View source for Arch of Galerius and Rotunda

{{Short description|4th-century Byzantine ruins}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
|WHS         = Rotunda
|Part_of     = [[Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki]]
|Image       = Ac.galerius2.jpg
|Caption     = The Rotunda of Galerius
|image_upright = 1.2
|location    = [[Thessaloniki]], Greece
|Criteria    = Cultural: i, ii, iv
|ID          = 456-002
|Coordinates = {{coord|40|38|00|N|22|57|10.5|E}}
|Year        = 1988
|Area        = {{Convert|0.587|ha}}
|locmapin    = Greece
}}

The '''Arch of Galerius''' ({{langx|el|Αψίδα του Γαλερίου}}) or '''Kamara''' ({{lang|el|Καμάρα}}) and the '''Rotunda of Galerius''' ({{lang|el|Ροτόντα}}) are neighbouring early fourth-century&nbsp;[[Anno domini|AD]] monuments in the city of [[Thessaloniki]], in the region of [[Central Macedonia]] in northern [[Greece]]. As an outstanding example of early [[Byzantine art]] and architecture, in addition to the importance of the [[rotunda]] as one of the earliest Christian monuments in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], both sites were inscribed on [[UNESCO]]'s [[World Heritage List]] in 1988 as part of the [[Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki]].<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/456 |access-date=5 November 2022 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Convention |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref>

==History==

[[Galerius]], a fourth-century [[Roman emperor]], commissioned these two structures as elements of an imperial precinct linked to his Thessaloniki palace. Archaeologists have found substantial remains of the palace to the southwest.{{Efn|The palace of Galerius was built on a massive scale using primarily local materials. It may have been built over the [[destruction layer]] of a fire that cleared an area. Expansive areas of [[mosaic]] are preserved in several areas. A structure linked to the palace and called the Octagonal Room is at the southwest end of the excavated area at 40°37'48.53"N, 22°56'55.99"E; thought at one point to be a [[mausoleum]], it may have been a monumental entryway to the palace. Beside the palace to the northeast was a [[hippodrome]].}} These three monumental structures were connected by a road that ran through the arch, which rose above the major east–west road of the city.

[[Image:Saint George Rotunda reconstruction.jpg|thumb|left|Rotunda and Arch of Galerius complex reconstruction]]
At the crux of the major axes of the city, the Arch of Galerius emphasized the power of the emperor and linked the monumental structures with the fabric of fourth-century Thessaloniki. The arch was composed of a [[masonry]] core faced with [[marble]] sculptural panels celebrating a victory over [[Narseh|Narses]] (Narseh), the seventh ruler of the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid (Persian) Empire]], in 299&nbsp;AD. About two-thirds of the arch is preserved.

The Rotunda of Galerius was a massive circular structure with a masonry core that had an [[Oculus (architecture)|oculus]] like the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome. It has gone through multiple periods of use and modification as a mausoleum, a Christian basilica, a Muslim mosque, and again a Christian church (and archaeological site). A [[minaret]] is preserved from its use as a mosque, and ancient remains are displayed on its southern side.

At some point, the knowledge of why the arch was constructed and who it was dedicated to was lost, as the arch simply depicts scenes from the triumph over the Sassanids and does not directly name Galerius.  By the time of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule of the region as part of [[Salonica vilayet]] in the 19th century, the arch was loosely speculated to be dedicated to one of the famous rulers people were familiar with{{snd}}[[Constantine the Great]], [[Philip II of Macedon]], and [[Alexander the Great]].  It was sometimes called the ''Arch of Philip'', the {{lang|fr|Arc du Constantin}}, and equivalents during this period.  [[Karl Frederik Kinch]] examined the arch in the 1880s, and published a monograph in 1890 identifying that it was dedicated to Galerius.<ref name="kiilerich">{{cite journal |last=Kiilerich |first=Bente |author-link=Bente Kiilerich |date=2019 |title=Karl Frederik Kinch &ndash; a Danish pioneer in Thessaloniki |url=https://hdl.handle.net/1956/23717 |journal=CLARA Classical Art and Archaeology |publisher=CLARA |volume=4 |doi=10.5617/clara.v4i0.6689 |hdl=1956/23717 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

