View source for Assamese language

{{Short description|Indo-Aryan language}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Assamese
| altname          = {{hlist|Asamiya|Ôxômiya}}
| nativename       = {{lang|as|অসমীয়া}}
| image            = Oxomiya in Oxomiya Lipi.svg
| imagecaption     = The word "Ôxômiya" in the [[Assamese alphabet]]
| state            = [[Languages of India|India]]
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|as|ɔˈxɔmija||As-অসমীয়া.oga}}
| states           = [[Official languages of India|India]]
| region           = [[Northeast India]] 
*[[Assam]]
*[[Arunachal Pradesh]]
*[[Meghalaya]]
*[[Nagaland]]<ref name="ReferenceA">"Axomiya is the major language spoken in Assam, and serves almost as a lingua franca among the different speech communities in the whole area." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|pp=394}}</ref>
| ethnicity        = [[Assamese people|Assamese]]
| speakers         = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|15.327990|2}} million
| speakers2        = [[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|8.320240|2}} million (2011)<ref name="e28|asm">{{e28|asm}}</ref><br/>Total: {{sigfig|23.648230|2}} million (2011)<ref name="e28|asm">{{e28|asm}}</ref>
| date             = 2011
| ref              = <ref name="e28|asm">{{e28|asm}}</ref>
| speakers_label   = Speakers
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3             = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4             = [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]]
| fam5             = [[Bengali–Assamese languages|Bengali–Assamese]]
| ancestor         = [[Magadhi Prakrit]]
| ancestor2        = [[Magadhan languages|Magadhan]] [[Apabhraṃśa]]
| ancestor3        = [[Kamarupi Prakrit]]
| ancestor4        = [[Early Assamese]]
| script           = *[[Bengali–Assamese script]] ([[Assamese alphabet]])<ref name="Bora 1981 5, 53">{{cite book |last=Bora |first=Mahendra |year=1981 |title=The Evolution of the Assamese Script |location=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=[[Asam Sahitya Sabha]] |pages=5, 53 |oclc=59775640}}</ref> 
*[[Bharati Braille|Assamese Braille]]<br />[[Latin script]] ([[Nagamese creole|Nagamese]] and [[Nefamese]])<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |last=Bhattacharjya |first=Dwijen |date=2001 |title=The genesis and development of Nagamese: Its social history and linguistic structure |type=PhD |publisher=City University of New York |id={{ProQuest|304688285}}}}</ref>
| nation           = *[[Official languages of India|India]]
**[[Assam]]
| agency           = [[Asam Sahitya Sabha]] (The Literary Society of Assam)
| dia1             = 
* Eastern
* Central
* [[Kamrupi dialect|Kamrupi]]
* [[Goalpariya dialect|Goalpariya]]<ref name="Kakati 1941 16">"Assamese may be divided dialectically into Eastern and Western Assamese" {{harv|Kakati|1941|p=16}}</ref>
* [[Dehan dialect|Dehan]]<ref>"the Cachar dialect is closely related to the Kamrupi dialect and the Standard 
Assamese" {{harv|Bhattacharya|2003|p=11}}</ref> 
| map              = File:Geographical distribution of Assamese language.png
| mapcaption       = Geographic distribution of the Assamese language in India
| iso1             = as
| iso2             = asm
| iso3             = asm
| glotto           = assa1263
| glottorefname    = Assamese
| lingua           = 59-AAF-w
| notice           = IPA
}}

{{Contains special characters|Indic}}
{{Contains special characters|Assamese}}
'''Assamese'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|s|ə|ˈ|m|iː|z}} {{respell|AS|ə|MEEZ}}<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Assamese |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182537/https://www.lexico.com/definition/assamese |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 March 2020 |title=Assamese |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref>}} or '''Asamiya''' ({{lang|as|অসমীয়া}} {{IPA|as|ɔˈxɔmija||As-অসমীয়া.oga}})<ref>Assamese is an anglicized term used for the language, but scholars have also used Asamiya (Moral 1992, Goswami & Tamuli 2003) or Asomiya as a close approximation of /ɔxɔmijɑ/, the word used by the speakers for their language. {{harvcol|Mahanta|2012|p=217}}</ref> is an [[Indo-Aryan language]] spoken mainly in the north-eastern Indian state of [[Assam]], where it is an official language. It has long served as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' in parts of [[Northeast India]].<ref name="Nagamese">{{Cite thesis|title=The genesis and development of Nagamese: Its social history and linguistic structure |last=Bhattacharjya |first=Dwijen |date=2001 |publisher=City University of New York |type=PhD |language=en |id={{ProQuest |304688285}}}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name="ReferenceA">"Axomiya is the major language spoken in Assam, and serves almost as a lingua franca among the different speech communities in the whole area." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|pp=394}}</ref> It has over 15 million [[native speakers]] and 8.3 million [[second language|second language speakers]] according to ''[[Ethnologue]]''.<ref name="e28|asm">{{e28|asm}}</ref>

[[Nefamese]], an Assamese-based [[pidgin]] in [[Arunachal Pradesh]], was used as a lingua franca before being replaced by [[Hindi language|Hindi]]; and [[Nagamese Creole|Nagamese]], an Assamese-based [[Creole language]],<ref>{{harvtxt|Masica|1993|p=5}}</ref> continues to be widely used in [[Nagaland]]. The [[Kamtapuri language]] of [[Rangpur Division]] of Bangladesh and the [[Cooch Behar district|Cooch Behar]] and [[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri]] districts of India is linguistically closer to Assamese, though the speakers identify with the [[Culture of Bengal|Bengali culture]] and the literary language.<ref>"...Rajbangshi dialect of the Rangpur Division (Bangladesh), and the adjacent Indian Districts of Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar, has been classed with Bengali because its speakers identify with the Bengali culture and literary language, although it is linguistically closer to Assamese." {{harv|Masica|1993|p=25}}</ref> In the past, it was the court language of the [[Ahom kingdom]] from the 17th century.<ref name="ahom-court-language"/>

Along with other [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]], Assamese evolved at least before the 7th century CE<ref>Sen, Sukumar (1975), ''Grammatical sketches of Indian languages with comparative vocabulary and texts, Volume 1'', P 31</ref> from the middle Indo-Aryan [[Magadhi Prakrit]].<ref name="kakati41p9"/> Its sister languages include [[Angika]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Bishnupriya Manipuri language|Bishnupriya Manipuri]], [[Chakma language|Chakma]], [[Chittagonian language|Chittagonian]], [[Hajong language|Hajong]], [[Kamtapuri language|Rajbangsi]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Rohingya language|Rohingya]] and [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]]. It is written in the [[Assamese alphabet]], an [[abugida]] system, from left to right, with many [[typographic ligature]]s.

Assamese was designated as a [[Classical languages of India|classical Indian language]] by the [[Government of India]] on 3 October 2024 on account of its antiquity and literary traditions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Vivek |last2=Roy |first2=Suryagni |date=3 October 2024 |title=Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, Bengali now among classical languages |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/marathi-pali-prakrit-assamese-bengali-classical-languages-2610800-2024-10-03 |work=India Today |access-date=3 October 2024}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:East magadhan proto-languages - en.svg|thumb|The proto-languages of the eastern Magadhan languages. [[Kamarupi Prakrit]] corresponds to ?proto-Kamarupa here, a hitherto un-reconstructed proto-language. [[KRNB lects#proto-Kamata|proto-Kamata]] began to innovate unique features in the period 1250–1550 CE.<ref>Proto-Kamta took its inheritance from ?proto-Kamarupa (and before that from ?proto-Gauda-Kamarupa), innovated the unique features ... in 1250-1550 AD" {{harvcol|Toulmin|2006|p=306}}</ref>]]
[[File:Silver rupee of Rudra Simha.jpg|thumb|{{center|Silver coin issued during the reign of [[Rudra Singha]] in Sanskrit with Assamese letters}}]]
Assamese originated in [[Old-Indo-Aryan|Old Indo-Aryan]] dialects, though the exact nature of its origin and growth is not clear yet.<ref>"Asamiya has historically originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, but the exact nature of its origin and growth is not very clear as yet." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|pp=394}}</ref> It is generally believed that Assamese and the [[Kamatapuri lects]] derive from the [[Kamarupi Prakrit|Kamarupi dialect]] of Eastern [[Magadhi Prakrit]]<ref name="kakati41p9">"Dr. S. K. Chatterji basing his conclusions on the materials accumulated in LSI, Part I, and other monographs on the Bengali dialects, divides Eastern Mag. Pkt. and Ap. into four dialect groups. (1) Raddha dialects which comprehend Western Bengali which gives standard Bengali colloquial and Oriya in the South West. (2) Varendra dialects of North Central Bengal. (3) Kumarupa dialects which comprehend Assamese and the dialects of North Bengal. (4) Vanga dialects which comprehend the dialects of East Bengal (ODBL VolI p140)." {{harv|Kakati|1941|p=6}}</ref> though some authors contest a close connection of Assamese with Magadhi Prakrit.<ref>There is evidence that the Prakrit of the [[Kamarupa kingdom]] differed enough from the [[Magadhi Prakrit]] to be identified as either a parallel [[Kamrupi Prakrit]] or at least an eastern variety of the Magadha Prakrit {{Harvcol|Sharma|1990|pp=0.24–0.28}}</ref><ref>'One of the interesting theories propounded by Sri Medhi is the classification of Assamese "as a mixture of Eastern and Western groups" or a "mixture of Sauraseni and Magadhi". But whether it is word resemblance or grammatical resemblance, the author admits that in some cases they may be accidental. But he says, "In any case, they may be of some help to scholars for more searching enquiry in future".' {{harvcol|Pattanayak|2016|pp=43–44}}</ref> The Indo-Aryan, which appeared in the 4th–5th century in Assam,<ref name="4th5th"/> was probably spoken in the new settlements of [[Kamarupa]]—in urban centers and along the [[Brahmaputra River]]—surrounded by Tibeto-Burman and Austroasiatic communities.<ref>"(W)e should imagine a linguistic patchwork with an eastern Indo-Aryan vernacular (not yet really "Assamese") in the urban centers and along the river and Tibeto-Burman and Austroasiatic communities everywhere." {{harvcol|DeLancey|2012|pp=15–16}}</ref> Kakati's (1941) assertion that Assamese has an [[Austroasiatic]] substrate is generally assumed—which suggests that when the Indo-Aryan centers formed in the 4th–5th centuries CE, there were substantial Austroasiatic speakers that later accepted the Indo-Aryan [[vernacular]].<ref name="4th5th">"While Kakati's assertion of an Austroasiatic substrate needs to be re-established on the basis of more systematic evidence, it is consistent with the general assumption that the lower Brahmaputra drainage was originally Austroasiatic speaking. It also implies the existence of a substantial Austroasiatic speaking population till the time of spread of Aryan culture into Assam, i.e. it implies that up until the 4th-5th centuries CE and probably much later Tibeto-Burman languages had not completely supplanted Austroasiatic languages." {{harvcol|DeLancey|2012|p=13}}</ref> Based on the 7th-century Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]]'s observations, {{harvtxt|Chatterji|1926}} suggests that the Indo-Aryan vernacular differentiated itself in Kamarupa before it did in Bengal,<ref>"It is curious to find that according to ([[Xuanzang|Hiuen Tsang]]) the language of Kamarupa 'differed a little' from that of mid-India. Hiuen Tsang is silent about the language of Pundra-vardhana or Karna-Suvarna; it can be presumed that the language of these tracts was identical with that of Magadha." {{harv|Chatterji|1926|p=78}}</ref> and that these differences could be attributed to non-Indo-Aryan speakers adopting the language.<ref>"Perhaps this 'differing a little' of the Kamarupa speech refers to those modifications of Aryan sounds which now characterise Assamese as well as North- and East-Bengali dialects." {{harv|Chatterji|1926|pp=78–89}}</ref><ref>"When [the Tibeto-Burman speakers] adopted that language they also enriched it with their vocabularies, expressions, affixes etc." {{harvcol|Saikia|1997}}</ref>{{Sfn|Moral|1997|pp=43-53}} The newly differentiated vernacular, from which Assamese eventually emerged, is evident in the [[Kamarupi Prakrit#Characteristics|Prakritism]]s present in the Sanskrit of the [[Kamarupa inscriptions]].<ref>"... (it shows) that in Ancient Assam there were three languages viz. (1) Sanskrit as the official language and the language of the learned few, (2) Non-Aryan tribal languages of the Austric and Tibeto-Burman families, and (3) a local variety of Prakrit (ie a MIA) wherefrom, in course of time, the modern Assamese language as a MIL, emerged." {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Mukunda Madhava |year=1978 |title=Inscriptions of Ancient Assam |publisher=[[Gauhati University]] |location=Guwahati, Assam |pages=xxiv-xxviii |oclc=559914946}}</ref>{{Sfn|Medhi|1988|pp=67–63}}

