Arabs of Israel'' and ''Arab citizens of Israel''.<ref name=ICG/><ref name="Amara"/><ref name=Torstrickp13/><ref name="LDE"/><ref name=Rabinowitzp43/> These labels have been criticized for denying this population a political or national identification, obscuring their Palestinian identity and connection to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref name=Torstrickp13/><ref name=LDE/><ref name=Rabinowitzp43>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qcnz7SCkyAMC&q=israeli+arab+israeli-arab+hyphen&pg=PA43|title=Coffins on our shoulders: the experience of the Palestinian citizens of Israel|first1=Dan|last1=Rabinowitz|first2=Khawla|last2=Abu Baker|publisher=University of California Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-520-24557-0|quote=The Palestinians were included in the first population census in 1949 and were given the right to vote and be elected in the Knesset ... This notwithstanding, Israel also subjected them to a host of dominating practices. One was a discursive move involving the state's introduction of a new label to denote them: the hyphenated construct "Israeli Arabs" ('Aravim-Yisraelim) or, sometimes "Arabs of Israel" ('Arviyey-Yisrael).<br /> The new idiom Israeli Arabs, while purporting to be no more than technical, bureaucratic label, evidenced a deliberate design. A clear reflection of the politics of culture via language, it intentionally misrecognized the group's affinity with and linkage to Palestine as a territorial unit, thus facilitating the erasure of the term ''Palestine'' from the Hebrew vocabulary. The term puts "Israel" in the fore, constructing it as a defining feature of "its" Arabs. The Palestinians, already uprooted in the physical sense of the word, were also transformed into a group bereft of history.}}</ref> The term ''Israeli Arabs'' in particular is viewed as a construct of the Israeli authorities.<ref name=Torstrickp13/><ref name=LDE/><ref name=Rabinowitzp43/><ref name=Jamal>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pWLCpqnsoLQC&q=arab+self-identification+israel&pg=PA75|page=56|title=Arab Minority Nationalism in Israel|author=Amal Jamal|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-82412-8|date=2011-03-17}}</ref> It is nonetheless used by a significant minority of the Arab population, "reflecting its dominance in Israeli social discourse."<ref name=Lowrance/>

===Historical===
Between 1920 and 1948, in what was then [[Mandatory Palestine]], all citizens were known as Palestinians, and the two primary communities were referred to by the British authorities as "Arabs" and "[[Palestinian Jews|Jews]]". Between [[1948 Palestine war|1948]] and [[Six-Day War|1967]], few citizens of Israel identified openly as "Palestinian". An "Israeli-Arab" identity, the preferred phrase of the Israeli establishment and public, was predominant.<ref name=Peleg/> Public expressions of Palestinian identity, such as displays of the [[Palestinian flag]] or the singing and reciting of nationalist songs or poetry were illegal.<ref name="Torstrickp13"/> Ever since the 1948 [[Nakba]], the Palestinians that have remained within the [[1949 Armistice borders]] have been colloquially known as "48 Arabs" ({{langx|ar|عرب ٤٨|ʿArab Thamāniya wa-ʾArbaʿīn|links=no}}).<ref name="PI">{{cite news |last1=Witte |first1=Griff |last2=Taha |first2=Sufian |date=11 June 2021 |title=Long overlooked, Israel's Arab citizens are increasingly asserting their Palestinian identity |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/palestinian-arab-israeli-citizens-identity/2021/06/10/2591ef56-c861-11eb-8708-64991f2acf28_story.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625055545/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/palestinian-arab-israeli-citizens-identity/2021/06/10/2591ef56-c861-11eb-8708-64991f2acf28_story.html |archive-date=2023-06-25}}</ref><ref name="PQ">Palestinians living within Israel's internationally recognized borders are often known colloquially as "the 48 Arabs," a reference to their origins. Hundreds of thousands of Arabs fled or were expelled during the 1948 war that erupted upon the creation of the state of Israel.</ref> With the end of military administrative rule in 1966 and following the 1967 war, national consciousness and its expression among Israel's Arab citizens spread.<ref name=Peleg/><ref name=Torstrickp13/> A majority then self-identified as Palestinian, preferring this descriptor to Israeli Arab in numerous surveys over the years.<ref name=Peleg/><ref name="Waxmanp12"/><ref name=Torstrickp13/>

===East Jerusalem and Golan Heights===
Arabs in East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights (Syrian Golan) are special cases regarding citizenship and identity.

Arabs living in [[East Jerusalem]], occupied and administered by Israel since the Six-Day War of 1967 hold Israeli ID cards, but most are non-citizen permanent residents since few accepted Israel's offer of citizenship after the war's end, refusing to recognize its sovereignty, and most maintain close ties with the West Bank.<ref name=BBCEJ>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8390717.stm |work=BBC News |title=Surge in East Jerusalem Palestinians losing residency |date=2 December 2009|access-date=17 May 2011 }}</ref> As permanent residents, they are eligible to vote in [[Jerusalem]]'s municipal elections, although only a small percentage takes advantage of this right.

The Golan Heights was not part of [[Mandatory Palestine]] or the Ottoman political units which preceded it, but rather was part of Syria, and the UN still recognizes it as such, and calls it the Syrian Golan.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Syrian Golan |url=https://www.un.int/syria/syria/syrian-golan |website=United Nations |access-date=5 March 2024}}</ref> The remaining [[Druze in Israel#Status and position of Golan Heights Druze|Druze population of the Golan Heights]], occupied and administered by Israel in 1967, are considered permanent residents under Israel's [[Golan Heights Law]] of 1981. As of mid-2022, 4,303 Druze citizens of [[Syria]] have been granted Israeli citizenship, or, 20% of the total Druze residents in the Golan Heights.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.shomrim.news/eng/druze-gloan|title=Shomrim - The Changing Face of the Golan: Record Number of Druze Requesting Israeli Citizenship|website=www.shomrim.news}}</ref> In 2024, [[Rami Zeedan]] estimated that approximately 25% have Israeli citizenship.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-29 |title=Who are the Druze? The minority sect on the fringe of the Israel-Hamas war |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/druze-minority-sect-israel-hamas-war-who-are-rcna164013 |access-date=2025-07-15 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
===1948 Arab–Israeli War===
Most Jewish Israelis refer to the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] as the War of Independence, while most Arab citizens refer to it as [[1948 Palestinian exodus|al-Nakba]] (the catastrophe), a reflection of differences in perception of the purpose and outcomes of the war.<ref>{{cite book|title=Language Education Policy: The Arab Minority in Israel|first1=Muhammad |last1=Amara|first2=Abd el-Rahman|last2=Marʻi|publisher=Springer|year=2002|page=xv|isbn=978-1-4020-0585-5}}</ref><ref name=Masalhap221>{{cite book|title=Catastrophe Remembered: Palestine, Israel and the Internal Refugees: Essays in Memory of Edward W. Said (1935–2003)|first1=Nur|last1=Masalha|first2=Edward W.|last2=Said|publisher=Zed Books|year=2005|isbn=978-1-84277-623-0}}</ref>

In the aftermath of the 1947–49 war, the territory previously administered by the [[British Empire]] as [[Mandatory Palestine]] was de facto divided into three parts: the State of Israel, the [[Jordan]]ian-held West Bank, and the [[Egypt]]ian-held Gaza Strip. Of the estimated 950,000 Arabs that lived in the territory that became Israel before the war,<ref name="al-Jazeera-20031209">{{cite web |title=The Palestinians of 1948 |author= Amrawi, Ahmad |publisher=al-Jazeera |date=9 December 2003 |url= http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/85FA6981-D4E6-42BA-B1DD-87555F30220D.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010015324/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/85FA6981-D4E6-42BA-B1DD-87555F30220D.htm |archive-date=10 October 2006 }}</ref> over 80% fled or were expelled. The other 20%, some 156,000, remained.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=13336|title=עיצוב יחסי יהודים - ערבים בעשור הראשון|website=lib.cet.ac.il}}</ref> Some of them supported Israel from the beginning.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Army of Shadows: Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism, 1917–1948|Army of Shadows. Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism]], 1917–1948|first1=Hillel |last1=Cohen|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-520-25221-9 |author1-link=Hillel Cohen }}<br>{{cite book|title=Good Arabs: The Israeli Security Agencies and the Israeli Arabs, 1948-1967|first1=Hillel |last1=Cohen|publisher=University of California Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-520-25767-2}}</ref> Arab citizens of Israel today are largely composed of the people who remained and their descendants. Others include some from the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[West Bank]] who procured Israeli citizenship under family-unification provisions made significantly more stringent in the aftermath of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada|Second Intifada]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Changes to Family Unification Law |publisher=Adalah, The Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel |url= http://www.adalah.org/eng/famunif.php |access-date=2 October 2006 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061004173924/http://www.adalah.org/eng/famunif.php |archive-date=4 October 2006 }}</ref>

Arabs who left their homes during the period of armed conflict, but remained in what had become Israeli territory, were considered to be "[[present absentee]]s". In some cases, they were refused permission to return to their homes, which were [[eminent domain|expropriated]] and turned over to state ownership, as was the property of other [[Palestinian refugee]]s.<ref>Pappé Ilan (1992) "The Making of the Arab Israeli Conflict 1947–1951"; I B Tauris, p. 72 {{ISBN|978-1-85043-819-9}}</ref><ref>Morris, Benny (2001). "Revisiting the Palestinian exodus of 1948." In ''The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948'' (pp. 37–59). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-79476-3}}</ref> Some 274,000, or 1 of every 4 Arab citizens of Israel are "present absentees" or [[Internally Displaced Palestinians|internally displaced Palestinians]].<ref name="Badil">{{Cite web|url=http://www.badil.org/Publications/Monographs/Palestinian.IDPs.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041214203922/http://www.badil.org/Publications/Monographs/Palestinian.IDPs.pdf|title=Badil Resource Centre for Palestinian Refugee and Residency Rights|archive-date=14 December 2004}}</ref><ref name="IDMC">{{cite web|url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/idmc/website/countries.nsf/(httpEnvelopes)/F11200E8ECD83F71802570B8005A7276?OpenDocument |title=Internal Displacement Monitoring Center – Israel |access-date=2009-04-22 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060903022121/http://www.internal-displacement.org/idmc/website/countries.nsf/%28httpEnvelopes%29/F11200E8ECD83F71802570B8005A7276?OpenDocument |archive-date=3 September 2006}}</ref> Notable cases of "present absentees" include the residents of [[Sepphoris|Saffuriyya]] and the [[Galilee]] villages of [[Kafr Bir'im]] and [[Iqrit]].<ref>Féron, pp. 94, 97–99</ref>

===1949–1966===
[[Image:Seif el-Din el-Zubi.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Seif el-Din el-Zubi]], member of the first Knesset]]

Between [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|Israel's declaration of independence]] on 14 May 1948 and the Israeli Nationality Law of 14 July 1952, there technically were no Israeli citizens.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Enactment of a Nationality Law in Israel |author=Margalith, Haim |journal= The American Journal of Comparative Law |volume= 2 |issue= 1 |date= Winter 1953 |pages= 63–66 |doi= 10.2307/837997 |jstor= 837997}} The Israeli Nationality Law came into effect on 14 July 1952. Between [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|Israel's declaration of independence]] on 14 May 1948 and the passage of this bill four years later, there technically were no Israeli citizens. In this article, the phrase "Arab citizen" is used to refer to the Arab population in Israel, even in the period after the 1949 armistice agreement and before the passage of the Nationality Law in 1952.</ref>

While most Arabs remaining in Israel were granted citizenship, they were subject to martial law in the early years of the state.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WlqcITwEktEC&q=%22martial+law%22+arabs+israel&pg=PA67 |title=1967: Israel, the War, and the Year that Transformed the Middle East |first=Tom |last=Segev |date=29 May 2007 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |via=Google Books|isbn=978-1-4299-1167-2 }}</ref><ref>Kodmani-Darwish, p. 126, Féron, pp. 37, 40</ref> [[Zionism]] had given little serious thought as to how to integrate Arabs, and according to [[Ian Lustick]] subsequent policies were 'implemented by a rigorous regime of military rule that dominated what remained of the Arab population in territory ruled by Israel, enabling the state to expropriate most Arab-owned land, severely limit its access to investment capital and employment opportunity, and eliminate virtually all opportunities to use citizenship as a vehicle for gaining political influence'.<ref>[[Ian Lustick|Ian S Lustick]] and Matthew Berkman,'Zionist Theories of Peace in the Pre-State Era: Legacies of Dissimulation and Israel's Arab Minority,' in Nadim N. Rouhana, Sahar S. Huneidi (eds.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=F0P4DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 ''Israel and its Palestinian Citizens: Ethnic Privileges in the Jewish State,''] [[Cambridge University Press]], 2017 {{isbn|978-1-107-04483-8}} pp.&nbsp;39–72, p.68.</ref> A variety of Israeli legislative measures facilitated the transfer of land abandoned by Arabs to state ownership. These included the [[Land and Property Laws in Israel#The 'Absentees Property Law'|Absentee Property Law of 1950]] which allowed the state to expropriate the property of Palestinians who fled or were expelled to other countries, and the Land Acquisition Law of 1953 which authorized the Ministry of Finance to transfer expropriated land to the state. Other common legal expedients included the use of emergency regulations to declare land belonging to Arab citizens a closed military zone, followed by the use of Ottoman legislation on abandoned land to take control of the land.<ref>Féron, p. 94</ref> Travel permits, curfews, [[administrative detention]]s, and expulsions were part of life until 1966.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

Arabs who held Israeli citizenship were entitled to vote for the Israeli [[Knesset]]. Arab Knesset members have served in office since the [[1949 Israeli legislative election|First Knesset in 1949]]. The first Arab Knesset members were [[Amin-Salim Jarjora]] and [[Seif el-Din el-Zoubi]] who were members of the [[Democratic List of Nazareth]] party and [[Tawfik Toubi]], member of the [[Maki (current political party)|Maki]] party.

In 1965 a radical independent Arab group called ''al-Ard'' forming the Arab Socialist List tried to run for [[Knesset]] elections. The list was banned by the [[Israeli Central Elections Committee]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Eisenstadt|first=S.N.|author-link=Shmuel Eisenstadt|title=Israeli Society|url=https://archive.org/details/israelisociety0000eise|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]]|year=1967|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/israelisociety0000eise/page/403 403]|isbn=978-0-8133-0306-2}}</ref>

In 1966, martial law was lifted completely, and the government set about dismantling most of the discriminatory laws, while Arab citizens were granted the same rights as Jewish citizens under law.<ref>Kodmani, p. 126</ref>

===1967–2000===
[[File:Arabe Statue.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A monument to residents of [[Arraba, Galilee|Arraba]] killed in the Arab–Israeli conflict]]
After the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Arab citizens were able to contact Palestinians in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] for the first time since the establishment of the state. This, along with the lifting of military rule, led to increased political activism among Arab citizens.<ref name="Identity Crisis">{{cite web|url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=2528&l=1|title=Identity Crisis: Israel and its Arab Citizens|access-date=8 October 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080709020917/http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=2528&l=1| archive-date = 9 July 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Zureik|first=Elia|title=The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism|publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul|year=1979|location=London|pages=172–5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sc8OAAAAQAAJ&q=%22al+ard%22&pg=PA172|isbn=978-0-7100-0016-3|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref>

In 1974, a committee of Arab mayors and municipal councilmen was established which played an important role in representing the community and pressuring the Israeli government.<ref>Kodmani, p. 129</ref> This was followed in 1975 by the formation of the Committee for the Defense of the Land, which sought to prevent continuing land expropriations.<ref>Féron, p. 41</ref> That same year, a political breakthrough took place with the election of Arab poet [[Tawfiq Ziad]], a [[Maki (current political party)|Maki]] member, as mayor of Nazareth, accompanied by a strong communist presence in the town council.<ref>Féron, p. 106</ref> In 1976, six Arab citizens of Israel were killed by Israeli security forces at a protest against land expropriations and house demolitions. The date of the protest, 30 March, has since been commemorated annually as [[Land Day]].

The 1980s saw the birth of the [[Islamic Movement in Israel|Islamic Movement]]. As part of a larger trend in the [[Arab World]], the movement emphasized moving Islam into the political realm. They built schools, provided other essential social services, constructed mosques, and encouraged prayer and conservative Islamic dress. The Islamic Movement began to affect electoral politics particularly at the local level.<ref name="struggle">{{cite journal|title=Israel's Arab Citizens: The Continuing struggle|journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|date=Jan 1998|first=Mark|last=Tessler|author2=Audra K Grant|volume=555|issue=January|pages=97–113|doi=10.1177/0002716298555001007|s2cid=145123436}}</ref>

Many Arab citizens supported the [[First Intifada]] and assisted Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, providing them with money, food, and clothes. A number of strikes were also held by Arab citizens in solidarity with Palestinians in the occupied territories.<ref name="struggle"/>

The years leading up to the [[Oslo Accords]] were a time of optimism for Arab citizens. During the administration of [[Yitzhak Rabin]], Arab parties played an important role in the formation of a governing coalition. Increased participation of Arab citizens was also seen at the civil society level. However, tension continued to exist with multiple Arabs calling for Israel to become a "[[liberal nationalism|state of all its citizens]]", thereby challenging the state's Jewish identity. In the 1999 elections for prime minister, 94% of the Arab electorate voted for [[Ehud Barak]]. However, Barak formed a broad left-right-center government without consulting the Arab parties, disappointing the Arab community.<ref name="Identity Crisis"/>

===2000–present===
[[File:Demonstration Arabs Haifa 2010.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Arab Israelis from Shefa-'Amr demonstrating in front of the Haifa court building with Palestinian flags]]
Tensions between Arabs and the state rose in [[October 2000 events|October 2000]] when 12 Arab citizens and one man from Gaza were killed while protesting the government's response to the [[Second Intifada]]. In response to this incident, the government established the [[Or Commission]]. The events of October 2000 caused multiple Arabs to question the nature of their Israeli citizenship. To a large extent, they boycotted the [[2001 Israeli prime ministerial election|2001 Israeli Elections]] as a means of protest.<ref name="Identity Crisis"/> This boycott helped Ariel Sharon defeat Ehud Barak; as aforementioned, in the 1999 elections, 94 percent of Israel's Arab minority had voted for Ehud Barak.<ref>Bar-On, D., The others within us, 2008</ref> [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] enlistment by [[Bedouin]] citizens of Israel dropped significantly.<ref>[http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/jps.2003.32.3.5?journalCode=jps Embattled Identities: Palestinian Soldiers in the Israeli Military] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226185144/http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/jps.2003.32.3.5?journalCode=jps |date=26 February 2012 }}, Rhoda Kanaaneh, Journal of Palestine Studies, vol. 32, no. 3 (Spring, 2003), pp. 5–20</ref>

During the [[2006 Lebanon War]], Arab advocacy organizations complained that the Israeli government had invested time and effort to protect Jewish citizens from Hezbollah attacks, but had neglected Arab citizens. They pointed to a dearth of bomb shelters in Arab towns and villages and a lack of basic emergency information in Arabic.<ref name="Arab Citizens and the 2006 War">{{cite web|url=http://www.mossawacenter.org/files/files/File/Reports/2006/The%20Arab%20Citizens%20of%20Israel%20and%20the%202006%20War%20in%20Lebanon(2).pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205090430/http://www.mossawacenter.org/files/files/File/Reports/2006/The%20Arab%20Citizens%20of%20Israel%20and%20the%202006%20War%20in%20Lebanon%282%29.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2007 |title=The Arab Citizens of Israel and the 2006 War in Lebanon |access-date=17 July 2007 |publisher=Mossawa |year=2006 |work=The Arab Citizens of Israel and the 2006 War in Lebanon: Reflections and Realities }}</ref> Multiple Israeli Jews viewed the Arab opposition to government policy and sympathy with the Lebanese as a sign of disloyalty.<ref name="Arabs and War in North">{{cite web|url=http://www.dayan.org/kapjac/files/War_North1_EN.pdf |title=The Arabs in Israel and the War in the North |access-date=17 July 2007 |publisher=Konard Adenauer Program for Jewish-Arab Cooperation |year=2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926132101/http://www.dayan.org/kapjac/files/War_North1_EN.pdf |archive-date=26 September 2007 }}</ref>

In October 2006, tensions rose when Israeli Prime Minister [[Ehud Olmert]] invited a right-wing political party [[Yisrael Beiteinu]], to join his coalition government. The party leader, [[Avigdor Lieberman]], advocated an ethnicity-based territory exchange, the [[Lieberman Plan]], by transferring heavily populated Arab areas (mainly [[Triangle (Israel)|the Triangle]]), to Palestinian Authority control and annexing major Jewish Israeli settlement blocs in the West Bank close to the green line as part of a peace proposal.<ref name="VOAnews-20061024">{{cite web|title=New Cabinet Appointment Tilts Israel to Right |author=Jim Teeple |publisher=Voice of America, Online English Edition |date=24 October 2006 |access-date=31 October 2006 |url=http://voanews.com/english/2006-10-24-voa7.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061024192908/http://voanews.com/english/2006-10-24-voa7.cfm |archive-date=24 October 2006 }}</ref> Arabs who would prefer to remain in Israel instead of becoming citizens of a Palestinian state would be able to move to Israel. All citizens of Israel, whether Jews or Arabs, would be required to pledge an oath of allegiance to retain citizenship. Those who refuse could remain in Israel as permanent residents.<ref name="Timothy Waters">{{cite web|author=Timothy Waters|publisher=Available at SSRN|date=21 January 2007|title=The Blessing of Departure – Exchange of Populated Territories, The Lieberman Plan as an Abstract Exercise in Demographic Transformation|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228149523|ssrn=958469}}</ref>

In January 2007 the first non-Druze Arab minister in Israel's history, [[Raleb Majadele]], was appointed [[Minister without portfolio#Israel|minister without portfolio]] ([[Salah Tarif]], a [[Druze]], had been appointed a minister without portfolio in 2001). The appointment was criticized by the left, which felt it was an attempt to cover up the Labor Party's decision to sit with Yisrael Beiteinu in the government, and by the right, who saw it as a threat to Israel's status as a [[Jewish state]].<ref name="Stern-Raleb">{{cite news|title=Labor MK Raleb Majadele to be appointed first Arab minister|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/812014.html|date=10 January 2007|author=Yoav Stern|publisher=Haaretz|access-date=8 October 2009|archive-date=19 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219213409/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/812014.html}}</ref><ref name="Haaretz-20070112">[https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/812625.html Lieberman calls on Peretz to quit post for appointing first Arab minister] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210000601/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/812625.html |date=10 December 2007 }} Haaretz, 12 January 2007</ref> In 2021, [[Mansour Abbas]], the leader of the [[United Arab List]], made history by becoming the first Israeli Arab political leader to join an [[Thirty-sixth government of Israel|Israeli governing coalition]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-29 |title=Mansour Abbas: Arab-Israeli political trailblazer |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20221029-mansour-abbas-arab-israeli-political-trailblazer |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=France 24 |language=en |archive-date=2 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202184046/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20221029-mansour-abbas-arab-israeli-political-trailblazer |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khoury |first=Jack |date=7 August 2022 |title=After a Turbulent Year, Mansour Abbas Still Has a Strong Grip on Islamist Party |language=en |work=[[Haaretz]] |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/elections/2022-08-07/ty-article/.premium/after-a-turbulent-year-mansour-abbas-still-has-a-strong-grip-on-the-united-arab-list/00000182-77e1-d9c2-afa6-fff930ad0000 |access-date=2023-10-31 |archive-date=18 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318225610/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/elections/2022-08-07/ty-article/.premium/after-a-turbulent-year-mansour-abbas-still-has-a-strong-grip-on-the-united-arab-list/00000182-77e1-d9c2-afa6-fff930ad0000 |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the [[2021 Israel–Palestine crisis]] widespread protests and riots intensified across Israel, particularly in cities with large Arab populations. In Lod, rocks were thrown at Jewish apartments and some Jewish residents were evacuated from their homes by the police. Synagogues and a Muslim cemetery were vandalized.<ref>{{Cite news|first1=Bar|last1=Peleg|first2=Hagar|last2=Shezaf|first3=Jack|last3=Khoury|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-muslim-headstones-synagogues-vandalized-in-israeli-city-as-ethnic-violence-persists-1.9809076|title=Muslim headstones, synagogues vandalized in Israeli city as Jewish-Arab violence persists|date=14 May 2021|access-date=26 May 2021|website=Haaretz|url-access=subscription|archive-date=23 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523153534/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-muslim-headstones-synagogues-vandalized-in-israeli-city-as-ethnic-violence-persists-1.9809076|url-status=live}}</ref> Communal violence including "riots, stabbings, arson, attempted home invasions and shootings" was reported from Beersheba, Rahat, Ramla, Lod, Nasiriyah, Tiberias, Jerusalem, Haifa and Acre.<ref>{{cite news|title='This is more than a reaction to rockets': communal violence spreads in Israel|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/13/this-is-more-than-a-reaction-to-rockets-communal-violence-spreads-in-israel|work=The Guardian|date=13 May 2021|access-date=9 June 2021|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513170744/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/13/this-is-more-than-a-reaction-to-rockets-communal-violence-spreads-in-israel|url-status=live|first1=Peter|last1=Beaumont|first2=Quique|last2=Kierszenbaum|first3=Sufian|last3=Taha}}</ref>
[[File:98256 a protest against the murders in arab society PikiWiki Israel.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A protest against the killings in the Arab community in [[Tel Aviv]]]]
The Arab community in Israel has seen a significant increase in [[Crime in Israel|violence and organized crime]], including a rise in gang-related murders in recent years.<ref>{{cite web|first = Hadas|last = Gold|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/09/08/middleeast/israel-arab-citizens-crime-mime-intl/index.html|title=Israel's Arab citizens demand justice after alarming rise in gang-related murders|date= 8 September 2023|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first = Rachel |last = Friedman|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/arab-israelis-crisis/|title=Arab-Israelis are facing a crisis. But there's a way out |date= 2 February 2024|publisher=Atlantic Council}}</ref> A report by the [[Abraham Initiative]] highlighted that 244 Arab community members were killed in Israel in 2023, more than double the previous year's count.<ref name="DT"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-786253|title=Homicides in Israeli Arab societies rising at unprecedented rate - study|date =11 February 2024|publisher=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref> The report attributed this surge in homicides directly to National Security Minister [[Itamar Ben Gvir]], who campaigned on a platform promising to improve personal security and oversees law enforcement.<ref name="DT">{{cite web |author1=Toi Staff |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/244-arab-community-members-said-killed-in-2023-violence-more-than-double-2022-toll/ |title=244 Arabs said killed in 2023 violence, more than double 2022 toll |date=2024-01-01 |publisher=Times of Israel |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101120133/https://www.timesofisrael.com/244-arab-community-members-said-killed-in-2023-violence-more-than-double-2022-toll/ |archive-date=2024-01-01 |access-date=2025-06-30}}</ref> Prominent [[Israeli mafia|organized crime families]] among Israeli Arabs include Al-Hariri, Bakri, Jarushis, and the Druze Abu Latifs.<ref>{{cite web|first=Josh|last=Breiner|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-11-08/ty-article/.premium/the-fight-against-arab-organized-crime-groups-aims-to-hit-them-in-the-pocketbook/0000017f-df00-d3ff-a7ff-ffa04a7f0000|title=The Fight Against Arab Organized Crime Groups Aims to Hit Them in the Pocketbook|date=8 November 2021|publisher=Haaretz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first = Davied|last = May|url=https://www.fdd.org/analysis/2023/07/12/internal-violence-has-become-a-nightmare-for-israeli-arabs/|title=Internal Violence Has Become a Nightmare for Israeli Arabs|date =12 July 2023|publisher=Foundation for Defense of Democracies}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first = Linda|last = Gradstein|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/crime-in-israel/article-748152|title=Israel's Arab citizens don't feel safe amid wave of crime, murders|date =30 June 2023|publisher=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref>

Since the outbreak of the [[Gaza war]], Israel has carried out [[Mass detentions in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war|mass arrests and detentions]] of Palestinian workers and Arab citizens of Israel.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israeli Arabs arrested over Gaza social media posts |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67181582 |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Thousands of Gaza workers go 'missing' in Israel amid wartime mass arrests |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/28/thousands-of-gaza-workers-go-missing-in-israel-amid-wartime-mass-arrests |work=Al Jazeera |date=28 October 2023}}</ref> On 5 November 2023, [[CNN]] reported that "dozens" of Palestinian residents and Arab Israelis were arrested in Israel for expressions of solidarity with the civilian population of Gaza, sharing [[Quran]] verses, or expressing "any support for the Palestinian people".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Kottasová |first1=Ivana |last2=Saifi |first2=Zeena |date=2023-11-05 |title='The reaction is extreme': Palestinians fear arrest if they voice sympathy for Gaza civilians |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/11/05/middleeast/palestinians-israel-fear-arrest-gaza-intl-cmd/index.html |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> ''[[Haaretz]]'' described the widespread targeting of Arab Israelis by Israeli security forces.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Systematic Witch Hunt:' What Persecution of Arab-Israelis Looks Like Amid Gaza War |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2023-11-02/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/systematic-witch-hunt-what-persecution-of-israeli-arabs-looks-like-amid-gaza-war/0000018b-90db-db7e-af9b-fbdb254e0000 |date=2023-11-02}}</ref> Referring to "hundreds" of interrogations, ''[[El País]]'' reported on 11 November that Israel increasingly treats its Arab minority as a "potential [[fifth column]]".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pita |first=Antonio |date=2023-11-11 |title=Israel aumenta el cerco a su minoría árabe |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2023-11-11/israel-aumenta-el-cerco-a-su-minoria-arabe.html |website=El País |language=es}}</ref> At the same time, the conflict saw an increased self-identification with Israel among Arab citizens<ref>{{Cite web |title=Israel's Arab minority feels closer to country in war, poll finds |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israels-arab-minority-feels-closer-country-war-poll-finds-2023-11-10/ |date=10 November 2023 |website=Reuters |language=en}}</ref> and continued cooperation with their Jewish counterparts in various areas, including healthcare, military service, education and sports.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hassanein |first=Haisam |title=Arab Israelis stand with their country — and reject the rage of Hamas |date=16 May 2025 |publisher=[[Foundation for the Defense of Democracies]] |url=https://www.fdd.org/analysis/op_eds/2025/05/15/arab-israelis-stand-with-their-country-and-reject-the-rage-of-hamas/ |archive-date=24 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250624185805/https://www.fdd.org/analysis/op_eds/2025/05/15/arab-israelis-stand-with-their-country-and-reject-the-rage-of-hamas/ }}</ref> According to different polls, a majority of Israeli Arabs condemned the [[October 7 attacks|7 October massacre]], but also opposed the mass bombardment of Gaza. Multiple Israeli Arabs expressed a general resentment over the war, as other Palestinians regarded them as supporters of Israel, whereas Israeli Jews saw them as potential [[Hamas]] supporters.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Ari Flanzraich |title='Too Israeli for the Palestinians and too Palestinian for the Israelis' |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/11/07/israel-hamas-war-arab-culture-identity/ |date=10 November 2023 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Eliav Breuer |title=Arab Israelis 'oppressed' into silence over Hamas war, Arab MK claims |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-hamas-war/article-786419 |date=11 February 2024 |website=Jerusalem Post |language=en}}</ref>

