View source for Ashkenazi Hebrew

{{Short description|Hebrew pronunciation system}}
'''Ashkenazi Hebrew''' ({{langx|he|הֲגִיָּה אַשְׁכְּנַזִּית|hagiyoh ashkenazis}}, {{langx|yi|אַשכּנזישע הבֿרה|ashkenazishe havore}}) is the pronunciation system for [[Biblical Hebrew|Biblical]] and [[Mishnaic Hebrew]] favored for [[Jewish prayer|Jewish liturgical]] use and [[Torah study]] by [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi Jewish]] practice.

==Features==
As it is used parallel with [[Modern Hebrew]], its phonological differences are clearly recognized:
* {{Script/Hebrew|א}} ''[[aleph]]'' and {{Script/Hebrew|ע}} ''[[ayin]]'' are completely silent at all times in most forms of Ashkenazi Hebrew. In other dialects of Hebrew, they can be pronounced as a [[glottal stop]].<ref>The practice of omitting the guttural letters "ayin" and "chet" is very ancient and goes back to Talmudic times (see ''[[Nathan ben Jehiel|Sefer He'aruch]]'' entry "shudah" as well as encyclopedia ''Otzar Yisrael'' entry "mivtah"), when it appears to have been a feature of Galilean pronunciation.</ref> Compare ''Yisroeil'' (Lithuanian) or ''Yisruayl'' (Polish-Galician) vs. ''Yisra'el'' (Israeli). An earlier pronunciation of ''ayin'' as a [[velar nasal]] ({{IPAblink|ŋ}}) is attested most prominently in Dutch Hebrew (and historically also the Hebrew of [[Frankfurt am Main]]). Vestiges of this earlier pronunciation are still found throughout the Yiddish-speaking world in names like ''Yankev'' (יעקבֿ) and words like ''manse'' (מעשׂה, more commonly pronounced ''mayse''), but are otherwise marginal.
* {{Script/Hebrew|ת}} ungeminated ''[[Tav (letter)|{{transliteration|sem|ṯāw}}]]'' is pronounced {{IPAblink|s}} in Ashkenazi Hebrew. It is always pronounced {{IPAblink|t}} in Modern and Sephardi Hebrew. Compare ''Shabbos'' vs. ''[[Shabbat]]''.
* {{Script/Hebrew|אֵ}} ''[[tzere]]'' {{IPAslink|e}} is pronounced {{IPA|he|ej|}} or {{IPA|he|aj|}} in Ashkenazi Hebrew, where it would be pronounced {{IPAblink|e}} in [[Sephardi Hebrew]]; Modern Hebrew varies between the two pronunciations. Compare ''Omein'' (Lithuanian) or ''Umayn'' (Polish-Galician) vs. ''Amen'' (Israeli Hebrew).
* {{Script/Hebrew|אָ}} ''[[kamatz]] gadol'' {{IPAslink|a}} is generally pronounced {{IPAblink|ɔ}}, as in [[Yemenite Hebrew|Yemenite]] and [[Tiberian Hebrew]]. In southern dialects it is {{IPAblink|u}}  in open syllables and {{IPAblink|ɔ}} in closed syllables, whilst in Lithuanian pronunciation it may be [ʌ].The Israeli Hebrew pronunciation is invariably {{IPAblink|a}}. Compare ''Dovid'' (Lithuanian) or ''Duvid'' (Polish-Galician) vs. ''David'' (Israeli Hebrew)
* {{Script/Hebrew|אׇ}} [[kamatz katan]] is pronounced the same as kamatz gadol in Ashkenazic pronunciation. 
* {{Script/Hebrew|אֹ}} ''[[cholam]]'' {{IPAslink|o}} is, depending on the subdialect, pronounced {{IPA|he|au|}}, {{IPA|he|ou|}}, {{IPA|he|oi|}}, {{IPA|he|øi|}}, or {{IPA|he|ei|}} in Ashkenazi Hebrew, as against {{IPAblink|o}} in Sephardic and Modern Hebrew. However, in many regions in Germany it was pronounced {{IPA|[o]}}), and it is pronounced that way by many non-Hassidic Ashkenazim in America. Compare ''Moishe'' vs. ''Moshe''.
* Unstressed {{Script/Hebrew|אֻ}} ''[[kubutz]]'' or {{Script/Hebrew|וּ}} ''[[shuruk]]'' {{IPAslink|u}} occasionally becomes {{IPAblink|ʊ}} in Ashkenazi Hebrew, when in all other forms they are pronounced {{IPAblink|u}}. This is more prevalent in the South-Eastern dialects. In the Hungarian and Oberlander dialects, the pronunciation is invariably {{IPAblink|y}}.