===Magadhan and Gauda-Kamarupa stages===
The earliest forms of Assamese in literature are found in the 9th-century Buddhist verses called [[Charyapada]]<ref>"The earliest specimen of Assamese language and literature is available in the dohās, known also as Caryās, written by the Buddhist Siddhacharyas hailing from different parts of eastern India. Some of them are identified as belonging to ancient Kāmarūpa by the Sino-Tibetologists." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=433}}</ref> the language of which bear [[Charyapada#Affinities with Assamese|affinities with Assamese]] (as well as Bengali, Maithili and Odia) and which belongs to a period when the Prakrit was at the cusp of differentiating into regional languages.<ref>"The language of [''charyapadas''] was also claimed to be early Assamese and early Bihari (Eastern Hindi) by various scholars. Although no systematic scientific study has been undertaken on the basis of comparative reconstruction, a cursory look is enough to suggest that the language of these texts represents a stage when the North-Eastern Prakrit was either not differentiated or at an early stage of differentiation into the regional languages of North-Eastern India." {{harvcol|Pattanayak|2016|p=127}}</ref> The spirit and expressiveness of the ''Charyadas'' are today found in the folk songs called ''Deh-Bicarar Git''.<ref>"The folk-song like ''Deh Bicarar Git'' and some aphorisms are found to contain sometimes the spirit and way of expression of the ''charyapadas''." {{harvcol|Saikia|1997|p=5}}</ref>

In the 12th-14th century works of Ramai Pandit (''Sunya Puran''), Boru Chandidas (''Krishna Kirtan''), Sukur Mamud (''Gopichandrar Gan''), Durlabha Mallik (''Gobindachandrar Git'') and Bhavani Das (''Mainamatir Gan'')<ref>""There are some works of the period between 12th and 14th centuries, which kept the literary tradition flowing after the period of the ''charyapadas''. They are ''Sunya Puran'' of Ramai Pandit, ''Krishna Kirtan'' of Boru Chandidas, ''Gopichandrar Gan'' of Sukur Mamud. Along with these three works ''Gobindachandrar Git'' of Durlabha Mallik and ''Mainamatirgan'' of Bhavani Das also deserve mention here." {{harvcol|Saikia|1997|p=5}}</ref> Assamese grammatical peculiarities coexist with features from [[Bengali language]].<ref>"No doubt some expression close to the Bengali language can be found in these works. But grammatical peculiarities prove these works to be in the Assamese language of the western part of Assam." {{harvcol|Saikia|1997|p=5}}</ref><ref>"In ''Krishna Kirtana'' for instance, the first personal affixes of the present indicative are ''-i'' and ''-o''; the former is found in Bengali at present and the later in Assamese. Similarly the negative particle ''na-'' assimilated to the initial vowel of the conjugated root which is characteristic of Assamese is also found in ''Krishna Kirtana''. Modern Bengali places the negative particle after the conjugated root." {{harvcol|Kakati|1953|p=5}}</ref> Though the Gauda-Kamarupa stage is generally accepted and partially supported by recent linguistic research, it has not been fully reconstructed.<ref>"In summary, none of Pattanayak's changes are diagnostic of a unique proto Bangla-Asamiya subgroup that also includes proto Kamta.... Grierson's contention may well be true that 'Gauḍa Apabhraṁśa' was the parent speech both of Kamrupa and today's Bengal (see quote under §7.3.2), but it has not yet been proven as such by careful historical linguistic reconstruction." and "Though it has not been the purpose of this study to reconstruct higher level proto-languages beyond proto-Kamta, the reconstruction here has turned up three morphological innovations—[MI 73.] (diagnostic), [MI 2] (supportive), [MI 70] (supportive)—which provide some evidence for a proto-language which may be termed proto Gauḍa-Kamrupa." {{harvcol|Toulmin|2009|p=213}}</ref>

===Early Assamese===
{{See also|Early Assamese|Assamese literature#Shankari literature (1490 1700 AD)}}
A distinctly Assamese literary form appeared first in the 13th-century in the courts of the [[Kamata kingdom]] when Hema Sarasvati composed the poem ''Prahlāda Carita''.<ref>"However, the earliest literary work available which may be claimed as distinctly Asamiya is the Prahrāda Carita written by a court poet named Hema Sarasvatī in the latter half of the thirteenth century AD.{{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=433}}</ref> In the 14th-century, [[Madhava Kandali]] translated the [[Ramayana]] into Assamese ([[Saptakanda Ramayana]]) in the court of [[Mahamanikya]], a [[Bodo-Kachari peoples|Kachari]] king from central Assam. Though the Assamese idiom in these works is fully individualised, some archaic forms and conjunctive particles too are found.<ref name="harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=434">{{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=434}}</ref><ref>{{harvcol|Kakati|1953|p=5}}</ref> This period corresponds to the common stage of [[KRNB lects#Proto Kamta|proto-Kamta]] and early Assamese.<ref>"The phonological and morphological reconstruction of the present study has found three morphological innovations that give some answers to these questions: [MI 67.] (diagnostic), [MI 22.] (supportive), and [MI 23.] (supportive). These changes provide evidence for a proto Kamrupa stage of linguistic history—ancestral to proto-Kamta and proto eastern-Kamrupa (Asamiya). However, a thorough KRDS-andAsamiya-wide reconstruction of linguistic history is required before this protostage can be robustly established." {{harvcol|Toulmin|2009|p=214}}</ref>

The emergence of [[Sankardev]]'s [[Ekasarana Dharma]] in the 15th century triggered a [[Assamese literature#Shankari literature (1490-1700 AD)|revival in language and literature]].<ref>"Sankaradeva (1449–1567) brought about a Vaishnavite revival accompanied by a revival of the language and literature." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=434}}</ref> Sankardev produced many translated works and created new literary forms—''[[Borgeet]]s'' (songs), ''[[Ankia Naat]]'' (one-act plays)—infusing them with [[Brajavali]] idioms; and these were sustained by his followers [[Madhavdev]] and others in the 15th and subsequent centuries. In these writings the 13th/14th-century archaic forms are no longer found. Sankardev pioneered a prose-style of writing in the ''Ankia Naat''. This was further developed by [[Bhattadeva]] who translated the [[Bhagavata Purana]] and [[Bhagavad Gita]] into Assamese prose. Bhattadev's prose was classical and restrained, with a high usage of Sanskrit forms and expressions in an Assamese syntax; and though subsequent authors tried to follow this style, it soon fell into disuse.<ref name="harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=434"/> In this writing the first person future tense ending ''-m'' (''korim'': "will do"; ''kham'': "will eat") is seen for the first time.<ref>"[Bhattadev's] prose was an artificial one and yet it preserves certain grammatical peculiarities. The first personal ending ''-m'' in the future tense appears for the first time in writing side by side with the conventional ''-bo''." {{harvcol|Kakati|1953|p=6}}</ref>

===Middle Assamese===
The language moved to the court of the [[Ahom kingdom]] in the seventeenth century,<ref name="ahom-court-language">"Incidentally, literate Ahoms retained the Tai language and script well until the end of the 17th century. In that century of Ahom-Mughal conflicts, this language first coexisted with and then was progressively replaced by Assamese (Asamiya) at and outside the Court." {{harvtxt|Guha|1983|p=9}}</ref> where it became the state language. In parallel, the proselytising [[Ekasarana dharma]] converted many Bodo-Kachari peoples and there emerged many new Assamese speakers who were speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages. This period saw the emergence of different styles of secular prose in medicine, astrology, arithmetic, dance, music, besides religious biographies and the archaic prose of magical charms.<ref name="harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=434"/>

Most importantly this was also when Assamese developed a standardised prose in the [[Buranji]]s—documents related to the Ahom state dealing with diplomatic writings, administrative records and general history.<ref name="harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=434"/> The language of the Buranjis is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with a pre-modern orthography. The Assamese plural suffixes (''-bor'', ''-hat'') and the conjunctive participles (''-gai'': ''dharile-gai''; ''-hi'': ''pale-hi'', ''baril-hi'') become well established.<ref name="harvcol|Kakati|1953|p=6">{{harvcol|Kakati|1953|p=6}}</ref> The Buranjis, dealing with statecraft, was also the vehicle by which Arabic and Persian elements crept into the language in abundance.<ref name="harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=434"/> Due to the influence of the Ahom state the speech in eastern Assam took a homogeneous and standard form.<ref>{{harvcol|Kakati|1953|p=7}}</ref> The general [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages#Assamese|schwa deletion]] that occurs in the final position of words came into use in this period.

===Modern Assamese===
The modern period of Assamese begins with printing—the publication of the Assamese Bible in 1813 from the [[Serampore Mission Press]]. But after the British [[East India Company]] (EIC) [[Treaty of Yandaboo|removed the Burmese]] in 1826 and took complete administrative control of Assam in 1836, it filled administrative positions with people from Bengal, and introduced [[Bengali language]] in its offices, schools and courts.<ref>"The British administration introduced Bangla in all offices, in the courts and schools of Assam." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=435}}</ref> The EIC had earlier promoted the development of Bengali to replace Persian, the language of administration in Mughal India,<ref>"By 1772, the Company had skillfully employed the sword, diplomacy, and intrigue to take over the rule of Bengal from her people, factious nobles, and weak Nawab. Subsequently, to consolidate its hold on the province, the Company promoted the Bengali language. This did not represent an intrinsic love for Bengali speech and literature. Instead it was aimed at destroying traditional patterns of authority through supplanting the Persian language which had been the official tongue since the days of the great Moguls." {{harvcol|Khan|1962|p=53}}</ref> and maintained that Assamese was a dialect of Bengali.<ref>"''[W]e should not assent to uphold a corrupt dialect, but endeavour to introduce pure Bengallee, and to render this Province as far as possible an integral part of the great country to which that language belongs, and to render available to Assam the literature of Bengal.'' - This brief aside of Francis Jenkins in a Revenue Consultation remains one of the
clearest policy statements of the early British Indian administration regarding the
vernacular question in Assam." {{harvcol|Kar|2008|p=28}}</ref>

Amidst this loss of status, the [[American Baptist Mission]] (ABM) established a press in Sibsagar in 1846 leading to publications of an Assamese periodical (''[[Orunodoi]]''), the first Assamese grammar by [[Nathan Brown (missionary)|Nathan Brown]] (1846), and the first Assamese-English dictionary by [[Miles Bronson]] (1863).<ref name="harvcol|Kakati|1953|p=6"/> The ABM argued strongly with the EIC officials in an intense debate in the 1850s to reinstate Assamese.<ref>{{harvcol|Kar|2008|pp=40–45}}</ref> Among the local personalities, [[Anandaram Dhekial Phukan]] drew up an extensive catalogue of medieval Assamese literature (among other works) and pioneered the effort among the natives to reinstate Assamese in Assam.<ref>"He wrote under a pen name, A Native, a book in English, ''A Few Remarks on the Assamese Language and on Vernacular Education in Assam'', 1855, and had 100 copies of it printed by A H Danforth at the Sibsagar Baptist Mission Press. One copy of the publication was sent to the Government of Bengal and other copies were distributed free among leading men of Assam. An abstract of this was published later in ''[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206684/page/n65/mode/2up The Indian Antiquary (1897, p57)]''". {{harvcol|Neog|1980|p=15}}</ref> Though this effort was not immediately successful the administration eventually declared Assamese the official vernacular in 1873 on the eve of Assam becoming a [[Colonial Assam#Chief Commissioner's Province (1874–1905)|Chief Commissioner's Province]] in 1874.<ref>"In less than twenty years' time, the government actually revised its classification and declared Assamese as the official vernacular of the Assam Division (19 April 1873), as a prelude to the constitution of a separate Chief Commissionership of Assam (6 February 1874)." {{harvcol|Kar|2008|p=45}}</ref>