==Sectarian and religious groupings==
{{Bar box
|float=right
|title=Religions adhered to by Arab citizens of Israel
|titlebar=#DDD
|width=350px
|bars=
{{bar percent|Muslim|green|82}}
{{bar percent|Christian|teal|9}}
{{bar percent|Druze|gray|9}}
}}

In 2006, the official number of Arab residents in Israel – including East Jerusalem and Golan Heights permanent residents some of whom are not citizens – was 1,413,500 people, about 20% of Israel's population.<ref name="Ynet">{{cite news|title=Statistics Report: Less Enlisting to Army |newspaper=Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date=28 December 2006 |access-date=6 May 2007 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3345830,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402131217/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0%2C7340%2CL-3345830%2C00.html |archive-date=2 April 2007 |url-status=live}}, including permanent residents.</ref> The Arab population in 2023 was estimated at 2,065,000, representing 21% of the country's population.<ref name="CBS2023"/><ref name="Arabs2013"/> According to the [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] (May 2003), Muslims, including Bedouins, make up 82% of the entire Arab population in Israel, along with around 9% Druze, and 9% Christians.<ref name="Statistics"/> Projections based on 2010 data, predicted that Arab Israelis would constitute 25% of Israel's population by 2025.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.cbs.gov.il/popisr/table5.pdf |title=Projections of population(1) in Israel for 2010–2025, by sex, age and population group |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics\ |access-date=8 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327103839/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/popisr/table5.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009}}</ref>

The national language and mother tongue of Arab citizens, including the Druze, is [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and the colloquial spoken language is of the [[Palestinian Arabic]] dialect. Knowledge and command of [[Modern Standard Arabic]] varies.<ref name="Spolsky">{{cite web|title=National Profiles of Languages in Education: Israel Language Policy|author=Bernard Spolsky and Elana Shohamy|publisher=Language Policy Research Center|date=July 1996|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/hu/lprc/lprcprof.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406202757/http://www.biu.ac.il/hu/lprc/lprcprof.htm|archive-date=6 April 2007}}</ref>

===Muslims===
{{Main|Islam in Israel}}
[[File:עכו-מסגד אל ג'אזאר1.JPG|thumb|250px|Muslim performs prayers in [[El-Jazzar Mosque]].]]
Muslims comprise 17.9% of the Israeli population in 2019.<ref name=Muslim2020/> The majority of Muslims in Israel are [[Sunni Arabs]],<ref name=Pew1>{{cite web|url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/03/Israel-Survey-Full-Report.pdf|title=Israel's Religiously Divided Society|date=8 March 2016|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=23 February 2017}}</ref> with an [[Ahmadiyya]] minority.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7Ao8dYsCskC&pg=PA45| title=The Arabs in Israel
 | access-date=May 31, 2014 | author=Ori Stendel | year=1996
 | page=45 | publisher=Sussex Academic Press | isbn=978-1-898723-24-0}}</ref> There are around 4,000 [[Alawites]] in Israel and the majority of them live in [[Ghajar]] village in the occupied [[Golan Heights]] near the border with [[Lebanon]]. The [[Bedouin in Israel]] are also Arab Muslims, with some Bedouin clans participating in the [[Israeli army]]. The small [[Circassians|Circassian]] community is composed of Sunni Muslims uprooted from the [[North Caucasus]] in the late 19th century. In addition, smaller populations of [[Kurds in Israel|Kurdish]], [[Dom people|Romani]] and [[Turks in Israel|Turkish]] Muslims also live in Israel.

In 2020, [[Jerusalem]] hosted the largest Muslim population in Israel, numbering 346,000 residents, constituting 21.1% of Israel's Muslim population and about 36.9% of the city's total residents. [[Rahat]] followed with the second-largest Muslim population at 71,300 residents, while [[Umm Al-Fahm]] and [[Nazareth]] had approximately 56,000 and 55,600 residents, respectively.<ref name="Muslim2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2020/230/11_20_230e.pdf|title=The Moslem population of Israel: Data on the Occasion of Eid al-Adha (The Feast of the Sacrifice) |date=28 July 2020|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel)}}</ref> The eleven towns of the [[Triangle (Israel)|Triangle area]] are home to approximately 250,000 Israeli Muslims.<ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/report-netanyahu-suggested-to-us-that-arab-israeli-towns-be-placed-in-palestine/ Report: Netanyahu suggested to US that Arab Israeli towns be placed in Palestine], Times of Israel, 4 February 2020</ref>

Regarding regional distribution in 2020, approximately 35.2% of Israeli Muslims resided in the [[Northern District (Israel)|Northern District]], 21.9% in the [[Jerusalem District]], 17.1% in the [[Central District (Israel)|Central District]], 13.7% in the [[Haifa District]], 10.9% in the [[Southern District (Israel)|Southern District]], and 1.2% in the [[Tel Aviv District]].<ref name=Muslim2020/> The Israeli Muslim population is notably youthful: about 33.4% are aged 14 and under, while those aged 65 and older account for only 4.3%. Furthermore, the Muslim community in Israel boasts the highest [[fertility rate]] among religious groups, standing at 3.16 children per woman.<ref name=Muslim2020/>
[[File:Muslim prayer in Umm al-Fahm.jpg|thumb|240px|Worshipers in one of the mosques in [[Umm al-Fahm]]]]
According to study published by [[Pew Research Center]] in 2016, while Muslims living in Israel, overall, are more religious than Israeli Jews, they are less religious than Muslims living in other countries in the Middle East. Muslim women are more likely to say that religion has high importance in their lives, and younger Muslims are generally less observant than their elders.<ref name=Pew1/> According to the [[Israel Democracy Institute]] survey conducted in 2015, 47% of Israeli Muslims identified as traditional, 32% identified as religious, 17% identified as not religious at all, 3% identified as very religious.<ref name="Index Democracy Israeli"/>

====Settled====
Traditionally settled communities of [[Muslim]] Arabs comprise about 70% of the Arab population in Israel. In 2010, the average number of children per mother was 3.84, dropping from 3.97 in 2008. The Muslim population is mostly young: 42% of Muslims are under the age of 15. The median age of Muslim Israelis is 18, while the median age of Jewish Israelis is 30. The percentage of people over 65 is less than 3% for Muslims, compared with 12% for the Jewish population.<ref name="Statistics"/>

====Bedouin====
{{See also|Israeli Bedouin}}
[[File:Rahat largest Bedouin city in Israel.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Rahat]], the largest Bedouin city in the Negev]]

According to the [[Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel]], 110,000 Bedouins live in the [[Negev]], 50,000 in the [[Galilee]], and 10,000 in the central region of Israel.<ref name=Bedouin>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/1990_1999/1999/7/the%20bedouin%20in%20israel The Bedouin in Israel: Demography] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026125647/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/1990_1999/1999/7/the%20bedouin%20in%20israel |date=26 October 2007 }} [[Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] 1 July 1999</ref>

Prior to the establishment of Israel in 1948, there were an estimated 65,000–90,000 Bedouin living in the Negev.<ref name=Bedouin/> The 11,000 who remained were relocated by the Israeli government in the 1950s and 1960s to an area in the northeastern Negev comprising 10% of the Negev desert.<ref name=Bedouin /> The Israeli government built seven development towns for the Bedouin between 1979 and 1982. Around half the Bedouin population live in these towns, the largest of which is the city of [[Rahat]], others being [[Ar'arat an-Naqab]] (Ar'ara BaNegev), [[Bir Hadaj]], [[Hura]], [[Kuseife]], [[Lakiya]], [[Shaqib al-Salam]] (Segev Shalom) and [[Tel as-Sabi]] (Tel Sheva). In 2005, Bedouin were estimated to amount to 10% of the Arab citizens of Israel.{{sfn|Abu-Sa‘ad|2005|pp=113–114}} Approximately 40–50% of Bedouin citizens of Israel live in 39–45 [[Unrecognized Bedouin villages in Israel|unrecognized villages]] that are not connected to the electrical grid and water mains.<ref name="hrw.org">[http://hrw.org/reports/2008/iopt0308/ "Off the Map: Land and Housing Rights Violations in Israel's Unrecognized Bedouin Villages"]; Human Rights Watch, March 2008 Volume 20, No. 5(E)</ref><ref>[http://www.mmi.gov.il/static/HanhalaPirsumim/Beduin_information.pdf Bedouin information, ILA, 2007] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514135350/http://www.mmi.gov.il/static/HanhalaPirsumim/Beduin_information.pdf |date=14 May 2011}}</ref> A study published by the Taub Center for Social Policy Studies in 2017 found that Bedouins have the lowest achievements in the Arab sector on all indices: [[bagrut]] scores, rates of college graduates, and fields of employment. As they tend to be the least educated.<ref name="AI">{{Cite news |url=http://taubcenter.org.il/wp-content/files_mf/arabisraelisinhighereducation.pdf |title=Education and Employment Among Young Arab Israelis |journal=Taub Center for Social Policy Studies |date=13 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705105228/http://taubcenter.org.il/wp-content/files_mf/arabisraelisinhighereducation.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2019}}</ref>{{rp|42}}

===Druze===
{{main|Druze in Israel|Druze in Mandatory Palestine}}
[[Image:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Nebi Shueib Festival.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Israeli Druze|Druze]] dignitaries celebrating the [[Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb]] festival at the tomb of the prophet in [[Hittin]]]]
Most Israeli [[Druze]] reside in the northern part of the country and are officially recognized as a separate religious community with their own courts.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Arabs in Israel|author=Sabri Jiryis|publisher=The Institute for Palestine Studies|date=1969|orig-year=second impression|page=145|isbn=978-0-85345-377-2|author-link=Sabri Jiryis}}</ref> They maintain [[Arabic language]] and [[Arabic culture|culture]] as integral parts of their identity, and Arabic is their primary language.<ref name="Brockman 2011 259">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, 2nd Edition [2 volumes]| first=Norbert |last=Brockman|year= 2011| isbn=978-1-59884-654-6| page =259|publisher=ABC-CLIO|quote=}}</ref> The Galilean Druze and Druze of the [[Haifa]] region received Israeli citizenship automatically in 1948. After Israel captured the [[Golan Heights]] from Syria in 1967 and annexed it to Israel in 1981, the [[Druze in Israel#Status and position of Golan Heights Druze|Druze of the Golan Heights]] were offered full Israeli citizenship under the [[Golan Heights Law]]. Most declined Israeli citizenship and retain [[Syria]]n citizenship and identity and are treated as permanent residents of Israel.<ref name="Scott Wilson">{{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Scott |date=30 October 2006 |title=Golan Heights Land, Lifestyle Lure Settlers |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/29/AR2006102900926.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031210950/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/29/AR2006102900926.html |archive-date=31 October 2006 |access-date=6 May 2007 | newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref> As of 2011, fewer than 10% of the Druze population in the Golan Heights had accepted Israeli citizenship.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kershner |first=Isabel |author-link=Isabel Kershner |date=2011-05-22 |title=In the Golan Heights, Anxious Eyes Look East |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/22/world/middleeast/22golan.html?_r=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703060528/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/22/world/middleeast/22golan.html?_r=1 |archive-date=3 July 2025 |access-date=2012-01-23 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

At the end of 2019, approximately 81% of the Israeli Druze population lived in the [[Northern District (Israel)|Northern District]] and 19% lived in the [[Haifa District]], and the largest population of Druze were [[Daliyat al-Karmel]] and [[Yirka]]. Israeli Druze live in 19 towns and villages, either singly or mixed with Christians and Muslims, all located on the tops of the mountains in northern Israel ([[Upper Galilee|Upper]] and [[Lower Galilee]] and [[Mount Carmel]]), including [[Abu Snan]], [[Beit Jann]], [[Daliyat al-Karmel]], [[Ein al-Asad]], [[Hurfeish]], [[Isfiya]], [[Julis]], [[Kafr Yasif]], [[Kisra-Sumei]], [[Maghar, Israel|Maghar]], [[Peki'in]], [[Rameh]], [[Sajur]], [[Shefa-Amr]], [[Yanuh-Jat]], and [[Yarka]].<ref name="DP">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2019/122/11_19_122b.pdf|title=The Druze population in Israel|date=24 April 2020|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel)}}</ref> There are four remaining Druze villages in the Israeli-annexed portion of the [[Golan Heights]]—[[Majdal Shams]], [[Mas'ade]], [[Buq'ata]], and [[Ein Qiniyye]]—in which 23,000 Druze live.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2018/2.%20shnatonpopulation/st02_17.pdf|title=LOCALITIES(1) AND POPULATION, BY POPULATION GROUP, DISTRICT, SUB-DISTRICT AND NATURAL REGION|date=2017-12-31|website=CBS Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Melhem |first=Ahmad |date=2019-04-11 |title=Trump paves way for Israel to expand settlements in Golan |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/04/israel-settlements-golan-heights-trump-syrians.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412143010/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/04/israel-settlements-golan-heights-trump-syrians.html |archive-date=12 April 2019 |access-date=2019-05-09 |website=[[Al-Monitor]] |url-access=subscription |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kershner|first=Isabel |date=2019-04-23 |title=Netanyahu Seeks to Name a Golan Heights Settlement for President Trump |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/23/world/middleeast/netanyahu-golan-heights-trump.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703060538/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/23/world/middleeast/netanyahu-golan-heights-trump.html |archive-date=3 July 2025 |access-date=2019-05-09 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=subscription |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 }}</ref>

During the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate for Palestine]], the Druze did not embrace the rising [[Arab nationalism]] of the time or participate in violent confrontations. In 1948, multiple Druze volunteered for the Israeli army and no Druze villages were destroyed or permanently abandoned.<ref name="IDMC"/> Since the establishment of the state, the Druze have demonstrated solidarity with Israel and distanced themselves from Arab and Islamic radicalism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/the_middle_east_journal/v064/64.4.nisan.pdf|title=The Druze in Israel: Questions of Identity, Citizenship, and Patriotism|access-date=3 February 2022|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121451/http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=%2Fjournals%2Fthe_middle_east_journal%2Fv064%2F64.4.nisan.pdf}}</ref> Male Druze citizens serve in the [[Israel Defense Forces]].<ref name="Christian Arabs">{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=555549|title=Christian Arabs / Second in a series – Israel's Christian Arabs don't want to fight to fit in|first=Yoav|last=Stern|publisher=Haaretz|date=23 March 2005|access-date=7 January 2006|archive-date=10 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210000545/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=555549}}</ref>

From 1957, the Israeli government formally recognized the Druze as a separate religious community,<ref name="Jiryis-1969">{{cite book|title=The Arabs in Israel|author=Sabri Jiryis|publisher=The Institute for Palestine Studies|date=1969|orig-date=second impression|page=145|isbn=978-0-85345-377-2|author-link=Sabri Jiryis}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Israeli Druze Community in Transition| first=Randa|last=Khair Abbas|year= 2011| isbn=9781527567399| page =11|publisher=ABC-CLIO|quote=In 1957, the Druze were declared a religious community in Israel.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Good Arabs: The Israeli Security Agencies and the Israeli Arabs, 1948–1967|first=Hillel|last=Cohen|year= 2015| isbn=9780520944886| page =167|publisher=University of California Press|quote=In 1957, the Druze were recognized as a distinct religious confession.}}</ref> and are defined as a distinct ethnic group in the [[Ministry of Interior (Israel)|Israeli Ministry of Interior]]'s census registration. On the other hand, the [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] categorizes Druze as Arabs in their census.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hasis|first1=Badi|last2=Weisburd|first2=David|title=Policing in Israel: Studying Crime Control, Community, and Counterterrorism|year=2015|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781498722575|pages=92}}</ref> While the Israeli education system is basically divided into Hebrew and Arabic speaking schools, the Druze have autonomy within the Arabic speaking branch.<ref name="Jiryis-1969"/> Israeli Druze are Arabic in language and [[Arabic culture|culture]],<ref name="Brockman 2011 259"/> and their mother tongue is the [[Arabic Language]].

Some scholars maintain that Israel has tried to separate the Druze from other Arab communities, and that the effort has influenced the way Israel's Druze perceive their modern identity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firro |first=Kais |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owhg2R8Ndy8C&pg=PA9 |title=The Druzes in the Jewish State: A Brief History |publisher=BRILL |year=1999 |isbn=90-04-11251-0 |pages=9, 171}}</ref><ref>'{{cite book |last=Weingrod |first=Alex |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gIYlFNR7hUcC&pg=PA259 |title=Studies in Israeli Ethnicity: After the Ingathering |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1985 |isbn=978-2-88124-007-2 |pages=259–279}}</ref> Survey data suggests that Israeli Druze prioritize their identity first as Druze (religiously), second as Arabs (culturally and ethnically), and third as Israelis (citizenship-wise).<ref name="Nili2019">{{cite book|title=The People's Duty: Collective Agency and the Morality of Public Policy| first=Shmuel|last=Nili|year= 2019| isbn=9781108480925| page =195|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> A small minority of them identify as [[Palestinians]], distinguishing them from the majority of other Arab citizens of Israel, who predominantly identify as Palestinians.<ref name="Nili2019"/>

In a survey conducted in 2008 by Dr. Yusuf Hassan of [[Tel Aviv University]] 94% of Druze respondents identified as "Druze-Israelis" in the religious and national context,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Shtern|first1=Yoav|title=רה"מ לדרוזים: לא עוד ברית דמים, אלא ברית חיים [PM to Druze: No more blood pact, but life pact]|url=http://news.walla.co.il/item/1243983|access-date=26 June 2016|work=[[Walla!]]|date=4 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828113051/http://news.walla.co.il/item/1243983|archive-date=28 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Study: 94% of Druze in Israel define themselves as Druze-Israeli|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3514638,00.html|access-date=26 June 2016|work=[[Ynet]]|date=4 March 2008}}</ref> while a 2017 Pew Research Center poll reported that while 99% of Muslims and 96% of Christians identified as ethnically Arab, a smaller share of Druze, 71%, identified likewise.<ref>{{cite web|title=Israel's Religiously Divided Society|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/03/08/israels-religiously-divided-society/|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=8 December 2017|quote=Virtually all Muslims (99%) and Christians (96%) surveyed in Israel identify as Arab. A somewhat smaller share of Druze (71%) say they are ethnically Arab. Other Druze respondents identify their ethnicity as "Other," "Druze" or "Druze-Arab."|date=2016-03-08}}</ref> Compared to other Christians and Muslims, Druze place less emphasis on their [[Arab identity]] and self-identify more as Israeli. Most do not identify as [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]].<ref name=AmaraSchnell>{{cite journal| title = Identity Repertoires among Arabs in Israel | author = Muhammad Amara and Izhak Schnell |journal = Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies | volume = 30 | year = 2004 | pages = 175–193 | doi=10.1080/1369183032000170222| s2cid = 144424824 }}</ref> However, they were less ready for personal relationships with [[Israeli Jews|Jews]] compared to Israeli Muslims and Christians.<ref name="Index Democracy Israeli">{{cite web|url=https://www.idi.org.il/media/8292/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%93-%D7%94%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94-%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA-2016-%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA-%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99-%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D.pdf|title=The 2016 Israeli Democracy Index: Attitudes of Arab Citizens of Israel|date=2016-03-08|publisher=Israel Democracy Institute|access-date=2025-06-30}}</ref> Scholars attribute this trend to cultural differences between Jews and Druze.<ref>{{cite book|title=Israel's "ethnic Project" in the City of Shafa-amr: Particularization of Identity Along Religious Lines|last=Ibrahim|first=Ibtisam|year=2000|isbn=9789651905889|pages=170–175|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}</ref> Druze politicians in Israel include [[Ayoob Kara]], who represented [[Likud]] in the [[Knesset]]; [[Majalli Wahabi]] of [[Kadima]], the Deputy Speaker of the Knesset; and [[Said Nafa]] of the Arab party [[Balad (political party)|Balad]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1167467816438&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708165844/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1167467816438&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |archive-date=2012-07-08 |title=Druse MK next in line for presidency }}</ref>

===Christians===
{{Main article|Christianity in Israel}}
{{See also|Palestinian Christians|Arab Christians}}
[[File:Wikimania 2011-08-07 by-RaBoe-078.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Catholic Mass]] in the [[Basilica of the Annunciation]] in [[Nazareth]], [[Christian Arabs]] are one of the most educated ethnoreligious groups in Israel.<ref name="Christians in Israel: Strong in education"/>]]
Christian Arabs comprise about 9% of the Arab population in Israel. At the end of 2019, approximately 70.6% reside in the [[Northern District (Israel)|Northern District]], 13.3% in the [[Haifa District]], 9.5% in the [[Jerusalem District]], 3.4% in the [[Central District (Israel)|Central District]], 2.7% in the [[Tel Aviv District]] and 0.5% in the [[Southern District (Israel)|Southern District]].<ref name=Christian2020>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2019/400/11_19_400e.pdf|title=Christmas 2019 - Christians in Israel|date=29 December 2019|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel)}}</ref> There are 135,000 or more Christian Arabs in Israel (and more than 39,000 non-Arab Christians).<ref name=Christian2020/><ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts+About+Israel/People/SOCIETY-%20Minority%20Communities Society: Minority Communities], Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs</ref> As of 2014 the [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church]] was the largest Christian community in Israel, where about 60% of [[Israeli Christians]] belonged to the Melkite Greek Catholic Church,<ref name="MFA2014">{{cite web|url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Spotlight/Pages/The-Christian-communities-in-Israel-May-2014.aspx |title=The Christian communities in Israel |website=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=1 May 2014 |access-date=3 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017004653/http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Spotlight/Pages/The-Christian-communities-in-Israel-May-2014.aspx |archive-date=17 October 2015 }}</ref> while around 30% of Israeli Christians belonged to the [[Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem|Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem]].<ref name="MFA2014"/> The Christian communities in Israel run numerous [[Christian school|schools]], [[colleges]], [[hospitals]], [[clinics]], [[orphanages]], homes for the elderly, [[dormitories]], family and youth centers, [[hotels]], and guesthouses.<ref name="McGahern 2011 51">{{cite book|title=Palestinian Christians in Israel: State Attitudes Towards Non-Muslims in a Jewish State| first=Una |last=McGahern|year= 2011| isbn= 978-0-415-60571-7| page =51|publisher=Routledge|quote=}}</ref>

[[Nazareth]] has the largest Christian Arab population, followed by [[Haifa]].<ref name=Christian2020/> The majority of Haifa's Arab minority is Christian as well.<ref name=NYT01416>{{cite news |last=Hadid |first=Diaa |title=In Israeli City of Haifa, a Liberal Palestinian Culture Blossoms |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/in-israeli-city-of-haifa-a-liberal-palestinian-culture-blossoms.html |access-date=4 January 2016 |work=The New York Times |date=4 January 2016 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502175750/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/in-israeli-city-of-haifa-a-liberal-palestinian-culture-blossoms.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Christian Arab communities in Nazareth and Haifa tend to be wealthier and better educated compare to other Arabs elsewhere in Israel.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Israeli Palestinians: An Arab Minority in the Jewish State| first=Alexander |last=Bligh|year= 2004| isbn= 978-1-135-76077-9| page =132|publisher=Routledge|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Narrow Gate Churches: The Christian Presence in the Holy Land Under Muslim and Jewish Rule| first=Atallah |last=Mansour|year= 2004| isbn=978-1-932717-02-0| page =280|publisher=Hope Publishing House|quote=}}</ref> Arab Christians also live in a number of other localities in the [[Galilee]]; such as [[Abu Snan]], [[Arraba, Israel|Arraba]], [[Bi'ina]], [[Deir Hanna]], [[I'billin]], [[Jadeidi-Makr]], [[Kafr Kanna]], [[Mazra'a]], [[Muqeible]], [[Ras al-Ein]], [[Reineh]], [[Sakhnin]], [[Shefa-Amr]], [[Tur'an]] and [[Yafa an-Naseriyye]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Arab-Palestinian Society in the Israeli Political System: Integration versus Segregation in the Twenty-First Century| first=Rami |last=Zeedan|year= 2019| isbn= 978-1-4985-5315-5| page =52|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|quote=}}</ref> localities such as [[Eilabun]], [[Jish]], [[Kafr Yasif]] and [[Rameh]] are predominantly Christians.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Christian communities in Israel|url=https://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Spotlight/Pages/The-Christian-communities-in-Israel-May-2014.aspx|website=mfa.gov.il}}</ref> Nearly all the population of [[Fassuta]] and [[Mi'ilya]] are [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkite]] [[Palestinian Christians|Christians]].<ref name=ChristianYnet>{{cite news|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-5431903,00.html|title=Celebrating Christmas in Israel's ancient Greek Catholic villages|newspaper=Ynetnews |date=23 December 2018|publisher=Ynet}}</ref> Some Druze villages, such as [[Daliyat al-Karmel]],<ref>[https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2018/local_authorities16_1722/460_0494.pdf Daliyat al-Karmel] {{in lang|he}}</ref> [[Ein Qiniyye]], [[Hurfeish]], [[Isfiya]], [[Kisra-Sumei]], [[Maghar, Israel|Maghar]], [[Majdal Shams]] and [[Peki'in]] have small Christian Arab populations.<ref name="Statistics"/> Mixed cities such as [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Lod]], [[Ma'alot-Tarshiha]], [[Nof HaGalil]], [[Ramla]] and [[Tel Aviv]]-[[Jaffa]] have significant Christian Arab populations.<ref name="Statistics"/>

Many Christian Arabs have been prominent in Arab political parties in Israel, and leaders have included Archbishop [[Maximos V Hakim|George Hakim]], [[Emile Toma]], [[Tawfik Toubi]], [[Emile Habibi]], and [[Azmi Bishara]]. Notable Christian religious figures include the [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkite]] Archbishops of the Galilee [[Elias Chacour]] and [[Boutros Mouallem]], the [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]] [[Michel Sabbah]], and Bishop [[Munib Younan]] of the Lutheran Church of Jordan and the Holy Land. Israeli Supreme Court judges [[Salim Joubran]] and [[George Karra]] are Christian Arab.<ref>{{cite news|title=15 nominees named for 4 justice posts|work=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=14 April 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/national-news/judge-in-katsav-trial-known-to-be-independent-fearless|title=Judge in Katsav trial known to be independent, fearless|date=3 January 2011|publisher=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref> Notable Christian figures in science and high tech include [[Hossam Haick]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/magazine/young-israelis-of-the-year-dr-hossam-haick-34-sniffing-out-cancer-155433|title=Young Israelis of the year: Dr. Hossam Haick, 34: Sniffing out cancer|website=The Jerusalem Post &#124; JPost.com|date=18 September 2009 }}</ref> who has a number of contributions in multidisciplinary fields such as [[nanotechnology]], [[nanosensors]] and [[molecular electronics]],<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/the-israeli-scientist-who-is-sniffing-out-cancer-1.299656 | title=The Israeli scientist who is sniffing out cancer | journal=Haaretz | date=2 July 2010 | access-date=25 January 2015 | author=Grimland, Guy}}</ref> and [[Johny Srouji]] who is [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s [[senior vice president]] of [[Computer hardware|hardware]] [[technologies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2016-johny-srouji-apple-chief-chipmaker/|title=The Most Important Apple Executive You've Never Heard Of|date=18 February 2016|publisher=Bloomberg|quote=He was the third child of four. His family was Christian Arab, a minority within a minority in the Jewish state.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://jewishbusinessnews.com/2017/12/28/israeli-apple-johnny-seruji-receives-24-million-year/|title=The Israeli In Apple Johny Srouji Receives $24 Million This Year|date=28 December 2017|publisher=Bloomberg|quote=Johny Srouji, who grew up in Haifa for a Christian Arab family and studied at the Technion.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.barakabits.com/2016/03/johny-srouji-arab-vp-behind-apples-chips|title=Johny Srouji: The Arab VP Behind Apple's Chips - BarakaBits|website=www.barakabits.com|date=2016-03-27}}</ref>

Among Arab Christians in Israel, some emphasize [[pan-Arabism]], whilst a small minority enlists in the [[Israel Defense Forces]].<ref>{{cite web|date=23 December 2015|title=In Heartwarming Christmas Story, IDF Welcomes More Pro-Israel Christian Arabs|url=https://www.breakingisraelnews.com/56889/in-heartwarming-christmas-story-idf-welcomes-more-pro-israel-christian-arabs-biblical-zionism/|access-date=25 March 2019|archive-date=30 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630094731/https://www.breakingisraelnews.com/56889/in-heartwarming-christmas-story-idf-welcomes-more-pro-israel-christian-arabs-biblical-zionism/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Lissy Kaufmann|date=21 January 2016|title=Israeli-Arab Christians take to the streets of Haifa for an unusual protest|url=http://tlv1.fm/news/so-much-to-say/2014/07/28/israeli-arab-christians-take-streets-haifa-unusual-protest-2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009214720/http://tlv1.fm/news/so-much-to-say/2014/07/28/israeli-arab-christians-take-streets-haifa-unusual-protest-2/|archive-date=9 October 2014|access-date=21 January 2016|publisher=TLV1 Radio}}</ref> Since September 2014 Christian families or clans who have either Aramaic/Assyrian or Maronite cultural heritage are considered an ethnicity separate from [[Israeli Arabs]] and can register themselves as Arameans. This recognition comes after about seven years of activity by the Aramean Christian Foundation in Israel, which rather than sticking to an Arab identity, wishes to assimilate into an Israeli lifestyle. Aram is led by IDF Major Shadi Khalloul Risho and the Israeli Christian Recruitment Forum, headed by [[Father Gabriel Naddaf]] of the Greek-Orthodox Church and Major Ihab Shlayan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/24936/Default.aspx|title=Israeli Christians Officially Recognized as Arameans, Not Arabs|website=www.israeltoday.co.il|access-date=14 December 2014|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307132630/https://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/24936/Default.aspx/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.616299|title=Israel Recognizes Aramean Minority in Israel as Separate Nationality|journal=Haaretz|first=Jonathan|last=Lis|date=17 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_article.php?id=20169|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920194425/http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_article.php?id=20169|url-status=dead|title='Aramean' officially recognized as nationality in Israel|archive-date=20 September 2014|website=Israel Hayom}}</ref> The move was condemned by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate, which described it as an attempt to divide the Palestinian minority in Israel.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cohen|first1=Ariel|title=Israeli Greek Orthodox Church denounces Aramaic Christian nationality|url=https://www.jpost.com/Christian-News/Israeli-Greek-Orthodox-Denounce-Move-to-Differentiate-Christians-from-Arabs-376493|access-date=14 December 2014|work=Jerusalem Post|date=28 September 2014}}</ref> Other pro-Zionist advocates supporting similar ideas received extensive coverage in Israeli state sponsored media and Jewish news outlets to severe criticisms from their co-religionists (see [[Yoseph Haddad]]).