==Variants==

There are considerable differences between the Lithuanian, Polish (also known as Galician), Hungarian, and German pronunciations.
*These are most obvious in the treatment of ''[[cholam]]'': the northern German pronunciation is {{IPA|[au]}}, the southern German pronunciation is {{IPA|[o]}}, the Galician/Polish pronunciation is {{IPA|[oi]}}, the Hungarian is {{IPA|[øi]}}, and the Lithuanian pronunciation is {{IPA|[ei]}}. Other variants exist: for example in the United Kingdom, the original tradition was to use the northern German pronunciation, but over the years the sound of ''ḥolam'' has tended to merge with the local pronunciation of long "o" as in "toe" (more similar to the southern German pronunciation), and some communities have abandoned Ashkenazi Hebrew altogether in favour of the Israeli pronunciation. (Many [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] communities in England use the Galician/Polish {{IPA|[oi]}}, although some - such as [[Golders Green Beth Hamedrash]] - have preserved one of the German pronunciations.)
*''Tzere'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ej]}} in the majority of Ashkenazic traditions. In Polish usage, however, it was not infrequently {{IPA|[aj]}}.
*''Segol'' is pronounced {{IPA|[e]}} in the majority of Ashkenazic traditions, but {{IPA|[ej]}} in Southeastern pronunciations in a stressed syllable (Polish, Galician, etc.).
*Another feature that distinguishes the Lithuanian pronunciation, traditionally used in an area encompassing modern day's Baltic States, Belarus and parts of Ukraine and Russia, is an occasional merger of ''sin'' and ''shin'', both of which are pronounced as {{IPA|[s]}}. This is similar to the pronunciation of the [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraimites]] recorded in [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 12, which is the source of the term [[Shibboleth]]. This has been referred to as [[Sabesdiker losn]] or '[[Shabbos]] speech'.
*The pronunciation of ''resh'' varies between an [[alveolar flap]] or [[alveolar trill|trill]] (as in Spanish) and a [[voiced uvular fricative]] or [[uvular trill|trill]] (as in French, see [[Guttural R]]), depending on variations in the local dialects of German and Yiddish.

In addition to geographical differences, there are differences in register between the "natural" pronunciation in general use and the more [[Linguistic prescription|prescriptive]] rules advocated by some rabbis and grammarians, particularly for use in reading the Torah. For example:

* In earlier centuries the stress in Ashkenazi Hebrew usually fell on the penultimate, instead of the last syllable as in most other dialects. In the 17th and 18th centuries there was a campaign by Ashkenazi rabbis such as [[Jacob Emden]] and the [[Vilna Gaon]] to encourage final stress in accordance with the stress marks printed in the Bible. This was successful in concerned liturgical use such as reading from the [[Torah]]. However, the older stress pattern persists in the colloquial pronunciation of Hebrew words. It is also prevalent in early modern poetry by poets such as [[Hayim Nahman Bialik]] and [[Shaul Tchernichovsky]]. The use of penultimate stress has led to the weakening of the final syllables of many words, often to [[schwa]], such as in the words ''shabbos'', ''kiddush'' and ''sukkah''.
* Many authorities, from the Talmudic period on (b. [[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]] 24b, y. [[Berakhot (tractate)|Berakhot]] 2:4, b. [[Berakhot (tractate)|Berakhot]] 32a) and into the modern era (such as the [[Mishnah Berurah]] and [[Magen Avraham]]) advocate using the pharyngeal articulation of {{Script/Hebrew|ח}} and {{Script/Hebrew|ע}} when representing the community in religious service such as prayer and [[Torah reading]]<ref>Mishnah Berurah Chapter 53 quoting the Magen Avraham.{{clarification|Where in Siman 53?|date=December 2024}}</ref> though this is seldom observed in practice. Similarly, strict usage requires the articulation of initial {{Script/Hebrew|א}} as a glottal stop.
* In general use, the mobile ''sheva'' is often omitted (for example the word for "time" is pronounced ''zman'' rather than ''zĕman''). However, in liturgical use strict conformity to the grammatical rules is encouraged.

==History==
In brief, Ashkenazi Hebrew appears to be a descendant of the Babylonian tradition, partially adapted to accommodate Tiberian notation, and further influenced by the pronunciation of [[Middle High German]] and its sound changes as it evolved into [[Yiddish]].

The origins of the different Hebrew reading traditions reflect older differences between the pronunciations of Hebrew and [[Middle Aramaic]] current in different parts of the [[Fertile Crescent]]: [[Judea]], the [[Galilee]], [[Syria (region)|Greater Syria]], [[Upper Mesopotamia]], and [[Lower Mesopotamia]] ("Babylonia"). In the time of the [[Masoretes]] (8th-10th centuries), there were three distinct notations for denoting vowels and other details of pronunciation in biblical and liturgical texts. One was the [[Babylonian vocalization|Babylonian]]; another was the [[Palestinian vocalization|Palestinian Hebrew]]; still another was [[Tiberian Hebrew]], which eventually superseded the other two and is still in use today. By the time of [[Saadia Gaon]] and [[Jacob Qirqisani]], Palestinian Hebrew had come to be regarded as standard, even in Babylonia. That development roughly coincided with the popularisation of the Tiberian notation.