In late 1864, when Frenchman Emmanuel Miller arrived in the city with the aim to remove and take to France the [[portico]] known as [[Las Incantadas]], the population of the city loudly objected. Public outcry grew even more intense when false rumours spread that Miller also intended to dismantle and remove the Arch of Galerius as well; the arch was not touched at all, but Las Incantadas was removed.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Mazower |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Mazower |title=Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430&ndash;1950 |publisher= Harper Collins Publications |date=2006 |isbn=9780007120222 |location=Athens |pages = 264–268 }}</ref>

==Arch of Galerius==

===Location and description===
[[File:Thessaloniki Arch and tomb of Galerius.jpg|thumb|The Arch of Galerius and the Rotunda (with a minaret, added later), 299–303&nbsp;AD]]

The Arch of Galerius stands on what is now the intersection of [[Egnatia Street, Thessaloniki|Egnatia]] and Dimitriou Gounari streets. Construction of the [[triumphal arch]] spanned the years 298 and 299&nbsp;AD; it was dedicated in 303&nbsp;AD to celebrate the victory of the [[tetrarchy|tetrarch]] Galerius over the Sassanids at the [[Battle of Satala (298)|Battle of Satala]] and the capture{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}} of their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 298.{{Efn|At this point Galerius was a {{lang|la|Caesar}} (subordinate emperor); he became one of the two {{lang|la|Augusti}} (head emperors) in 305&nbsp;AD, when [[Diocletian]] abdicated.}}

[[File:Arch of Galerius (Thessaloniki) 20180222.jpg|thumb|left|The Arch of Galerius]]
The structure was an [[octopylon]] (eight-pillared gateway) forming a triple arch that was built of a rubble masonry core faced first with brick and then with marble panels with sculptural relief. The central arched opening was 9.7&nbsp;m wide and 12.5&nbsp;m high, and the secondary openings on other side were 4.8&nbsp;m wide and 6.5&nbsp;m high. The central arch spanned the portion of the [[Via Egnatia]] (the primary Roman road from [[Dyrrhacium]] to [[Byzantium]]) that passed through the city as its ''[[decumanus maximus]]'' (major east-west street). A road connecting the rotunda (125&nbsp;m northeast) with the palace complex (235&nbsp;m southwest) passed through the arch along its long axis.

Only the northwestern three of the eight pillars and parts of the masonry cores of the arches above survive: i.e., the entire eastern side (four pillars) and the southernmost one of the western pillars are lost.{{Efn|The other parts of the structure were destroyed at an unknown date, probably during one of many [[earthquake]]s, which have damaged Thessaloniki throughout its history.}} Extensive consolidation with modern brick has been performed on the exposed masonry cores to protect the monument. The two pillars flanking the central arched passageway retain their sculpted marble slabs, which depict the wars of Galerius against the Sassanids in broadly [[panegyric]] terms.

===Sculptural features===
[[Image:Arch-of-Galerius-1.jpg|thumb|left|Galerius (left) attacks [[Narseh|Narses]] (right)]]
Understanding of the sculptural program of the arch is limited by the loss of the majority of the marble panels, but the remains give an impression of the whole. Four vertically-stacked [[Register (art)|registers]] of sculpted decoration were carved on each pillar, each separated by elaborate moldings. A label for the [[Tigris River]] indicates that there were likely labels on other representations as the builders deemed necessary. Artistic license was taken in the representations, for instance, the [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] Galerius is shown in personal combat with the [[List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Shah]] Narses in one of the panels; although they never met in battle.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} On the arch a mounted Galerius attacks a similarly mounted Narses with a [[lance]], as an eagle bearing a victory wreath in its talons approaches Galerius. The Caesar sits securely on his rearing horse, while the Sassanid king appears nearly unhorsed. Terrified Sassanids cower under the hooves of the Caesar's horse in the chaos of battle. The panel expresses the power of the Caesar Galerius.

[[Image:Arch of Galerius (sacrifice).jpg|thumb|The imperial family at the sacrifice of thanksgiving]]
The relief of the imperial family conjoined in a sacrifice of thanksgiving owes its distant prototype to the [[Augustus|Augustan]] reliefs on the ''[[Ara Pacis]]'' in Rome.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Galerius' wife, [[Diocletian]]'s daughter [[Galeria Valeria|Valeria]], is shown at his side, helping authenticate his connection to his predecessor.