[[Christian Arabs]] are one of the most educated groups in Israel.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303849604579278722657163880 |title=Israel's Christian Awakening |date=2013-12-28 |first=Adi |last=Schwartz |access-date=2025-06-30 |url-access=registration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240604004022/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303849604579278722657163880 |archive-date=4 June 2024 |work=[[Wall Street Journal]] |language=en}}</ref> Statistically, [[Christian Arabs]] in Israel have the highest rates of [[educational attainment]] among all religious communities, according to a data by [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] in 2010, 63% of Israeli [[Christian Arabs]] have had college or [[postgraduate education]], the highest of any religious and [[ethno-religious]] group.<ref name="bokra.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.bokra.net/Article-1155836 |title= المسيحيون العرب يتفوقون على يهود إسرائيل في التعليم |website=Bokra |access-date=28 December 2011}}</ref> Despite the fact that Arab Christians only represent 2% of the total Israeli population, in 2014 they accounted for 17% of the country's [[university]] students, and for 14% of its [[college]] students.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.walla.co.il/item/2798937#|title=הלמ"ס: עלייה בשיעור הערבים הנרשמים למוסדות האקדמיים|website=[[Walla! Communications Ltd]]}}</ref> There are more [[Christians]] who have attained a [[bachelor's degree]] or higher [[academic degree]]s than the median Israeli population.<ref name="Christians in Israel: Strong in education"/> The rate of students studying in the field of [[medicine]] was higher among [[Christians|Christian]] Arab students than that of all other sectors,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jpost.com/National-News/CBS-report-Christian-population-in-Israel-growing |title=CBS report: Christian population in Israel growing |website=The Jerusalem Post |date=25 December 2012 |access-date=27 December 2013}}</ref> and the percentage of [[Arab Christian]] women who are receiving higher education is also higher than that of other groups.<ref name="המגזר הערבי נוצרי הכי מצליח במערכת החינוך"/>
[[File:Saint Joseph's Latin Parish.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Catholic school]] in [[Haifa]]: High level [[Christian school]]s are among Israel's best performing educational institutions.<ref name="Why Angry Christians in Israel Are" />]]

The [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] noted that when taking into account the data recorded over the years, Israeli [[Christian Arabs]] fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other group receiving an education in Israel.<ref name="Christians in Israel: Strong in education"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stier|first1=Haya|last2=Khattab|first2=Nabil |last3= Miaari|first3=Sami|title=Socioeconomic Inequality in Israel: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis|date=15 August 2023 |location=USA|isbn=9781503636132|pages=88|quote=Christians have, on average, higher educational achievements, marry at an older age, have fewer children, and enjoy larger income... Druze and Muslims share many cultural patterns, and they have a similar socioeconomic standing, but while Druze males have to serve in the military, Muslim men (as well as Christian) do not.}}</ref> In 2012 Christian Arabs had the highest rates of success at [[matriculation examination]]s,<ref name="TOI2013">{{cite web |url= http://www.timesofisrael.com/christian-arabs-top-countrys-matriculation-charts/ |title= Christian Arabs top country's matriculation charts |website=The Times of Israel|access-date=24 December 2013}}</ref> In 2016, Arab Christians had the highest rates of success at [[matriculation examination]]s, namely 73.9%, both in comparison to Muslim and [[Druze in Israel|Druze]] Israelis (41% and 51.9% respectively), and to the students from the different branches of the [[Hebrew]] (majority [[Jewish]]) education system considered as one group (55.1%).<ref name="Aruz7">{{cite web |title=An inside look at Israel's Christian minority |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/239745 |website=Israel National News |date=24 December 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

In terms of their socio-economic situation, [[Arab Christians]] are more similar to the Jewish population than to the Muslim Arab population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.terrasanta.net/tsx/articolo.jsp?wi_number=3483&wi_codseq=&language=en|title=Israeli Christians Flourishing in Education but Falling in Number|website=Terrasanta.net|access-date=5 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107232958/http://www.terrasanta.net/tsx/articolo.jsp?wi_number=3483&wi_codseq=&language=en|archive-date=7 January 2016}}</ref> They have the lowest incidence of poverty and the lowest percentage of unemployment, at 4.9%, compared to 6.5% among Jewish men and women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/163468|title=Christians in Israel Well-Off, Statistics Show: Christians in Israel are prosperous and well-educated - but some fear that Muslim intimidation will cause a mass escape to the West|website=Arutz Sheva|date=24 December 2012 |access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref> They have also the highest [[median household income]] among Arab citizens of Israel and second highest median household income among the Israeli ethno-religious groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abrahamfund.org/webfiles/fck/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A7%204%20-%20%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D%20%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D%20%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D.pdf |title=פרק 4 פערים חברתיים-כלכליים בין ערבים לבין יהודים |website=Abrahamfund.org |access-date=2016-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019125243/http://www.abrahamfund.org/webfiles/fck/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A7%204%20-%20%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D%20%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D%20%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2015 }}</ref> Also Arab Christians have a high presentation in [[science]] and in the [[White-collar worker|white collar]] professions.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/7603271|year=2014 |title=Are Christian Arabs the New Israeli Jews? Reflections on the Educational Level of Arab Christians in Israel|journal=International Letters of Social and Humanistic Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=175–187|access-date=5 September 2016|last1=David|first1=Hanna}}</ref> In Israel Arab Christians are portrayed as a hard working and [[upper middle class]] educated [[ethno-religious]] minority. According to study the majority of Christians in Israel (68.2 per cent) are employed in the service sector, i.e. banks, insurance companies, schools, tourism, hospitals etc.<ref name="McGahern 2011 51"/>

According to the study "Are Christian Arabs the New Israeli Jews? Reflections on the Educational Level of Arab Christians in Israel" by Hanna David from the [[University of Tel Aviv]], one of the factors why [[Christianity in Israel|Israeli Arab Christians]] are the most educated segment of Israel's population is the high level of the Christian educational institutions. [[Christian school]]s in Israel are among the best schools in the country, and while those schools represent only 4% of the Arab schooling sector, about 34% of Arab university students come from [[Christian school]]s,<ref name="SJ"/> and about 87% of the Israeli Arabs in the [[high tech]] sector have been educated in Christian schools.<ref name="middleeasteye.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/schools-starved-funds-christians-question-their-future-israel-1522645081 |title=With schools starved of funds, Christians question their future in Israel |website= Middleeasteye.net |access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="Why Angry Christians in Israel Are">{{cite news |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.676300 |title=Why Angry Christians in Israel Are Crying Discrimination - Features |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=2016-09-05}}</ref> A 2011 Maariv article described the Christian Arab sector as "the most successful in the education system",<ref name="המגזר הערבי נוצרי הכי מצליח במערכת החינוך">{{cite web |url=http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART2/319/566.html |title=חדשות - בארץ nrg - ...המגזר הערבי נוצרי הכי מצליח במערכת |publisher=Nrg.co.il |date=2011-12-25 |access-date=2015-02-24 |archive-date=3 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203194137/http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART2/319/566.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> an opinion supported by the [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] and others who point out that Christian Arabs fared best in terms of education in comparison to any other group receiving an education in Israel.<ref name="Christians in Israel: Strong in education">{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4323529,00.html |title=Christians in Israel: Strong in education - Israel News, Ynetnews |newspaper=Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date=1995-06-20 |access-date=2015-02-24|last1=Druckman |first1=Yaron}}</ref>

===Lebanese people===
{{Main|Lebanese people in Israel}}
{{seealso|Maronites in Israel}}
There are 3,500 [[Lebanese people in Israel]],<ref name="Haaretz 2021">{{Cite news|title=These Young Israelis Were Born in Lebanon – but Don't Call Them Arabs|language=en|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-for-these-young-israelis-lebanon-will-always-be-their-first-home-1.8863641|access-date=2021-10-14}}</ref> most of them are former members of the [[South Lebanon Army]] (SLA) and their families. The SLA was a Christian-dominated militia allied with the [[Israel Defense Forces]] during the [[South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)|South Lebanon conflict]] until Israel's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2000 that ended the [[Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon]].<ref name="Haaretz 2021"/> The majority are [[Maronites]] but there are also Muslims, Druze and Christians of other denominations among them.<ref name="Shachmon 2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Shachmon|first1=Ori|last2=Mack|first2=Merav|date=2019|title=The Lebanese in Israel – Language, Religion and Identity|journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft|volume=169|issue=2|pages=343–366|doi=10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0343|jstor=10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0343 |s2cid=211647029 |issn=0341-0137}}</ref> They are registered by the [[Ministry of Interior (Israel)|Ministry of Interior]] as "Lebanese" and hold [[Israeli citizenship law|Israeli citizenship]].<ref name="Haaretz 2021"/> They are located across the country, mainly in the [[Northern District (Israel)|Northern District]], in cities such as [[Nahariya]], [[Kiryat Shmona]], [[Tiberias]], and [[Haifa]].<ref name="Shachmon 2019"/>

The native language of former SLA members is [[Lebanese Arabic]]. However, the language is only partially transmitted from one generation to another. The majority of the second generation understand and speak Lebanese Arabic but are unable to read and write it. Young Lebanese Israeli mainly [[Text messaging|text]] in Hebrew or, more rarely, in Lebanese Arabic written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Religious books for children and youths are similarly written in [[Classical Arabic]] (or in Lebanese Arabic for some songs) in Hebrew letters.<ref name="Shachmon 2019"/>

==Population==
{{See also|Demographics of Israel}}[[File:Arabs in Israel population pyramid in 2021.svg|thumb|Arabs in Israel population pyramid in 2021]]
[[File:Downtown Haifa including the port and the sail tower.jpg|thumb|The lower town of [[Haifa]], an area where Arabs, both Christians and Muslims, comprise around 70% of the residents.<ref name=cbs.govs>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/statistical/arabju.pdf|title=The Arab Population in Israel|website=Central Bureau of Statistics. Center for Statistical Information.|access-date=2017-04-27}}</ref>]]
In 2006, the official number of Arab residents in Israel was 1,413,500 people, about 20% of Israel's population. This figure includes 209,000 Arabs (14% of the Israeli Arab population) in East Jerusalem, also counted in the Palestinian statistics, although 98% of East Jerusalem Palestinians have either Israeli residency or Israeli citizenship.<ref name="http">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2007n/11_07_084b.doc |title=Selected Statistics on Jerusalem Day 2007 (Hebrew) |publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] |date=14 May 2007 |access-date=20 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128143317/http://www.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2007n/11_07_084b.doc |archive-date=28 November 2007}}</ref> In 2012, the official number of Arab residents in Israel increased to 1,617,000 people, about 21% of Israel's population.<ref>נכון ינואר 2012, מנתוני [http://www.cbs.gov.il/yarhon/b1_h.htm הלשכה המרכזית לסטטיסטיקה] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220005928/http://www.cbs.gov.il/yarhon/b1_h.htm |date=20 February 2008 }}.</ref> The Arab population in 2023 was estimated at 2,065,000 people, representing 21% of the country's population.<ref name="CBS2023"/>

According to the Israeli [[Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel)|Central Bureau of Statistics]] census in 2010, "the Arab population lives in 134 towns and villages. About 44 percent of them live in towns (compared to 81 percent of the Jewish population); 48 percent live in villages with local councils (compared to 9 percent of the Jewish population). Four percent of the Arab citizens live in small villages with regional councils, while the rest live in unrecognized villages (the proportion is much higher, 31 percent in the Negev)".<ref name="Research"/> The Arab population in Israel is located in five main areas: [[Galilee]] (54.6% of total Israeli Arabs), [[Triangle (Israel)|Triangle]] (23.5% of total Israeli Arabs), [[Golan Heights]], [[East Jerusalem]], and Northern [[Negev]] (13.5% of total Israeli Arabs).<ref name="Research">{{cite web |url=http://raphael.geography.ad.bgu.ac.il/ojs/index.php/GRF/article/view/413 |title=Housing Transformation within Urbanized Communities: The Arab Palestinians in Israel |date=27 February 2016 |publisher=[[Geography Research Forum]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003124409/http://raphael.geography.ad.bgu.ac.il/ojs/index.php/GRF/article/view/413 |archive-date=3 October 2019 }}</ref> Around 8.4% (approximately 102,000 inhabitants) of Israeli Arabs live in officially mixed Jewish-Arab cities (excluding Arab residents in East Jerusalem), including [[Haifa]], [[Lod]], [[Ramle]], [[Jaffa]]-[[Tel Aviv]], [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Nof HaGalil]], and [[Ma'alot Tarshiha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iataskforce.org/sites/default/files/resource/resource-262.pdf|title=Topic: Mixed Cities in Israel|date=20 June 2014|publisher=Inter-Agency Task Force on Israeli Arab Issues|access-date=26 March 2022|archive-date=12 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912142625/http://iataskforce.org/sites/default/files/resource/resource-262.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:OLD JAFFA PORT.jpg|thumb|[[Jaffa]], which currently has 16,000 Arab residents, mixed of Muslims and Christians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://universaljerusalem.eu/sites-and-attractions-holy-land/jaffa.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006073526/http://universaljerusalem.eu/sites-and-attractions-holy-land/jaffa.html |archive-date=2014-10-06 |title=Universal Jerusalem }}</ref>]]
[[File:הנמל בעכו.jpg|thumb|Old City of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], an area where Arabs make up 95% of the residents.<ref name="cbs.govs"/>]]
In Israel's [[Northern District (Israel)|Northern District]]<ref name="CBS2019"/> Arab citizens of Israel form a majority of the population (52%) and about 50% of the Arab population lives in 114 different localities throughout Israel.<ref name="arabhra.org">{{cite web|title=The Arab Minority in Israel|publisher=Arab Human Rights Association|url=http://www.arabhra.org/factsheets/factsheet0.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015162045/http://arabhra.org/factsheets/factsheet0.htm|archive-date=15 October 2007}}</ref> In total there are 122 primarily if not entirely [[Arab localities in Israel]], 89 of them having populations over two thousand.<ref name="Statistics">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/statistical/arab_pop03e.pdf |title=The Arab Population of Israel 2003 |first1=Nurit |last1=Yaffe |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=27 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201024709/http://www.cbs.gov.il/statistical/arab_pop03e.pdf |archive-date=1 December 2007 }}</ref> The seven townships as well as the [[Abu Basma Regional Council]] that have been constructed by the government for the Bedouin population of the Negev,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/Bedouin.html|title=The Bedouin in Israel|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} are the only Arab localities to have been established since 1948, with the aim of relocating the Arab Bedouin citizens (''see preceding section on [[#Bedouin (nomadic)|Bedouin]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-06-06|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Bedouin (nomadic)|reason= The anchor (Bedouin (nomadic)) [[Special:Diff/1227548270|has been deleted]].}}'').{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

46% of the country's Arabs (622,400 people) live in predominantly Arab communities in the north.<ref name="CBS2019"/> In {{Israel populations|Year}} [[Nazareth]] was the largest Arab city, with a population of {{Israel populations|Nazareth}},{{Israel populations|reference}} roughly 40,000 of whom are Muslim. [[Shefa-'Amr]] has a population of approximately {{Israel populations|Shefar'am}} and the city is mixed with sizable populations of Muslims, Christians, and Druze.

[[Jerusalem]], a mixed city, has the largest overall Arab population. Jerusalem housed 332,600 Arabs in 2016 (37.7% of the city's residents)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.jerusaleminstitute.org.il/.upload/jerusalem/Jeruslaem%20Facts%20and%20Trends%202018-%202.Population.pdf|title=Jerusalem - Facts and Trends 2018|date=2017|work=jerusalem.muni.il}}</ref> and together with the local council of [[Abu Ghosh]], some 19% of the country's entire Arab population.

14% of Arab citizens live in the [[Haifa District]] predominantly in the [[Wadi Ara]] region. Here is the largest Muslim city, [[Umm al-Fahm]], with a population of {{Israel populations|Umm Al-fahm}}. [[Baqa-Jatt]] is the second largest Arab population center in the district. The city of [[Haifa]] has an Arab population of 10%, much of it in the [[Wadi Nisnas]], Abbas and Halissa neighborhoods.<ref name="AR"/> [[Wadi Nisnas]] and Abbas neighborhoods, are largely [[Christianity in Israel|Christian]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Everyday Life in the Segmented City| first=Lorenzo |last=Tripodi|year= 2011| isbn= 978-1-78052-258-6| page =74|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing|quote=}}</ref><ref name="Daniel Lefkowitz">{{cite book|title=Words and Stones: The Politics of Language and Identity in Israel| first=Daniel |last=Lefkowitz|year= 2004| isbn= 978-0-19-802843-7| page =49|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=}}</ref> Halisa and [[Kababir]] are largely [[Islam in Israel|Muslim]].<ref name="Daniel Lefkowitz"/>

10% of the country's Arab population resides in the [[Central District (Israel)|Central District]] of Israel, primarily the cities of [[Tayibe]], [[Tira, Israel|Tira]], and [[Qalansawe]] as well as the mixed cities of [[Lod]] and [[Ramla]] which have mainly Jewish populations.<ref name="Statistics"/>

Of the remaining 11%, 10% live in Bedouin communities in the northwestern [[Negev]]. The Bedouin city of [[Rahat]] is the only Arab city in the [[Southern District (Israel)|Southern District]] and it is the third largest Arab city in Israel.

The remaining 1% of the country's Arab population lives in cities that are almost entirely Jewish, such as [[Nazareth Illit]] with an Arab population of 22%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/publications16/local_authorities14_1642/pdf/318_1061.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418165852/http://www.cbs.gov.il/publications16/local_authorities14_1642/pdf/318_1061.pdf|url-status=dead|title=נצרת עילית 2014|archive-date=18 April 2017|website=www.cbs.gov.il}}</ref> and [[Tel Aviv|Tel Aviv-Yafo]], 4%.<ref name="Statistics"/><ref name="arabhra.org"/>

In February 2008, the government announced that the first new Arab city would be constructed in Israel. According to [[Haaretz]], "[s]ince the establishment of the State of Israel, not a single new Arab settlement has been established, with the exception of permanent housing projects for Bedouins in the Negev".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.4990394|title=Majadele: New Arab city will bolster our sense of belonging|last=Stern|first=Yoav|date=12 February 2008|publisher=Haaretz|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref> The city, Givat Tantur, was never constructed even after 10 years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-israel-vowed-to-build-its-first-modern-arab-city-since-48-then-nothing-1.5457042|title=Israel Promised to Build Its First Modern Arab City Since 1948. Here's What Came of It|last=Khoury|first=Jack|date=2017-10-17|work=Haaretz|access-date=2019-05-25|language=en}}</ref>

===Major Arab localities===
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 17818 Cities in Israel.jpg|thumb|[[Nazareth]], which is a mixed ancient city of Muslims and Christians, is the largest Arab city in Israel.<ref name="www1.cbs.gov.il">{{cite web|url=http://www1.cbs.gov.il/www/statistical/arab_pop08e.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2010-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401030834/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/www/statistical/arab_pop08e.pdf |archive-date=1 April 2010 }}</ref>]]
[[File:Umm al-Fahm 2014.JPG|thumb|[[Umm al-Fahm]] is the third largest Arab city in Israel.]]
[[File:Baqa el gharbiya 2007 04 14.jpg|thumb|[[Baqa al-Gharbiyye]] is the eighth largest Arab city in Israel.]]
{{Main|Arab localities in Israel}}
Arabs make up the majority of the population of the "heart of the [[Galilee]]" and of the areas along the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] including the [[Wadi Ara]] region. Bedouin Arabs make up the majority of the northeastern section of the [[Negev]].

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+Significant population centers (2014)
|-
!Locality!!Population!!District
|-
|[[Nazareth]]
|74,600
|[[Northern District (Israel)|North]]
|-
|[[Rahat]]
|60,400
|[[Southern District (Israel)|South]]
|-
|[[Umm al-Fahm]]
|51,400
|[[Haifa District|Haifa]]
|-
|[[Tayibe]]
|40,200
|[[Central District (Israel)|Center]]
|-
|[[Shefa-'Amr]]
|39,200
|[[Northern District (Israel)|North]]
|-
|[[Tamra]]
|31,700
|[[Northern District (Israel)|North]]
|-
|[[Sakhnin]]
|28,600
|[[Northern District (Israel)|North]]
|-
|[[Baqa al-Gharbiyye]]
|27,500
|[[Haifa District|Haifa]]
|-
|[[Tira, Israel|Tira]]
|24,400
|[[Central District (Israel)|Center]]
|-
|[[Ar'ara]]
|23,600
|[[Haifa District|Haifa]]
|-
|[[Arraba, Galilee|Arraba]]
|23,500
|[[Northern District (Israel)|North]]
|-
|[[Kafr Qasim]]
|21,400
|[[Central District (Israel)|Center]]
|-
|[[Maghar, Israel|Maghar]]
|21,300
|[[Northern District (Israel)|North]]
|-
|[[Qalansawe]]
|21,000
|[[Central District (Israel)|Center]]
|-
|[[Kafr Kanna]]
|20,800
|[[Northern District (Israel)|North]]
|-
|colspan="3"|<small>Source: [http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton.html?num_tab=st02_24&CYear=2015 Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]</small>
|}

===Perceived demographic threat===
{{Main|Demographic threat#Israel}}
The phrase ''demographic threat'' (or ''demographic bomb'') is used within the [[politics of Israel|Israeli political sphere]] to describe the growth of Israel's Arab citizenry as constituting a threat to its maintenance of its status as a [[homeland for the Jewish people|Jewish state]] with a Jewish demographic majority. In the northern part of Israel the percentage of the population that is Jewish is declining.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3481768,00.html|title=Jewish population in Galilee declining — Ynetnews|newspaper=Ynetnews|access-date=14 June 2008|date=12 December 2007|last1=Petersburg|first1=Ofer}}</ref> The increasing population of Arabs within Israel, and the majority status they hold in two major geographic regions – the Galilee and the [[Triangle (Israel)|Triangle]] – has become a growing point of open political contention in recent years. Among Arabs, Muslims have the highest birth rate, followed by Druze, and then Christians.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}
Israeli historian [[Benny Morris]] stated in 2004 that, while he strongly opposes expulsion of Israeli Arabs, in case of an "apocalyptic" scenario where Israel comes under total attack with [[non-conventional weapons]] and comes under existential threat, an expulsion might be the only option. He compared the Israeli Arabs to a "time bomb" and "a potential [[fifth column]]" in both demographic and security terms and said they are liable to undermine the state in time of war.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Survival of the Fittest|language=en|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.5262454|access-date=2021-10-19}}</ref>

Several politicians<ref>"...&nbsp;a fifth column, a league of traitors" (Evelyn Gordon, [https://archive.today/20130706010812/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1157913624780 "No longer the political fringe"], [[The Jerusalem Post]], 14 September 2006)</ref><ref>"[Avigdor Lieberman] compared Arab MKs to collaborators with Nazis and expressed the hope that they would be executed." (Uzi Benziman, [https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/772911.html "For want of stability"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201080146/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/772911.html |date=1 February 2010 }}, [[Ha'aretz]].)</ref> have viewed the Arabs in Israel as a security and demographic threat.<ref>"...&nbsp;many Israeli Jews view Israeli Arabs as a security and demographic threat." (Evelyn Gordon, [https://archive.today/20120709122234/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1178708666171&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/Printer "'Kassaming' coexistence"], [[The Jerusalem Post]], 23 May 2007.)</ref><ref>"Why is Arab criticism always labeled as conspiracy to destroy Israel?" (Abir Kopty, [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3385477,00.html "Fifth column forever?"], [[Ynetnews]], 7 April 2007.)</ref><ref>"...&nbsp;they hurl accusations against us, like that we are a 'fifth column.{{'"}} (Roee Nahmias, [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3285075,00.html "Arab MK: Israel committing 'genocide' of Shiites"], [[Ynetnews]], 2 August 2006.)</ref>

The phrase "demographic bomb" was famously used by Benjamin Netanyahu in 2003<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/netanyahu-israel-s-arabs-are-the-real-demographic-threat-1.109045
|title=Netanyahu: Israel's Arabs are the real demographic threat
|date=18 December 2003
|publisher=[[Haaretz]]
|author=Sedan, Gil}}</ref> when he noted that, if the percentage of Arab citizens rises above its current level of about 20 percent, Israel will not be able to maintain a Jewish demographic majority. Netanyahu's comments were criticized as [[racism|racist]] by Arab Knesset members and a range of civil rights and human rights organizations, such as the Association for Civil Rights in Israel.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/news/mks-slam-netanyahu-s-remarks-about-israeli-arabs-1.108963
|title=MKs slam Netanyahu's remarks about Israeli Arabs
|date=17 December 2003}}</ref> Even earlier allusions to the "demographic threat" can be found in an internal Israeli government document drafted in 1976 known as the [[Koenig Memorandum]], which laid out a plan for reducing the number and influence of Arab citizens of Israel in the [[Galilee]] region.