The 14th century work ''[[Sefer Asufot]]'' is one of the only non-liturgical and non-Biblical medieval Ashkenazi texts to use [[niqqud|nequddot]]. Owing to its more day-to-day vocabulary, linguists have been able to conclude that medieval Ashkenazi Hebrew was akin to contemporary [[Sephardi Hebrew]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=ASUFOT - JewishEncyclopedia.com|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2064-asufot|access-date=2020-06-18|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref>

In other respects, Ashkenazi Hebrew resembles [[Yemenite Hebrew]], which appears to be related to the Babylonian notation. Shared features include the pronunciation of ''qamaṣ gadol'' as {{IPA|[o]}} and, in the case of [[Litvaks]] and some but not all Yemenites, of ''ḥolam'' as {{IPA|[eː]}}. These features are not found in the Hebrew pronunciation of North Mesopotamian Jews, which has been overlaid by [[Sephardi Hebrew]] practices, but are found in some of the [[Judeo-Aramaic languages]] of Upper Mesopotamia and in some dialects of Syriac.

Several pre-modern scholars among European Jewry, including [[Judah Loew ben Bezalel]],<ref>''Tiferet Yisrael'', article 66.</ref> [[Jacob Emden]],<ref>''Mor Uqṣi'ah'', chap. 53.</ref> and several others,<ref>Listed in the encyclopedia ''Otsar Yisrael'' under the entry "mivtah".</ref> argued that Ashkenazi Hebrew is the most accurate pronunciation of Hebrew preserved. The reason given is that it preserves distinctions, such as between ''pataḥ'' and ''qamaṣ'', which are not reflected in the Sephardic and other dialects. Only in the Ashkenazi pronunciation are all seven "nequdot" (the Hebrew vowels of the ancient Tiberian tradition) distinguished: Yemenite, which comes close, does not distinguish ''pataḥ'' from ''segol''.

==Influence on Modern Hebrew==

Although [[Modern Hebrew]] was intended to be based on [[Mishnaic Hebrew|Mishnaic]] spelling and [[Sephardi Hebrew]] pronunciation, the language as spoken in [[Israel]] has adapted to the popular (as opposed to the strict liturgical) Ashkenazi Hebrew [[phonology]] in the following respects:{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

*the pronunciation of ''[[tzere]]'' as [eɪ] in some contexts, (''sifrey'' and ''teysha'' instead of Sephardic ''sifré'' and ''tésha''' ) for some speakers.
*the elimination of vocal ''sheva'' (''zman'' instead of Sephardic ''zĕman'')
*some of the letter names (''yud'' and ''kuf'' instead of Sephardic ''yod'' and ''qof/kof'')
*in popular speech, penultimate stress in some proper names (''Dvóra'' instead of ''Dĕvorá''; ''Yehúda'' instead of ''Yehudá'') for some speakers.
*similarly, penultimate stress in nouns or verbs with a second- or third-person plural suffix (''katávtem'' [you wrote] instead of ''kĕtavtém''; ''shalom aléykhem'' [greeting] instead of ''shalom alekhém'').<ref>Such pronunciations may have been formed on the analogy of other suffixed forms (''katávta'', ''alénu''), rather than being due (exclusively) to residual Ashkenazi influence.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}</ref>
*the use of a [[Voiced uvular fricative|guttural R]] instead of the [[alveolar trill]]

==Endnotes==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[Sephardi Hebrew]]
*[[Yemenite Hebrew]]
*[[Modern Hebrew phonology|Phonology of Modern Hebrew]]

==Literature==
* Ilan Eldar, ''Masoret ha-qeri'ah ha-kedem-Ashkenazit'' (The Hebrew Language Tradition in Medieval Ashkenaz), Edah ve-Lashon series vols. 4 and 5, Jerusalem (Hebrew)
* [[Abraham Zevi Idelsohn|A. Z. Idelsohn]], ''Die gegenwärtige Aussprache des Hebräischen bei Juden und Samaritanern,'' in: ''Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums'' 57 (N.F.: 21), 1913, p.&nbsp;527–645 and 698–721.
* Dovid Katz, ''The Phonology of Ashkenazic,'' in: Lewis Glinert (ed.), ''Hebrew in Ashkenaz. A Language in Exile'', Oxford-New York 1993, p.&nbsp;46–87. {{ISBN|0-19-506222-1}}.
*S. Morag, ''Pronunciations of Hebrew,'' Encyclopaedia Judaica XIII, p.&nbsp;1120–1145.
* {{cite book|last=Sáenz-Badillos|first=Angel|year=1996|title=A History of the Hebrew Language|others=trans. John Elwolde|location=Cambridge, England|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-55634-1}}
* Miryam Segal, "Representing a Nation in Sound. Organic, Hybrid, and Synthetic Hebrew," in: A New Sound in Hebrew Poetry. Poetics, Politics, Accent," Bloomington, 2010. {{ISBN|0253352436}}.
* Werner Weinberg, ''Lexikon zum religiösen Wortschatz und Brauchtum der deutschen Juden'', ed. by Walter Röll, Stuttgart–Bad Cannstatt 1994. {{ISBN|3-7728-1621-5}}.
* Zimmels, ''Ashkenazim and Sephardim: their Relations, Differences, and Problems As Reflected in the Rabbinical Responsa'' : London 1958 (since reprinted). {{ISBN|0-88125-491-6}}.

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