In another panel, the tetrarchs are all arrayed in the toga as [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]] holds a victory wreath out to the heads of the two ''[[Augusti]]''. A third panel celebrates the unity of the tetrarchy, with a depiction of the tetrarchs standing together; the depersonalized manner in which the tetrarchs are portrayed is reminiscent of the schematic statues of the tetrarchs in [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] at [[St. Mark's Basilica]] in Venice.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Only Galerius is dressed in armor, and he makes the offering upon the altar.

What remains of the arch asserts the glory of the tetrarchy and the prominence of Galerius within that system. The arch celebrates the Roman Empire as part of Galerius' victory over the Sassanid king.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Galerius is also pictured on his horse at the right, while attacking a Sassanid guard.

==Rotunda of Galerius==

===Location and description===
[[File:THES-Rotonde St-Georges plan.svg|thumb|Rotunda plan]]

The Rotunda of Galerius, also known as the '''Rotunda of Saint George''', is {{Cvt|125|m}} northeast of the arch at 40°37'59.77"N, 22°57'9.77"E. It is also known (by its consecration and use) as the [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox]] Church of ''[[Saint George|Agios Georgios]]'', and is informally called the '''Church of the Rotunda''' (or simply ''the Rotunda'').

The cylindrical structure was built around 306 AD on the orders of the tetrarch Galerius, who was thought to have intended it to be his [[mausoleum]]. Its circular, centrally-planned structure resembles other structures such as [[Santa Costanza]] in Rome and is similarly topped by a [[dome]]. The structure was converted into a church in the late fourth century and an [[apsidal]] choir extension was added as well as a wide [[ambulatory]] around the perimeter.<ref name="Kiilerich Torp 2017">{{cite book | last1=Kiilerich | first1=Bente |author-link=Bente Kiilerich | last2=Torp | first2=Hjalmar |author2-link=Hjalmar Torp | title=The rotunda in Thessaloniki and its mosaics | publisher=Kapon Editions | location=Athens | date=2017 | isbn=978-618-5209-11-7 | oclc=959266684}}</ref>

The rotunda has a diameter of 24.5&nbsp;m. Its walls are more than 6&nbsp;m thick, which is why it has withstood Thessaloniki's earthquakes. The walls are interrupted by eight rectangular bays, with the west bay forming the entrance. A flat brick dome, 30&nbsp;m high at the peak, crowns the cylindrical structure. In its original design, the dome of the rotunda had an ''[[Oculus (architecture)|oculus]]'', as does the Pantheon in Rome.

===Uses===
[[Image:Rotunda of Galerius (February 2009).jpg|thumb|240px|left|The altar view of the rotunda, initially a [[mausoleum]] of Roman Emperor [[Galerius]], since 1988 a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]]]

After Galerius's death in 311, he was buried at Felix Romuliana ([[Gamzigrad]]) near [[Zaječar|Zajecar, Serbia]]. The Rotunda stood empty for several decades until the Emperor [[Theodosius I]] ordered its conversion into a Christian church in the late fourth century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nasrallah |first1=Laura |title=Empire and Apocalypse in Thessaloniki: Interpreting the Early Christian Rotunda |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |date=2005 |volume=13 |issue=4 |page=475|doi=10.1353/earl.2006.0008 |s2cid=170780866 |url=https://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:12215654 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The church was embellished with very high quality [[mosaic]]s. Only fragments have survived of the original decoration, for example, a band depicting saints with hands raised in prayer, in front of complex architectural fantasies.

The building was used as a church dedicated to the Archangels ({{Transliteration|el|Asomatoi}}, {{lit.|Incorporeal Ones}}) for over 1,200 years until the city fell to the Ottomans. In 1590 it was converted into a [[mosque]], called the '''Mosque of Suleyman Hortaji Effendi''',<!-- Spelling? --> and a minaret was added to the structure. It was used as a mosque until 1912, when the Greeks captured the city during the [[Balkan War]]. Greek Orthodox officials reconsecrated the structure as a church, and they left the minaret. The structure was damaged during an earthquake in 1978 but was subsequently restored. {{As of|2004}}, the minaret was still being stabilized with scaffolding. The building is now a historical monument under the [[Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities]] of the [[Greek Ministry of Culture]], although the Greek Orthodox Church has access to the monument for various festivities some days of the year (as the Church of Saint George).