In 2003, the Israeli daily ''Ma'ariv'' published an article entitled "Special Report: Polygamy is a Security Threat", detailing a report put forth by the Director of the Population Administration at the time, Herzl Gedj; the report described [[polygamy]] in the Bedouin sector a "security threat" and advocated means of reducing the birth rate in the Arab sector.<ref>Manski, Rebecca. "A Desert 'Mirage:' Privatizing Development Plans in the Negev/Naqab"; Bustan, 2005.</ref> The Population Administration is a department of the Demographic Council, whose purpose, according to the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, is: "...to increase the Jewish birthrate by encouraging women to have more children using government grants, housing benefits, and other incentives".<ref>HRA: Weekly Review of the Arab Press, issue no. 92</ref> In 2008 the minister of the interior appointed Yaakov Ganot as new head of the Population Administration, which according to ''Haaretz'' is "probably the most important appointment an interior minister can make".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/878895.html|title=Haaretz on new head of Population Administration|access-date=14 June 2008|archive-date=3 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091203114536/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/878895.html}}</ref>

A January 2006 study rejects the "demographic time bomb" threat based on statistical data that shows Jewish births have increased while Arab births have begun to drop.<ref>Bennett Zimmerman, Roberta Seid and Michael L. Wise: [http://www.israeldemography.com/Forecast%20for%20Israel%202025%20June%202006.ppt ''Population Forecast for Israel and West Bank • 2025'']. Sixth Herzliya Conference, 23 January 2006.</ref> The study noted shortcomings in earlier demographic predictions (for example, in the 1960s, predictions suggested that Arabs would be the majority in 1990). The study also demonstrated that Christian Arab and Druze birth rates were actually below those of Jewish birth rates in Israel. The study used data from a Gallup poll to demonstrate that the desired family size for Arabs in Israel and Jewish Israelis were the same. The study's population forecast for 2025 predicted that Arabs would comprise only 25% of the Israeli population. Nevertheless, the Bedouin population, with its high birth rates, continues to be perceived as a threat to a Jewish demographic majority in the south, and a number of development plans, such as the [[Blueprint Negev]], address this concern.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bustan.org/2006/08/current_strategy_for_negev_development.html |title=Negev development plans to address the Bedouin "demographic threat" |access-date=2008-04-09 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409102217/http://bustan.org/2006/08/current_strategy_for_negev_development.html |archive-date=9 April 2008}}</ref>

A study showed that in 2010, Jewish birthrates rose by 31% and 19,000 diaspora Jews immigrated to Israel, while the Arab birthrate fell by 2%.<ref>{{cite web|last=Benari |first=Elad |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/142226 |title=Number of Israeli Jews Increases – Inside Israel – News |publisher=Israel National News |date=9 February 2011 |access-date=22 September 2011}}</ref>

===Land and population exchange===
{{bar box
|float=right
|title=Survey among residents of Um Al-Fahm
|titlebar=#DDD
|caption=Source: Kul Al-Arab, 2000<ref name="AlArab"/>
|width=400px
|bars=
{{bar percent|Prefer joining Palestinian State|green|11}}
{{bar percent|Prefer continued Israeli jurisdiction|teal|83}}
{{bar percent|No opinion|gray|6}}
}}

{{bar box
|float=right
|title=Respondents opposed joining future Palestinian State
|titlebar=#DDD
|caption=Source: Kul Al-Arab, 2000<ref name="AlArab"/>
|width=400px
|bars=
{{bar percent|Prefer to remain in democratic regime with high living standards|green|54}}
{{bar percent|Satisfied with present situation|darkgreen|18}}
{{bar percent|Not willing to make sacrifices for creation of Palestinian state|teal|14}}
{{bar percent|No stated reason|gray|11}}
}}

Some Israeli politicians advocate land-swap proposals in order to assure a continued Jewish majority within Israel. A specific proposal is that Israel transfer sovereignty of part of the Arab-populated [[Wadi Ara]] area (west of the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]]) to a future Palestinian state, in return for formal sovereignty over the major Jewish settlement "blocks" that lie inside the [[West Bank]] east of the Green Line.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benn |first=Aluf |date=14 August 2005 |title=Trading Places |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/13/AR2005081300091_pf.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102060948/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/13/AR2005081300091_pf.html |archive-date=2 November 2012 |access-date=8 October 2009 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Avigdor Lieberman]] of [[Yisrael Beiteinu]], the fourth largest faction in the 17th Knesset, is one of the foremost advocates of the transfer of large Arab towns located just inside Israel near the border with the [[West Bank]] (e.g. [[Tayibe]], [[Umm al-Fahm]], [[Baqa al-Gharbiyye]]), to the jurisdiction of the [[Palestinian National Authority]] in exchange for [[Israeli settlement]]s located inside the [[West Bank]].<ref>Amayreh, Khalid.{{cite web|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/FED27702-1D56-4699-8BC1-3415D354D3B6.htm |title=''Israeli minister wants Arabs expelled'' |access-date=2006-03-31 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220184734/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/FED27702-1D56-4699-8BC1-3415D354D3B6.htm |archive-date=20 February 2006}} . ''Al-Jazeera'', 10 May 2005.</ref><ref>[http://www.isn.ethz.ch/news/sw/details.cfm?id=15312 Israel's new political reality]. ''ISN'', 31 March 2006.</ref><ref>Prusher, Ilene. [https://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0327/p06s02-wome.html Israeli right nips at Kadima]. ''Christian Science Monitor'', 27 March 2006.</ref><ref>O'Loughlin, Ed. [http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/israels-shunned-arabs-watch-poll-with-unease/2006/03/23/1143083906255.html Israel's shunned Arabs watch poll with unease]. ''The Age'', 24 March 2006.</ref><ref name="IA"/><ref>Halpern, Orly. [https://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1139395674991&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull Umm el-Fahm residents angry and apathetic before elections] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916151459/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1139395674991&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |date=16 September 2011}}. ''The Jerusalem Post'', 26 March 2006.</ref><ref>Sofer, Ronny. [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3231312,00.html Kadima's new 'enemy' – Lieberman]. ''Ynetnews'', 23 March 2006.</ref>

In October 2006, [[Yisrael Beiteinu]] formally joined in the ruling government's parliamentary coalition, headed by [[Kadima]]. After the [[Cabinet of Israel|Israeli Cabinet]] confirmed Avigdor Lieberman's appointment to the position of "minister for strategic threats", Labour Party representative and science, sport and culture minister [[Ophir Pines-Paz]] resigned his post.<ref name="VOAnews-20061024"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=165508|title=Labor's Paz-Pines resigns as government minister|work=The Jerusalem Post|date=30 October 2006|access-date=31 October 2006}}</ref> In his resignation letter to Ehud Olmert, Pines-Paz wrote: "I couldn't sit in a government with a minister who preaches racism."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/pines-paz-i-can-t-sit-in-gov-t-with-racist-1.203813|title=Pines-Paz: I can't sit in gov't with racist|journal=Haaretz|author=Mazal Mualem|date=31 October 2006|access-date=31 October 2006}}</ref>

The [[Lieberman Plan]] caused a stir among Arab citizens of Israel. Various polls show that Arabs in Israel do not wish to move to the West Bank or Gaza if a Palestinian state is created there.<ref name="IA">{{cite web |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/03/23/opinion/eddromi.php |title=Israeli Arabs and the Vote |work=International Herald Tribune |date=2006-03-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061127141313/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/03/23/opinion/edd |archive-date=2006-11-27 |access-date=2025-06-30}}</ref> In a survey conducted by Kul Al-Arab among 1,000 residents of Um Al-Fahm, 83 percent of respondents opposed the idea of transferring their city to Palestinian jurisdiction, while 11 percent supported the proposal and 6 percent did not express their position.<ref name="AlArab">Kul Al-Arab (Nazareth, Israel), 28 July 2000, cited in "Um Al-Fahm Prefers Israel", by Joseph Algazy, Haaretz, 1 August 2000. Online copy available [http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/358.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629140522/http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/358.htm|date=29 June 2011}}.</ref>

Of those opposed to the idea, 54% said that they were against becoming part of a [[Palestinian state]] because they wanted to continue living under a democratic regime and enjoying a good standard of living. Of these opponents, 18% said that they were satisfied with their present situation, that they were born in Israel and that they were not interested in moving to any other state. Another 14% of this same group said that they were not prepared to make sacrifices for the sake of the creation of a Palestinian state. Another 11 percent cited no reason for their opposition.<ref name="AlArab"/>

==Politics==
{{Image frame
 | caption= Israeli-Arab voter turnout in Knesset elections<ref name="AV"/>
 | content =
{{Graph:Chart
 | width = 300
 | height = 100
 | type = line
 | showValues=
 | xType = date
 | yAxisMin=0
 | yAxisMax=100
 | x= 1999, 2003, 2006, 2009, 2013, 2015, 04/2019, 09/2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
 | y5 = 75, 62, 56.3, 53.4, 56.5, 63.5, 49.2, 59.2, 64.8, 44.6, 53.2
 | y1={{repeat|11|20,}}
 | y2={{repeat|11|40,}}
 | y3={{repeat|11|60,}}
 | y4={{repeat|11|80,}}
 |colors={{repeat|4|gainsboro,}} blue
}}
}}
{{Clear}}

===Arab Voting===
The table below shows the votes of Arab-Israelis for Arab-led political parties, Jewish-led political parties and the satellite lists:<ref name="The Israel Democracy Institute 2022">{{cite web | title=Statistical Report on Arab Society in Israel :2021 | website=The Israel Democracy Institute | date=2022-03-17 | url=https://en.idi.org.il/articles/38540 | access-date=2023-02-05|quote=Arab votes by political party, 1949–2021 (% of total Arab votes)}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:center
! Year !! Arab parties/[[Maki (historical political party)|Maki]] !! [[Arab satellite lists]] !! Jewish parties
|-
| [[1949 Israeli Constituent Assembly election|1949]] || 22% || '''52%''' || 26%
|-
| [[1951 Israeli legislative election|1951]] || 16% || '''55%''' || 29%
|-
| [[1955 Israeli legislative election|1955]] || 16% || '''58%''' || 27%
|-
| [[1959 Israeli legislative election|1959]] || 11% || '''59%''' || 30%
|-
| [[1961 Israeli legislative election|1961]] || 23% || '''46%''' || 32%
|-
| [[1965 Israeli legislative election|1965]] || 24% || '''44%''' || 33%
|-
| [[1969 Israeli legislative election|1969]] || 30% || '''41%''' || 29%
|-
| [[1973 Israeli legislative election|1973]] || '''37%''' || 36% || 27%
|-
| [[1977 Israeli legislative election|1977]] || '''52%''' || 21% || 27%
|-
| [[1981 Israeli legislative election|1981]] || 39% || 12% || '''49%'''
|-
| [[1984 Israeli legislative election|1984]] || 50% ||  || 50%
|-
| [[1988 Israeli legislative election|1988]] || '''58%''' ||  || 42%
|-
| [[1992 Israeli legislative election|1992]] || 48% ||  || '''52%'''
|-
| [[1996 Israeli legislative election|1996]] || '''62%''' ||  || 38%
|-
| [[1999 Israeli legislative election|1999]] || '''69%''' ||  || 31%
|-
| [[2003 Israeli legislative election|2003]] || '''69%''' ||  || 31%
|-
| [[2006 Israeli legislative election|2006]] || '''72%''' ||  || 28%
|-
| [[2009 Israeli legislative election|2009]] || '''82%''' ||  || 18%
|-
| [[2013 Israeli legislative election|2013]] || '''77%''' ||  || 23%
|-
| [[2015 Israeli legislative election|2015]] || '''83%''' ||  || 17%
|-
| April 2019 || '''72%''' ||  || 28%
|-
| September 2019 || '''82%''' ||  || 18%
|-
| [[2020 Israeli legislative election|2020]] || '''88%''' ||  || 12%
|-
| [[2021 Israeli legislative election|2021]] || '''80%''' ||  || 20%
|-
| 2022<ref name="AV">{{cite web |title=Arab Votes in the 2022 Election |url=https://en.idi.org.il/articles/46271 |website=The Israel Democracy Institute |author=Dr. Arik Rudnitzky |date=2022-11-09 |access-date=2024-01-15}}</ref> || '''86%''' ||  || 14%
|}

===Arab political parties===
There are three mainstream Arab parties in Israel: [[Hadash]] (a joint Arab-Jewish party with a large Arab presence), [[Balad (political party)|Balad]], and the [[United Arab List]], which is a coalition of several different political organizations including the [[Islamic Movement in Israel]]. In addition to these, there is [[Ta'al]], which currently run with Hadash. All of these parties primarily represent Arab-Israeli and Palestinian interests, and the Islamic Movement is an [[Islamism|Islamist]] organization with two factions: one that opposes Israel's existence, and another that opposes its existence as a Jewish state. Two Arab parties ran in Israel's [[1949 Israeli legislative election|first election in 1949]], with one, the [[Democratic List of Nazareth]], winning two seats. Until the 1960s all Arab parties in the Knesset were aligned with [[Mapai]], the ruling party.

A minority of Arabs join and vote for [[Zionism|Zionist]] parties; in the [[2006 Israeli legislative election|2006 elections]] 30% of the Arab vote went to such parties, up from 25% in [[2003 Israeli legislative election|2003]],<ref name=od>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/conflict-debate_97/beyond_zionism_4547.jsp Arabs in Israel: on the move] Open Democracy, 19 April 2007</ref> though down on the [[1999 Israeli legislative election|1999]] (31%) and [[1996 Israeli legislative election|1996 elections]] (33%).<ref>Frisch, H. (2001) [http://www.biu.ac.il/Besa/arabvote.pdf The Arab Vote in the Israeli Elections: The Bid for Leadership] Israel Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 2 & 3, pp. 153–170</ref> Left-wing parties (i.e. [[Israeli Labor Party|Labor Party]] and [[New Movement-Meretz|Meretz-Yachad]], and previously [[One Nation (Israel)|One Nation]]) are the most popular parties amongst Arabs, though some Druze have also voted for right-wing parties such as [[Likud]] and [[Yisrael Beiteinu]], as well as the centrist [[Kadima]].<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArtElection.jhtml?itemNo=250560&contrassID=28&subContrassID=4&sbSubContrassID=0 Going strong among the Druze] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070123202936/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArtElection.jhtml?itemNo=250560&contrassID=28&subContrassID=4&sbSubContrassID=0 |date=23 January 2007 }} Haaretz</ref><ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=234557&contrassID=2&subContrassID=5&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y The Arab vote] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070118071433/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=234557 |date=18 January 2007 }} Haaretz</ref>

Arab-dominated parties typically do not join governing coalitions. However, historically these parties have formed alliances with dovish Jewish parties and promoted the formation of their governments by voting with them from the opposition. Arab parties are credited with keeping Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]] in power, and they have suggested they would do the same for a government led by Labor leader [[Isaac Herzog]] and peace negotiator [[Tzipi Livni]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/8742e9a3dce1497ca8e762e349b21bfe |title=Arab lawmakers shake up Israeli politics with historic union |author=Areej Hazboun and Daniel Estrin |publisher=Associated Press |date=2015-01-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/arab-parties-hadash-set-to-announce-unity-deal/ |title=Arab parties, Hadash set to announce unity deal |author=Adiv Sternman |publisher=The Times of Israel |date=2015-01-25}}</ref> A 2015 ''[[Haaretz]]'' poll found that a majority of Israeli Arabs would like their parties, then running on a [[Joint List|joint list]], to join the governing coalition.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/news/israel-election-2015/.premium-1.643361
 |title=Poll: Most Arab voters want Joint List in next government |author=Jack Khoury |newspaper=Haaretz |date=20 February 2015}}</ref>

===Representation in the Knesset===
[[Image:Ahmad Tibi.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Ahmad Tibi]], leader of the Arab party Ta'al, currently serves as Deputy Speaker of the Knesset.]]
Palestinian Arabs sat in the state's [[List of members of the first Knesset|first parliamentary assembly]] in 1949. In 2011, 13 of the 120 members of the [[Knesset|Israeli Parliament]] are Arab citizens, most representing Arab political parties, and one of Israel's [[Supreme Court of Israel|Supreme Court]] judges is a Palestinian Arab.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country's Report Israel|publisher=Freedom House|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=363&year=2011&country=8060|access-date=26 September 2011|date=2012-01-12}}</ref>

The 2015 elections included 18 Arab members of Knesset. Along with 13 members of the [[Joint List]], there were five Arab parliamentarians representing Zionist parties, which is more than double their number in the previous Knesset.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-knesset-needs-more-arabs-mks/ |title= The Israeli government needs more Arab MKs |work=Times of Israel |date=4 June 2018 |first=Naomi |last=Chazan }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/news/israel/.premium-1.647598|title=More Women and Arabs, Fewer Orthodox in Next Knesset|journal=Haaretz|first=Judy|last=Maltz|date=18 March 2015}}</ref>

Some Arab Members of the Knesset, past and present, are under police investigation for their visits to countries designated as enemy countries by Israeli law. This law was amended following MK Mohammad Barakeh's trip to Syria in 2001, such that MKs must explicitly request permission to visit these countries from the Minister of the Interior. In August 2006, Balad MKs [[Azmi Bishara]], [[Jamal Zahalka]], and [[Wasil Taha]] visited [[Syria]] without requesting nor receiving such permission, and a criminal investigation of their actions was launched. Former Arab Member of Knesset [[Mohammed Miari]] was questioned 18 September 2006 by police on suspicion of having entered a designated enemy country without official permission. He was questioned "under caution" for 2.5 hours in the [[Petah Tikva]] station about his recent visit to Syria. Another former Arab Member of Knesset, [[Muhammad Kanaan]], was also summoned for police questioning regarding the same trip.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/760939.html|title=Bar-On wants passports of Arab MKs who visited Syria revoked – Haaretz – Israel News}}</ref> In 2010, six Arab MKs visited [[Libya]], an anti-Zionist Arab state, and met with [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]] and various senior government officials. Gaddafi urged them to seek a [[one-state solution]], and for Arabs to "multiply" in order to counter any "plots" to expel them.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3880679,oo.html |title=Gaddafi to Arab MKs: I've nothing against Jews – Israel News, Ynetnews |newspaper=Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date=20 June 1995 |access-date=22 September 2011|last1=Roffe-Ofir |first1=Sharon }}</ref>

According to a study commissioned by the Arab Association of Human Rights entitled "Silencing Dissent", over the period 1999–2002, eight of nine of the then Arab Knesset members were beaten by Israeli forces during demonstrations.<ref name="SD"/>{{rp|8}} Most recently according to the report, legislation has been passed, including three election laws [e.g., banning political parties], and two Knesset related laws aimed to "significantly curb the minority [Arab population] right to choose a public representative and for those representatives to develop independent political platforms and carry out their duties".<ref name="SD">{{cite web |url=http://www.arabhra.org/publications/reports/PDF/SilencingDissentFinal.pdf#search=%22arab%20knesset%20silencing%20dissent%22 |title=Silencing Dissent Report |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214122/http://www.arabhra.org/publications/reports/PDF/SilencingDissentFinal.pdf#search=%22arab%20knesset%20silencing%20dissent%22 |archive-date=2007-09-27 |access-date=2007-09-27}}</ref>

[[File:Isaac Herzog at the inauguration of the first Hall of Culture in the city of Rahat, February 2022 (KBG GPO1299).jpg|thumb|[[United Arab List]] leader [[Mansour Abbas]], Israeli President Herzog and young [[Negev Bedouin|Bedouin]]s in the city of [[Rahat]], 15 February 2022]]
The Knesset Ethics Committee has on several occasions banned Arab MKs that the committee felt were acting outside acceptable norms. In 2016, [[Hanin Zoabi]] and [[Jamal Zahalka]] were banned from plenary sessions for four months and [[Basel Ghattas]] for two months after they had visited families of Palestinian attackers killed by Israeli security forces.<ref>{{cite web | title=Knesset suspends Arab-Israeli lawmakers from Balad Party | website=Al Arabiya English | date=9 February 2016 | url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2016/02/09/Arab-Israeli-lawmakers-suspended-for-meeting-families-of-killed-Palestinians | access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref> Ghattas was again banned for six months in 2017 over charges of having smuggled cell phones to Palestinian prisoners<ref>{{cite web | title=Local News | website=law.najah.edu | date=11 January 2017 | url=https://law.najah.edu/en/local-news/2017/01/11/palestinian-knesset-member-suspended-six-months/ | access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref> and Zoabi was banned for a week for having called IDF soldiers "murderers."<ref>{{cite news | last1=Azulay | first1=Moran | last2=Hay | first2=Shahar | title=MK Zoabi removed from Knesset committee after calling IDF soldiers 'murderers' | website=ynetnews | date=12 February 2018 | url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-5109226,00.html | access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref>

In 2016, the Knesset passed a controversial law that would allow it to impeach any MK who incites racism or supports armed struggle against Israel. Critics said that the law was undemocratic and would mainly be used to silence Arab MKs.<ref>{{cite web | title=Israeli parliament passes controversial impeachment law | website=BBC News | date=20 July 2016 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36845688 | access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref> As of 2020, no MK has been impeached by the law.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} In 2018, the Israeli supreme court of justice rejected arguments that the law would harm specific political parties and ruled that checks and balances within the law serve as sufficient protection against abuse of rights. For example, the law requires 70 Knesset members, 10 of whom must be from the opposition, to petition to the Knesset House Committee, and could only be finalized with a vote of 90 out of 120 MKs in favor of the impeachment.<ref>[https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/high-court-mk-impeachment-law-is-constitutional-558514 High Court: MK impeachment law is constitutional]. Jerusalem Post. By Yonah Jeremy Bob, Lahav Harkov. 27 May 2018</ref>

===Representation in the civil service sphere===
In the public employment sphere, by the end of 2002, 6% of 56,362 Israeli civil servants were Arab.<ref>{{cite web|title=Follow up: Arab representation in the civil service, in government corporations and in the court system |author=Ali Haider |publisher=Sikkuy: The Association for the Advancement of Civic Equality in Israel |year=2003 |url=http://www.sikkuy.org.il/2003/english03/pdf/civilEn03.pdf |access-date=8 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327103836/http://www.sikkuy.org.il/2003/english03/pdf/civilEn03.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009 }}</ref> In January 2004, Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] declared that every state-run company must have at least one Arab citizen of Israel on its board of directors.<ref>[http://www.pmo.gov.il/PMOEng/Archive/Current+Events/2005/01/event240105.htm PM Sharon convenes meeting of ministerial committee on Non-Jewish Sector] Prime Minister's Office, 24 January 2005</ref>

===Representation in political, judicial and military positions===
[[Image:Raleb Majadele. April 2008.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Raleb Majadele]], the first non-Druze Arab minister in Israel's history]]
'''Knesset:'''
Arab citizens of Israel have been [[Arab members of the Knesset|elected to every Knesset]], and {{as of|2015|alt=[[2015 Israeli legislative election|as of 2015]]}} held 17 of its 120 seats. The first female Arab MP was [[Hussniya Jabara]], a Muslim Arab from central Israel, who was elected in 1999.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://womensenews.org/2003/10/aid-girls-going-beyond-schoolhouse/|title=Aid for Girls Going Beyond Schoolhouse|date=19 October 2003|website=Women's eNews}}</ref>

'''Government:''' Until 2001, no Arab had been included Israel's cabinet. In 2001, this changed, when [[Salah Tarif]], a Druze Arab citizen of Israel, was appointed a member of [[Ariel Sharon]]'s cabinet without a portfolio. Tarif was later ejected after being convicted of corruption.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/1/Saleh%20Tarif Saleh Tarif] Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs</ref> The first non-Druze Arab minister in Israel's history was Raleb Majadele, who in 2007 was appointed a minister without portfolio, and a month later appointed minister for Science, Culture and Sport.<ref name="Stern-Raleb"/><ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/818567.html Cabinet okays appointment of Majadele as first Arab minister] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723152222/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/818567.html |date=23 July 2008 }} Haaretz, 28 January 2007</ref> Following this precedent, additional Muslim Arabs served as ministers or deputy ministers, including [[Issawi Frej]], [[Abd el-Aziz el-Zoubi]] and [[Nawaf Massalha]]<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2000/8/Nawaf%20Massalha Nawaf Massalha] Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs</ref>

The appointment of Majadele was criticized by far-right Israelis, some of whom are also within the Cabinet, but this drew condemnation across the mainstream Israeli political spectrum.<ref name="Haaretz-20070112"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/race-row-as-israel-gets-arab-minister/2007/01/12/1168105181421.html|title=Race row as Israel gets Arab minister |website=www.theage.com.au|date=2007-01-13 }}</ref> Meanwhile, Arab lawmakers called the appointment an attempt to "whitewash Israel's discriminatory policies against its Arab minority".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090111140944/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-01/29/content_5666469.htm First appointment of Arab minister draws mixed reaction in Israel] ''China View''[http://news.xinhuanet.com/]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rosenblit.com/Arab_MK.htm|title=In Their Own Words: The Arab Members of Israel's Knesset Speak|website=www.rosenblit.com}}</ref>

'''Supreme Court:'''
[[Abdel Rahman Zuabi]], a Muslim from northern Israel, was the first Arab on the Israeli Supreme Court, serving a 9-month term in 1999. In 2004, [[Salim Joubran]], a Christian Arab from [[Haifa]] descended from Lebanese Maronites, became the first Arab to hold a permanent appointment on the Court. Joubran's expertise lies in the field of [[criminal law]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Jubran.html Salim Jubran] Jewish Virtual Library</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} [[George Karra]], a Christian Arab from [[Jaffa]] has served as a Tel Aviv District Court judge since 2000. He was the presiding judge in the trial of [[Moshe Katsav]]. In 2011, he was nominated as a candidate for the [[Israeli Supreme Court]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/judge-who-convicted-moshe-katsav-joins-race-for-supreme-court-seat-1.398817|title=Judge Who Convicted Moshe Katsav Joins Race for Supreme Court Seat|journal=Haaretz|first=Tomer|last=Zarchin|date=1 December 2011}}</ref>

'''Foreign Service:'''
[[Ali Yahya]], an Arab Muslim, became the first Arab ambassador for Israel in 1995 when he was appointed ambassador to [[Finland]]. He served until 1999, and in 2006 was appointed ambassador to [[Greece]]. Other Arab ambassadors include [[Walid Mansour]], a Druze, appointed ambassador to [[Vietnam]] in 1999, and [[Reda Mansour]], also a Druze, a former ambassador to [[Ecuador]]. [[Mohammed Masarwa]], an Arab Muslim, was Consul-General in [[Atlanta]]. In 2006, [[Ishmael Khaldi]] was appointed Israeli consul in San Francisco, becoming the first Bedouin consul of the State of Israel.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3266233,00.html|title=Israel's first Bedouin envoy|author=Asafa Peled|date=22 June 2006|publisher=YNetNews|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref>

'''Israel Defense Forces:'''
Arab Generals in the IDF include Major General Hussain Fares, commander of Israel's border police, and Major General [[Yosef Mishlav]], head of the [[Home Front Command]] and current [[Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories]].{{Citation needed| date=May 2012}} Both are members of the [[Druze]] community. Other high-ranking officers in the IDF include Lieutenant Colonel [[Amos Yarkoni]] (born Abd el-Majid Haydar/ عبد الماجد حيدر) from the Bedouin community, a legendary officer in the Israel Defense Forces and one of six Israeli Arabs to have received the IDF's third highest decoration, the [[Medal of Distinguished Service]].

'''Israeli Police:'''
In 2011, Jamal Hakroush became the first Muslim Arab deputy Inspector-General in the [[Israeli Police]]. He has previously served as district commander of two districts.<ref>Omri Efraim. [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4082782,00.html Muslim police officer ascends to new heights]</ref>

'''Jewish National Fund:'''
In 2007, Ra'adi Sfori became the first Arab citizen of Israel to be elected as a JNF director, over a petition against his appointment. The court upheld the JNF's appointment, explaining, "As this is one director among a large number, there is no chance he will have the opportunity to cancel the organization's goals."<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/878859.html Israeli Arab appointed as a JNF director despite court appeal] Haaretz, 5 July 2007 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001005736/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/878859.html |date=1 October 2007 }}</ref>

===Other political organizations and movements===
; Abna el-Balad
[[Abnaa el-Balad]]<ref name="CM"/> is a political movement that grew out of organizing by Arab university youth, beginning in 1969.<ref>{{cite web|title=Weekly Press Review No. 156|publisher=Arab Human Rights Association|date=7–13 February 2004|url=http://www.arabhra.org/publications/wrap/2004/wrap156.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051225031257/http://www.arabhra.org/publications/wrap/2004/wrap156.pdf|archive-date=2005-12-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Press Release|publisher=[[Ittijah]]-Union of Arab Community Based Associations|date=15 May 2001|url=http://www.ittijah.org/press/pr_01_05_15.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225085534/http://www.ittijah.org/press/pr_01_05_15.html|archive-date=25 December 2007}}</ref> It is not affiliated with the Arab Knesset party Balad. While participating in municipal elections, Abnaa al-Balad firmly reject any participation in the Israeli Knesset. Political demands include "the return of all Palestinian refugees to their homes and lands, [an] end [to] the Israeli occupation and Zionist apartheid and the establishment [of] a democratic secular state in Palestine as the ultimate solution to the Arab-Zionist conflict."<ref name="CM">{{cite web |url=http://www.abnaa-elbalad.org/ |title=حركة ابناء البلد – معًا على الدرب |trans-title=Sons of the Country Movement - Together on the Path |publisher=Abnaa al-Balad |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011124065638/http://www.abnaa-elbalad.org/ |archive-date=2001-11-24 |access-date=2025-06-30}}</ref>

; High Follow-Up Committee for Arab Citizens of Israel
The [[High Follow-Up Committee for Arab Citizens of Israel]] is an extra-parliamentary umbrella organization that represents Arab citizens of Israel at the national level.<ref name=Payesp112/> It is "the top representative body deliberating matters of general concern to the entire Arab community and making binding decisions."<ref name=Yanivp121>{{Cite book|title=National security and democracy in Israel|first1=Avner|last1=Yaniv|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|year=1993|isbn=978-1-55587-394-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JO_UATFXlI4C&q=higher+follow+up+committee&pg=PA121|page=121}}</ref> While it enjoys ''de facto'' recognition from the [[State of Israel]], it lacks official or ''[[de jure]]'' recognition from the state for its activities in this capacity.<ref name=Payesp112>{{Cite book|title=Palestinian NGOs in Israel: the politics of civil society|first1=Shany|last1=Payes|edition=Illustrated|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2005|isbn=978-1-85043-630-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7x0dxnw7RHAC&q=%22High+Follow+Up+Committee%22&pg=PA112|page=112}}</ref>

; Ta'ayush
[[Ta'ayush]] is "a grassroots movement of Arabs and Jews working to break down the walls of racism and segregation by constructing a true Arab-Jewish partnership."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.taayush.org/new/we.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927234433/http://www.taayush.org/new/we.html|title=Ta'ayush<!-- Bot generated title -->|archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref>

; Regional Council of Unrecognized Villages
The [[Regional Council of Unrecognized Villages]] is a body of unofficial representatives of the [[Unrecognized Bedouin villages in Israel|unrecognized villages]] throughout the [[Negev]] region in the south.

===Attempts to ban Arab political parties===
Amendment 9 to the 'Basic Law: The Knesset and the Law of Political Parties' states that a political party "may not participate in the elections if there is in its goals or actions a denial of the existence of the State of Israel as the state of the Jewish people, a denial of the democratic nature of the state, or incitement to racism."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod2.htm#2|title=Basic Laws – Summaries|date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_1_23/ai_76560794/pg_4 |title=CBSi |website=www.findarticles.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060112144544/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_1_23/ai_76560794/pg_4 |archive-date=12 January 2006 }}</ref> There have been a number of attempts to disqualify Arab parties based on this rule, however as of 2010, all such attempts were either rejected by the Israeli Central Elections Committee or overturned by the Israeli Supreme Court.