====Standardisation====
In the extant medieval Assamese manuscripts the orthography was not uniform. The ABM had evolved a [[phonemic orthography]] based on a contracted set of characters.<ref>{{harvcol|Kar|2008|p=38}}</ref> Working independently [[Hemchandra Barua]] provided an etymological orthography and his etymological dictionary, ''[[Hemkosh]]'', was published posthumously. He also provided a Sanskritised approach to the language in his ''Asamiya Bhaxar Byakaran'' ("Grammar of the Assamese Language") (1859, 1873).<ref>{{harvcol|Kar|2008|pp=46–47}}</ref> Barua's approach was adopted by the ''[[Asamiya Bhasa Unnati Sadhini Sabha]]'' (1888, "Assamese Language Development Society") that emerged in [[Kolkata]] among Assamese students led by [[Lakshminath Bezbaroa]]. The ''Society'' published a periodical ''[[Jonaki (magazine)|Jonaki]]'' and the period of its publication, ''Jonaki era'', saw spirited negotiations on language standardisation.<ref>{{harvcol|Kar|2008|pp=51–55}}</ref> What emerged at the end of those negotiations was a standard close to the language of the Buranjis with the Sanskritised orthography of Hemchandra Barua.<ref>"They looked back to the fully mature prose of the historical writings of earlier periods, which possessed all the strength and vitality to stand the new challenge. Hemchandra Barua and his followers immediately reverted to the syntax and style of that prose, and Sanskritized the orthography and spelling system entirely. He was followed by one and all including the missionaries themselves, in their later writings. And thus, the solid plinth of the modern standard language was founded and accepted as the norm all over the state." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=435}}</ref>

As the political and commercial center moved to [[Guwahati]] in the mid-twentieth century, of which [[Dispur]] the capital of Assam is a suburb and which is situated at the border between the western and central dialect speaking regions, standard Assamese used in media and communications today is a neutral blend of the eastern variety without its distinctive features.<ref>"In contemporary Assam, for the purposes of mass media and communication, a certain neutral blend of eastern Assamese, without too many distinctive eastern features, like /ɹ/ deletion, which is a robust phenomenon in the eastern varieties, is
still considered to be the norm." {{harvcol|Mahanta|2012|p=217}}</ref> This core is further embellished with [[Goalpariya dialects|Goalpariya]] and [[Kamrupi dialects|Kamrupi]] idioms and forms.<ref>"Now, Dispur, the Capital city being around Guwahati, as also with the spread of literacy and education in the western Assam districts, forms of the Central and Western dialects have been creeping into the literary idiom and reshaping the standard language during the last few decades." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=436}}</ref>

== Geographical distribution ==
Assamese is native to [[Assam]]. It is also spoken in states of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Meghalaya]] and [[Nagaland]]. The [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali-Assamese script]] can be found in of present-day [[Burma]]. The [[Pashupatinath Temple]] in [[Nepal]] also has inscriptions in Bengali-Assamese script showing its influence in the past.

There is a significant Assamese-speaking diaspora worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assaminaustralia.org.au/|title=Assamese Association – of Australia (ACT & NSW)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://assamtoday.tripod.com/|title=Welcome to the Website of "Axom Xomaj",Dubai, UAE (Assam Society of Dubai, UAE)!}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://assamforumgb.org.uk/index.php/about/constitution|title=Constitution|access-date=5 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227135059/http://assamforumgb.org.uk/index.php/about/constitution|archive-date=27 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://aanahome.org/|title=AANA - AANA Overview}}</ref>

===Official status===
Assamese is the [[Official language|official]] language of Assam, and one of the 22 [[Languages with official status in India|official languages]] recognised by the [[India|Republic of India]]. The Assam Secretariat functions in Assamese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://assam.gov.in/web/secretariat-administration-department|title=Secretariat Administration Department|publisher=assam.gov.in|access-date=5 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620044451/http://assam.gov.in/web/secretariat-administration-department|archive-date=20 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Phonology==
The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of eight [[vowel]]s, ten [[diphthongs]], and twenty-three [[consonant]]s (including two [[semivowel]]s).<ref name="iitg">[http://www.iitg.ernet.in/rcilts/assamese.html Assamese] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728094039/http://www.iitg.ernet.in/rcilts/assamese.html |date=28 July 2012 }}, Resource Centre for Indian Language Technology Solutions, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Vowels<ref>{{harvcol|Mahanta|2012|p=220}}</ref>
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}} {{grapheme|i, {{lang|as|ই/ঈ}}}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}} {{grapheme|u, {{lang|as|উ/ঊ}}}}
|-
![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|ʊ}} {{grapheme|ü, {{lang|as|ও}}}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}} {{grapheme|é, {{lang|as|এʼ}}}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}} {{grapheme|ó, {{lang|as|অʼ}}}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}} {{grapheme|e, {{lang|as|এ}}}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɔ}} {{grapheme|o, {{lang|as|অ}}}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPA link|ä|a}} {{grapheme|a, {{lang|as|আ}}}}
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Diphthongs<ref name="iitg"/>
!
!{{IPA link|a}}
!{{IPA link|i}}
!{{IPA link|u}}
|-
!{{IPA link|a}}
|
|{{IPA|ai}}
|{{IPA|au}}
|-
!{{IPA link|ɔ}}
|
|{{IPA|ɔi}}
|
|-
!{{IPA link|e}}
|
|{{IPA|ei}}
|{{IPA|eu}}
|-
!{{IPA link|o}}
|
|{{IPA|oi}}
|{{IPA|ou}}
|-
!{{IPA link|i}}
|
|
|{{IPA|iu}}
|-
!{{IPA link|u}}
|{{IPA|ua}}
|{{IPA|ui}}
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonants<ref>{{harvcol|Mahanta|2012|p=218}}</ref>
!colspan=2|
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m, {{lang|as|ম}}}}
|{{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n, {{lang|as|ন/ণ}}}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}} {{grapheme|ng, {{lang|as|ঙ/ং}}}}
|
|-
!rowspan=4|[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|{{IPA link|p}} {{grapheme|p, {{lang|as|প}}}}
|{{IPA link|t}} {{grapheme|t, {{lang|as|ত/ট}}}}
|{{IPA link|k}} {{grapheme|k, {{lang|as|ক}}}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA link|pʰ}} {{grapheme|ph, {{lang|as|ফ}}}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}} {{grapheme|th, {{lang|as|থ/ঠ}}}}
|{{IPA link|kʰ}} {{grapheme|kh, {{lang|as|খ}}}}
|
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPA link|b}} {{grapheme|b, {{lang|as|ব}}}}
|{{IPA link|d}} {{grapheme|d, {{lang|as|দ/ড}}}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ}} {{grapheme|g, {{lang|as|গ}}}}
|
|-
!<small>[[breathy voice|murmured]]</small>
|{{IPA link|bʱ}} {{grapheme|bh, {{lang|as|ভ}}}}
|{{IPA link|dʱ}} {{grapheme|dh, {{lang|as|ধ/ঢ}}}}
|{{IPA link|ɡʱ}} {{grapheme|gh, {{lang|as|ঘ}}}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Fricative]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|{{IPA link|s}} {{grapheme|s, {{lang|as|চ/ছ}}}}
|{{IPA link|x}} {{grapheme|x, {{lang|as|শ/ষ/স}}}}
|{{IPA link|h}} {{grapheme|h, {{lang|as|হ}}}}
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|
|{{IPA link|z}} {{grapheme|j, {{lang|as|জ/য}}}}
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
!<small>central</small>
|{{IPA link|w}} {{grapheme|w, {{lang|as|ৱ}}}}
|{{IPA link|ɹ}} {{grapheme|r, {{lang|as|ৰ/ড়}}}}
|{{IPA link|j}} {{grapheme|y, {{lang|as|য়/্য (য)}}}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|l}} {{grapheme|l, {{lang|as|ল}}}}
|
|
|}

=== Consonant clusters ===
{{Main|Assamese consonant clusters}}

===Alveolar stops===
The Assamese [[phoneme]] inventory is unique in the group of [[Indo-Aryan languages]] as it lacks a dental-retroflex distinction among the [[Coronal consonant|coronal]] stops as well as the lack of postalveolar affricates and fricatives.<ref>"Assamese, alone among NIA languages except for [[Romani language|Romany]], has also lost the characteristic IA dental/retroflex contrast (although it is retained in spelling), reducing the number of articulations, with the loss also of {{IPA|/c/}}, to three." {{harv|Masica|1993|p=95}}</ref> Historically, the [[Dental consonant|dental]] and [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] series merged into [[Alveolar plosive|alveolar stops]]. This makes Assamese resemble non-Indic languages of [[Northeast India]] (such as [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Sino-Tibetan languages]]).{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=45}} The only other language to have fronted retroflex stops into alveolars is the closely related group of eastern [[dialects]] of [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (although a contrast with dental stops remains in those dialects). {{IPAslink|r}} is normally realised as {{IPAblink|ɹ}} or {{IPAblink|ɻ}}.

===Voiceless velar fricative===
Assamese is unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of {{IPA|/x/}} (realised as {{IPAblink|x}} or {{IPAblink|χ}}, depending on the speaker and speech register), due historically to the MIA sibilants' [[lenition]] to {{IPA|/x/}} (initially) and {{IPA|/h/}} (non-initially).<ref>The word "hare", for example: ''śaśka'' (OIA) > ''χɔhā'' (hare). {{harv|Masica|1993|p=206}}</ref> The use of the [[voiceless velar fricative]] is heavy in the eastern Assamese dialects and decreases progressively to the west—from [[Kamrupi dialects|Kamrupi]]<ref>Goswami, Upendranath (1970), ''A Study on Kamrupi'', p.xiii {{IPA|/x/}} does not occur finally in Kamrupi. But in St. Coll. it occurs. In non-initial positions O.I.A sibilants became {{IPA|/kʰ/}} and also {{IPA|/h/}} whereas in St. Coll. they become {{IPA|/x/}}.</ref> to eastern [[Goalpariya dialects|Goalparia]], and disappears completely in western Goalpariya.<ref>B Datta (1982), ''Linguistic situation in north-east India'', the distinctive h sound of Assamese is absent in the West Goalpariya dialect</ref><ref>Whereas most fricatives become sibilants in Eastern Goalpariya (''sukh'', ''santi'', ''asa'' in Eastern Goalpariya; ''xukh'', ''xanti'', ''axa'' in western Kamrupi) {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=286}}; some use of the fricative is seen as in the word ''xi'' (for both "he" and "she") {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=287}} and ''xap khar'' (the snake) {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=288}}. The {{IPAslink|x}} is completely absent in Western Goalpariya {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=290}}</ref> The change of {{IPA|/s/}} to {{IPA|/h/}} and then to {{IPA|/x/}} has been attributed to Tibeto-Burman influence by [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji|Suniti Kumar Chatterjee]].<ref>Chatterjee, Suniti Kumar, ''Kirata Jana Krti'', p. 54.</ref>

In some cases, {{IPA|/kʰ/}} can even merge with {{IPA|/χ/}} or {{IPA|/x/}} (''akhɔr'' → ''axɔr'' "a letter (of an alphabet)").{{sfn|Mahanta|2012|p=219}}

===Velar nasal===
Assamese, [[Odia language|Odia]], and [[Bengali language|Bengali]], in contrast to other [[Indo-Aryan languages]], use the [[velar nasal]] (the [[English language|English]] ''ng'' in ''sing'') extensively. While in many languages, the velar nasal is commonly restricted to preceding [[Velar consonant|velar]] sounds, in Assamese it can occur intervocalically.<ref name="iitg"/> This is another feature it shares with other languages of [[Northeast India]], though in Assamese the velar nasal never occurs word-initially.{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=46}}

===Vowel inventory===
[[Eastern Indic languages]] like Assamese, Bengali, [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], and Odia do not have a vowel length distinction, but have a wide set of [[Roundedness|back rounded vowels]]. In the case of Assamese, there are four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically, as demonstrated by the minimal set: {{Lang|as|কলা}} ''kola'' {{IPA|[kɔla]}} ('deaf'), {{Lang|as|ক'লা}} ''kóla'' {{IPA|[kola]}} ('black'), {{Lang|as|কোলা}} ''kwla'' {{IPA|[kʊla]}} ('lap'), and {{Lang|as|কুলা}} ''kula'' {{IPA|[kula]}} ('winnowing fan'). The [[near-close near-back rounded vowel]] {{IPA|/ʊ/}} is unique in this branch of the language family. But in lower Assam, ও is pronounced the same as অ' (ó): compare {{Lang|as|কোলা}} ''kwla'' {{IPA|[kóla]}} and {{Lang|as|মোৰ}} ''mwr'' {{IPA|[mór]}}.