The Rotunda is the oldest of Thessaloniki's churches. Some Greek publications claim it is the [[List of oldest church buildings|oldest Christian church in the world]], although there are competitors for that title. It is the most important surviving example of a church from the early Christian period of the Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire.

===Mosaics===

The Rotunda's [[cupola]] and the [[barrel vault]]s were originally entirely covered in mosaics, many of which are now lost. The surviving mosaics depict many organic forms such as a garland of fruit and [[evergreen]] plants that surrounded the lost image of Christ in the cupola. The evergreen wreath is composed of twenty-five sections of branches with white [[Lilium|lilies]], [[laurels]], [[pear]]s, [[grape]]s and [[pomegranate]]s.<ref name="Kiilerich Torp 2017" /> The presence of this evergreen suggests ideas of rebirth and by extension the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] while the inclusion of various plants associated with all the four seasons could symbolize renewal and eternity. In the light openings there are scrolls of ripe fruit accompanied by white lilies. These fruits may symbolize the abundance of heaven while the lily is a visual reminder of Christian purity. In the strongly-colored barrel vaults one panel displays a variety of fruits including grapes, while another depicts a golden cross surrounded by many stylized flowers and [[Acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves.<ref name="Kiilerich Torp 2017" /> Acanthus leaves are an ornament dating back to antiquity and were often heavily employed in [[Classical architecture|Greco-Roman architectural]] adornment. Traditionally acanthus leaves have been interpreted to symbolize enduring life and immortality, making them suitable to promulgate Christian ideas of enduring life with Christ after death, adopting pagan symbolism into Christian ornament in a [[syncretic]] manner.

==See also==
*[[List of Roman triumphal arches]]
*[[List of Roman domes]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===On the Arch===
*Engemann, J. (JAC 22, 1979). "{{Lang|de|Akklamationsrichtung, Sieger- und Besiegtenrichtung auf dem Galeriusbogen in Saloniki}}" [Acclamation direction, victors and vanquished direction on the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki].
*Garrucci, P. (W. Wylie, trans.). (NC 10, 1870). "Brass Medallion Representing the Persian Victory of Maximianus Galerius".
*Hébrard, E. (BCH 44, 1920). "{{Lang|fr|L'Arc de Galère & l'église Saint-Georges à Salonique}}" [The Arch of Galerius and the Church of St. George in Thessaloniki]. 
*Kinch, K. F. (Paris, 1890). "{{Lang|fr|L'arc de triomphe de Salonique}}" [The Triumphal Arch of Thessaloniki].
*Laubscher, H. P. (Berlin, 1975). "{{Lang|de|Der Reliefschmuck des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki}}" [Relief decoration of the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki].
*Makaronas, C. J. (Salonica, 1970). The Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki.
*Meyer, H. (JdI 95, 1980). "{{Lang|de|Die Frieszyklen am sogenannten Triumphbogen des Galerius in Thessaloniki}}" [The frieze cycles on the so-called Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki].
*Pond Rothman, M. S. (AJA 81, 1977). "The Thematic Organization of the Panel Reliefs on the Arch of Galerius".
*Pond Rothman, M. S. (Byzantine Studies/Etudes Byzantines 2:1, 1975). "The Panel of the Emperors Enthroned on the Arch of Galerius".
*Sutherland, C. H. V. (London, 1967), ''[[Roman Imperial Coinage]] IV: From Diocletian's Reform (AD 294) to the Death of Maximinus (AD 313)''
*Velenis, G. (AA, 1979). "{{Lang|de|Architektonische Probleme des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki}}" [Architectural problems of the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki].
*Velenis, G. (AA, 1983). "{{Lang|de|Nachträgliche Beobachtungen am Oberbau des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki}}" [Subsequent observations on the superstructure of the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki].
*Vermeule, C. C. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1968). "Roman Imperial Art in Greece and Asia Minor".
*von Schönebeck, H. (BZ 37, 1937). "{{Lang|de|Die zyklische Ordnung der Triumphalreliefs am Galeriusbogen in Saloniki}}" [The cyclical order of the triumphal reliefs on the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki].
*von Schönebeck, H. ({{Lang|de|Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen}} 58, 1937). (Preserves image of the now-lost head of Galerius, possibly from the large Arch of Galerius. The relief head was in Berlin.)