====Progressive List for Peace====
An [[Israeli Central Elections Committee]] ruling which allowed the [[Progressive List for Peace]] to run for the Knesset in 1988 was challenged based on this amendment, but the committee's decision was upheld by the Israeli Supreme Court, which ruled that the PLP's platform calling for Israel to become "a state of all its citizens" does not violate the ideology of Israel as the State of the Jewish people, and thus section 7(a) does not apply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_1_23/ai_76560794/pg_5 |title=CBSi |website=www.findarticles.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060112144608/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_1_23/ai_76560794/pg_5 |archive-date=12 January 2006 }}</ref>

====Balad====
In December 2002, [[Azmi Bishara]] and his party, [[Balad (political party)|Balad]], which calls for Israel to become "a state of all its citizens", were banned by the [[Israeli Central Elections Committee]], on the grounds of refusing to recognize Israel as a "[[Jewish and democratic state]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/citizen/2003/0108israeliarab.htm |title=The Dilemma of Israeli Arabs |first1=Azmi |last1=Bishara |date=8 January 2003 |website=Global Policy Forum |access-date=2007-07-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712044927/http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/citizen/2003/0108israeliarab.htm |archive-date=12 July 2007}}</ref> and making statements promoting armed struggle against it. The Supreme Court overruled the decision in January 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ceci.org.il/eng/research_item.asp?id=126|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061214035142/http://www.ceci.org.il/eng/research_item.asp?id=126|title=Citizens' Empowerment Center in Israel|archive-date=14 December 2006}}</ref> Bishara served as a Knesset member from 1996 to 2007. He reportedly told an audience in Lebanon in December 2005 that Arab citizens "... are like all Arabs, only with Israeli citizenship forced upon them ... Return Palestine to us and take your democracy with you. We Arabs are not interested in it".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3186040,00.html |title=Arab MK: Israel 'robbery of century' – Israel News, Ynetnews |newspaper=Ynetnews |access-date=14 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609090930/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0%2C7340%2CL-3186040%2C00.html |archive-date=9 June 2008 |url-status=live |date=18 December 2005 |last1=Shaked |first1=Ronny }}</ref> Bishara resigned his Knesset office and left the country in 2007 amidst news that criminal charges were being laid against him. He has been charged with espionage and money laundering, stemming from allegations that he gave [[Hizbullah]] information on strategic targets that should be attacked with rockets during the [[2006 Lebanon War]], in exchange for large amounts of money.<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3395153,00.html Bishara recommended that Hizbullah attack south of Haifa] Ynetnews. Retrieved 3 May 2007</ref>

In 2022, Balad was barred  by the Israeli Central Elections Committee for undermining Israel as a "Jewish and democratic state".<ref>{{Cite news | last1 = Carrie | first1 = Keller-Lynn | last2 = Siegal | first2 = Tobias | title = Elections panel blocks Balad party's run for Knesset, against AG's advice | work = The Times of Israel |access-date= 2025-06-28 | date = 2022-09-29 | url = https://www.timesofisrael.com/elections-panel-blocks-balad-partys-run-for-knesset-against-ags-advice/ |language=en}}</ref> The High Court unanimously overturned the ruling.<ref>{{Cite news | title = High Court overturns election bans for Arab Balad party and ex-Yamina MK Chikli | work = The Times of Israel |access-date= 2025-06-28 | date = 2022-10-09 | url = https://www.timesofisrael.com/high-court-overturns-election-bans-for-arab-balad-party-and-ex-yamina-mk-chikli/ |language=en}}</ref>

====United Arab List – Ta'al and Balad====
In 2009, United Arab List – Ta'al and Balad were disqualified, on grounds that they do not recognize the State of Israel and call for armed conflict against it.<ref name=glickman>{{Cite news |last=Glickman |first=Aviad |title=Arab parties disqualified from elections |work=Ynetnews |access-date=12 January 2009 |date=12 January 2009 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3654866,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113164604/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0%2C7340%2CL-3654866%2C00.html |archive-date=13 January 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Supreme Court overturned the committee's decision by a majority of eight to one.<ref>{{Cite news| last = Glickman| first = Aviad| title = Arab parties win disqualification appeal| work = Ynetnews| access-date =21 January 2009| date = 21 January 2009| url = http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3659935,00.html}}</ref>

==Legal and political status==
[[Declaration of Independence (Israel)|Israel's Declaration of Independence]] called for the establishment of a Jewish state with equality of social and political rights, irrespective of religion, race, or sex.<ref>{{cite web|title=Declaration of Israel's Independence 1948|publisher=The Knesset, Israel's parliamentary body|access-date=29 June 2007|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/docs/eng/megilat_eng.htm| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070714064157/https://www.knesset.gov.il/docs/eng/megilat_eng.htm| archive-date= 14 July 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>

The rights of citizens are guaranteed by a set of [[Basic Laws of Israel|basic laws]] (Israel does not have a written constitution).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod.htm|title=Basic Laws – Introduction}}</ref> Although this set of laws does not explicitly include the term "right to equality", the Israeli Supreme Court has consistently interpreted "Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic3_eng.htm|title=Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty}}</ref> and "Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation (1994)"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic4_eng.htm|title=Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation (1994)}}</ref> as guaranteeing equal rights for all Israeli citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jfjfp.org/factsheets/arabsinisrael.htm |title=The Arab Citizens of Israel |access-date=2008-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203050855/http://www.jfjfp.org/factsheets/arabsinisrael.htm |archive-date=3 February 2008}}</ref>

The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that "Arab Israelis are citizens of Israel with equal rights" and states that "The only legal distinction between Arab and Jewish citizens is not one of rights, but rather of civic duty. Since Israel's establishment, Arab citizens have been exempted from compulsory service in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF)."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2001/8/Arab%20Israelis |title=Arab Israelis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803050854/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/2000_2009/2001/8/arab%20israelis |archive-date=3 August 2016}}</ref> Druze and [[Circassians]] are drafted into the Israeli army, while other Arabs may serve voluntarily; however, only a small number of Arabs choose to volunteer for the Israeli army.<ref name="ynetnews2">{{cite news |title=Rise in Arab National Service Volunteers |author1=Aviel Magnezi |newspaper=Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date=2010-10-25 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3974580,00.html |access-date=2025-06-30}}</ref>

Many Arab citizens feel that the state, as well as society at large, not only actively limits them to second-class citizenship, but treats them as enemies, affecting their perception of the ''[[de jure]]'' versus ''de facto'' quality of their citizenship.<ref name="ynetnews1">{{cite news|title=Stop Treating Arab Citizens Like Enemies|author=Roee Nahamias|newspaper=Ynetnews|publisher=Ynetnews.com|date=24 April 2007|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3391545,00.html|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref> The joint document ''[[The Future Vision of the Palestinian Arabs in Israel]]'', asserts: "Defining the Israeli State as a Jewish State and exploiting democracy in the service of its Jewishness excludes us, and creates tension between us and the nature and essence of the State." The document explains that by definition the "Jewish State" concept is based on ethnically preferential treatment towards Jews enshrined in immigration (the [[Law of Return]]) and land policy (the [[Jewish National Fund]]), and calls for the establishment of minority rights protections enforced by an independent anti-discrimination commission.<ref>[http://www.adalah.org/newsletter/eng/dec06/tasawor-mostaqbali.pdf "The Future Vision of the Palestinian Arabs in Israel"] pp. 5–12</ref>

A 2004 report by [[Mossawa Center|Mossawa]], an advocacy center for Palestinian-Arab citizens of Israel, states that since the events of [[October 2000 events|October 2000]], 16 Arabs had been killed by security forces, bringing the total to 29 victims of "institutional violence" in four years.<ref name=Mossawa>{{cite web|title=Racism in Israel 2004:Thousands of Arab Citizens Suffer from Racism, Xenophobia, Incitement and Violence |author=Mossawa |date=6 June 2004 |access-date=19 December 2007 |url=http://www.mossawacenter.org/default.php?lng=3&dp=2&fl=4&pg=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206195448/http://www.mossawacenter.org/default.php?lng=3&dp=2&fl=4&pg=2 |archive-date=6 December 2008 }}</ref> Ahmed Sa'adi, in his article on ''The Concept of Protest and its Representation by the Or Commission'', states that since 1948 the only protestors to be killed by the police have been Arabs.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Concept of Protest and its Representation by the Or Commission|author=Dr. Ahmed Sa'adi|publisher=Adalah's Newsletter|date=October 2004|volume=6|url=http://www.adalah.org/newsletter/eng/oct04/sadi.pdf|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref>

[[Yousef Munayyer]], an Israeli citizen and the executive director of [[The Jerusalem Fund]], wrote that Palestinians only have varying degrees of limited rights in Israel. He states that although Palestinians make up about 20% of Israel's population, less than 7% of the budget is allocated to Palestinian citizens. He describes the 1.5 million Arab citizens of Israel as second-class citizens while four million more are not citizens at all. He states that a Jew from any country can move to Israel but a Palestinian refugee, with a valid claim to property in Israel, cannot. Munayyer also described the difficulties he and his wife faced when visiting the country.<ref>{{cite news|work=[[The New York Times]]|title=Not All Israeli Citizens Are Equal | author= Yousef Munayyer |date=2012-05-23 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/24/opinion/not-all-israeli-citizens-are-equal.html?_r=0}}</ref>

===Arabic and Hebrew as official languages===
[[Image:Hebrew Arabic English road signs.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Israeli road signs in Arabic, Hebrew and English]]
[[Arabic language|Arabic]] was until July 2018 one of Israel's official languages.<ref name="NYT 2018">{{cite news|access-date=2018-07-21|title=Israeli Law Declares the Country the 'Nation-State of the Jewish People'|newspaper=The New York Times |date=19 July 2018 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/19/world/middleeast/israel-law-jews-arabic.html|last1=Halbfinger |first1=David M. |last2=Kershner |first2=Isabel }}</ref> The use of Arabic increased significantly following [[Supreme Court of Israel|Supreme Court]] rulings in the 1990s. [[Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People]] defines Hebrew as the official language of the State and gives the Arabic language a special status.

Government ministries publish all material intended for the public in Hebrew, with selected material translated into Arabic, English, Russian, and other languages spoken in Israel. There are laws that secure the Arab population's right to receive information in Arabic. Some examples include a portion of the public television channels' productions must be in Arabic or translated into Arabic, safety regulations in working places must be published in Arabic if a significant number of the workers are Arabs, information about medicines or dangerous chemicals must be provided in Arabic, and information regarding elections must be provided in Arabic. The country's laws are published in Hebrew, and eventually English and Arabic translations are published.<ref name="Spolsky"/> Publishing the law in Hebrew in the [[official gazette]] (''[[Reshumot]]'') is enough to make it valid. Unavailability of an Arabic translation can be regarded as a legal defense only if the defendant proves he could not understand the meaning of the law in any conceivable way. Following appeals to the Israeli Supreme Court, the use of Arabic on street signs and labels increased dramatically. In response to one of the appeals presented by Arab Israeli organizations,{{Which|date=September 2010}} the Supreme Court ruled that although second to Hebrew, Arabic is an official language of the State of Israel, and should be used extensively. Today most highway signage is trilingual (Hebrew, Arabic, and English).

Many Arab villages lack street signs of any kind and the Hebrew name is often used.<ref>Arthur Milner. [http://www.inroadsjournal.ca/archives/inroads_16/Inroads_16_Milner.pdf "Arabic in Israel: a pictorial;"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193129/http://www.inroadsjournal.ca/archives/inroads_16/Inroads_16_Milner.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }} ''Inroads'', 1 January 2005</ref><ref>Dr. Muhammad Amara.[http://www.adalah.org/newsletter/eng/oct06/ar2.pdf "The Vitality of the Arabic Language in Israel from a Sociolinguistic Perspective"]; Adalah Newsletter, Volume 29, October 2006</ref> The state's schools in Arab communities teach in Arabic according to a specially adapted curriculum. This curriculum includes mandatory lessons of Hebrew as foreign language from the 3rd grade onwards. Arabic is taught in Hebrew-speaking schools, but only the basic level is mandatory. In the summer of 2008, there was an unsuccessful attempt of right-wing lawmakers to strip Arabic of its status alongside Hebrew as an official language of the state.<ref>Nathan Jeffay.[http://www.forward.com/articles/13577/ "Knesset Hawks Move To Strip Arabic of Official Status in Israel"]; ''The Jewish Daily Forward'', 12 June 2008</ref>

===Israeli national symbols===
[[Image:Flag of Israel.svg|thumb|200px|right|The [[flag of Israel]], based on [[the Star of David]]]]
Some Arab politicians have requested a reevaluation of the [[Flag of Israel|Israeli flag]] and [[Hatikvah|national anthem]], arguing that the [[Star of David]] at the flag's center is an exclusively Jewish symbol, and [[Hatikvah]] does not represent Arab citizens, since it speaks of the Jewish people's desire to return to their homeland. The [[High Follow-Up Committee for Arab Citizens of Israel]] and the [[National Committee of Arab Mayors|National Committee for the Heads of the Arab Local Authorities]] in Israel stated in 2006,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Future Vision of Palestinian Arabs in Israel |author=The National Committee for the Heads of the Arab Local Authorities in Israel |date=December 2006 |url=http://www.mossawacenter.org/files/files/File/Reports/2006/Future%20Vision%20(English).pdf |access-date=8 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327103836/http://www.mossawacenter.org/files/files/File/Reports/2006/Future%20Vision%20%28English%29.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009 }}</ref>

{{blockquote|The Israeli legal system includes a number of core laws that produce and reinforce inequality between the Arabs and the Jews in Israel. ... The official bias is not restricted to symbols such as the Israeli flag, but also to deeper legal issues concerning all Palestinian Arabs ... [t]he official definition of Israel as a Jewish state created a fortified ideological barrier in the face of obtaining full equality for the Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel ... We, the Palestinians in Israel, are an integral part of this place ... Israel has tried over the past decades to disengage us from this place, not through physical transfer but through intellectual emotional transfer. Israel has tried to create a new identity on the basis of 'loyalty to the state' ... The State has not determined a position acceptable to us yet in terms of nurturing our Arab culture.}}

[[Michael Oren]], the former [[Israeli ambassador to the United Nations]], has argued that since the [[Seal of Solomon]] (Star of David) is also considered to be an Islamic symbol, Arab citizens of Israel should be able to feel the same sense of loyalty to the flag as Jewish citizens do.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1249418630070&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |archive-url=https://archive.today/20090820162145/http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1249418630070&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |archive-date=20 August 2009 |title=Oren hopes Arabs can salute Israeli flag |first=Jonah |last=Newman |date=17 August 2009 |work=Jerusalem Post |access-date=22 October 2013 }}</ref>

===Independence Day===
In Israel, Independence Day takes place on 5 Iyar according to the [[Hebrew calendar]], which means it falls on different dates every year under the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Arab citizens of Israel generally mark al-Nakba both on this day, and on 15 May, as do other Palestinians.<ref name="Ashkenazi">{{cite web|title=Israeli Arabs to mark Nakba day with march|author=Eli Ashkenazi|publisher=Ha'aretz Online, English Edition|date=26 April 2004|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=420090}}</ref> Druze soldiers, however, were present at Israel's first Independence Day Parade in 1949,<ref>"The Druze in Israel", Dr. Naim Aridi, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, {{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/12/Focus%20on%20Israel-%20The%20Druze%20in%20Israel |title=Focus on Israel- the Druze in Israel |access-date=2007-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303144228/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/2000_2009/2002/12/focus%20on%20israel-%20the%20druze%20in%20israel |archive-date=3 March 2007 }}.</ref> and there have since been parades for Druze and [[Circassians]], as well as special events for Bedouins, on Independence Day.<ref>"Israeli Arabs find no joy during Independence Day," Larry Derfner, ''Jewish News Weekly'', 24 April 1998,[http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/8570/edition_id/162/format/html/displaystory.html]</ref>

In January 2008, the mayor of [[Shefa-'Amr]], Ursan Yassin, met with officials of the Israeli state committee on the celebrations for the 60th anniversary of independence and announced that Shefa-'Amr intended to take part in the celebrations. He stated: "This is our country and we completely disapprove of the statements made by the Higher Monitoring Committee. I want to hold a central ceremony in Shefa-'Amr, raise all the flags and have a huge feast. The 40,000 residents of Shefa-'Amr feel that they are a part of the State of Israel...The desire to participate in the festivities is shared by most of the residents. We will not raise our children to hate the country. This is our country and we want to live in coexistence with its Jewish residents."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3501480,00.html|title=Arab town plans big celebration for Israel's Independence Day|newspaper=Ynetnews|date= 1 February 2008|last1=Roffe-Ofir|first1=Sharon}}</ref>

===Citizenship===

Citizenship status confers many rights and privileges; voting in Israeli legislative elections; traveling abroad without requiring a ''[[Laissez-passer|laissez passer]]'', the availability of a greater number of jobs, and Israel cannot at any time revoke residency status, whereby health insurance, the right to enter the place of residency, and thus usually also one's source of income are lost.<ref name="e-jer-cit" />

====Barriers for East Jerusalem Palestinians====
As of 2022, only 5% of East Jerusalem Palestinians had Israeli citizenship, despite Israel's having unilaterally annexed the area in 1967. From 1967 to 1974 hundreds per year became Israeli, which the [[Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research]] attributes to then-lax Israeli policy, also noting that by the mid-1970s, Palestinian society started to disapprove of becoming Israeli, seeing it as complicit with or collaborating with Israeli occupation. Since 2005, the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]] that separates them from Palestinians in the West Bank has changed education and employment markets, and the taboo has weakened — (Israeli citizenship no longer seen as detracting from being Palestinian). However, since 2002, Israel's [[Population and Immigration Authority]] has made the process more difficult. From 2002 to 2021, only 34% of naturalization applications were approved, and the process may take years. Israel may justify the rejection for any of a wide variety of reasons such as a family member owning land or having a utility bill in the West Bank, posting the Palestinian flag or mentioning the [[Nakba]] on social media, a past failed Hebrew proficiency test, refusal to renounce Jordanian citizenship, minor criminal charges, or "security impediments".<ref name="e-jer-cit" />

====2003 Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law====
On 31 July 2003, Israel enacted the [[Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law]] (Temporary Provision), 5763–2003, a one-year amendment to Israel's Citizenship Law denying citizenship and Israeli residence to Palestinians who reside in the [[West Bank]] or [[Gaza Strip]] and who marry Israelis;<ref name="NG"/> the rule has been waived for any Palestinian "who identifies with the State of Israel and its goals, when he or a member of his family has taken concrete action to advance the security, economy or any other matter important to the State". Defenders of the Citizenship and Entry Law say it is aimed at preventing terrorist attacks and preserving the "Jewish character" of Israel by restricting Arab immigration.<ref name="scotsman1"/> The new bill was formulated in accordance with [[Shin Bet]] statistics showing that involvement in terror attacks declines with age. This newest amendment, in practice, removes restrictions from half of the Palestinian population requesting legal status through marriage in Israel. This law was upheld by a High Court decision in 2006.<ref name="scotsman1">{{cite news|url=http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=721352006|title=Arab spouses face Israeli legal purge|author=Ben Lynfield|work=The Scotsman |location=Edinburgh, Scotland|date=15 May 2006}}</ref>

=====Discriminatory/racist character=====
Although this law theoretically applies to all Israelis, it has disproportionately affected Arab citizens of Israel;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hanitzotz.com/challenge/82/citizenship.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705102829/http://www.hanitzotz.com/challenge/82/citizenship.htm|url-status=dead|title=From Challenge|archive-date=5 July 2008}}</ref> Arabs are far more likely to have Palestinian spouses than other Israelis.<ref name="sfgate1">{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/08/01/MN110656.DTL|title=Israeli marriage law blocks citizenship for Palestinians|work=San Francisco Chronicle|date=1 August 2003|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref> Thus the law has been widely considered discriminatory<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/698447.html|title=Nothing Romantic in Discrimination|access-date=27 March 2006|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125013129/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/nothing-romantic-in-discrimination-1.183779|archive-date=25 January 2013}}</ref> and the [[United Nations]] Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination has unanimously approved a resolution saying that the Israeli law violated an international human rights treaty against racism.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3152651.stm|title=UN blasts Israeli marriage law|work=BBC News|date=15 August 2003|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref>

=====Extensions and current status quo=====
Upon expiration the law was extended for six months in August 2004, and again for four months in February 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/hrpa.html|title=Human Rights Issues for the Palestinian Population| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080706062448/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/hrpa.html| archive-date= 6 July 2008 | url-status= live|access-date=14 June 2008}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} On 8 May 2005, the Israeli ministerial committee for issues of legislation once again amended the Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law, to restrict citizenship and residence in Israel only to Palestinian men over the age of 35, and Palestinian women over the age of 25.

The law expired in 2021<ref>{{cite news |last=Boxerman |first=Aaron |date=6 July 2021 |title=With ban on Palestinian family unification expiring, what happens next? |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/with-ban-on-palestinian-family-unification-set-to-expire-what-happens-next/ |access-date=4 October 2021 |archive-date=4 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004204506/https://www.timesofisrael.com/with-ban-on-palestinian-family-unification-set-to-expire-what-happens-next/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NG">{{cite news |author1=Isabel Kershner |date=6 July 2021 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/06/world/middleeast/israel-citizenship-law-failure.html |title=Israel's New Government Fails to Extend Contentious Citizenship Law |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-date=6 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806154616/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/06/world/middleeast/israel-citizenship-law-failure.html |url-status=live |access-date=2025-06-30}}</ref> and about 12,700 Palestinians married to Israeli Arab citizens are able to apply for citizenship<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/palestinians-start-applying-for-citizenship-under-family-unification-laws-673271|title=Palestinians start applying for citizenship under family unification laws|website=The Jerusalem Post &#124; JPost.com|date=8 July 2021 }}</ref> but Israel has delayed all family reunification requests, maintaining the status quo.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-with-the-budget-approved-these-are-the-challenges-awaiting-israel-s-coalition-1.10357380|title=With the Budget Approved, These Are the Challenges Awaiting Israel's Governing Coalition|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref>

===Civil rights===
{{Main|Racism in Israel#Racism against Arab citizens by Israeli Jews}}
The [[Israeli Declaration of Independence]] stated that the State of Israel would ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex, and guaranteed freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture. While formally equal according to Israeli law, a number of official sources acknowledge that Arab citizens of Israel experience discrimination in multiple aspects of life. Israeli High Court Justice (Ret.) Theodor Or wrote in [[Or Commission|The Report by the State Commission of Inquiry into the Events of October 2000]]:<ref>Or Commission Report, page 33, ''Israel Studies'', vol. 11, no. 2, 25–53</ref>
<blockquote>The Arab citizens of Israel live in a reality in which they experience discrimination as Arabs. This inequality has been documented in a large number of professional surveys and studies, has been confirmed in court judgments and government resolutions, and has also found expression in reports by the state comptroller and in other official documents. Although the Jewish majority's awareness of this discrimination is often quite low, it plays a central role in the sensibilities and attitudes of Arab citizens. This discrimination is widely accepted, both within the Arab sector and outside it, and by official assessments, as a chief cause of agitation.</blockquote>

The Or Commission report also states that activities by Islamic organizations may be using religious pretenses to further political aims. The commission describes such actions as a factor in 'inflaming' the Muslim population in Israel against the authorities, and cites the [[al-Sarafand]] mosque episode, with Muslims' attempts to restore the mosque and Jewish attempts to stop them, as an example of the 'shifting of dynamics' of the relationship between Muslims and the Israeli authorities.

According to the 2004 U.S. State Department Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for Israel and the Occupied Territories, the Israeli government had done "little to reduce institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country's Arab citizens".<ref name="state.gov-2004">{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41723.htm|title=Israel and the occupied territories|website=Bureau of Public Affairs. Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information}}</ref>

''The 2004 U.S. State Department Country Reports on Human Rights Practices''<ref name="state.gov-2004"/> notes that:
* "Israeli-Arab advocacy organizations have challenged the Government's policy of demolishing illegal buildings in the Arab sector, and claimed that the Government was more restrictive in issuing building permits in Arab communities than in Jewish communities, thereby not accommodating natural growth."
* "In June, the Supreme Court ruled that omitting Arab towns from specific government social and economic plans is discriminatory. This judgment builds on previous assessments of disadvantages suffered by Arab Israelis."
* "Israeli-Arab organizations have challenged as discriminatory the 1996 "Master Plan for the Northern Areas of Israel," which listed as priority goals increasing the Galilee's Jewish population and blocking the territorial contiguity of Arab towns."
* "Israeli Arabs were not required to perform mandatory military service and, in practice, only a small percentage of Israeli Arabs served in the military. Those who did not serve in the army had less access than other citizens to social and economic benefits for which military service was a prerequisite or an advantage, such as housing, new-household subsidies, and employment, especially government or security-related industrial employment. The Ivri Committee on National Service has issued official recommendations to the Government that Israel Arabs not be compelled to perform national or 'civic' service, but be afforded an opportunity to perform such service."
* "According to a 2003 University of Haifa study, a tendency existed to impose heavier prison terms to Arab citizens than to Jewish citizens. Human rights advocates claimed that Arab citizens were more likely to be convicted of murder and to have been denied bail."
* "The Orr Commission of Inquiry's report ... stated that the 'Government handling of the Arab sector has been primarily neglectful and discriminatory,' that the Government 'did not show sufficient sensitivity to the needs of the Arab population, and did not take enough action to allocate state resources in an equal manner.' As a result, 'serious distress prevailed in the Arab sector in various areas. Evidence of distress included poverty, unemployment, a shortage of land, serious problems in the education system, and substantially defective infrastructure.{{'"}}

''The 2007 U.S. State Department Country Reports on Human Rights Practices''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100597.htm|title=Israel and the occupied territories|website=Bureau of Public Affairs. Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information|date=11 March 2008}}</ref> notes that:
* "According to a 2005 study at Hebrew University, three times more money was invested in education of Jewish children as in Arab children."