===Vowel harmony===
Assamese has [[vowel harmony]]. The vowels [i] and [u] cause the preceding mid vowels and the high back vowels to change to [e] and [o] and [u] respectively. Assamese is one of the few languages spoken in India which exhibit a systematic process of vowel harmony.<ref>{{Cite thesis|url=https://www.lotpublications.nl/directionality-and-locality-in-vowel-harmony-directionality-and-locality-in-vowel-harmony-with-special-reference-to-vowel-harmony-in-assamese|title=Directionality and locality in vowel harmony: With special reference to vowel harmony in Assamese|via=www.lotpublications.nl}}</ref><ref>{{harvcol|Mahanta|2012|p=221}}</ref>

===Schwa deletion===
The inherent vowel in standard Assamese, /{{IPA|ɔ}}/, follows deletion rules analogous to "[[schwa deletion in Indian languages|schwa deletion]]" in other Indian languages. Assamese follows a slightly different set of "schwa deletion" rules for its modern standard and early varieties. In the modern standard /{{IPA|ɔ}}/ is generally deleted in the final position unless it is (1) /w/ ({{lang|as|ৱ}}); or (2) /j/ ({{lang|as|য়}}) after higher vowels like /i/ ({{lang|as|ই}}) or /u/ ({{lang|as|উ}});<ref>{{harvcol|Sarma|2017|p=119}}</ref> though there are a few additional exceptions. The rule for deleting the final /{{IPA|ɔ}}/ was not followed in [[Early Assamese]].

The initial /{{IPA|ɔ}}/ is never deleted.

==Writing system==
{{Main|Assamese alphabet}}
[[File:Bengali ৰ.svg|thumb|{{center|'''[[Assamese rô|<big>Rô</big>]]'''<br />One of the [[consonant]]s of '''[[Assamese alphabet|Assamese script]]'''}}]]

Modern Assamese uses the [[Assamese alphabet|Assamese]] alphabet. In medieval times, the script came in three varieties: ''Bamuniya'', ''Garhgaya'', and ''Kaitheli/Lakhari'', which developed from the [[Kamarupi script]]. It very closely resembles the [[Mithilakshar]] script of the [[Maithili language]], as well as the [[Bengali alphabet]].<ref name="Bora 1981 5, 53">{{cite book |last=Bora |first=Mahendra |year=1981 |title=The Evolution of the Assamese Script |location=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=[[Asam Sahitya Sabha]] |pages=5, 53 |oclc=59775640}}</ref> There is a strong literary tradition from early times. Examples can be seen in edicts, land grants and copper plates of medieval kings. Assam had its own manuscript writing system on the bark of the ''[[Aquilaria malaccensis|saanchi]]'' tree in which religious texts and chronicles were written, as opposed to the pan-Indian system of [[Palm leaf manuscript]] writing. The present-day spellings in Assamese are not necessarily phonetic. ''[[Hemkosh]]'' ({{lang|as|হেমকোষ}} {{IPA|[ɦɛmkʊx]}}), the second Assamese dictionary, introduced spellings based on [[Sanskrit]], which are now the standard.

Assamese has also historically been written using the [[Arabic script]] by [[Assamese Muslims]]. One example is ''Tariqul Haq Fi Bayane Nurul Haq'' by [[Zulqad Ali]] (1796–1891) of [[Sivasagar]], which is one of the oldest works in modern Assamese prose.<ref name=hanif>{{cite book|pages=401–402|title=Biographical Encyclopaedia of Sufis: South Asia|last=Hanif|first=N|year=2000|chapter=Zulqad Ali, Sufi Shaheb Hazrad (d. 1891A.D.)}}</ref>

In the early 1970s, it was agreed upon that the Roman script was to be the standard writing system for [[Nagamese Creole]].<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |last=Bhattacharjya |first=Dwijen |date=2001 |title=The genesis and development of Nagamese: Its social history and linguistic structure |type=PhD |publisher=City University of New York |id={{ProQuest|304688285}}}}</ref> In January 2020, the Assam government announced that Assamese would be a mandatory language for government job eligibility.<ref>{{cite news |title=Assamese to be made mandatory for govt jobs in Assam |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/assamese-to-be-made-mandatory-for-govt-jobs-in-assam/articleshow/73619376.cms |work=The Economic Times |date=25 January 2020 |access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref>

=== Sample text ===
{{further|Romanisation of Assamese}}
The following is a portion from the story ''Silonir ziekor xadhu (The tale of the kite's daughter)'', written by [[Lakshminath Bezbaruah]] in his book [[Burhi Aair Sadhu|Burhi Aair Xadhu]]:

{{fs interlinear|lang=as|indent=2
|চৰুটো নৈত উটি গৈ আছে, এনেতে নৈৰ পাৰত কাপোৰ ধুই থকা ধোবা এটাই চৰুটো দেখি তাত কি আছে চাওঁ বুলি সাঁতুৰি গৈ সাঁফৰটো মেলি দেখিলে, নকৈ হোৱা কেঁচুৱা ছোৱালী এজনী তাতে ভৰাই কোনোবাই উটাই দিছে। ধোবাটোৱে ছোৱালীজনী তুলি ল’বৰ মনেৰে সাঁফৰটো গুচাই চৰুটো ধৰি লাহে লাহে সাঁতুৰি বামৰ ফালে টানি আনোতেই, হঠাৎ এজনী চিলনীয়ে থাপ মাৰি চৰুটোৰ পৰা ছোৱালীজনী লৈ গুচি গ’ল। এজোপা আঁহত গছৰ আগত চিলনীজনীৰ বাহ আছিল। তাই ছোৱালীজনী সেই বাহতে থ’লেগৈ। কণমান ৰূপহ ছোৱালীটি দেখি চিলনীৰ বৰ মৰম লাগিল। সেইদেখি তাই ছোৱালীজনী তুলি-তালি ডাঙৰ-দীঘল কৰিবলৈ মনতে ঠিক কৰিলে।
|sörutü nöit uti göi ase, enete nöir parot kapür dhui thoka dhüba etai sörutü dëkhi tat ki ase saü̃ buli xãturi göi xãphortü mëli dëkhile, noköi hüa kẽsua süali ezoni tate bhorai künübai utai dise. dhübatüe süalizoni tuli löbor monere xãphortü gusai sorutü dhori lahe lahe xãturi bamor phale tani anü̃tëi, hothat‌ ezoni silonie thap mari sörutür pora süalizoni löi gusi göl. ezüpa ãhot gosor agot silonizonir bah asil. tai süalizoni xëi bahote thölegöi. konman rupoh süaliti dëkhi silonir bor morom lagil. xëidëkhi tai süalizoni tuli-tali daṅor-dighol köribolöi monote thik körile.|so̞ɹutʊ no̞it uti go̞i asɛ, ɛnɛtɛ no̞iɹ paɹɔ̞t kapʊɹ dʱui thɔ̞ka dʱʊba ɛtai so̞ɹutʊ dekʰi tat ki asɛ saʊ̃ buli x̟ãtuɹi go̞i x̟ãpʰɔ̞ɹtʊ meli dekʰilɛ, nɔ̞ːko̞i hʊa kẽsua sʊali ɛzɔ̞ni tatɛ bhɔ̞ɹai kʊnʊbai utai disɛ. dʱʊbatʊɛ sʊalizɔ̞ni tuli lo̞bɔ̞ɹ mɔ̞nɛɹɛ x̟ãpʰɔ̞ɹtʊ gusai sɔ̞ɹutʊ dʱo̞ɹi lahɛ lahɛ x̟ãtuɹi bamɔ̞ɹ pʰalɛ tani anʊ̃tei, hɔ̞that‌ ɛzɔ̞ni silɔ̞niɛ thap maɹi so̞ɹutʊɹ pɔ̞ɹa sʊalizɔ̞ni lo̞i gusi go̞l. ɛzʊpa ãhɔ̞t gɔ̞sɔ̞ɹ agɔ̞t silɔ̞nizɔ̞niɹ bah asil. tai sʊalizɔ̞ni x̟ei bahɔ̞tɛ tho̞lɛgɔ̞̞i. kɔ̞nman ɹupɔ̞h sʊaliti dekʰi silɔ̞niɹ bɔ̞ɹ mɔ̞ɹɔ̞m lagil. x̟eidekʰi tai sʊalizɔ̞ni tuli-tali daŋɔ̞ɹ-digʱɔ̞l ko̞ɹibɔ̞lo̞i mɔ̞nɔ̞tɛ thik ko̞ɹilɛ.
|pot-the river-in floating going being, such-in river's bank-on clothe(s) washing staying washerman one-cʟs-ᴇʀɢ pot-the seeing there-in what exists see-1ᴘ saying/thinking swimming going lid-the opening saw, new-ly being baby girl one-cʟs there-in-ᴇᴍᴘʜ inserting someone-ᴇʀɢ floating gave. Washerman-the girl-cʟs lifting taking-of mind-with lid-the removing pot-the holding slow-with slow-with swimming shallow-of side-in pulling bring-while-ᴇᴍᴘʜ, suddenly one-cʟs kite-ᴇʀɢ snatch doing pot-the-of from girl-cʟs taking removing went. One-cʟs peepul tree's top-in kite-the-of nest existed. She girl-the that nest-in-ᴇᴍᴘʜ put-going. Little beauty girl-the seeing kite's very love attached. That-seeing she girl-the lifting big-long doing-for mind-in-ᴇᴍᴘʜ fix did.
|The pot is floating on the river, in such a time a washerman who was washing clothes on the bank of the river saw the pot and wanting to see what's inside, swam towards it, opened the lid and saw that a newly born baby girl was put there and floated by someone. The washerman wanted to adopt the girl, but when he was bringing it towards the shallow water, holding the pot, swimming slowly after having removed the lid, suddenly a kite snatched the girl from the pot and took her away. The kite had her nest on the top of a peepul tree. She put the girl on that nest. Seeing the beautiful little girl, the kite felt affection. Therefore she decided to raise the girl.}}

==Morphology and grammar==
{{main|Assamese grammar}}
The Assamese language has the following characteristic morphological features:{{Sfn|Kommaluri|Subramanian|Sagar K|2005}}
* Gender and number are not grammatically marked.
* There is a lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.
* Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.
* The agentive case is overtly marked as distinct from the accusative.
* Kinship nouns are inflected for personal pronominal possession.
* Adverbs can be derived from the verb roots.
* A passive construction may be employed idiomatically.