===On the Rotunda===
*Athanasios, F. ({{Lang|el|Αθανασιου, Φ.}}) et al. ({{Lang|el|ΑΕΜΘ}} 8, 1994). "{{Lang|el|Νεα στοιχεια για το Οκταγωνο του γαλεριανου συγκροτηματος}}" [New data on the Octagon of the Galerian complex]. {{In lang|el}}.
*Athanasios, F. et al. ({{Lang|el|Θεσσαλονικεων πολις}} 3, 1981). "{{Lang|el|τα ανακτορα του Γαλεριου στη Θεσσαλονικη, Μεθοδολογια αποκαταστασης}}" [The Palace of Galerius in Thessaloniki, Restoration Methodology]. {{In lang|el}}.
*Athanasios, F. et al. ({{Lang|el|Θεσσαλονικεων πολις}} 4, 2001). "{{Lang|el|Το λουτρα του ανακτορικου συγκροτηματος του Γαλεριου}}" [The baths of the palace complex of Galerius]. {{In lang|el}}.
*Dyggve, E. (Dissertationes Pannonicae ser. 2, 11, 1941). "{{Lang|de|Kurzer vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen im Palastviertel von Thessaloniki}}" [Short preliminary report on the excavations in the palace district of Thessaloniki].
*Hébrard, E. (BCH 44, 1920). "{{Lang|fr|es Travaux du Service archéologique d'Armée d'Orient a l'arc de triomphe de Galère et à l'église Saint-Georges de Salonique}}" [The work of the Archaeological Service of the ''[[Armée d'Orient (1915–1919)|Armée d'Orient]]'' at the triumphal arch of Galerius and at the church of Saint George in Thessaloniki].
*Karaberi, M. ({{Lang|el|Καραμπερη, Μ.}}) (AAA 23–28, 1990–1995). "{{Lang|el|Ο πολος του Οκταγωνο στο γαλεριανο συγκροτημα και η σχεση του με το νοτιο μεγαλο περιστυλιο}}" [The role of the Octagon in the gallery complex and its relationship with the southern great peristyle].
*Karaberi, M. ({{Lang|el|Θεσσαλονικεων πολις}} 3, 2000). "{{Lang|el|Η αυτοκρατορικη εδρα Θεσσαλονικη}}".
*Sasel, J. (ed.). {{Lang|la|Tabula Imperii Romani}} [Map of the Roman Empire]. (Sheet K34).
*Vichers, M. (BSA 66, 1971). "A note on the Byzantine Palace at Thessaloniki".
*Ward-Perkins, J. B. (New York, 1981). "Roman Imperial Architecture".

===General references===
*Bianchi-Bandinelli, R. (New York, 1971). "Rome: The Late Empire".
*Brilliant, R. (L'Arte 10, 1970). "Temporal Aspects in Late Roman Art".
*Brown, P. (New York, 1971). "The World of Late Antiquity".
*Cameron, A. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993). "The Later Roman Empire, AD 284–430".
*Dyggve, E. (Copenhagen, 1945). "{{Lang|fr|Recherches sur le palais imperial de Thessalonique}}" [Research on the Imperial Palace of Thessaloniki].
*Kleiner, D. E. E. (New Haven, 1992). "Roman Sculpture".

==Further reading==
*Machabée, Stéphanie, ''[https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/gsas_dissertations/630/ Religion and Contested Cultural Heritage: The Rotunda and Hagia Sophia as Church, Mosque, and Museum]'', Yale University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, 2022.
*[[Kurt Weitzmann|Weitzmann, Kurt]], ed., ''[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Age_of_Spirituality_Late_Antique_and_Early_Christian_Art_Third_to_Seventh_Century Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century]'', no. 107 and 491, 1979, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, {{ISBN|9780870991790}}; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries

==External links==
{{Commons category|Arch of Galerius (Thessaloniki)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070820000052/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=1812 Hellenic Ministry of Culture]

{{Landmarks of Thessaloniki}}
{{Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Greece}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 4th century]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman triumphal arches]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Churches in Greece]]
[[Category:Rotundas in Europe|Tomb of Galerius]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Thessaloniki]]
[[Category:Byzantine architecture]]
[[Category:Former mosques in Greece]]
[[Category:Roman Thessalonica]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Thessaloniki]]
[[Category:Galerius]]
[[Category:4th-century architecture in Greece]]
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