[[Human Rights Watch]] has charged that cuts in veteran benefits and child allowances based on parents' military service discriminate against Arab children: "The cuts will also affect the children of Jewish ultra-orthodox parents who do not serve in the military, but they are eligible for extra subsidies, including educational supplements, not available to Palestinian Arab children."<ref>[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2002/06/07/isrlpa4026.htm Israel: Cuts in Child Allowance Discriminate Against Palestinian Arab], [[Human Rights Watch]].</ref>

According to ''the Guardian'', in 2006 just 5% of civil servants were Arabs, a number of them hired to deal with other Arabs, despite the fact that Arab citizens of Israel comprise 20% of the population.<ref name="WA"/>

Although the Bedouin infant mortality rate is still the highest in Israel, and one of the highest in the developed world, ''The Guardian'' reports that in the 2002 budget, Israel's health ministry allocated Arab communities less than 1% of its budget for healthcare facility development.<ref name="WA"/>

In March 2010, a report released by several Israeli civil rights groups stated that the current [[Knesset]] was "the most racist in Israeli history" with 21 bills proposed in 2008 and 2009 that would discriminate against the country's Arab minority.<ref name="IH"/>

A preliminary report commissioned by Israel's Courts Administration and the Israel Bar Association found in 2011 that Israeli Arabs are more likely than Israeli Jews to be convicted of crimes after being charged, more likely to be given custodial sentences, and were given longer sentences. It did not account for "mitigating or aggravating circumstances, prior criminal record and the convict's gender".<ref>{{cite news | author = Tomer Zarchin | title = Israeli Arabs more likely to be convicted for crimes than their Jewish counterparts, study shows | url = https://www.haaretz.com/misc/article-print-page/israeli-arabs-more-likely-to-be-convicted-for-crimes-than-their-jewish-counterparts-study-shows-1.376521 | publisher=[[Haaretz]] | access-date=3 August 2011}}</ref>

===Property ownership and housing===
[[Image:KKL tin.jpg|thumb|150px|right|JNF collection boxes were used in Jewish communities around the world to collect donations for buying lands, [[Afforestation|planting forests]] and settling Jews in Israel.]]
The [[Jewish National Fund]] (JNF) is a private organization established in 1901 to buy and develop land in the [[Land of Israel]] for Jewish settlement; land purchases were funded by donations from world Jewry exclusively for that purpose.<ref name="KS">Kenneth W. Stein. [http://www.ismi.emory.edu/JournalArticles/MESapr84.html "The Jewish National Fund: Land Purchase Methods and Priorities, 1924–1939"]; ''Middle Eastern Studies'', volume 20, number 2, pp. 190–205, April 1984 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517012132/http://www.ismi.emory.edu/JournalArticles/MESapr84.html |date=17 May 2008 }}</ref> The JNF currently owns 13% of land in Israel,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bustan.org/2007/12/a_new_law_is_passed_jnf_lands.html |title=Bustan backgrounder on the JNF bill: List of related articles |access-date=2008-04-18 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080418030533/http://bustan.org/2007/12/a_new_law_is_passed_jnf_lands.html |archive-date=18 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="Pfeffer">{{cite news|title=High Court delays ruling on JNF land sales to non-Jews |first=Anshel |last=Pfeffer |author2=Stern, Yoav |work=[[Haaretz]] |url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/906704.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071121113240/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/906704.html |archive-date=21 November 2007 |url-status=live |date=24 September 2007 |access-date=20 December 2007}}</ref> while 80% is owned by the government, and the rest, around 7%, is evenly divided between private Arab and Jewish owners.<ref name="gpo1997may22">Government Press Office, Israel, 22 May 1997</ref> Thus, the [[Israel Land Administration]] (ILA) administers 94% of the land in Israel.<ref name="gpo1997may22"/> A significant portion of JNF lands were originally properties left behind by Palestinian "absentees" and as a result the legitimacy of some JNF land ownership has been a matter of dispute.<ref name="KS"/><ref>A. Golan. ''[http://www.snunit.k12.il/heb_journals/katedra/63122.html The Transfer of Abandoned Rural Arab Lands to Jews During Israel's War of Independence]'', Cathedra, 63, pp. 122–154, 1992 {{in lang|he}}. English translation: "The Transfer to Jewish Control of Abandoned Arab Land during the War of Independence", in S. I. Troen and N. Lucas (eds {{clarify|date=May 2013}}), ''Israel, The First Decade of Independence'' (Albany, State of New York, US, 1995).</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=A. Barkat|title=Buying the State of Israel|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=538435&contrassID=1&subContrassID=9&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y|work=[[Haaretz]]|date=10 February 2005|access-date=29 May 2007|archive-date=1 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201174658/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=538435&contrassID=1&subContrassID=9&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=M. Benvenisti|title=With all due respect for the 'blue box'|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/864483.html|publisher=[[Haaretz]]| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070601154704/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/864483.html| archive-date= 1 June 2007 | url-status= live|date=29 May 2007|access-date=29 May 2007}}</ref> The JNF purchased these lands from the State of Israel between 1949 and 1953, after the state took control of them according to the [[Land and Property Laws in Israel|Absentee Properties Law]].<ref name="AR">{{Cite web|url=http://www.adalah.org/eng/jnf.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511221215/http://www.adalah.org/eng/jnf.php|title=Adalah report on JNF lands|archive-date=11 May 2008}}</ref><ref name="corner">{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/887477.html|title=The JNF, backed into a corner|author=Shahar Ilan|publisher=[[Haaretz]]|date=30 July 2007|access-date=17 June 2008}}</ref> While the JNF charter specifies the land is for the use of the Jewish People, land has been leased to [[Bedouin]] herders.<ref>Aref Abu-Rabia. ''The Negev Bedouin and Livestock Rearing: Social, Economic, and Political Aspects'', Oxford, 1994, pp. 28, 36, 38 (in a rare move, the ILA has leased on a yearly-basis JNF-owned land in Besor Valley (Wadi Shallala) to Bedouins).</ref> Nevertheless, JNF land policy has been criticized as discrimination.<ref name="AR"/> When the ILA leased JNF land to Arabs, it took control of the land in question and compensated the JNF with an equivalent amount of land in areas not designated for development (generally in the [[Galilee]] and the [[Negev]]), thus ensuring that the total amount of land owned by the JNF remains the same.<ref name="corner"/><ref>Amiram Barkat.[https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=638729&contrassID=2&subContrassID=15&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y "State offers JNF NIS 1.3b in biggest land deal ever"]; Haaretz, 17 June 2008</ref> This was a complicated and controversial mechanism, and in 2004 use of it was suspended. After Supreme Court discussions and a directive by the Attorney General instructing the ILA to lease JNF land to Arabs and Jews alike, in September 2007 the JNF suggested reinstating the land-exchange mechanism.<ref name="corner"/><ref>Tal Rosner.[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3037874,00.html "Historic Land Decision Made: Attorney General allows land to be purchased by Jews and Arabs alike"], YNet, 27 January 2005</ref>

While the JNF and the ILA view an exchange of lands as a long-term solution, opponents say that such maneuvers privatize municipal lands and preserve a situation in which significant lands in Israel are not available for use by all of its citizens.<ref name="Pfeffer"/> As of 2007, the High Court delayed ruling on JNF policy regarding leasing lands to non-Jews,<ref name="Pfeffer"/> and changes to the ILA-JNF relationship were up in the air.<ref name="corner"/> [https://web.archive.org/web/20120512020532/http://www.adalah.org/eng/jnf.php Adalah] and other organizations furthermore express concern that proposed severance of the relation between the ILA and JNF, as suggested by [[Ami Ayalon]], would leave the JNF free to retain the same proportion of lands for Jewish uses as it seeks to settle hundreds of thousands of Jews in areas with a tenuous Jewish demographic majority (in particular, 100,000 Jews in existing [[Galilee]] communities<ref name="AR"/> and 250,000 Jews in new [[Negev]] communities via the [[Blueprint Negev]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jnf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=advertorial2|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070503040051/http://www.jnf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=advertorial2|title=Jewish National Fund: A Message from Ronald S. Lauder|date=3 May 2007|archive-date=3 May 2007}}</ref>

The [[Israel Land Administration]], which administers 93% of the land in Israel (including the land owned by the [[Jewish National Fund]]), refuses to lease land to non-Jewish foreign nationals, who include Palestinian residents of Jerusalem who have identity cards but are not citizens of Israel. When ILA land is "bought" in Israel it is actually leased to the "owner" for a period of 49 years. According to article 19 of the ILA lease, foreign nationals are excluded from leasing ILA land, and in practice foreigners may just show that they qualify as Jewish under the Law of Return.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1101682.html|title=Most Arabs can't buy most homes in West Jerusalem|first=Nir|last=Hasson|work=[[Haaretz]]|date=21 July 2009|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref>
[[File:Al Arakiv Protest Tel Aviv.JPG|thumb|[[Negev Bedouin|Bedouins]] protesting in Tel Aviv in demand to return to their village, [[Al-Araqeeb]], 12 May 2010]]
Israeli law also discriminates between Jewish and Arab residents of Jerusalem regarding rights to recover property owned before the dislocations created by the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].<ref name="jpost1">{{cite web |url=https://www.jpost.com/Israel/Arabs-Jews-dont-have-equal-rights-to-recover-property |title=Arabs, Jews don't have equal rights to recover property |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=20 January 2010 |access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> The 1950 [[Israeli land and property laws relating to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict#The Absentees Property Law|Absentees Property Law]] said that any property within post-war Israel which was owned by an [[Palestinians|Arab]] who had left the country between 29 November 1947 and 19 May 1948, or by a [[Palestinians|Palestinian]] who had merely been abroad or in area of Palestine held by hostile forces up to 1 September 1948, lost all rights to that property. Palestinians who fled or were expelled from their homes by Jewish or Israeli forces, before and during the 1948 Arab–Israeli war, but remained within the borders of what would become Israel, that is, those currently known as Arab citizens of Israel, are deemed [[present absentee]]s by the legislation. Present absentees are regarded as absent by the Israeli government because they left their homes, even if they did not intend to leave them for more than a few days, and even if they did so involuntarily.<ref>Segev, Tom. ''1949: The First Israelis'', pp. 68–91.</ref>

Following the 1967 Six-Day War in which Israel occupied the [[West Bank]], from where it annexed [[East Jerusalem]], Israel then passed in 1970 the ''Law and Administration Arrangements Law'' allowing for Jews who had lost property in East Jerusalem and the West Bank during the 1948 war to reclaim it.<ref name="jpost1"/> Palestinian residents of Jerusalem (absentees) in the same positions, and Arab Israelis (present absentees), who owned property in West Jerusalem or other areas within the state of Israel, and lost it as a result of the 1948 war, cannot recover their properties. Israeli legislation, therefore, allows Jews to recover their land, but not Arabs.<ref name="jpost1"/>

In the early 2000s, several [[Community settlement (Israel)|community settlements]] in the Negev and the Galilee were accused of barring Arab applicants from moving in. In 2010, the [[Knesset]] passed legislation that allowed admissions committees to function in smaller communities in the Galilee and the Negev, while explicitly forbidding committees to bar applicants based on the basis of race, religion, sex, ethnicity, disability, personal status, age, parenthood, sexual orientation, country of origin, political views, or political affiliation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nevo.co.il/law_word/law14/law-2286.pdf |title=נבו - דף התחברות |access-date=20 August 2012 |archive-date=19 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819223253/http://www.nevo.co.il/law_word/law14/law-2286.pdf }}</ref><ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israel-s-high-court-orders-jewish-galilee-town-to-accept-arab-couple-1.384296 Israel's High Court orders Jewish Galilee town to accept Arab couple]. Haaretz, 14 Sep. 2011.</ref> Critics, however, say the law gives the privately run admissions committees a wide latitude over public lands, and believe it will worsen discrimination against the Arab minority.<ref>[https://www.latimes.com/world/la-xpm-2011-mar-24-la-fg-israel-arab-laws-20110324-story.html New Israeli laws will increase discrimination against Arabs, critics say]. Edmund Sanders, Los Angeles Times, 24 March 2011.</ref>

===Contesting allegations of discrimination===
While groups are not separated by official policy, Israel has a number of different sectors within the society that maintain their strong cultural, religious, ideological, and/or ethnic identity. The Israeli foreign ministry maintains that in spite of the existing social cleavages and economic disparities, the political systems and the courts represent strict legal and civic equality. The Israeli foreign ministry in 2006 described the country as: "Not a melting-pot society, but rather more of a mosaic made up of different population groups coexisting in the framework of a democratic state".<ref>''SOCIETY: Minority Communities'', [[Israeli Foreign Ministry|Israeli foreign ministry]] web site in, [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts+About+Israel/People/SOCIETY-+Minority+Communities.htm]. 1 October 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2007.</ref>

According to [[Ishmael Khaldi]], an Arab citizen of Israel and the nation's first high-ranking Muslim in the Israeli foreign service, while Israeli society is far from perfect, minorities in Israel fare far better than any other country in the Middle East. He wrote:

{{Block quote|I am a proud Israeli – along with many other non-Jewish Israelis such as Druze, Bahai, Bedouin, Christians and Muslims, who live in one of the most culturally diversified societies and the only true democracy in the Middle East. Like America, Israeli society is far from perfect, but let us deal honestly. By any yardstick you choose – educational opportunity, economic development, women and gay's rights, freedom of speech and assembly, legislative representation – Israel's minorities fare far better than any other country in the Middle East.|<ref>"Lost in the blur of slogans", Ishmael Khaldi, San Francisco Chronicle, March 2009</ref>}}

===Opposition to intermarriage===
Intermarriage is prohibited by the Jewish [[Halakha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=163&letter=I |title=Intermarriage |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |access-date=22 September 2011}}</ref> In the case of mixed Arab-Jewish marriages, emotions run especially high.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}  A 2007 poll found that more than half of Israeli Jews believed intermarriage was equivalent to national treason.<ref name="Drive"/>{{Better ref needed|reason=this ref provides no details on the poll|date=November 2024}}  Around 2009 a group of Jewish men in the [[Jerusalem]] neighborhood of [[Pisgat Ze'ev]] started patrolling the neighborhood to stop Jewish women from dating Arab men.<ref name="Protect">{{cite news |url=https://www.jpost.com/jewish-world/protecting-jewish-girls-from-arabs |title='Protecting' Jewish girls from Arabs |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=18 September 2009}}</ref>  In 2008 the municipality of [[Petah Tikva]] had a telephone hotline for friends and family to report Jewish girls who date Arab men as well as psychologists to provide counselling.<ref name="Drive"/>  The city of [[Kiryat Gat]] launched a campaign in schools to warn Jewish girls against dating local Bedouin men.<ref name="Drive">{{cite news |url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/israeli-drive-to-prevent-jewish-girls-dating-arabs |title=Israeli drive to prevent Jewish girls dating Arabs |publisher=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |first=Jonathan |last=Cook| date = September 2009}}</ref>

A 2015 survey found that 82% of Israeli Muslims, 87% of Israeli Druze, and 88% of Israeli Christians would be uncomfortable with a child of theirs marrying a Jew. 97% of Israeli Jews would be uncomfortable if a child of theirs married a Muslim and 89% would be uncomfortable if a child of theirs married a Christian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/03/08/intergroup-marriage-and-friendship/|title=Intergroup marriage and friendship in Israel|date=8 March 2016|website=Pew Research Center|access-date=18 May 2017}}</ref>

In 2018, Arab-Israeli journalist [[Lucy Aharish]] married Jewish-Israeli actor [[Tzachi Halevy|Tzachi HaLevy]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Lucy Aharish weds 'Fauda' star Tzachi Halevy |url=https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Lucy-Aharish-weds-Fauda-star-Tzachi-Halevy-569118 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=10 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Popular anchor, actor marry in secret interfaith wedding |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/popular-anchor-actor-marry-in-secret-interfaith-wedding/ |work=The Times of Israel |date=10 October 2018}}</ref> triggering a public controversy. A number of Israeli right-wing politicians, such as [[Oren Hazan]], criticized HaLevy's marriage to an Arab Muslim woman as "[[Jewish assimilation|assimilation]]" while multiple members of the [[Knesset]], including other government officials, congratulated the couple and dismissed their colleagues as [[Racism|racist]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://jpost.com/Israel-News/Arab-Jewish-celebrities-marriage-sparks-controversy-569145|title=Jewish 'Fauda' star sparks controversy over marriage to Muslim news ancho|work=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/jewish-fauda-stars-marriage-to-muslim-newswoman-gets-condemnations-from-right/|title=Jewish 'Fauda' star's marriage to Muslim newswoman gets condemnations from right|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/10/11/arts/11reuters-israel-wedding.html|title=Celebrity Jewish-Arab Wedding Stirs Mixed Feelings in Israel|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en}}</ref>

===Knesset===
The Mossawa Center – an advocacy organization for Arabs in Israel – blames the Knesset of discrimination against Arabs, citing a 75% increase in discriminatory and racist bills submitted to the Knesset in the year 2009. According to the report, 11 bills deemed by the center to be "discriminatory and racist" were placed on the legislature's table in 2007, while 12 such bills were initiated in 2008. However, in 2009 a full 21 bills deemed discriminatory by the Mossawa Center were discussed in the Knesset.<ref name="Roffe-Ofir">{{cite news |title=Report: Current Knesset most racist of all time |first=Sharon |last=Roffe-Ofir |publisher=[[Ynetnews]] |date=21 March 2010 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3865696,00.html}}</ref>

The reports categorizes as "racist" proposals such as giving academic scholarships to soldiers who served in combat units, and a bill to revoke government funding from organizations acting "against the principles of the State".<ref name="Roffe-Ofir"/> The Coalition Against Racism and the Mossawa Center said that the proposed legislation seeks to de-legitimize Israel's Arab citizens by decreasing their civil rights.<ref name="IH">{{cite news |title=Current Knesset is the most racist in Israeli history |url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1157857.html |publisher=[[Haaretz]] |date=21 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324042038/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1157857.html |archive-date=2010-03-24 |url-status=live |access-date=2010-03-22}}</ref>

==Economic status==
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 30994 Hi Tech Park in Nazareth.JPG|thumb|right|Nazareth [[High tech|Hi-Tech Park]]; the city has been called the "Silicon Valley of the Arab community".<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite news|url= https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/2011-09-06/ty-article/49-khatem-zuabi-ncs-software-services/0000017f-f7c7-d47e-a37f-ffff10410000 |access-date=22 September 2011|title= #49 Khatem Zuabi, NCS Software Services |newspaper=[[Haaretz]]}}</ref>]]

=== Poverty, unemployment, and government assistance: from Israel’s founding  to the 2000s ===
Inequality in the allocation of public funding for Jewish and Arab needs, and widespread employment discrimination, present significant economic hurdles for Arab citizens of Israel.<ref name="economist1">{{Cite news |date=23 March 2006 |title=Shutting itself in, hoping for the best |url=http://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5654988 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060518123006/http://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5654988 |archive-date=18 May 2006 |access-date=6 August 2025 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref> On the other hand, the [[Minorities at Risk]] (MAR) group states that "despite obvious discrimination, Israeli Arabs are relatively much better off economically than neighboring Arabs."<ref name="cidcm1">{{cite web|title=Assessment for Arabs in Israel |publisher=Minorities at Risk |access-date=26 October 2006 |url=http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=66601 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215113219/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=66601 |archive-date=15 December 2008 }}</ref>

The predominant feature of the Arab community's economic development after 1949 was its transformation from a predominantly peasant farming population to a proletarian industrial workforce. It has been suggested that the economic development of the community was marked by distinct stages. The first period, until 1967, was characterised by this process of proletarianisation. From 1967 on, economic development of the population was encouraged and an Arab [[bourgeoisie]] began to develop on the margin of the Jewish bourgeoisie. From the 1980s on, the community developed its economic and, in particular, industrial potential.<ref>Féron, pp. 40–41, see also Kodmani, p. 127</ref>

In July 2006, the Government categorized all Arab communities in the country as 'class A' development areas, thus making them eligible for tax benefits. This decision aims to encourage investments in the Arab sector.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3273263,00.html|title=Financial benefits for Arab communities – Israel Money, Ynetnews|newspaper=Ynetnews|access-date=14 June 2008|date=10 July 2006|last1=Eichner|first1=Itamat}}</ref>

Raanan Dinur, director-general of Prime Minister office, said in December 2006 that Israel had finalized plans to set up a NIS 160 million private equity fund to help develop the businesses of the country's Arab community over the next decade. According to Dinur, companies owned by Arab citizens of Israel will be eligible to apply to the fund for as much as NIS 4 million (US$952,000), enabling as many as 80 enterprises to receive money over the next 10 years. The Israeli government will, according to Dinur, solicit bids to operate the fund from various financial institutes and private firms, which must pledge to raise at least NIS 80 million (about US$19 million) from private investors.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3338907,00.html|title=State to raise NIS 160 mn for Arab businesses|author=The Israel Export and International Cooperation Institute|publisher=[[Ynetnews]]|date=12 December 2006|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref>

In February 2007, ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that 53 percent of the impoverished families in Israel were Arabs.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/08/world/middleeast/08israel.html|title=Noted Arab Citizens Call on Israel to Shed Jewish Identity|first=Isabel|last=Kershner|date=8 February 2007|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Since the majority of Arabs in Israel do not serve in the army, they are ineligible for multiple financial benefits such as scholarships and housing loans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6985|title=Israel – Country report – Freedom in the World – 2006|website=www.freedomhouse.org|date=2012-01-13|access-date=14 January 2007|archive-date=23 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223101659/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6985}}</ref>

Arab towns in Israel are reluctant to collect city taxes from their residents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/795055.html|title=Haartez "The Bottom Line / Arab municipalities do not believe in equality in debts"|access-date=10 December 2006|archive-date=6 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006054439/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/795055.html}}</ref> Sikkuy, a prominent Arab-Jewish NGO, found that Arabs as a group have the highest home ownership in Israel: 93% compared to 70% among Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.walla.co.il/?w=//1088730|title=רוב הערבים בישראל מתגוררים בדירה בבעלותם - וואלה! חדשות|date=2007-04-06|access-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226195623/http://news.walla.co.il/?w=%2F%2F1088730|archive-date=26 December 2013}}</ref>

While per capita income is lower in the Arab community, these figures do not take into account age (the average age in the Arab community is lower and young people earn less), the low percentage of women who join the workforce, and the large size of Arab families.<ref name=Yemini20April2007>{{cite news|last=Yemini|first=Ben Dror|title=The trap of self-delusion|url=http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART1/571/620.html|newspaper=Maariv|date=20 April 2007|access-date=17 September 2009|archive-date=25 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725164427/http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART1/571/620.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2005, of the 40 towns in Israel with the highest unemployment rates, 36 were Arab towns.<ref name="Shamir">{{cite web|title=The Arabs in Israel – Two Years after The Or Commission Report |author=Professor (Emeritus) Shimon Shamir |publisher=The Konrad Adenauer Program for Jewish-Arab Cooperation |page=7 |date=19 September 2005 |url=https://dayan.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Two%20Years_Or%20Committee_Shamir.pdf }}</ref> According to the Central Bank of Israel statistics for 2003, salary averages for Arab workers were 29% lower than for Jewish workers.<ref name="Shamir"/> Difficulties in procuring employment have been attributed to a comparatively low level of education vis-a-vis their Jewish counterparts, insufficient employment opportunities in the vicinity of their towns, discrimination by Jewish employers, and competition with foreign workers in fields, such as construction and agriculture.<ref name="Shamir"/> Arab women have a higher unemployment rate in the work force relative to both religious and secular Jewish women. While among Arab men the employment was found to be on par with Jewish men, 17% of Arab women were found to be employed. This puts the Arab employment at 68% of the Israeli average. The Druze and Christian Arabs have higher employment than Muslims.<!--expand sources--><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=4827FCE4666F50EF1AEF78B147CF673D.tomcat1?fromPage=online&aid=39001|title=CJO – Abstract – Changing Labour Force Participation and Occupational Status: Arab Women in the Israeli Labour Force|journal=Work, Employment and Society|volume=13|issue=1|pages=117–131|access-date=14 June 2008|date=March 1999|last1=Brahm|first1=Iris|last2=Lewin-Epstein|first2=Noah|last3=Semyonov|first3=Moshe|doi=10.1177/09500179922117827|s2cid=154283574|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic advancements: from 2010s onward ===
In March 2010, the government approved a $216 million, five-year development plan for the Israeli Arab sector with the goal of increasing job accessibility, particularly for women and academics. Under this program, some 15,000 new employees will be added to the work roster by 2014.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bringing Israeli Arabs into high-tech |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/InnovativeIsrael/Israeli_Arabs_high-tech-March_2011.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110315202541/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/InnovativeIsrael/Israeli_Arabs_high-tech-March_2011.htm |archive-date=15 March 2011}}</ref>

By the 2010s, the Israeli-Arab standard of living was found to be improving, with the number of middle class Arabs growing. In 2017, ''[[Haaretz]]'', which termed Arabs as Israel's "new [[yuppie]]s", reported that Arabs, especially women, were pursuing higher education in increasing numbers, and increasingly seeking white-collar jobs. According to Professor Aziz Haidar of the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], in 2017 about 27% of Arabs were [[middle class]] (as opposed to 17% two decades before) and 3% were wealthy, and although most Arabs were still in lower-income brackets, the Arab middle class is expanding dramatically.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 June 2017 |title=Arabs Are Israel's New Yuppies |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/arabs-are-israel-s-new-yuppies-1.5483071 |work=Haaretz}}</ref>

Across all groups, [[Arab Christians]] tend to be the most educated,<ref name="AI"/> and most of them are [[middle class|middle]] and [[upper middle class]], and they have the lowest incidence of poverty and the lowest percentage of unemployment;<ref name="AI"/> a study published by the Taub Center for Social Policy Studies in 2017 found that "Christian population has the highest achievements in the Arab sector on all indices: [[bagrut]] scores, rates of college graduates, and fields of employment".<ref name="AI"/> The study found also that the achievements of the [[Druze]] are mixed, and they have the second highest achievements in the Arab sector on all indices.<ref name="AI"/> While Bedouins has the lowest achievements in the Arab sector on all indices, as they tend to be the least educated.<ref name="AI"/>

==== High-tech sector ====
In 2011, Nazareth had over 15 Arab-owned high-tech companies, mostly in the field of software development. According to the ''[[Haaretz]]'' newspaper the city has been called the "Silicon Valley of the Arab community" in view of its potential in this sphere.<ref name="ReferenceB" />
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 18060 Cities in Israel.jpg|thumb|right|Sakhnin industrial area]]
Imad Telhami, founder and CEO of Babcom, a call center in the [[Tefen]] Industrial Park with 300 employees, is committed to developing career opportunities for Arab workers in Israel. Telhami, a Christian Arab, was a senior executive at the [[Delta Galil Industries]] textile plant before establishing Babcom. He hopes to employ 5,000 workers within five years: "Israeli companies have been exporting thousands of jobs to India, Eastern Europe and other spots around the globe. I want to bring the jobs here. There are terrific engineers in the Arab sector, and the potential is huge.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/business/a-gateway-into-high-tech-1.312412|title=A Gateway into High-tech|work=Haaretz|first=Guy|last=Rolnik|date=6 September 2010}}</ref>

==Health==
[[Image:Sacra fam 0307.jpg|thumb|200px|The Italian Nazareth Hospital]]

=== Health issues ===
The most common health-related causes of death are heart disease and cancer. Roughly 14% were diagnosed with diabetes in 2000.<ref name="JVL-stats"/> Around half of all Arab men smoke.<ref name="JVL-stats"/> Life expectancy has increased 27 years since 1948. Further, due largely to improvements in health care, the Arab [[infant mortality]] rate dropped from 32 deaths per thousand births in 1970 to 8.6 per thousand in 2000.<ref name="JVL-stats">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/israeliarabs.html|title=The Ethiopian Church|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} However, the [[Negev Bedouin|Bedouin]] infant mortality rate is still{{When|date=November 2024}} the highest in Israel, and one of the highest in the developed world.
[[File:Haifa Italian Hospital P5180034.JPG|thumb|200px|The [[Italian Hospital in Haifa]]]]
In 2003, the [[infant mortality]] rate among Arab citizens overall was 8.4 per thousand, more than twice as high as the rate 3.6 per thousand among the Jewish population.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050908214457/http://www.arabhra.org/publications/reports/PDF/CEDAW_FullReport.pdf] NGO ALTERNATIVE REPORT IN RESPONSE TO 'LIST OF ISSUES AND QUESTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE CONSIDERATION OF PERIODIC REPORTS' ON ISRAEL'S IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN
(UN CEDAW)</ref> In the 2002 budget, Israel's health ministry allocated Arab communities less than 1% of its 277 m-shekel (£35m) budget (1.6 m shekels {£200,000}) to develop healthcare facilities.<ref name="WA">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/israel/Story/0,,1703245,00.html|title=Worlds apart|journal=The Guardian|first=Chris|last=McGreal|date=6 February 2006}}</ref>

=== Presence in the Israeli healthcare system ===
Nazareth have three private hospitals serving its districts: [[The Nazareth Hospital]] (also called the English Hospital), French Nazareth Hospital, and the Italian Nazareth Hospital. All of these hospitals run by the Christian community of Nazareth.<ref>{{cite book|title=Narrow Gate Churches: The Christian Presence in the Holy Land Under Muslim and Jewish Rule| first=Raphael |last=Israeli|year= 2014| isbn=978-1-135-31514-6| page =21|publisher=Routledge|quote=}}</ref> The Christian Arab community run also the [[Italian Hospital in Haifa]].<ref name=lpj>{{cite web|url=http://popefrancisholyland2014.lpj.org/blog/2014/03/05/catholic-hospitals-in-the-holy-land/|title=Catholic Hospitals in the Holy Land &#124; Pope Francis in the Holy Land 2014|website=popefrancisholyland2014.lpj.org|access-date=2017-12-17|archive-date=2019-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401151040/http://popefrancisholyland2014.lpj.org/blog/2014/03/05/catholic-hospitals-in-the-holy-land/}}</ref>

Despite the fact that Arab represent 20% of the total Israeli population, in 2015 they accounted 35% of all doctors in Israel, and according to a study by the [[Tel Aviv University]] Arabs account about 35% of all pharmacists in Israel.<ref name=Israel21c>{{Cite web |url=https://www.israel21c.org/the-small-israeli-village-where-everyones-a-doctor |title=The small Israeli village where everyone's a doctor |quote= According to StandWithUs, 35 percent of all doctors in Israel are from the Arab sector. A 2015 study by Tel Aviv University indicated that Arabs account for 35% of all pharmacists, too. |website= Israel21c.org |date=31 October 2016 |access-date=2017-04-27}}</ref> A 2025 research article published in an Israeli journal estimated that, as of 2023, Arabs comprised 21% of Israel's population but accounted for 25% of its physicians, 27% of both nurses and dentists, and 49% of pharmacists. This represents a significant rise since 2010, particularly among physicians, whose share increased from 8% to 25%.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid=39894798 | date=2025 | last1=Rosen | first1=B. | last2=Miaari | first2=S. | title=Arab representation in Israeli healthcare professions: Achievements, challenges and opportunities | journal=Israel Journal of Health Policy Research | volume=14 | issue=1 | page=7 | doi=10.1186/s13584-024-00663-3 | doi-access=free | pmc=11789336 }}</ref> The Arabic local council [[Arraba, Israel|Arraba]] has one of the highest numbers of doctors per capita in the world.<ref name="Israel21c"/>

==Education==
[[Image:GalilSchoolSign.jpg|thumb|200px|Sign in front of the [[Galil Jewish–Arab School|Galil school]], a joint [[Arab]]-Jewish primary school in Israel]]
[[Image:Mar Elias.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Mar Elias Educational Institutions|Mar Elias]], a kindergarten, elementary, junior high, and high school, and college in [[Ibillin]], an Arab village in northern Israel.]]
The Israeli government regulates and finances most of the schools operating in the country, including the majority of those run by private organizations. The school system has two branches, Hebrew-speaking and Arabic-speaking.  The curricula for the two systems are almost identical in mathematics, sciences, and English. It is different in humanities (history, literature, etc.). Hebrew is taught in Arabic schools from third grade and obligatory for Arabic-speaking school's matriculation exams, a basic knowledge of Arabic is taught in Hebrew schools, usually from the 7th to the 9th grade. Arabic is not obligatory for Hebrew speaking school's matriculation exams. The schooling language split operates from preschool to the end of high school. At the university level, they merge into a single system, which operates mostly in Hebrew and in English.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://hrw.org/reports/2001/israel2/JILPfinal.pdf|title=An Update on Discrimination Affecting Palestinian Arab Children in the Israeli Educational System|first=Zama|last=Coursen-Neff|date=2004 |journal=International Law and Politics|volume=36|issue=749|pages=101–162|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106025024/http://hrw.org/reports/2001/israel2/JILPfinal.pdf|archive-date=6 January 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2001, [[Human Rights Watch]] described government-run Arab schools as "a world apart from government-run Jewish schools."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2001/12/05/isrlpa3399.htm|title=Israeli Schools Separate, Not Equal |website=Human Rights Watch |date=5 December 2001}}</ref> The report found striking differences in virtually every aspect of the education system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/israel2/ISRAEL0901-01.htm|title=Second Class: Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools – Summary|website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>{{Update-inline|date=November 2024}}

In 2005, the Follow-Up Committee for Arab Education said that the Israeli government spent an average of $192 a year on Arab students compared to $1,100 for Jewish students. The drop-out rate for Arabs was twice as high as for Jews (12% versus 6%). There was a 5,000-classroom shortage in the Arab sector.<ref>{{cite web|title=Arab Sector: NIF Grantees Fight Discrimination in Arab Education|publisher=New Israel Fund|date=13 September 2005|url=http://www.nif.org/content.cfm?id=2343&currbody=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807221918/http://www.nif.org/content.cfm?id=2343&currbody=1|archive-date=7 August 2007}}</ref>