===Negation process===
Verbs in Assamese are negated by adding {{IPA|/n/}} before the verb, with {{IPA|/n/}} picking up the initial vowel of the verb. For example:{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=47}}
* {{IPA|/na laɡɛ/}} 'do(es) not want' (1st, 2nd and 3rd persons)
* {{IPA|/ni likʰʊ̃/}} 'will not write' (1st person)
* {{IPA|/nukutʊ̃/}} 'will not nibble' (1st person)
* {{IPA|/nɛlɛkʰɛ/}} 'does not count' (3rd person)
* {{IPA|/nɔkɔɹɔ/}} 'do not do' (2nd person)

===Classifiers===
Assamese has a large collection of [[classifier (linguistics)|classifiers]], which are used extensively for different kinds of objects, acquired from the [[Sino-Tibetan languages]].{{Sfn|Moral|1997|pp=49-51}} A few examples of the most extensive and elaborate use of classifiers are given below:
*"'''''zɔn'''''" is used to signify a person, male with some amount of respect
**E.g., manuh-''zɔn'' – "the man"
*"'''''zɔni'''''" (female) is used after a noun or pronoun to indicate human beings
**E.g., manuh-''zɔni'' – "the woman"
*"'''''zɔni'''''" is also used to express the non-human feminine
**E.g., sɔɹai ''zɔni'' – "the bird", pɔɹuwa-''zɔni'' – "the ant"
*"'''''zɔna'''''" and "'''''gɔɹaki'''''" are used to express high respect for both man and woman
**E.g., kɔbi-''zɔna'' – "the poet", gʊxaɪ-''zɔna'' – "the goddess", rastrapati-''gɔɹaki'' – "the president", tiɹʊta-''gɔɹaki'' – "the woman"
*"'''''tʊ'''''" has three forms: '''''tʊ''''', '''''ta''''', '''''ti'''''
**(a) tʊ: is used to specify something, although the case of someone, e.g., loɹa-''tʊ'' – "the particular boy", is impolite
**(b) ta: is used only after numerals, e.g., ɛ''ta'', du''ta'', tini''ta'' – "one, two, three"
**(c) ti: is the diminutive form, e.g., kesua-''ti'' – "the infant, besides expressing more affection or attachment to
*"'''''kɔsa'''''", "'''''mɔtʰa'''''" and "'''''taɹ'''''" are used for things in bunches
**E.g., sabi-''kɔsa'' – "the bunch of key", saul-''mɔtʰa'' – "a handful of rice", suli-''taɹi'' or suli ''kɔsa'' – "the bunch of hair"
*'''''dal''''', '''''dali''''', are used after nouns to indicate something long but round and solid
**E.g., bãʱ-''dal'' – "the bamboo", katʰ-''dal'' – "the piece of wood", bãʱ-''dali'' – "the piece of bamboo"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Assamese Classifiers
! Classifier !! Referent !! Examples
|-
| {{IPA|/zɔn/}} || males (adult) || manuh-''zɔn'' (the man – honorific)
|-
| {{IPA|/zɔni/}} || females (women as well as animals) || manuh-''zɔni'' (the woman), sɔrai-''zɔni'' (the bird)
|-
| {{IPA|/zɔna/}} || honorific || kobi-''zɔna'' (the poet), gʊxai-''zɔna'' (the god/goddess)
|-
| {{IPA|/ɡɔɹaki/}} || males and females (honorific) || manuh-''ɡɔɹaki'' (the woman), rastrɔpɔti-''gɔɹaki'' (the president)
|-
| {{IPA|/tʊ/}} || inanimate objects or males of animals and men (impolite) || manuh-''tʊ'' (the man – diminutive), gɔɹu-''tʊ'' (the cow)
|-
| {{IPA|/ti/}} || inanimate objects or infants || kesua-''ti'' (the baby)
|-
| {{IPA|/ta/}} || for counting numerals || e-''ta'' (count one), du-''ta'' (count two)
|-
| {{IPA|/kʰɔn/}} || flat square or rectangular objects, big or small, long or short ||
|-
| {{IPA|/kʰɔni/}} || terrain like rivers and mountains ||
|-
| {{IPA|/tʰupi/}} || small objects ||
|-
| {{IPA|/zak/}} || group of people, cattle; also for rain; cyclone ||
|-
| {{IPA|/sati/}} || breeze ||
|-
| {{IPA|/pat/}} || objects that are thin, flat, wide or narrow. ||
|-
| {{IPA|/paɦi/}} || flowers ||
|-
| {{IPA|/sɔta/}} || objects that are solid ||
|-
| {{IPA|/kɔsa/}} || [[mass noun]]s ||
|-
| {{IPA|/mɔtʰa/}} || bundles of objects ||
|-
| {{IPA|/mutʰi/}} || smaller bundles of objects ||
|-
| {{IPA|/taɹ/}} || broomlike objects ||
|-
| {{IPA|/ɡɔs/}} || wick-like objects ||
|-
| {{IPA|/ɡɔsi/}} || with earthen lamp or old style kerosene lamp used in Assam ||
|-
| {{IPA|/zʊpa/}} || objects like trees and shrubs ||
|-
| {{IPA|/kʰila/}} || paper and leaf-like objects ||
|-
| {{IPA|/kʰini/}} || uncountable mass nouns and pronouns ||
|-
| {{IPA|/dal/}} || inanimate flexible/stiff or oblong objects; humans (pejorative) ||
|}
In Assamese, classifiers are generally used in the ''numeral + classifier + noun'' (e.g. {{IPA|/ezɔn manuh/}} ejon manuh 'one man') or the ''noun + numeral + classifier'' (e.g. {{IPA|/manuh ezɔn/}} manuh ejon 'one man') forms.

===Nominalization===
Most verbs can be converted into nouns by the addition of the suffix {{IPA|/ɔn/}}. For example, {{IPA|/kʰa/}} ('to eat') can be converted to {{IPA|/kʰaɔn/}} khaon ('good eating').{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=48}}

===Grammatical cases===
Assamese has 8 [[grammatical case]]s:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases !! Suffix !! Example
|-
! [[Absolutive case|Absolutive]]
| none
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|বাৰীত ''গৰু'' সোমাল।|barit góru- xwmal.|garden-LOC cattle-'''ABS''' entered|Cattles entered into the garden.}}
|-
! [[Ergative case|Ergative]]
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|-এ, -ই|-e, -i|}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|গৰু'''ৱে''' ঘাঁহ খায়।|góru-'''e''' ghãh kha-e.|cattle-'''ERG''' grass-ACC eat-3.HAB.PRES|Cattles eat grass.}}
Note: The personal pronouns without a plural or other suffix are not marked.
|-
! [[Accusative case|Accusative]]
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|-(অ)ক, −|-(o)k, −|}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|শিয়ালটোৱে শহাটো'''ক''' খেদি আছে।|xial-tw-e xoha-tw-'''k''' khedi ase.|jackal-the-ERG hare-the-'''ACC''' chasing exist-3.PRES.CONT|The jackal is chasing the hare.}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=as|তেওঁলোকে চোৰটো পুলিচক গতালে।|tewlwk-e sür-tw- pulis-ok gotale.|they thief-the-'''ACC''' police-ACC handover-REC-3|They handed over the thief to the police.}}
|-
! [[Genitive case|Genitive]]
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|-(অ)ৰ|-(o)r|}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|তাই'''ৰ''' ঘৰ|tai-'''r''' ghor|she-'''GEN''' house|Her house}}
|-
! [[Dative case|Dative]]
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|-(অ)লৈ [dialectal: -(অ)লে]; -(অ)ক|-(o)lói [dialectal: -(o)le]; -(o)k|}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|সি পঢ়াশালি'''লৈ''' গৈ আছে।|xi porhaxali-'''lói''' gói ase.|he school-'''DAT''' going exist-3.PRES.CONT|He is going to (the) school.}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=as|বা'''ক''' চাবিটো দিয়া।|ba-'''k''' sabi-tw- dia.|{elder sister}-'''DAT''' key-the-ACC give-FAM.IMP|Give elder sister the key.}}
|-
! [[Terminative case|Terminative]]
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|-(অ)লৈকে [dialectal: -(অ)লেকে]|-(o)lóike [dialectal: -(o)leke]|}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|মই নহা'''লৈকে''' কʼতো নেযাবা।|moi n-oha-'''lóike''' kót-w ne-ja-b-a.|I not-coming-'''TERM''' where-even not-go-future-3|Don't go anywhere until I don't come.}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=as|১ৰ পৰা ৭'''লৈকে'''|1-or pora 7-'''olóike'''|one-GEN from seven-'''TERM'''|From 1 up to 7}}
|-
! [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|-(এ)ৰে [dialectal: -(এ)দি]|-(e)re [dialectical: -(e)di]|}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|কল'''মেৰে''' লিখিছিলা।|kolom-'''ere''' likhisila.|pen-'''INS''' write-2.{{gcl|DP|distant past}}|You wrote with (a) pen.}}
|-
! [[Locative case|Locative]]
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|-(অ)ত [sometimes: -এ]|-(o)t [sometimes: -e]|}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=as|সি বহীখন'''ত''' লিখিছে।|xi ''bóhi-khon-'''ot''''' likhise.|he ''notebook-the-'''LOC''''' write-PRES.PERF.3|He has written on the notebook.}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=as|আইতা মঙলবা'''ৰে''' আহিছিল।|aita ''moŋolbar-'''e''''' ahisil.|grandmother ''Tuesday-'''LOC''''' come-{{gcl|DP|distant past}}-3|Grandmother came on Tuesday.}}
|}

===Pronouns===
{{cleanup lang|date=June 2021}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:80%"
|-
! rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:center | Number
! rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:center | Person
! rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:center | Gender
! colspan=5 | Pronouns
|-
! Absolutive<br>Ergative !! Accusative<br>Dative !! Genitive !! Locative !! Dative
|-
! ROWSPAN="5" style="font-weight:normal" | Singular
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" | 1st
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" | m/f ('''I''')
|moi||mwk||mwr||mwt||mwlói
|-
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" | 2nd
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" | m/f ('''you''')
|toi ᵛ<br>tumi ᶠ<br>apuni ᵖ||twk<br>twmak<br>apwnak||twr<br>twmar<br>apwnar||twt<br>twmat<br>apwnat||twloi<br>twmalói<br>apwnaloi
|-
! rowspan=3 style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" | 3rd
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |m ('''he''')<br>n ('''it, that''')
|i * <br>xi **||iak<br>tak||iar<br>tar||iat<br>tat||ialoi<br>taloi
|-
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |f ('''she''')
|ei *<br>tai **||eik<br>taik||eir<br>tair||eit<br>tait||eilói<br>tailói
|-
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |n & p ('''he/she''')
|ew/ekhet(-e ᵉ) * <br>teü/tekhet(-e ᵉ) **||ewk/ekhetok<br>tewk/tekhetok||ewr/ekhetor<br>tewr/tekhetor||ewt/ekhetot<br>tewt/tekhetot||ewloi/ekhetólói<br>tewlói/tekhetólói
|-
! rowspan=4 style="font-weight:normal" | Plural
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |1st
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |m/f ('''we''')
|ami||amak||amar||amat||amalói
|-
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |2nd
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |m/f ('''you''')
|tohot(-e ᵉ) ᵛ<br>twmalwk(-e ᵉ) ᶠ<br>apwnalwk(-e ᵉ) ᵖ||tohõtok <br>twmalwkok <br> apwnalwkok||tohõtor <br>twmalwkor <br> apwnalwkor||tohõtot <br>twmalwkot <br> apwnalwkot||tohõtolói <br>twmalwkolói <br> apwnalwkolói
|-
! rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |3rd
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" |m/f ('''they''')
|ihõt *<br>ewlwk/ekhetxokol(-e ᵉ) ᵖ *<br>xihõt **<br>tewlwk/tekhetxokol(-e ᵉ) ᵖ **||ihõtok<br>xihotõk<br>ewlwkok/ekhetxokolok<br>tewlwkok/tekhetxokolok||ihõtor<br>xihotõr<br>eülwkor/ekhetxokolor<br>tewlwkor/tekhetxokolor||ihõtot<br>xihotõt<br>ewlwkot/ekhetxokolot<br>tewlwkot/tekhetxokolot||ihõtoloi<br>xihotõloi<br>ewlwkok/ekhetxokololoi<br>tewlwkoloi/tekhetxokololoi
|-
! style="vertical-align:center; font-weight:normal" | n ('''these, those''')
| eibwr(-e ᵉ) ᵛ *<br>eibilak(-e ᵉ) ᶠ *<br>eixómuh(-e ᵉ) ᵖ *<br>xeibwr(-e ᵉ) ᵛ **<br>xeibilak(-e ᵉ) ᶠ **<br>xeixómuh(-e) ᵖ **|| eibwrok<br>eibilakok<br>eixómuhok<br>xeibwrok<br>xeibilakok<br>xeixómuhok||eibwror<br>eibilakor<br>eixómuhor<br>xeibwror<br>xeibilakor<br>xeixómuhor|| eibwrot<br>eibilakot<br>eixómuhot<br>xeibwrot<br>xeibilakot<br>xeixómuhot|| eibwrolói<br>eibilakolói<br>eixómuholói<br>xeibwroloi<br>xeibilakoleó<br>xeixómuhólói
|}

m=''male'', f=''female'', n=''neuter.'', *=''the person or object is near.'', **=''the person or object is far.'', v =''very familiar, inferior'', f=''familiar'', p=''polite'', e=''ergative form''.