According to the 2004 [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] [[United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices|Country Reports on Human Rights Practices]] for Israel and the occupied territories, "Israeli Arabs were underrepresented in the student bodies and faculties of most universities and in higher professional and business ranks. Well educated Arabs often were unable to find jobs commensurate with their level of education. According to Sikkuy, Arab citizens held approximately 60 to 70 of the country's 5,000 university faculty positions."<ref name="state.gov-2004"/>

Arab educators have long voiced concerns over institutionalized budgetary discrimination. An August 2009 study published by the [[Hebrew University]]'s School of Education claimed that Israel's [[Ministry of Education (Israel)|Education Ministry]] discriminated against Arabs in its allocations of special assistance for students from low socioeconomic backgrounds and the average per-student allocation at Arab junior high schools was one-fifth the average at Jewish ones. This was due to the allocation method: funds were first divided between Arab and Jewish school systems according to the number of students in each, and then allocated to needy students; however, due to the large proportion of such students in the Arab sector, they receive less funds, per student, than Jewish students. The Ministry of Education said it was discontinuing this method in favor of a uniform index.<ref name="haaretz.com">{{Cite news |last=Kashti |first=Or |date=12 August 2009 |title=Israel aids its needy Jewish students more than Arab counterparts |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2009-08-12/ty-article/israel-aids-its-needy-jewish-students-more-than-arab-counterparts/0000017f-e4ac-d38f-a57f-e6fec91b0000 |url-access=registration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121210044332/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israel-aids-its-needy-jewish-students-more-than-arab-counterparts-1.281830 |archive-date=10 December 2012 |work=[[Haaretz]] |language=en}}</ref> Ministry data on the percentage of high school students who passed their matriculation exams showed that Arab towns were ranked lowest except for [[Fureidis]], which had the third highest pass rate (76%) in Israel.<ref name="haaretz.com"/>

According to the study by Hanna David from the [[University of Tel Aviv]], Arab Christian schools in Israel are among the best schools in the country, and while those schools represent only 4% of the Arab schooling sector, about 34% of Arab university students come from Christian schools,<ref name="SJ">{{cite web |url=http://hcef.org/790796657-demonstration-of-christian-schools-in-jerusalem/ |title=Demonstration of Christian Schools in Jerusalem - Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation |website=Hcef.org |date=2015-09-10 |access-date=2016-09-05}}</ref> and about 87% of the Israeli Arabs in the [[high tech]] sector have been educated in Arab [[Christian school]]s.<ref name="middleeasteye.net"/><ref name="Why Angry Christians in Israel Are"/> These 47 Arab Christian schools accommodate 33,000 Christian students, Muslims, Druze and some Jews from across the country.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.lpj.org/posts/israeli-ministry-of-education-classifies-christian-schools-among-the-best-in-the-country.html |title=Israeli Ministry of Education classifies Christian schools among the best in the country|newspaper=Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem|access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref>

===Higher education===
[[File:University of Haifa, Israel.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The percentage of Arab students at the [[University of Haifa]] is around 41%.<ref name="Harman">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/14/education/edlife/inside-the-technion-israels-premier-technological-institute-and-cornells-global-partner.html|title=Inside the Technion, Israel's premier technological institute and Cornell's global partner.|first=Danna|last=Harman|date=12 April 2013|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name="Outstanding Arab Students">{{cite web|url=http://www.technion.ac.il/en/2014/05/new-program-for-outstanding-arab-students-2/|title=Outstanding Arab Students|date=21 May 2014|access-date=25 July 2015}}</ref>]]
Nearly half of Arab students who passed their matriculation exams failed to win a place in higher education because they performed poorly in the [[Psychometric Entrance Test]], compared to 20% of Jewish applicants. Khaled Arar, a professor at [[Beit Berl College]], believes the psychometric test is culturally biased: "The gap in psychometric scores between Jewish and Arab students has remained steady – at more than 100 points out of a total of 800 – since 1982. That alone should have raised suspicions."<ref>Atlantic Free Press: Jonathan Cook, Israel's Arab students cross to Jordan – Academic hurdles block access to universities, 11 April 2009 {{cite web|url=http://www.atlanticfreepress.com/news/1/9140-israels-arab-students-cross-to-jordan-academic-hurdles-block-access-to-universities.html |title=Israel's Arab students cross to Jordan - Academic hurdles block access to universities &#124; Atlantic Free Press - Hard Truths for Hard Times |access-date=2010-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029083317/http://atlanticfreepress.com/news/1/9140-israels-arab-students-cross-to-jordan-academic-hurdles-block-access-to-universities.html |archive-date=29 October 2010 }}</ref>

However, a 1986 research found negligible differences in construct or predictive test validity across varying cultural groups and the findings appeared to be more consistent with the psychometric than with the cultural bias position.<ref>Moshe Zeidner. Are scholastic aptitude tests in Israel biased towards Arab college student candidates? Higher Education journal, Springer Netherlands, {{ISSN|0018-1560}}, volume 15, number 5 / September 1986, pp. 507–522.</ref>

According to the Israeli [[Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel)|Central Bureau of Statistics]] census in 2020, 83.6% of Christians were entitled to a [[Bagrut certificate|matriculation certificate]], followed by Druze (79.9%), and Muslims (60.3%). While 80.2% of the Israeli Jews were entitled to a [[Bagrut certificate|matriculation certificate]].<ref name="Muslim2020"/>

Statistically, [[Christian Arabs]] in Israel have the highest rates of [[educational attainment]] among all religious communities, according to a data by [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] in 2010, 63% of Israeli [[Christian Arabs]] have had college or [[postgraduate education]], the highest of any religious and [[ethno-religious]] group.<ref name="bokra.net"/> According to the Israeli [[Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel)|Central Bureau of Statistics]] census in 2020, 70.9% of [[Christianity in Israel|Christians]] in Israel have a [[college degree]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2019/400/11_19_400b.pdf|title=The Christian population in Israel|date=24 December 2020|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel)}}</ref> followed by [[Israeli Druze|Druze]] (15.3%),<ref name="DP"/> and [[Islam in Israel|Muslims]] (10%).<ref name="Muslim2020"/>

Among Israeli higher education institutions the [[University of Haifa]] has the largest percentage (41%) of Arab-Israeli students.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/number-of-arabs-in-israeli-higher-education-grew-79-in-seven-years-1.5763067|title=Number of Arabs in Israeli Higher Education Grew 79% in Seven Years|last=Dattel|first=Lior|date=2018-01-24|work=Haaretz|access-date=2020-01-12|language=en}}</ref> The [[Technion Israel Institute of Technology]] has the second largest percentage (22.2%) of Arab-Israeli students.<ref name="Harman"/><ref name="Outstanding Arab Students"/>

==Military conscription==
{{Update section|date=November 2024}}
[[Image:Bedouin IDF1949.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Bedouin IDF soldiers of Rumat al-Heib (عرب الهيب) during a military parade in Tel-Aviv in June 1949]]
Unlike their Jewish counterparts, Arab citizens are not [[conscription in Israel|required to serve]] in the Israeli military, and, outside the Bedouin community, few (around 120 a year) volunteer.<ref name="Statistics"/> Until 2000, each year between 5–10% of the [[Negev Bedouin|Bedouin]] population of draft age volunteered for the [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli army]], and Bedouin were well known for their unique status as volunteers. The legendary Israeli soldier, [[Amos Yarkoni]], first commander of the Shaked Reconnaissance Battalion in the [[Givati Brigade]], was a Bedouin (born ''Abd el-Majid Hidr''). Bedouin soldiers dominate the elite human tracking units that guard Israel's northern and southern border.<ref name="bedouin in israel">{{Cite web|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/perspective/profiles/2013/04/24/Bedouin-army-trackers-scale-Israel-social-ladder-|title=Muslim Arab Bedouins serve as Jewish state's gatekeepers|date=24 April 2013|website=Al Arabiya English}}</ref> Lieutenant Colonel Magdi Mazarib, a Bedouin, who is the Israeli army's highest-ranking tracking commander, told the [[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] that he believes that "the state of Bedouin in Israel is better, as far as the respect we get, our progress, education".<ref name="bedouin in israel"/>  In 2004 the number of Bedouin in the army may have been be less than 1%.<ref>{{in lang|he}} [https://www.knesset.gov.il/protocols/data/html/bikoret/2004-10-11.html מישיבת הוועדה לענייני ביקורת המדינה (From the meeting of the State Audit Committee)], 11 October 2004</ref> A 2003 report stated that willingness among Bedouin to serve in the army had drastically dropped in recent years, as the Israeli government has failed to fulfill promises of equal service provision to Bedouin citizens.<ref name="caliber1">{{cite journal|title=Embattled Identities: Palestinian Soldiers in the Israeli Military|first=Rhoda|last=Kanaaneh|journal=Journal of Palestine Studies|volume=32|issue=3|pages=5–20|doi=10.1525/jps.2003.32.3.5|year = 2003}}</ref> However, a 2009 article in [[Haaretz]] stated that volunteer recruitment for a crack elite Bedouin army unit rose threefold.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1070787.html| author=Anshel Pfeffer| title= Israel minorities see IDF service as key to social mobility|work=Haaretz |access-date=3 February 2022|archive-date=14 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514024427/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1070787.html}}</ref>

IDF figures indicate that, in 2002 and 2003, Christians represented 0.1 percent of all recruits. In 2004, the number of recruits had doubled. Altogether, in 2003, the percentage of Christians serving had grown by 16 percent over the year 2000. The IDF does not publish figures on the exact number of recruits by religious denomination, and in 2005 it was estimated that a few dozen Christians currently served in the IDF.<ref name="Christian Arabs"/>
[[File:DruzeSoldier.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Druze]] commander of the IDF Herev battalion]]
The Druze are required to serve in the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] in accordance with an agreement between their local religious leaders and the Israeli government in 1956. Opposition to the decision among the Druze populace was evident immediately, but was unsuccessful in reversing the decision.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Druze in Israel and the Question of Compulsory Military Service|author=Zeidan Atashi|publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs|date=15 October 2001|url=http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp464.htm|access-date=8 October 2009}}</ref> Multiple Druze in the IDF become officers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/druzeidf.html |title=The Druze in Israel and the Question of Compulsory Military Service |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |date=5 September 2000 |access-date=22 September 2011}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} and some rising to general officer rank.<ref>See, for instance, [http://dover.idf.il/IDF/English/News/today/09/11/1300.htm Brig. Gen. Mufid Ganam appointed IDF Chief Logistics Officer] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721142836/http://dover.idf.il/IDF/English/News/today/09/11/1300.htm |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> In recent years, a growing minority from within the Druze community have denounced this mandatory enrollment, and refused to serve.<ref>{{cite web|title=Waseem Kheir jailed for refusing compulsory military service for Arab Druze youth (''translation of Arabic headline'') |publisher=arabs48.com |date=24 April 2006 |url=http://www.arabs48.com/display.x?cid=1&sid=50&id=36313 |access-date=8 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116020342/http://www.arabs48.com/display.x?cid=1&sid=50&id=36313 |archive-date=16 January 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jcpa.org/jl/hit06.htm|title=The Druze Minority in Israel isen the Mid-1990s by Gabriel Ben-Dor|website=www.jcpa.org|access-date=9 January 2007|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012125647/http://www.jcpa.org/jl/hit06.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2001, [[Said Nafa]], who identifies as a Palestinian Druze and serves as the head of the Balad party's national council, founded the "Pact of Free Druze", an organization that aims "to stop the conscription of the Druze and claims the community is an inalienable part of the Arabs in Israel and the Palestinian nation at large".<ref>{{cite web|title=Balad's MK-to-be: 'Anti-Israelization' conscientious objector|author=Yoav Stern and Jack Khoury|publisher=Ha'aretz, English edition|date=1 May 2007|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/854636.html|access-date=8 October 2009|archive-date=2 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802032505/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/854636.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===National service===
Rather than perform army service, Israeli Arab youths have the option to volunteer to [[Sherut Leumi|national service]] and receive benefits similar to those received by discharged soldiers. The volunteers are generally allocated to Arab populations, where they assist with social and community matters. {{As of|2010}} there are 1,473 Arabs volunteering for national service. According to sources in the national service administration, Arab leaders are counseling youths to refrain from performing services to the state. According to a National Service official: "For years the Arab leadership has demanded, justifiably, benefits for Arab youths similar to those received by discharged soldiers. Now, when this opportunity is available, it is precisely these leaders who reject the state's call to come and do the service, and receive these benefits."<ref name="ynetnews2"/>

==Intercommunal relations==
===Surveys and polls===
In a 2004 survey by Sammy Smooha of the [[University of Haifa]] [[Jewish-Arab Center]], 85% of Israeli Arabs stated that Israel has a right to exist as an independent state, and 70% that it has a right to exist as a democratic, Jewish state.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shamir |first=Shimon |title=The Arabs in Israel – Two Years after the Or Commission Report |url=http://www.dayan.org/kapjac/files/shamirEng.pdf |publisher=The Konrad Adenauer Program for Jewish-Arab Cooperation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723133755/http://www.dayan.org/kapjac/files/shamirEng.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2008}}</ref><ref>"Du-Et," 6 June 2005</ref> A [[Truman Institute]] survey from 2005 found that 63% of the Arab citizens accepted the principle that Israel is the state of the Jewish people.<ref name="Shamir"/><ref>Ha'aretz, 2 October 2005</ref>

A 2006 poll by the Arab advocacy group ''the Center Against Racism'' showed negative attitudes towards Arabs. The poll found that 63% of Jews believe Arabs are a security threat; 68% would refuse to live in the same building as an Arab; 34% believe that Arab culture is inferior to Israeli culture. Support for segregation between Jewish and Arab citizens was higher among Jews of Middle Eastern origin.<ref>Ashkenazi, Eli and Khoury, Jack. [https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=697458&contrassID=1&subContrassID=7 Poll: 68% of Jews would refuse to live in same building as an Arab]. ''Haaretz''. 22 March 2006. Retrieved 30 March 2006.</ref>
{{bar box
|float=right
|title=Israeli patriotism among Israeli Arabs, 2006
|caption=Herzliya patriotism survey<ref name=pat/>
|titlebar=#DDD
|width=200px
|bars=
{{bar percent|Very patriotic|darkgreen|17}}
{{bar percent|Patriotic|green|7}}
{{bar percent|Somewhat patriotic|orange|35}}
{{bar percent|Not especially patriotic|red|41}}
}}
In a 2006 patriotism survey, 56% of Israeli Arabs were not proud of their citizenship and 73% were not ready to fight to defend the state, but 77% said that Israel was better than most other countries and 53% were proud of the country's welfare system. Eighty-two percent said they would rather be a citizen of Israel than of any other country in the world.<ref name=pat>Patriotism and Israel's National Security, Herzliya Patriotism Survey 2006 [http://www.herzliyaconference.org/Eng/_Uploads/1388Pat_e.pdf Patriotism Survey 2006]</ref>

An [[Israeli Democracy Institute]] (IDI) poll in 2007 showed that 75% of "Israeli Arabs would support a constitution that maintained Israel's status as a Jewish and democratic state while guaranteeing equal rights for minorities, while 23% said they would oppose such a definition".<ref name=poll>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/853564.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501032449/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/853564.html|title=Poll: 75% of Israeli Arabs support Jewish, democratic constitution|archive-date=1 May 2007}}</ref> Another survey that year showed that 62% of Israel's Arabs would prefer to remain Israeli citizens rather than become citizens of a future Palestinian state.<ref name=IPOU>{{cite web|title=Overwhelming Majority of Israeli Arabs Would Choose to Remain Israeli Citizens Rather Than Become Citizens of a Future Palestinian State|author=Keevoon Research|date=27 December 2007|access-date=4 January 2008|url=http://archive.constantcontact.com/fs021/1101712342378/archive/1101922202301.html|archive-date=8 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108090927/http://archive.constantcontact.com/fs021/1101712342378/archive/1101922202301.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> A separate 2008 poll found that 77% would rather live in Israel than in any other country in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Study Finds Strong Jewish and Arab Consensus for Peaceful Coexistence in Israel|author=Harvard Kennedy School|access-date=3 October 2014|url=http://www.hks.harvard.edu/news-events/news/press-releases/coexistence-in-israel-study|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006080326/http://www.hks.harvard.edu/news-events/news/press-releases/coexistence-in-israel-study|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|hdl=1902.1/11947|title=Coexistence in Israel: A National Study|author1=Todd L. Pittinsky  |author2=Jennifer J. Ratliff |author3=Laura A. Maruskin |journal= Center for Public Leadership|date= May 2008}}</ref> Another 2007 poll by Sammy Smooha found that 63% of Jewish Israelis avoided entering Arab towns and cities; 68% feared the possibility of widespread civil unrest among Israeli Arabs; 50% of Israeli Arabs justified Hezbollah's capture of IDF reservists [[Ehud Goldwasser]] and [[Eldad Regev]] in a cross-border raid; 19% thought Israel was justified in going to war following the kidnapping; 48% justified Hezbollah rocket attacks on northern Israel during the [[2006 Lebanon War]]; 89% of Israeli Arabs saw the IDF bombing of Lebanon as a war crime, while 44% of Israeli Arabs viewed Hezbollah's bombing of Israel as a war crime; 62% of Israeli Arabs worried that Israel could transfer their communities to the jurisdiction of a future Palestinian state, and 60% said they were concerned about a possible mass expulsion; 76% of Israeli Arabs described [[Zionism]] as racist; 68% of Israeli Arabs would be content to live in the Jewish state alongside a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip; 41% of Israeli Arab citizens [[Holocaust denial|denied the Holocaust ever happened]].<ref name="Poll_a">{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1086115.html|title=Poll: 40% of Israeli Arabs believe Holocaust never happened – Haaretz – Israel News<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref>

In 2007, the ''[[Association for Civil Rights in Israel]]'' reported a "dramatic increase" in racism against Arab citizens, including a 26 percent rise in anti-Arab incidents. ACRI president [[Sami Michael]] said that "Israeli society is reaching new heights of racism that damages freedom of expression and privacy".<ref name="ReferenceA">[https://haaretz.com/hasen/spages/932384.html Civil rights group: Israel has reached new heights of racism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210185410/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/932384.html |date=10 December 2007 }} Yuval Yoaz and Jack Khoury, [[Haaretz]] 9 December 2007</ref>

A 2008 poll on intercommunal relations by Harvard [[John F. Kennedy School of Government|Kennedy School]] found that Arabs and Jews in Israel underestimated the extent to which their communities "liked" one another. 68% of the Jews supported teaching Arabic in Jewish schools.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3559045,00.html|title=Poll: 77% of Arabs say won't replace Israel|newspaper=Ynetnews|date=23 June 2008|last1=Weiss|first1=Reuven}}</ref>

A 2008 poll by the Center Against Racism found that 75% of Israeli Jews would not live in a building with Arabs; over 60% would not invite Arabs to their homes; 40% believed that Arabs should be stripped of the [[Suffrage|right to vote]]; over 50% agreed that the state should encourage emigration of Arab citizens to other countries; 59% considered Arab culture primitive. Asked "What do you feel when you hear people speaking Arabic?" 31% said hate and 50% said fear. Only 19% reported positive or neutral feelings.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3381836,00.html|title=Ynet יותר ממחצית היהודים: נישואים לערבי הם בגידה – חדשות|journal=Ynet|access-date=14 June 2008|date=2007-03-27|last1=נחמיאס|first1=רועי}}</ref>

Surveys in 2009 found a radicalization in the positions of Israeli Arabs towards the State of Israel, with 41% of Israeli Arabs recognizing Israel's right to exist as a [[Homeland for the Jewish people|Jewish]] and democratic state (down from 66% in 2003), and 54% believing Israel has a right to exist as an independent country (down from 81% in 2003). Polls also showed that 40% of Arab citizens engaged in [[Holocaust denial]].<ref name="Poll_a" />

A 2010 poll of Israeli high school students found that 50% did not think Israeli Arabs were entitled to the same rights as Jews in Israel, and 56% thought Arabs should not be elected to the [[Knesset]].<ref name="Poll2010">{{cite news |url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1155627.html |title=Poll: Half of Israeli high schoolers oppose equal rights for Arabs |publisher=[[Haaretz]] |first=Or |last=Kashti |date=12 March 2010 |access-date=14 March 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100313232639/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1155627.html| archive-date= 13 March 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> The figures rose among religious students.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3861161,00.html |title=Poll: 46% of high-schoolers don't want equality for Arabs |publisher=[[Ynetnews]] |first=Yaheli Moran |last=Zelikovich |date=11 March 2010 |access-date=25 March 2010}}</ref>

A 2010 Arab Jewish Relations Survey, compiled by Prof. Sami Smoocha in collaboration with the Jewish-Arab Center at the University of Haifa shows that 71% Arab citizens of Israel said they blamed Jews for the hardships suffered by Palestinians during and after the "Nakba" in 1948. 38% denied the Holocaust. The percentage supporting the use of violence to advance Arab causes climbed from 6% in 1995 to 12% in 2010. 66% say they reject Israel as a Jewish and Zionist state, while 30% opposed its existence under any terms. 63% saw the Jews as "foreign settlers who do not fit into the region and will eventually leave, when the land will return to the Palestinians".<ref>{{cite web|last=Yesawich |first=Avi |url=https://www.jpost.com/NationalNews/Article.aspx?id=221355 |title='62.5% of Israeli Arabs see Jews as fore... JPost – National News |work=Jerusalem Post |date=19 May 2011 |access-date=22 September 2011}}</ref>

A 2010 University of Maryland / Zogby International poll of 600 Arab Israelis compiled by [[Shibley Telhami]] found that 36 percent considered their Arab identity to be "most important", while 22% answered "Palestinian", 19% Muslim, and 12% Israeli.<ref>Telhami, Shibley, [http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/reports/2010/1209_israel_public_opinion_telhami/israeli_arab_powerpoint.pdf "2010 Israeli Arab/Palestinian Public Opinion Survey"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111100000/http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/reports/2010/1209_israel_public_opinion_telhami/israeli_arab_powerpoint.pdf |date=11 January 2012 }}, University of Maryland with Zogby International, 2010.</ref>

Amongst other things, a 2012 survey by Mada al-Carmel, the Arab Center for Applied Social Research, asked Arab students what obstacles they felt they faced in getting into university: 71% said the psychometric exam was the primary obstacle, while 40% cited "Jewish racism".<ref name= "2012survey">{{cite news |url= https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/study-arab-teens-feel-no-connection-to-the-state-1.427879 |title= Study: Arab teens feel no connection to the state |last= Khoury |first= Jack |date= 3 May 2012 |newspaper= Haaretz |access-date=3 May 2012 }}</ref> The survey also found that 45 percent of those questioned felt no pride in Israeli achievements in whatever field, with another 13% reporting negative feelings about them.<ref name= "2012survey"/>

A Pew Research poll released in March 2016 showed that close to half of all Israeli Jews are in favor of "transferring or expelling" Israel's Arab population. 48% of Israeli Jews strongly agree or agree with the idea, and 46% strongly disagree or disagree. The in-person polling was conducted in a relatively "calm" from late 2014 through early 2015.<ref>[http://forward.com/news/israel/335292/48-of-israeli-jews-back-expulsion-or-transfer-of-arabs-new-pew-survey-says/ 48% of Israeli Jews Back 'Expulsion' or 'Transfer' of Arabs, New Pew Survey Says] The Forward, 8 March 2016</ref>

In December 2022, support for a two-state solution was 33% among Palestinians, 34% among Israeli Jews, and 60% among Israeli Arabs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israeli, Palestinian support for two-state solution declines - poll |url=https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/article-752542 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=29 July 2023}}</ref> At the end of October 2023, after the [[2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel|Hamas-led attack on Israel]], the two-state solution had the support of 71.9% of Israeli Arabs and 28.6% of Israeli Jews.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=What Israelis Think of the War With Hamas |url=https://time.com/6333781/israel-hamas-poll-palestine/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=10 November 2023}}</ref> According to a poll published by the [[Israel Democracy Institute]], only 24% of Israeli Arabs believe that the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] is trying to uphold international law in the war between Israel and Hamas.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gazans' well-being is secondary to Israel's war plans, Israeli Jews believe - poll |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-hamas-war/article-778742 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=19 December 2023}}</ref>

In December 2023, during the Israel-Hamas war, the Druze were the Israeli Arab minority which most identified with the state of Israel (80%), followed by Christians (73%) and Muslims (62%). For residents of the Negev, most of whom are Bedouin, the figure was 73%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Most Arab Israelis: October 7 Attack Does Not Reflect Islamic, Palestinian, or Arab Society Values |url=https://en.idi.org.il/articles/52016 |access-date=2024-05-24 |website=en.idi.org.il |language=he}}</ref>

===Violence against Arab citizens in Israel===
Alexander Yakobson of Jerusalem's Hebrew University has said "There is very little actual violence between Israeli Jews and Israeli Arabs. Given the length and the intensity of the conflict, that is both surprising and encouraging."<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 June 2010 |title=Under siege too |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2010/06/17/under-siege-too |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220702222200/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2010/06/17/under-siege-too |archive-date=2 July 2022 |access-date=6 August 2025 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In the 1956 [[Kafr Qasim massacre]], 48 unarmed Arab citizens, returning to their village, were gunned down by an Israel Border Police platoon; a curfew had been imposed, but the villagers were not informed of it. Arab citizens have also been killed by Israeli security forces in the wake of violent demonstrations and riots, such as the March 1976 [[Land Day]] demonstrations, which left 6 dead, and the [[October 2000 events]] in which 12 Israeli Arabs and one Palestinian from Gaza were killed.

In 2005 an [[AWOL]] [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] soldier, [[Eden Natan-Zada]] opened fire in a bus in [[Shefa-Amr]] in northern Israel, murdering four Arabs and wounding twenty-two others. No group had taken credit for the terrorist attack and an official in the settler movement denounced it.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/05/international/middleeast/05mideast.html|title=Jewish Militant Opens Fire on Bus of Israeli Arabs, Killing 4|last=Myre|first=Greg|date=5 August 2005|work=The New York Times|access-date=21 March 2010<!--DASHBot-->}}</ref>

Arab activists have complained about the police abandoning Arab towns to intra communal violence at the hands of common criminals and murderers, calling for cooperation with Israeli police and internal security services under the slogan of "Arab Lives Matter".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tarnapolsky|first=Noga|date=4 Oct 2021|title=The Gangland Murders Forcing Israel to its Breaking Point|work=The Daily Beast|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-gangland-murders-forcing-israel-to-its-breaking-point?source=articles&via=rss}}</ref>

===Arab victims of terrorism===
[[File:Isaac Herzog in Rahat, October 2023 (1446).jpeg|thumb|Israeli President [[Isaac Herzog]] in the city of [[Rahat]] with heads of the [[Negev Bedouin|Bedouin]] community and families of kidnapped and murdered Bedouins during the [[2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel|Hamas-led attack on Israel]] on 7 October 2023]]
Arab citizens have also been victims of Palestinian, Arab, or Islamist attacks on Israel and Israelis. For example, on 12 September 1956, three [[Druze]] guards were killed in an attack on Ein Ofarim, in the [[Arabah]] region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Terrorism/terror1952_1989.html|title=Worldwide Terror Attacks on Jewish Targets (1952–2003)|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Two Arab citizens were killed in the [[Ma'alot massacre]] carried out by the [[Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] on 15 May 1974. In March 2002, a resident of the Arab town of [[Tur'an]] was killed in an attack on a Haifa restaurant.<ref name=Haaretz>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=312052&contrassID=2&subContrassID=14&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y |title=The other victims |author=Vered Levy-Barzilai |publisher=[[Haaretz]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210003630/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=312052&contrassID=2&subContrassID=14&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y |archive-date=10 December 2007 }}</ref> Two months later, a woman from [[Jaffa]] was killed in a [[Hamas]] [[suicide attack|suicide bombing]] in [[Rishon LeZion]].<ref name=Haaretz/> On 18 June 2002, a woman from the Arab border town of [[Barta'a]] was one of 19 killed by Hamas in the [[Pat Junction Bus Bombing]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref name=Haaretz/> In August 2002, a man from the Arab town of [[Maghar, Israel|Mghar]] and woman from the Druze village of [[Sajur]] were killed in a suicide bombing at [[Meron, Israel|Meron]] junction.<ref name=Haaretz/> On 21 October 2002, an [[Carmel City|Isfiya]] man and a [[Tayibe]] woman were among 14 killed by [[Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine|Islamic Jihad]] in the [[Karkur junction suicide bombing|Egged bus 841 massacre]].<ref name=Haaretz/> On 5 March 2003, a 13-year-old girl from the Druze town of [[Daliyat al-Karmel]] was one of 17 killed in the [[Haifa bus 37 suicide bombing]].<ref name=Haaretz/> In May 2003, a [[Jisr az-Zarqa]] man was killed in an [[Afula]] mall suicide bombing.<ref name=Haaretz/> On 19 March 2004, [[Fatah]] [[al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]] gunmen killed [[George Khoury (murder victim)|George Khoury]], a [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem|Hebrew University]] student.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israel.org/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Memorial/2004/George+Khoury.htm |title=George Khoury |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029031101/http://www.israel.org/MFA/Terrorism-%20Obstacle%20to%20Peace/Memorial/2004/George%20Khoury.htm |archive-date=29 October 2015 }}</ref> On 12 December 2004, five Arab IDF soldiers were killed in an explosion and shooting at the border with Egypt for which the [[Fatah Hawks]] claimed responsibility.<ref>[http://www.standwithus.com/pdfs/flyers/postArafatViolence.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317085359/http://www.standwithus.com/pdfs/flyers/postArafatViolence.pdf|date=17 March 2013}}</ref> On 4 October 2003, four Arab citizens of Israel were among the 21 killed by [[Hanadi Jaradat]] in the [[Maxim restaurant suicide bombing]]. In July 2006, 19 Arab citizens were killed due to [[Hezbollah]] rocket fire in the course of the [[2006 Lebanon War]].