===Tense===
With consonant ending verb '''likh''' (write) and vowel ending verb '''kha''' (eat, drink, consume).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center" style="font-size:80%"
|-
!Stem
|Likh (write)
|Kha (eat, drink, consume)
|-
!Gerund
|Likh'''a'''
|kh'''üa'''
|-
!Causative
|Likh'''a'''
|kh'''üa'''
|-
!Conjugative
|Likh'''i'''
|Kha'''i''' & Kha
|-
!Infinitive
|Likh'''ibo'''
|Kha'''bo'''
|-
!Goal
|Likh'''ibólói'''
|Kha'''bólói'''
|-
!Terminative
|Likh'''ibólóike'''
|Kha'''bólóike'''
|-
!Agentive
|Likh'''ü̃ta''' <sup>np</sup>/Likh'''wra''' <sup>mi</sup>/Likh'''wri''' <sup>fi</sup>
|Kha'''wta''' <sup>np</sup>/Kha'''wra''' <sup>mi</sup>/Kha'''wri''' <sup>fi</sup>
|-
!Converb
|Likh'''ü̃te'''
|Kha'''ü̃te'''
|-
!Progressive
|Likh'''ü̃te likhü̃te'''
|Kha'''ü̃te khaü̃te'''
|-
!Reason
|Likh'''at'''
|Kh'''üat'''
|-
!
|Likh'''ilot'''
|Kha'''lot'''
|-
!Conditional
|Likh'''ile'''
|Kha'''le'''
|-
!Perfective
|Likh'''i'''
|Kha'''i'''
|-
!Habitual
|Likh'''i likhi'''
|Kha'''i khai'''
|}

For different types of verbs.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center" style="font-size:80%"
|-
!rowspan="2"| Tense
!rowspan="2"| Person
!colspan="2"| tho "put"
!colspan="2"| kha "consume"
!colspan="2"| pi "drink"
!colspan="2"| de "give"
!colspan="2"| dhu "wash"
!colspan="2"| kor "do"
!colspan="2"| randh "cook"
!colspan="2"| ah "come"
|-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
|-
!rowspan="4"| Simple Present
!1st{{nbsp}}per.
|thoü
|nothoü
|khaü
|nakhaü ~ nekhaü
|piü
|nipiü
|diü
|nidiü
|dhüü
|nüdhüü
|korü
|nokorü
|randhü
|narandhü ~ nerandhü
|ahü
|nahü
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}inf.
|thoo
|nothoo
|khao
|nakhao ~ nekhao
|pio
|nipio
|dio
|nidio
|dhüo
|nüdhüo
|koro
|nokoro
|randho
|narandho ~ nerandho
|aho
|naho
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}pol.
|thüa
|nüthüa
|khüa
|nükhüa
|pia
|nipia
|dia
|nidia
|dhüa
|nüdhüa
|kora
|nokora
|randha
|narandha ~ nerandha
|aha
|naha
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}hon.{{nbsp}}&{{nbsp}}3rd{{nbsp}}per.
|thoe
|nothoe
|khae
|nakhae ~ nekhae
|pie
|nipie
|die
|nidie
|dhüe
|nüdhüe
|kore
|nokore
|randhe
|narandhe ~ nerandhe
|ahe
|nahe
|-
!rowspan="4"| Present continuous
!1st per.
|thói asw
|rowspan="4"| thoi thoka nai
|khai asw
|rowspan="4"| khai thoka nai
|pi asu
|rowspan="4"| pi thoka nai
|di asw
|rowspan="4"| di thoka nai
|dhui asw
|rowspan="4"| dhui thoka nai
|kori asw
|rowspan="4"| kóri thoka nai
|randhi asw
|rowspan="4"| randhi thoka nai
|ahi asw
|rowspan="4"| ahi thoka nai
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}inf.
|thoi aso
|khai aso
|pi aso
|di aso
|dhui aso
|kori aso
|randhi aso
|ahi aso
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}pol.
|thoi asa
|khai asa
|pi asa
|di asa
|dhui asa
|kori asa
|randhi asa
|ahi asa
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}hon.{{nbsp}}&{{nbsp}}3rd{{nbsp}}per.
|thoi ase
|khai ase
|pi ase
|di ase
|dhui ase
|kori ase
|randhi ase
|ahi ase
|-
!rowspan="4"| Present Perfect
!1st per.
|thoisw
|rowspan="4"| thwa nai
|khaisw
|rowspan="4"| khwa nai
|pisw
|rowspan="4"| pia nai
|disw
|rowspan="4"| dia nai
|dhui asw
|rowspan="4"| dhwa nai
|korisw
|rowspan="4"| kora nai
|randhisw
|rowspan="4"| rondha nai
|ahi asw
|rowspan="4"| oha nai
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}inf.
|thóisó
|khaisó
|pisó
|disó
|dhuisó
|kórisó
|randhisó
|ahisó
|-
!2nd per. pol.
|thoisa
|khaisa
|pisa
|disa
|dhuisa
|korisa
|randhisa
|ahisa
|-
!2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.
|thoise
|khaise
|pise
|dise
|dhuise
|korise
|randhise
|ahise
|-
!rowspan="4"| Recent Past
!1st per.
|thölw
|nothölw
|khalw
|nakhalw ~ nekhalw
|pilw
|nipilw
|dilw
|nidilw
|dhulw
|nudhulw
|korilw
|nokórilw
|randhilw
|narandhilw ~ nerandhilw
|ahilw
|nahilw
|-
!2nd per. inf.
|thöli
|nothöli
|khali
|nakhali ~ nekhali
|pili
|nipili
|dili
|nidili
|dhuli
|nudhuli
|kórili
|nókórili
|randhili
|narandhili ~ nerandhili
|ahilw
|nahilw
|-
!2nd per. pol.
|thöla
|nothöla
|khala
|nakhala ~ nekhala
|pila
|nipila
|dila
|nidila
|dhula
|nudhula
|kórila
|nókórila
|randhila
|narandhila ~ nerandhila
|ahila
|nahila
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}hon.{{nbsp}}&{{nbsp}}3rd{{nbsp}}per.
|thöle
|nothöle
|khale
|nakhale ~ nekhale
|pile
|nipile
|dile
|nidile
|dhule
|nudhule
|kórile
|nókórile
|randhile
|narandhile ~ nerandhile
|ahile / ahil<sup>tr</sup>
|nahile / nahil<sup>tr</sup>
|-
!rowspan="4"| Distant Past
!1st per.
|thoisilw
|nothoisilw ~ thwa nasilw
|khaisilw
|nakhaisilw ~ nekhaisilw ~ khwa nasilw
|pisilw
|nipisilw ~ pia nasilw
|disilw
|nidisilw ~ dia nasilw
|dhuisilw
|nudhuisilw ~ dhüa nasilw
|kórisilw
|nókórisilw ~ kora nasilw
|randhisilw
|narandhisilw ~ nerandhisilw ~ rondha nasilw
|ahisilw
|nahisilw ~ oha nasilw
|-
!2nd per. inf.
|thoisili
|nothóisili ~ thwa nasili
|khaisili
|nakhaisili ~ nekhaisili ~ khwa nasili
|pisili
|nipisili ~ pia nasili
|disili
|nidisili ~ dia nasili
|dhuisili
|nudhuisili ~ dhwa nasili
|korisili
|nokorisili ~ kora nasili
|randhisili
|narandhisili ~ nerandhisili ~ rondha nasili
|ahisili
|nahisili ~ oha nasili
|-
!2nd per. pol.
|thoisila
|nothóisila ~ thwa nasila
|khaisila
|nakhaisila ~ nekhaisila ~ khüa nasila
|pisila
|nipisila ~ pia nasila
|disila
|nidisila ~ dia nasila
|dhuisila
|nudhuisila ~ dhwa nasila
|korisila
|nokorisila ~ kora nasila
|randhisila
|narandhisila ~ nerandhisila ~ rondha nasila
|ahisila
|nahisila ~ oha nasila
|-
!2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.
|thoisile
|nothoisile ~ thwa nasile
|khaisile
|nakhaisile ~ nekhaisile ~ khwa nasile
|pisile
|nipisile ~ pia nasile
|disile
|nidisile ~ dia nasile
|dhuisile
|nudhuisile ~ dhüa nasile
|korisile
|nokorisile ~ kora nasile
|randhisile
|narandhisile ~ nerandhisile ~ rondha nasile
|ahisile
|nahisile ~ oha nasile
|-
|-
!rowspan="4"| Past continuous
!1st per.
|thoi asilw
|thoi thoka nasilw
|khai asilw
|khai thoka nasilw
|pi asilw
|pi thoka nasilw
|di asilw
|di thoka nasilw
|dhui asils
|dhui thoka nasils
|kori asils
|kori thoka nasils
|randhi asils
|randhi thoka nasils
|ahi asils
|ahi thoka nasils
|-
!2nd per. inf.
|thoi asili
|thoi thoka nasili
|khai asili
|khai thoka nasili
|pi asili
|pi thoka nasili
|di asili
|di thoka nasili
|dhui asili
|dhui thoka nasili
|kori asili
|kori thoka nasili
|randhi asili
|randhi thoka nasili
|ahi asili
|ahi thoka nasili
|-
!2nd per. pol.
|thoi asila
|thoi thoka nasila
|khai asila
|khai thoka nasila
|pi asila
|pi thoka nasila
|di asila
|di thoka nasila
|dhui asila
|dhui thoka nasila
|kori asila
|kori thoka nasila
|randhi asila
|randhi thoka nasila
|ahi asila
|ahi thoka nasila
|-
!2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.
|thoi asil(e)
|thoi thoka nasil(e)
|khai asil(e)
|khai thoka nasil(e)
|pi asil(e)
|pi thoka nasil(e)
|di asil(e)
|di thoka nasil(e)
|dhui asil(e)
|dhui thoka nasil(e)
|kori asil(e)
|kori thoka nasil(e)
|randhi asil(e)
|randhi thoka nasil(e)
|ahi asil{e)
|ahi thoka nasil(e)
|-
!rowspan="4"| Simple Future
!1st per.
|thöm
|nothöm
|kham
|nakham ~ nekham
|pim
|nipim
|dim
|nidim
|dhum
|nudhum
|korim
|nokorim
|randhim
|narandhim ~ nerandhim
|ahim
|nahim
|-
!2nd per. inf.
|thöbi
|nothöbi
|khabi
|nakhabi ~ nekhabi
|pibi
|nipibi
|dibi
|nidibi
|dhubi
|nudhubi
|koribi
|nokoribi
|randhibi
|narandhibi ~ nerandhibi
|ahibi
|nahibi
|-
!2nd per. pol.
|thöba
|nothöba
|khaba
|nakhaba ~ nekhaba
|piba
|nipiba
|diba
|nidiba
|dhuba
|nudhuba
|koriba
|nókóriba
|randhiba
|narandhiba ~ nerandhiba
|ahiba
|nahiba
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}hon.{{nbsp}}&{{nbsp}}3rd{{nbsp}}per.
|thöbo
|nothöbo
|khabo
|nakhabo ~ nekhabo
|pibo
|nipibo
|dibo
|nidibo
|dhubo
|nudhubo
|koribo
|nokoribo
|randhibo
|narandhibo ~ nerandhibo
|ahibo
|nahibo
|-
!rowspan="4"| Future continuous
!1st per.
|thoi thakim
|thoi nathakim/nethakim
|khai thakim
|khai nathakim/nethakim
|pi thakim
|pi nathakim/nethakim
|di thakim
|di nathakim/nethakim
|dhui thakim
|dhui nathakim/nethakim
|kori thakim
|kori nathakim/nethakim
|randhi thakim
|randhi nathakim/nethakim
|ahi thakim
|ahi nathakim/nethakim
|-
!2nd per. inf.
|thoi thakibi
|thoi nathakibi/nethakibi
|khai thakibi
|khai nathakibi/nethakibi
|pi thakibi
|pi nathakibi/nethakibi
|di thakibi
|di nathakibi/nethakibi
|dhui thakibi
|dhui nathakibi/nethakibi
|kori thakibi
|kori nathakibi/nethakibi
|randhi thakibi
|randhi nathakibi/nethakibi
|ahi thakibi
|ahi nathakibi/nethakibi
|-
!2nd per. pol.
|thoi thakiba
|thoi nathakiba/nethakiba
|khai thakiba
|khai nathakiba/nethakiba
|pi thakiba
|pi nathakiba/nethakiba
|di thakiba
|di nathakiba/nethakiba
|dhui thakiba
|dhui nathakiba/nethakiba
|kori thakiba
|kori nathakiba/nethakiba
|randhi thakiba
|randhi nathakiba/nethakiba
|ahi thakiba
|ahi nathakiba/nethakiba
|-
!2nd{{nbsp}}per.{{nbsp}}hon.{{nbsp}}&{{nbsp}}3rd{{nbsp}}per.
|thoi thakibo
|thoi nathakibo/nethakibo
|khai thakibo
|khai nathakibo/nethakibo
|pi thakibo
|pi nathakibo/nethakibo
|di thakibo
|di nathakibo/nethakibo
|dhui thakibo
|dhui nathakibo/nethakibo
|kori thakibo
|kori nathakibo/nethakibo
|randhi thakibo
|randhi nathakibo/nethakibo
|ahi thakibo
|ahi nathakibo/nethakibo
|-
|}
{{font|text=The negative forms are ''n + 1st vowel of the verb + the verb''. Example: Moi porhw, Moi noporhw (I read, I do not read); Tumi khelila, Tumi nekhelila (You played, You didn't play). For verbs that start with a vowel, just the ''n-'' is added, without vowel lengthening. In some dialects if the 1st vowel is ''a'' in a verb that starts with consonant, ''ne'' is used, like, ''Moi nakhaw'' (I don't eat) is ''Moi nekhaü''. In past continuous the negative form is ''-i thoka nasil-''. In future continuous it's ''-i na(/e)thaki-''. In present continuous and present perfect, just ''-i thoka nai'' and ''-a nai''' respectively are used for all personal pronouns. Sometimes for plural pronouns, the ''-hok'' suffix is used, like ''korwhok'' (we do), ''ahilahok'' (you guys came).Content|size=small}}