On 22 August 2006, 11 Arab tourists from Israel were killed when their [[Sinai bus crash|bus overturned]] in Egypt's [[Sinai Peninsula]]. Israel sent [[Magen David Adom]], but the ambulances waited for hours at the border before receiving Egyptian permission to enter and treat the wounded, responsible for at least one of the deaths. The victims say that the driver acted as part of a planned terrorist attack, and are attempting to receive compensation from the government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3303434,00.html|title=Israeli Arabs against Mubarak: Learn from Israel|newspaper=Ynetnews|date=13 September 2006|last1=Cohen|first1=Avi}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pressmethod.com/releasestorage/17932.htm |title=Israeli Arab Survivors of Bus Overturn in Egypt Want Compensation As Terror Victims |access-date=2007-12-10 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210001121/http://www.pressmethod.com/releasestorage/17932.htm |archive-date=10 December 2007}}</ref>

==Relations with other Palestinians==
During the [[2021 Israel–Palestine crisis]], according to [[Al Arabiya English|Al Arabiya]], Fatah backed a call for a general strike on 18 May 2021 in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem and Palestinians in Israel were asked to take part.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2021/5/17/palestinians-in-west-bank-israel-declare-general-strike|title=Palestinians in West Bank, Israel declare general strike in unprecedented show of unity|work=The New Arab|date=17 May 2021|access-date=26 May 2021|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517124444/https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2021/5/17/palestinians-in-west-bank-israel-declare-general-strike|url-status=live}}</ref> In an unusual display of unity by "Palestinian citizens of Israel, who make up 20% of its population, and those in the territories Israel seized in 1967"{{efn|Pro-Palestinian activists have dubbed the May 2021 Palestinian reaction to Israeli policies in Sheikh Jarrah and the Al-Aqsa compound as the "Unity Intifada." The term denotes the national solidarity and religious duty shared by the resisting Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, Eastern Jerusalem, and Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/responses/a-second-look-at-the-political-mobilization-of-the-palestinian-citizens-of-israel|title=A Second Look at the Political Mobilization of the Palestinian Citizens of Israel|website=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World Affairs}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Akram|first1=Fares|last2=Nessman|first2=Ravi|title=Palestinians go on strike as Israel-Hamas fighting rages|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/israel-hamas-trade-fire-in-gaza-as-war-enters-2nd-week/2021/05/18/d0ffae66-b7a2-11eb-bc4a-62849cf6cca9_story.html|access-date=23 May 2021|issn=0190-8286|url-access=subscription|archive-date=27 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527214817/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/israel-hamas-trade-fire-in-gaza-as-war-enters-2nd-week/2021/05/18/d0ffae66-b7a2-11eb-bc4a-62849cf6cca9_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> the strike went ahead and "shops were shuttered across cities in Gaza, the occupied West Bank and in villages and towns inside Israel".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2021/5/18/in-pictures-palestinians-unite-with-a-general-strike|title=In Pictures: In show of unity, Palestinians go on strike|work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|date=18 May 2021|access-date=26 May 2021|archive-date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522185940/https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2021/5/18/in-pictures-palestinians-unite-with-a-general-strike|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:Almidan Theatre (4).JPG|thumb|right|[[Al-Midan Theater]] in [[Haifa]]]]
Many Arab citizens of Israel share in the culture of the [[Palestinian people]] and wider Arab region of which a number of them form a part. There are still some women who produce Palestinian cultural products such as [[Tatreez|Palestinian embroidery]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://imeu.net/news/article003822.shtml|title=IMEU: Palestinian embroidery and textiles: A nation's tale|access-date=14 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201083644/http://imeu.net/news/article003822.shtml|archive-date=1 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalfundforwomen.org/cms/content/view/86/125/|title=Global Fund for Women – Grantee Profile – Laqiya|access-date=14 June 2008| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070412040520/http://www.globalfundforwomen.org/cms/content/view/86/125| archive-date=12 April 2007}}</ref> and [[Palestinian costumes|costume]]. The Palestinian folk dance, known as the [[dabke]], continues to be taught to youth in cultural groups, and is often danced at weddings and other parties.

===Cultural centers===
[[File:Nazareth Altstadt.JPG|thumb|right|The house of culture and art in [[Nazareth]]]]
As the largest Arab city in Israel, [[Nazareth]] is a cultural, political, economic and commercial center of the Arab citizens of Israel, and became also a center of Arab and [[Palestinian nationalism]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tamir Sorek|title=Palestinian Commemoration in Israel: Calendars, Monuments, and Martyrs|date=10 March 2015|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-9520-3|page=97|edition=2|quote=}}</ref> Haifa, however, is the center of liberal [[Arab culture|Arabic-speaking culture]], as it was under British colonial rule. Arabs in Haifa (mostly Christians and Muslims) tend to be wealthier and better educated compared to Arabs elsewhere in Israel.<ref name=NYT01416/> An active Arab cultural life has developed in the 21st century.<ref name=NYT01416/> Haifa is center of a number of Arab-owned businesses such as [[theaters]], [[Bar (establishment)|bars]], cafes, [[restaurants]] and [[nightclub]]s which host also a different cultural discussions and art exhibitions.<ref name=NYT01416/>

Other centers of Arab and Palestinian cultures includes [[Kafr Yasif]] and [[Rameh]]. According to the historian [[Atallah Mansour]], [[Kafr Yasif]] is the "most academic Arab town in Israel",<ref>Mansour, 2004, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rukHhGrQfHkC&pg=PA256 256].</ref> while journalist Sylvia Smith calls it "the preeminent [Arab] cultural town".<ref name="SmithBBC">{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Sylvia |title=First Palestinian male ballet dancer battles prejudices |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-19202612 |access-date=7 June 2020 |work=BBC News |date=11 August 2012}}</ref> With the near total depopulation of the Palestinian Arabs in the major cities of Haifa and Jaffa as a result of the 1948 war, Kafr Yasif and [[Rameh]] became one of a few villages in the newly established state of Israel to emerge as a central space for Arab culture and politics.<ref name="Shihade456">Shihade 2014, p. 456.</ref> Its schools, proximity and location between major cities and other Arab villages, the relatively equal distribution of land ownership among its households and the diversity brought about by the influx of internally displaced Palestinians all contributed to its local importance.<ref name="Shihade456"/>

In 1948, it was the only Arab locality in the Galilee to contain a high school outside of the cities of Nazareth, Shefa-Amr and Haifa.<ref name="Shihade456"/> Following the war, the high school enrolled students from over fifty Arab villages.<ref name="Shihade456"/> Several students, including [[Mahmoud Darwish]], became well-known poets, and the village hosted weekly poetry recitals.<ref name="Shihade456"/> As of the 1960s, the people of [[Rameh]] have been noted for their high levels of education and standards of living.

===Language===
{{further|Arabic language in Israel}}
[[File:Jissr-groom.jpg|thumb|right|A wedding groom and his horse, Jisr az-Zarka, 2009]]
Linguistically speaking, the majority of Arabic citizens of Israel are fluently bilingual, speaking both a [[Palestinian Arabic]] dialect and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. In Arab homes and towns, the primary language spoken is Arabic. Some Hebrew words have entered the colloquial Arabic dialect. For example, Arabs often use the word ''beseder'' (equivalent of "Okay") while speaking Arabic. Other Hebrew words that are regularly interspersed are ''ramzor'' (stoplight), ''mazgan'' (air conditioner), and ''mahshev'' (computer). The resulting dialect is usually referred to as 'Israeli Arabic'.

Such borrowings are often "Arabized" to reflect not only [[Arabic phonology]] but the phonology of Hebrew as spoken by Arabs. For example, the second consonant of מעונות (''me'onot'', "dormitory") would be pronounced as a [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]] rather than the [[glottal stop]] traditionally used by the vast majority of Israeli Jews. A survey by the Central Bureau of Statistics released in 2013 found that 60% of [[Israeli Arabs]] were proficient or highly proficient in Hebrew, while 17% could not read it and 12% could not speak it.<ref name=ynet>{{cite news |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4335235,00.html |title=CBS: 27% of Israelis struggle with Hebrew |first=Yaron |last=Druckman |newspaper=Ynetnews |date=21 January 2013 |publisher=Ynet News |access-date=15 December 2017 }}</ref>

There are different local colloquial dialects among Arabs in different regions and localities. For example, the [[Triangle (Israel)|Little Triangle]] residents of [[Umm al-Fahm]] are known for pronouncing the [[kaph]] sound with a "ch" (as-in-cheese) rather than "k" (as-in-kite). Some Arabic words or phrases are used only in their respective localities, such as the Nazareth word for "now" which is ''issa'', and ''silema'' a local modification of the English word "cinema".<ref>Kimary N. Shahin, ''Palestinian Rural Arabic (Abu Shusha dialect)''. 2nd ed. University of British Columbia. LINCOM Europa, 2000 ({{ISBN|978-3-89586-960-0}})</ref><ref>Frank A. Rice, ''Eastern Arabic-English, English-Eastern Arabic: dictionary and phrasebook for the spoken Arabic of Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine/Israel and Syria''. New York: Hippocrene Books 1998 ({{ISBN|978-0-7818-0685-5}})</ref> The [[Druze Arabic dialect]], especially in the villages, is often different from the other regional Israeli Arabic dialects. Druze Arabic dialect is distinguished from others by retention of the phoneme /''[[Qoph|qāf]]''/.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Samy Swayd|title=Historical Dictionary of the Druzes|date=10 March 2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-4617-1|page=50|edition=2|quote=}}</ref> They often use [[Hebrew script|Hebrew characters]] to write their Arabic dialect online.<ref>Gaash, Amir (2016). "Colloquial Arabic written in Hebrew characters on Israeli websites by Druzes (and other non-Jews)". ''Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam'' (43–44): 15.</ref>

Arab citizens of Israel tend to watch both the Arab satellite news stations and Israeli cable stations and read both Arabic and Hebrew newspapers, comparing the information against one another.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Culture of Media Consumption among National Minorities: The Case of Arab Society in Israel|author=Amal Jamal|publisher=I'lam Media Center for Arab Palestinians in Israel|date=December 2006}}</ref>

===Music and art===
{{See also|Palestinian art#Palestinian artists in Israel|l1=Palestinian artists in Israel}}
[[File:Dam territorios 01.JPG|thumb|right|[[DAM (band)|DAM band]]]]
The [[Palestinian art]] scene in general has been supported by the contributions of Arab citizens of Israel.<ref name="Zvi"/> In addition to the contribution of artists such as singer [[Rim Banna]] (from [[Nazareth]]) and [[Amal Murkus]] (from [[Kafr Yasif]]) to evolving traditional [[Palestinian music|Palestinian]] and [[Arabic music]] styles, a new generation of Arab youth in Israel has also begun asserting a Palestinian identity in new musical forms. For instance of the Palestinian hip hop group [[DAM (band)|DAM]], from Lod, has spurred the emergence of other hip hop groups from Akka, to Bethlehem, to Ramallah, to Gaza City. [[DAM (band)|DAM]] is the first [[Palestinian hip hop]] group.<ref name=BBC>{{cite news |title=Rival rappers reflect Mid-East conflict |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4039399.stm |access-date=26 February 2019 |work=BBC News |date=26 November 2004}}
</ref>

Singer-songwriter such as [[Nasrin Kadri]], [[Mira Awad]], [[Lina Makhul]], Luay Ali, Sharif "the druze boy" have put Arab citizens of Israel on the musical map.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/diplomacy-and-politics/pa-bans-druse-singer-from-ramallah-new-years-bash|title=PA bans Druse singer from Ramallah New Years bash|website=The Jerusalem Post &#124; JPost.com|date=31 December 2011 }}</ref>

In the art scene, the Palestinian minority in Israel has asserted its identity according to Ben Zvi, who suggests that this group of artists who are identified "on the one hand, as part of a broad Palestinian cultural system, and on the other — in a differentiated manner — as the Palestinian minority in Israel."<ref name="Zvi">{{cite web |title=Hagar: Contemporary Palestinian Art |author1=Tal Ben Zvi |year=2006 |publisher=Hagar Association |url=http://www.hagar-gallery.com/Catalogues/docs/PArt_eng_final.pdf |access-date=2007-06-05}}</ref> The issue of identity becomes particularly clear in an artwork of the Palestinian artist [[Raafat Hattab]] from [[Jaffa]]. The video performance "untitled" was part of the exhibition "Men in the Sun" in the Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art in 2009. In the work, Raafat Hattab is seen as he pours water into a bucket in order to lengthily water an olive tree which is a sign for the lost paradise before [[1948 Palestinian exodus|1948]]. The scene is primed by the song ''Hob'' (Love) by the Lebanese [[Ahmad Kaabour]] which expresses the need for Palestinian solidarity. The chorus repeats the phrase "I left a place" and it seems as if the video is dealing with memory. But as the camera zooms out, the spectator realizes that Hattab and the olive tree both actually stand in the middle of the [[Rabin Square]], a main place in [[Tel Aviv]], and the water used for watering the tree comes from the nearby fountain. "In my installations I appear in different identities that combined are my identity — a Palestinian minority in Israel and a queer minority in the Palestinian culture", explains Rafaat Hattab in an interview with the Tel Avivian City Mouse Magazine.<ref name="City Mouse Magazine">{{cite news |last=Halperin |first=Neta |date=23 March 2012 |title=The Palestinian art scene is flourishing |url=http://www.mouse.co.il/CM.articles_item,416,209,67122,.aspx |access-date=18 April 2013 |newspaper=City Mouse Magazine (Tel Aviv)}}</ref> Asim Abu Shaqra's focus of the sabra plant (prickly pear cactus) in his paintings is another example of the centrality of identity, especially vis-a-vie the Palestinian subject's Israeli counterpart, in Palestinian art. Tal Ben Zvi writes that Abu Shaqra is one of the few Palestinian artists, who have succeeded in entering the canon of Israeli art.<ref name="LR"/>{{rp|115}} Abu Shaqra painted various paintings featuring the sabra, both a symbol for the Palestinian Nakba and a symbol for the new Israeli and his work stirred up a debate in the Israeli art discourse over the image of the sabra in Israeli culture and over questions of cultural appropriation and ownership of this image.<ref name="LR">{{cite journal |last=Ben Zvi |first=Tal |title=Landscape Representations in Palestinian Art and Israeli Art Discourse: The Case of Asim Abu Shaqra |url=http://www.levantine-journal.org/Landscape+Representations+in+Palestinian+Art+and+Israeli+Art+Discourse+The+Case+of+Asim+Abu+Shaqra_h_hd_77_14.aspx |journal=Journal of Levantine Studies |volume=3 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219010140/http://www.levantine-journal.org/Landscape+Representations+in+Palestinian+Art+and+Israeli+Art+Discourse+The+Case+of+Asim+Abu+Shaqra_h_hd_77_14.aspx |archive-date=2014-02-19 |access-date=2014-03-02}}</ref>{{rp|118}}

===Cuisine===
[[File:Akko, September 2015 (494).jpg|thumb|right|"Doniana" is a popular Arab [[seafood]] restaurant in Acre]]
[[Arab cuisine]] in Israel is similar to other [[Levantine cuisine]]s and is rich in grains, meat, potato, cheese, bread, [[Whole grain#Varieties|whole grains]], [[Fruit#Food uses|fruits]], [[Vegetable#Cultivation|vegetables]], fresh [[Fish (food)|fish]] and tomatoes. Perhaps the most distinctive aspect of Israeli Arab and Levantine cuisine is ''[[meze]]'' including ''[[tabbouleh]]'', ''[[hummus]]'' and ''[[baba ghanoush]]'', ''[[kibbeh nayyeh]]'' is also a popular mezze among Israeli Arabs. Other famous foods among Israeli Arab include [[falafel]], [[sfiha]], [[shawarma]], [[dolma]], [[kibbeh]], [[Stuffed squash|kusa mahshi]], [[Joshpara|shishbarak]], [[muhammara]], and [[mujaddara]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Food Cultures of Israel: Recipes, Customs, and Issues |first=Michael |last=Ashkenazi |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6686-9 |page=XXIII |publisher=ABC-CLIO}}</ref> Druze pita is a Druze-styled [[pita]] filled with [[labneh]] (thick yoghurt) and topped with [[olive oil]] and [[za'atar]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Lonely Planet Israel & the Palestinian Territories |first=Anita |last=Isalska |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-78701-924-9 |page=5 |publisher=Lonely Planet}}</ref> and a popular bread in Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/food/articles/taste-of-druze-cuisine|title=A Taste of Druze Cuisine|date=20 November 2019|publisher=Tabletmag}}</ref>

Arabic restaurants are popular in Israel and relatively inexpensive establishments often offer a selection of ''[[meze]]'' salads followed by grilled meat with a side of "chips" ([[french fries]], from [[British English]]) and a simple dessert such as chocolate [[mousse]] for dessert.<ref>Gur, pg. 12</ref> "The Old Man and the Sea" is a popular Arab seafood restaurant in the southern part of [[Ajami, Jaffa]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Dilson|first=Jacob|title=The Old Man and The Sea: A Locally Owned Middle Eastern Restaurant on Israel's Mediterranean Coastline in Jaffa, Tel Aviv|url=http://www.dininghalldigest.com/2009/04/old-man-and-sea-locally-owned-middle.html|publisher=Dining Hall Digest|access-date=2010-10-27|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028100304/http://www.dininghalldigest.com/2009/04/old-man-and-sea-locally-owned-middle.html|archive-date=28 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Malmad|first=Yael|title= הזקן והדג: איפה אוכלים דגים טובים במחיר הוגן ביפו?|url=http://www.nrg.co.il/online/55/ART2/161/237.html|publisher=NRG|access-date=2010-10-27| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101019214401/http://www.nrg.co.il/online/55/ART2/161/237.html| archive-date= 19 October 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> [[Abu Hassan (restaurant)|Abu Hassan]] is a small [[hummus]] restaurant located at the northern tip of Ajami. It was opened in 1959 by Ali Karawan and now has two additional branches in Jaffa.<ref>{{cite web|title=Abu Hassan, the glorious Jaffa's hummus |url=http://humus101.com/EN/2007/02/13/abu-hassan-the-glorious-jaffas-hummus/|publisher=The Hummus Blog|access-date=11 January 2010}}</ref> It has been rated as the best [[hummus]] restaurant in Israel in a number of lists. The restaurant is famous for its loyal clientele of Arabs and Jews.

[[Falafel HaZkenim]] (Hebrew: "the elders") is an Arab Israeli restaurant and [[falafel]] stand, located in [[Wadi Nisnas]], [[Haifa]]. Since its foundation, guests are greeted with a free falafel ball dipped in [[tahini]]. Foodies consider HaZkenim's [[falafel]] among the best in Israel.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3218278,00.html|title=הפלאפל הכי טוב - מצפון ועד דרום|first=יעל|last=גרטי|date=19 February 2006|publisher=|access-date=16 November 2018|newspaper=Ynet}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.co.il/1.3349296|title=10 הפלאפליות הכי טובות בישראל|newspaper=הארץ |date=5 March 2009|publisher=|access-date=16 November 2018|trans-newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.makorrishon.co.il/nrg/online/55/ART2/096/457.html|title=סגנון - אוכל nrg - ...העם אמר את דברו: 10 הפלאפלים הכי|website=www.makorrishon.co.il|access-date=16 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-4041031,00.html|title=החיים בפיתה: הפלאפל הכי טעים בארץ|first=שרית|last=סרדס-טרוטינו|date=13 March 2011|publisher=|access-date=16 November 2018|newspaper=Ynet}}</ref> It was founded in 1950 by George and Najala Afara.<ref name=walla-2547349 >{{cite web|url=https://food.walla.co.il/item/2547349|title=המוסד: פלאפל הזקנים - וואלה! אוכל|date=16 July 2012 |publisher=|access-date=16 November 2018}}</ref> The falafel stand initially had no signage. Jewish customers often said that they would go to "hazkenim" (the old folks) for falafel, while Arab customers identified the place with the female co-owner. When the owners did put up a sign, it contained both names.

===Sport===
[[File:20180920 Fussball, UEFA Europa League, RB Leipzig - FC Salzburg by Stepro StP 8028.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mu'nas Dabbur]], professional [[association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[striker (association football)|striker]] for [[Bundesliga]] club [[TSG 1899 Hoffenheim|1899 Hoffenheim]] and the [[Israel national football team|Israel national team]]]]
Arab citizens of Israel have been prominent in the field of sport, as seen specifically by their contributions to Israeli football.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Gilmore|first1=Ingigo|title=Arab players have been hailed as heroes in Israels World Cup campaign|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/1487028/Arab-players-hailed-as-heroes-in-Israels-World-Cup-campaign.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/1487028/Arab-players-hailed-as-heroes-in-Israels-World-Cup-campaign.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|website=The Telegraph|access-date=7 May 2015|date=2005-04-02}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Players such as [[Abbas Suan]] have had illustrious careers playing not only professional football, but also most notably for the [[Israel national football team]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Abbas Suan |url=http://www.knowledgedb.org/?pageid=44671 |website=KnowledgeDB |access-date=7 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518081314/http://www.knowledgedb.org/?pageid=44671 |archive-date=18 May 2015 }}</ref> These players have been argued to represent symbols of political movement and civil justice for the Arab citizens of Israel, considering alleged discriminatory sentiments against the Arab population.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Kessel|first1=Jerrold|title=On the Couch / Stand up, Speak up|url=https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/sports/on-the-couch-stand-up-speak-up-1.149921|journal=Haaretz|access-date=7 May 2015|date=2005-02-11}}</ref> Specifically in a 2005 World Cup Qualifying match, Suan and his Arab teammates played significant roles for the Israeli National Team, where Suan scored an equalising goal against the [[Republic of Ireland national football team]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wildman|first1=Sarah|title=Soccer, Racism and Israel's Unlikely World Cup Hero: Abbas Suan, Arab Muslim|url=http://www.politicsdaily.com/2010/05/29/soccer-racism-and-israels-unlikely-world-cup-hero-abbas-suan/|website=Politics Daily|access-date=7 May 2015}}</ref> Following this match, Arab citizens of Israel received unprecedented media attention from Israeli TV stations. Even without the publicity, the Arab citizens of Israel have been said to look up to these players in hopes that they speak up for them as their political voice within Israel.<ref name=Chabin>{{cite web|title=''Arab Players Key to Israel Success''|author=Michelle Chabin|publisher=USA Today|year=2005|access-date=3 May 2015|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/soccer/world/2005-06-03-arab-israel-team_x.htm}}</ref>
In the following months, Suan and other players were criticised by the Hebrew media for their involvement with political issues.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shor|first1=Eran|title=In Search of a Voice: Arab soccer players in the Israeli media|url=http://www.mei.edu/content/search-voice-arab-soccer-players-israeli-media|website=Middle Eastern Institute|access-date=7 May 2015}}</ref> This was due to their answers to questions regarding their partaking in the singing of the [[Hatikvah]], the [[national anthem]] of Israel.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shor|first1=Eran|last2=Yonay|first2=Yuvel|title='Play and Shut up': The silencing of Palestinian athletes in Israeli media|journal= Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=34|issue=2|pages=229–247|date=10 September 2010|doi=10.1080/01419870.2010.503811|s2cid=145186844}}</ref>

Overall, Israel-Palestinian soccer players are looked up to greatly by the Arab citizens of Israel, yet are allegedly criticised and silenced when it comes to their attempts to involve themselves in political issues surrounding equality for Arab citizens in Israel.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Erlanger|first1=Steven|title=A National Hero One Day, An Enemy to Some the Next|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/22/sports/soccer/22soccer.html?_r=0|journal=The New York Times|access-date=7 May 2015|date=2005-04-22}}</ref>

===Cinema and theater===
Arab citizens of Israel have made significant contributions in both Hebrew and Arabic cinema and theater. [[Mohammad Bakri]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0202207/|title=Salim Dau|website=IMDb}}</ref> [[Hiam Abbass]],<ref name="Interview">{{Cite web|url=https://en.qantara.de/content/interview-with-hiam-abbas-rapprochement-through-debate|title=Interview with Hiam Abbas: Rapprochement through Debate - Qantara.de|website=Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World|date=21 April 2006 }}</ref> and [[Juliano Mer-Khamis]] have starred in Israeli film and television. Directors such as Mohammad Bakri, [[Elia Suleiman]], [[Hany Abu-Assad]], [[Michel Khleifi]], and [[Maysaloun Hamoud]] have put Arab citizens of Israel on the cinematic map.

''Avoda Aravit'' (2007), or in English, ''[[Arab Labor]]'', is a satirical sitcom written by Kashua and aired on Israel's [[Channel 2 (Israel)|Channel 2]]. A large part of the dialogue is in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] with Hebrew subtitles. The show holds a mirror up to the racism and ignorance on both sides of the ethnic divide and has been compared with ''[[All in the Family]]''. The show received overwhelmingly positive reviews, winning awards for Best Comedy, Best Lead Actor in a Comedy, Best Lead Actress in a Comedy, Best Director, and Best Screenplay at the 2013 Israeli Academy of Film and Television awards.<ref>{{cite news|title='Arab Labor' TV show sweeps local awards|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/arab-labor-tv-show-sweeps-local-awards-ceremony/|last=Steinberg|first=Jessica|website=[[The Times of Israel]]|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-08 |issn=0040-7909}}</ref>

===Literature===
Acclaimed Israeli-Arab authors include [[Emil Habibi]], [[Anton Shammas]], and [[Sayed Kashua]].

==See also==
{{columns-list|
* [[Arab-Israeli peace projects]]
* [[Israeli apartheid]]
* [[Israeli Jews]]
* [[Israelis]]
* [[List of Arab citizens of Israel]]
* [[List of Arab members of the Knesset]]
* [[Racism in Israel]]
* [[Sumud]]
* [[Lebanese in Israel]]
}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Sa'di, Ahmad H., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23654690 Trends in Israeli Social Science Research on the National Identity of the Palestinian Citizens of Israel], Asian Journal of Social Science 32, no. 1 (2004): 140–60
* Muhammad Amara, [https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/full/10.3366/hlps.2016.0141 Language, Identity and Conflict: Examining Collective Identity through the Labels of the Palestinians in Israel], Journal of Holy Land and Palestine Studies 15.2 (2016): 203–223 Edinburgh University Press, DOI: 10.3366/hlps.2016.0141
* {{cite book|title=Ethnicity, Pluralism, and the State in the Middle East|editor1= Milton J Esman|editor2=Itamar Rabinovich|
chapter=Chapter 6.The Different Levels of Palestinian Ethnicity| author= Aziz Haidar |publisher =Cornell University Press|date=1988|doi=10.7591/9781501745751-007|isbn= 978-0-8014-9502-1|s2cid= 210556679}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{ Cite book
 | first=Tamir
 | last=Sorek
 | title=Palestinian Commemoration in Israel: Calendars, Monuments, and Martyrs
 | publisher=Stanford University Press
 | year=2015
 | isbn=978-0-8047-9520-3
 | location=Stanford, CA
 | url=http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=23855
}}
* {{Cite book| chapter = Forced Sedentarisation, Land Rights and Indigenous Resistance: The Bedouin in the Negev
 | last = Abu-Sa‘ad | first = Ismael | year = 2005
 | title = Catastrophe Remembered: Palestine, Israel and the Internal Refugees
 | editor-last = Masalha | editor-first = Nur | editor-link = Nur Masalha
 | publisher = [[Zed Books]]
 | chapter-url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263086726
 | via = [[ResearchGate]]
 | pages = 113–141
 | isbn = 978-1-842-77622-3
}}
* Morris, Benny, ''1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War'', (2009) Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-300-15112-1}}
* Orgad, Liav (PhD), IDC, Hertzlia, "Internationalizing the issue of Israeli Arabs", Maariv, 19 March 2006. p.&nbsp;7.
* "Israel's Arab Citizens: The Continuing Struggle" by Mark Tessler; Audra K. Grant. ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', Vol. 555, Israel in Transition. (Jan., 1998), pp.&nbsp;97–113. {{JSTOR|1049214}}.
* ''The Israeli Palestinians: an Arab minority in the Jewish state'' / Alexander Bligh 2003. (book){{cite book|chapter=Table of contents|title=The Israeli Palestinians: an Arab minority in the Jewish state |editor= Alexander Bligh|chapter-url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/fy038/2002154407.html|lccn= 2002154407|access-date=14 June 2008}}
* ''Tall shadows: interviews with Israeli Arabs'' / Smadar Bakovic 2006 English Book 313 p.&nbsp;Lanham, MD: Hamilton Books, {{ISBN|978-0-7618-3289-8}}
* ''Israel's Arab Citizens'' / Laurence Louër; John King 2006 London: C. Hurst & Co. Ltd. {{ISBN|978-1-85065-798-9}}
* ''Arab citizens in Israel: the ongoing conflict with the state'' / Massoud Ahmad Eghbarieh. Thesis (PhD). University of Maryland at College Park, 1991.
* ''[https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/eastern-mediterranean/israelpalestine/identity-crisis-israel-and-its-arab-citizens Identity crisis: Israel and its Arab citizens]''. International Crisis Group. 2004.
* Pappe, Ilan, ''The Forgotten Palestinians: A History of the Palestinians in Israel'', (2011) Yale University Press
* Peleg, Ilan, and Dov Waxman, ''Israel's Palestinians: The Conflict Within'', (2011) Cambridge University Press
* Reiter, Yitzhak, ''National Minority, Regional Majority: Palestinian Arabs Versus Jews in Israel (Syracuse Studies on Peace and Conflict Resolution)'', (2009) Syracuse Univ Press (Sd). {{ISBN|978-0-8156-3230-6}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{commons category-inline}}

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[[Category:Arab citizens of Israel| ]]
[[Category:Israeli people of Palestinian descent|*]]
[[Category:Demographics of Israel|Arab citizens]]
[[Category:Society of Israel]]
[[Category:Social apartheid]]