===Relationship suffixes===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center" style="font-size:80%"
|-
! Persons !! Suffix !! Example !! English translation
|-
! 1st person
| none
| Mwr/Amar ma, bap, kokai, vai, ba, voni
| My/Our mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
|-
! 2nd person<br>(very familiar; inferior)
| -(e)r
| Twr/Tohõtor ma'''r''', bap'''er''', kokai'''er''', vai'''er''', ba'''r''', voni'''er'''
| Your/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
|-
! 2nd person<br>familiar
| -(e)ra
| Twmar/Twmalwkor ma'''ra''', bap'''era''', kokai'''era''', vai'''era''', ba'''ra''', voni'''era'''
| Your/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
|-
! 2nd person<br>formal;<br>3rd person
| -(e)k
| Apwnar/Apwnalwkor/Tar/Tair/Xihotõr/Tewr ma'''k''', bap'''ek''', kokai'''ek''', bhai'''ek''', ba'''k''', voni'''ek'''
| Your/Your(pl)/His/Her/Their/His~Her(formal) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
|}

'''Kinship Terms'''

Some Assamese Kinship Terms with IPA and English Equivalents
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Sr. No.'''
!'''Assamese Word'''
!'''IPA'''
!'''English Word'''
|-
|1
|দেউতা
|/dɛuta/
|Father
|-
|2
|আই/মা
|/ai/ /mɑ/
|Mother
|-
|3
|দাদা
|/dada/
|Elder Brother
|-
|4
|ভাই
|/bhai/
|Younger Brother
|-
|5
|বাইদেউ
|/bɑɪ.dɛʊ/
|Elder Sister
|-
|6
|ভনী
|/bhɔni/
|Younger Sister
|-
|7
|পুতেক
|/putɛk/
|Son
|-
|8
|জীয়ৰী
|/ziːɔɾi/
|Daughter
|-
|9
|ককা
|/kɔka/
|Paternal Grandfather
|-
|10
|আইতা
|/aita/
|Paternal Grandmother
|-
|11
|কাকা
|/kaka/
|Uncle (Father’s younger brother)
|-
|12
|খুৰা
|/kʰuɾa/
|Uncle (Father’s elder brother)
|-
|13
|খুৰী
|/kʰuɾi/
|Aunt (Father’s brother’s wife)
|-
|14
|পেহা
|/peɦa/
|Uncle (Father’s younger sister’s husband)
|-
|15
|পেহী
|/pɛ.ɦi/
|Aunt (Father’s younger sister)
|-
|16
|কাকা
|/kɔka/
|Maternal Grandfather
|-
|17
|আইতা
|/aita/
|Maternal Grandmother
|-
|18
|মামা
|/mɑː.mɑː/
|Uncle (Mother’s brother)
|-
|19
|মামী
|/ma.mi/
|Aunt (Mother’s brother’s wife)
|-
|20
|মহা
|/mɔ.ɦaˈ/
|Uncle (Mother’s younger sister’s husband)
|-
|21
|মাহী
|/ma.ɦi/
|Aunt (Mother’s younger sister)
|-
|22
|শহুৰ
|/xoɦʊɾ/
|Father-in-law
|-
|23
|শাহু
|/xa.ɦu/
|Mother-in-law
|-
|24
|দেওৰ
|/d̪eː.ɔɾ/
|Brother-in-law (Husband’s younger brother)
|-
|25
|ননদ
|/ nɔnɔd /
|Sister-in-law (Husband’s younger sister)
|-
|26
|খুলশালি
|/K<sup>h</sup>ulxali/
|Brother-in-law (Wife’s younger brother)
|-
|27
|খুলশালি
|/K<sup>h</sup>ulxali/
|Sister-in-law (Wife’s younger sister)
|}

==Dialects==
[[File:Assamese varieties.svg|thumb|The varieties of Assamese.]]

===Regional dialects===
The language has quite a few regional variations. Banikanta Kakati identified two broad [[dialect]]s which he named (1) Eastern and (2) Western dialects,<ref name="Kakati 1941 16">"Assamese may be divided dialectically into Eastern and Western Assamese" {{harv|Kakati|1941|p=16}}</ref> of which the eastern dialect is homogeneous, and prevalent to the east of Guwahati, and the western dialect is heterogeneous. However, recent linguistic studies have identified four dialect groups and one dialect isolate listed below from east to west to south:<ref name="iitg"/><ref>{{harv|Sarma|1990}}</ref>
* '''Eastern group''' in and around the undivided Sivasagar district ([[Golaghat district|Golaghat]], [[Jorhat district|Jorhat]], [[Majuli district|Majuli]], [[Charaideo district|Charaideo]] and [[Sivasagar district|Sivasagar]]) and the former undivided Lakhimpur district ([[Dibrugarh district|Dibrugarh]], [[Tinsukia district|Tinsukia]], [[Lakhimpur district|Lakhimpur]] and [[Dhemaji district|Dhemaji]]. Standard Assamese is based on the Eastern group.
* '''Central group''' spoken in [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]], [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]], [[Morigaon district|Morigaon]] districts and adjoining areas
* '''[[Kamrupi dialect|Kamrupi]] group''' in the [[Kamrup region]]: ([[Barpetia dialect|Barpetia]], [[Nalbariya dialect|Nalbariya]], Palasbaria)
* '''[[Goalpariya dialect|Goalpariya]] group''' in the [[Goalpara region]]: (Ghulliya, Jharuwa, Caruwa)
* '''[[Dehan dialect|Cachar dialect]]''' (Dehan) in [[Cachar district]] of [[Barak valley]]

===Samples===
Collected from the book, ''Assamese – Its formation and development''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/AssameseitsFormationAndDevelopment|title=Assamese:Its formation and development|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>  The text below is from the [[Parable of the Prodigal Son]]. The translations are of different versions of the English translations:

{{Blockquote
|text='''English''': A man had two sons. The younger son told his father, 'I want my share of your estate now before you die.' So his father agreed to divide his wealth between his sons. A few days later this younger son packed all his belongings and moved to a distant land, and there he wasted all his money in wild living. About the time his money ran out, a great famine swept over the land, and he began to starve. He persuaded a local farmer to hire him, and the man sent him into his fields to feed the pigs. The young man became so hungry that even the pods he was feeding the pigs looked good to him. But no one gave him anything.

'''Eastern Assamese (Sibsagar)''': {{Transliteration|as|Künü ejon manuhor duta putek asil, tare xorutüe bapekok kole, "Oi büpai! xompottir ji bhag moi paü tak mük diok!" Tate teü teür xompotti duiü putekor bhitorot bati dile. Olop dinor pasot xorutw puteke tar bhagot ji pale take loi dur dexoloi goi beisali kori gutei xompotti nax korile. Tar pasot xei dexot bor akal hól. Tate xi dux paboloi dhorile. Tetia xi goi xei dexor ejon manuhor asroy lole, aru xei manuhe tak gahori soraboloi potharoloi pothai dile. Tate xi gahorir khüa ebidh gosor seire pet bhoraboloi bor hepah korileü tak küneü ekü nidile.}}

'''Central Assamese''': {{Transliteration|as|Manuh ejonor duta putak asil. Tahãtor vitorot xoutw putake bapekok kóle,}}

'''Central/Kamrupi (Pati Darrang)''': {{Transliteration|as|Eta manhur duta putak asil, xehatör xorutui bapakök kolak, "He pite, xompöttir mör bhagöt zikhini porei, take mök di." Tate teö nizör xompötti xehatök bhagei dilak. Tar olop dinör pasötei xeñ xoru putektüi xokolöke götei loi kömba dexok legi polei gel aru tate lompot kamöt götei urei dilak. Xi xokolö bioe koraõte xeñ dexöt bor akal hol. Xi tate bor kosto paba dhollak. Teten xi aru xeñ dexor eta manhur asroe lolak. Xeñ mantui nizör potharök legi tak bora saribak legi pothei dilak. Tate xi aru borai khawa ekbidh gasör sei di pet bhorabak legi bor hepah kollak. Kintu kawei ekö tak nedlak.}}

'''Kamrupi (Palasbari)''': {{Transliteration|as|Kunba eta manhur duta putak asil. Ekdin xortö putake bapiakok kola, "Bapa wa, apunar xompöttir moi bhagöt zeman kheni pam teman khini mök dia." Tethane bapiake nizör xompötti duö putakok bhage dila. Keidinman pasöt xörtö putake tar bhagtö loi kunba akhan durher dekhok gel, aru tate gundami köri tar götei makha xompötti nohoa koilla. Tar pasöt xiai dekhot mosto akal hol. Tethian xi bor dukh paba dhoilla. Tar xi tarei eta manhur osarök zai asroe asroe lola. Manhtöi tak bara sarba potharöl khedala. Tate xi barai khawa ekbidh gasör seṅ khaba dhoilla. Teö tak kayö akö khaba neidla.}}

'''Kamrupi (Barpeta)''': {{Transliteration|as|Kunba eta manhör duta putek asil. Ekdin xorutu puteke bapekök kolak, "Pita, amar xompöttir moi zikhini mör bhagöt paü xikhini mök dia." Tethen bapeke nizör xompötti tahak bhage dilak. Tare keidinmen pisöte xei xoru putektui tar gotexopake loi ekhen duhrer dekhök gusi gel, arö tate xi lompot hoi tar gotexopa xompöttike ure phellak. Tar pasöt xei dekhkhenöt mosto akal hol. Tethen xi xei dekhör eta manhör osröt zai asroe lolak. Manuhtui tak bara sarbak login patharök khedolak. Tate xi ekbidh barai khawa gasör sẽi khaba dhollak. Take dekhiö kayö tak ekö khaba nedlak.}}

'''Kamrupi (Bongaigaon)''': {{Transliteration|as|Eta manur duta beta asil. Xoru beta gote tar bapok koisil, "Baba moy xompottir jikhini bhag pang xikhini mok dek toy/apuni morar agote". Bap gote xompotti khini nijor beta koytar majot bhag kori dewar karne manti hol. Koydin man pasot xoru beta go nijor bostu khini loya kobat durot jaya nijor gotae poisa gidi uray felal. Tae poisa makha xek koria felar pasote tamar tar tate thikse khawar obhab hol. Xibar tae osorore khetiyok etar tate kam korbar krne gise aro tak tate gahori gilak ahar khuwawa kam disil. Xei soli go bhokote gahorir ahar makhake khaise. Xei dekhiyao tak kahoy eko khaba nedil.}}

'''Western Goalpariya (Salkocha)''': {{Transliteration|as|Kunö ekzon mansir duizon saöa asil. Tar sötotae bapok koil, "Baba sompöttir ze bhag mör, tak mök de." Tat oë nizer sompötti umak batia dil. Tar olpo din pasöte öi söta saöata sök götea dur desot gel. Ore lompot beboharot or sompötti uzar koril. Oë götay khoros korar pasöt oi desot boro akal hoil. Ote oya kosto paba dhoril. Sela oë zaya öi deser ekzon mansir asroe löat öi manusi ok suar soraba patharot pothea dil. Ote suare khaöa ek rokom gaser sal dia pet bhoroba saileö ok kaho kisu nadil.}}
}}

===Non-regional dialects===
Assamese does not have many caste- or occupation-based dialects.<ref>{{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=403}}</ref> In the nineteenth century, the Eastern dialect became the standard dialect because it witnessed more literary activity and it was more uniform from east of Guwahati to Sadiya,{{Sfn|Kakati|1941|p=14-16}} whereas the western dialects were more heterogeneous.{{Sfn|Goswami|2003|p=436}} Since the nineteenth century, the center of literary activity (as well as of politics and commerce) has shifted to Guwahati; as a result, the standard dialect has evolved considerably away from the largely rural Eastern dialects and has become more urban and acquired western dialectal elements.<ref name="Dutta2003p106">{{harv|Dutta|2003|p=106}}</ref> Most literary activity takes place in this dialect, and is often called the ''likhito-bhaxa'', though regional dialects are often used in novels and other creative works.

In addition to the regional variants, sub-regional, community-based dialects are also prevalent, namely:
* '''Standard dialect''' influenced by surrounding centers.
* '''''Bhakatiya'' dialect''' highly polite, a sattra-based dialect with a different set of nominals, pronominals, and verbal forms, as well as a preference for euphemism; indirect and passive expressions.{{Sfn|Goswami|2003|pp=439-440}} Some of these features are used in the standard dialect on very formal occasions.
* The fisherman community has a dialect that is used in the central and eastern region.
* The astrologer community of Darrang district has a dialect called ''thar'' that is coded and secretive. The ''ratikhowa'' and ''bhitarpanthiya'' secretive cult-based Vaisnava groups too have their own dialects.<ref name="Dutta2003p107">{{harv|Dutta|2003|p=107}}</ref>
* The Muslim community have their own dialectal preference, with their own kinship, custom, and religious terms, with those in east Assam having distinct phonetic features.<ref name="Dutta2003p106"/>
* The urban adolescent and youth communities (for example, Guwahati) have exotic, hybrid and local slangs.<ref name="Dutta2003p106"/>
* Ethnic speech communities that use Assamese as a second language, often use dialects that are influenced heavily by the pronunciation, intonation, stress, vocabulary and syntax of their respective first languages (''Mising Eastern Assamese'', ''Bodo Central Kamrupi'', ''Rabha Eastern Goalpariya'' etc.).<ref name="Dutta2003p107"/> Two independent pidgins/creoles, associated with the Assamese language, are [[Nagamese]] (used by [[Naga people|Naga]] groups) and [[Nefamese]] (used in Arunachal Pradesh).<ref>{{harv|Dutta|2003|pp=108–109}}</ref>

==Literature==
{{main|Assamese literature}}
There is a growing and strong body of literature in this language. 
The first characteristics of this language are seen in the [[Charyapada]]s composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's [[Saptakanda Ramayana]]. The popular ballad in the form of Ojapali is also regarded as well-crafted. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a flourishing of [[Vaishnavite]] literature, leading up to the emergence of modern forms of literature in the late nineteenth century.

==See also==
* [[Assamese Manipuri language]]
* [[Indo-Aryan languages]]
* [[Languages of India]]
* [[Languages with official status in India]]
* [[List of Indian languages by total speakers]]
* [[List of languages by number of native speakers]]
* [[Personalities from Western Assam]]
* [[Assamese Language Movement]]
* [[Assamese people]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Chatterji |author-link=Suniti Kumar Chatterji |year=1926 |title=The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.42610/page/n5}}
* {{cite book |last=DeLancey |first=Scott |author-link=Scott DeLancey |editor1-last=Hyslop |editor1-first=Gwendolyn |editor2-last=Morey |editor2-first=Stephen |editor3-last=Post |editor3-first=Mark W. |year=2012 |chapter=On the Origin of Bodo-Garo |title=Northeast Indian Linguistics |volume=4 |pages=3–20 |doi=10.1017/UPO9789382264521.003 |isbn=978-93-82264-52-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Dutta |first=Birendranath |author-link=Birendra Nath Datta |year=1995 |title=A Study of the Folk Culture of the Goalpara Region of Assam |publisher=University Publication Department, Gauhati University |place=Guwahati, Assam |isbn=978-81-86416-13-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Dutta |first=Birendranath |author-link=Birendra Nath Datta |editor-first=Mrinal |editor-last=Miri |year=2003 |title=Linguistic Situation in North-East India |publisher=Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi |edition=2nd |pages=101–110 |chapter=Non-Standard Forms of Assamese: Their Socio-cultural Role |isbn=978-81-8069-026-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goswami |first1=G. C. |last2=Tamuli |first2=Jyotiprakash |editor-last=Cardona |editor-first=George |editor2-last=Jain |editor2-first=Dhanesh |year=2003 |contribution=Asamiya |title=The Indo-Aryan languages |publisher=Routledge |pages=391–443 |isbn=978-0-7007-1130-7 |ref={{harvid|Goswami|2003}}}}
* {{cite journal |last=Guha |first=Amalendu |author-link=Amalendu Guha |date=December 1983 |title=The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in Medieval Assam (1228-1714) |journal=Social Scientist |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=3–34 |doi=10.2307/3516963 |jstor=3516963 |url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/123456789/3259/1/OP_64_The_ahom_political_system.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Kakati |first=Banikanta |author-link=Banikanta Kakati |year=1941 |title=Assamese: Its Formation and Development |url=https://archive.org/details/AssameseitsFormationAndDevelopment |publisher=Government of Assam |place=Gauhati, Assam}}
* {{cite book |last=Kakati |first=Banikanta |author-link=Banikanta Kakati |editor-last=Kakati |editor-first=Banikanta |year=1953 |chapter=Assamese Language |title=Aspects of Early Assamese Literature |publisher=Gauhati University |pages=1–16 |oclc=578299}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kar |first=Boddhisattva |year=2008 |title='Tongue Has No Bone': Fixing the Assamese Language, c.1800–c.1930 |journal=Studies in History |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=27–76 |doi=10.1177/025764300702400102 |s2cid=144577541}}
* {{cite journal |last=Khan |first=M. Siddiq |title=The Early History of Bengali Printing |journal=The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy |volume=32 |number=1 |year=1962 |pages=51–61 |doi=10.1086/618956 |jstor=4305188 |s2cid=148408211}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kommaluri |first1=Vijayanand |last2=Subramanian |first2=R. |last3=Sagar K |first3=Anand |year=2005 |title=Issues in Morphological Analysis of North-East Indian Languages |url=http://www.languageinindia.com/july2005/morphologynortheast1.html |journal=Language in India |volume=5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mahanta |first=Sakuntala |year=2012 |title=Assamese |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=217–224 |doi=10.1017/S0025100312000096 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin P |author-link=Colin Masica |year=1993 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Itp2twGR6tsC |access-date=4 February 2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Medhi |first=Kaliram |author-link=Kaliram Medhi |year=1988 |title=Assamese Grammar and the Origin of Assamese Language |publisher=Publication Board, Assam |location=Guwahati |oclc=22067340}}
* {{cite journal |last=Moral |first=Dipankar |year=1997 |title=North-East India as a Linguistic Area |journal=[[Mon-Khmer Studies]] |volume=27 |pages=43–53 |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/moral1997north.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Neog |first=Maheshwar |author-link=Maheswar Neog |year=1980 |title=Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukan |publisher=Sahiyta Akademi |place=New Delhi |oclc=9110997}}
* {{cite book |last=Oberlies |first=Thomas |year=2007 |chapter=Chapter Five: Aśokan Prakrit and Pāli |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 |editor1-last=Cardona |editor1-first=George |editor2-last=Jain |editor2-first=Danesh |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Pattanayak |first=D. P. |year=2016 |chapter=Oriya and Assamese |editor1-last=Emeneau |editor1-first=Murray B. |editor2-last=Fergusson |editor2-first=Charles A. |title=Linguistics in South Asia |publisher=De Gruyter |pages=122–152 |isbn=978-3-11-081950-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Saikia |first=Nagen |author-link=Nagen Saikia |year=1997 |chapter=Assamese |editor=Paniker |title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA4 |pages=3–20 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-0365-5}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Sarma |first=Parismita |date=2017 |title=Analysis and building an unrestricted speech synthesizer with reference to assamese language |type=PhD |publisher=Gauhati University |hdl=10603/195592 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/195592}}
* {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=M. M. |editor-last=Barpujari |editor-first=H. K. |year=1990 |contribution=Language and Literature |title=The Comprehensive History of Assam: Ancient Period |volume=I |pages=263–284 |place=Guwahati, Assam |publisher=Publication Board, Assam |oclc=25163745}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Toulmin |first=Mathew W S |title=Reconstructing linguistic history in a dialect continuum: The Kamta, Rajbanshi, and Northern Deshi Bangla subgroup of Indo-Aryan |url=https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/45743 |type=PhD |publisher=The Australian National University |year=2006}}
* {{cite book |last=Toulmin |first=Mathew W S |year=2009 |title=From Linguistic to Sociolinguistic Reconstruction: The Kamta Historical Subgroup of Indo-Aryan |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |isbn=978-0-85883-604-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Pramodchandra |year=2003 |title=Aspects of North East Indian languages|publisher=Anundoram Borooah Institute of Language, Art & Culture, Assam}}
{{refend}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Sarma |first=Naranarayan |year=1990 |title=The Verb Phrase in Assamese: A Constituent Structure Analysis |type=PhD |publisher=Gauhati University |hdl=10603/66692 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/66692}}

==External links==
{{wikivoyage|Assamese phrasebook|Assamese|a phrasebook}}
{{Commons category|Assamese language}}
{{InterWiki|code=as}}
*[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Assamese-language Assamese language] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 
*[https://archive.org/details/AxamiyBhxrMoulikBisr_16 Axamiyaa Bhaaxaar Moulik Bisar by Mr Devananda Bharali (PDF)]
*[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/candrakanta/ Candrakānta abhidhāna : Asamiyi sabdara butpatti aru udaharanere Asamiya-Ingraji dui bhashara artha thaka abhidhana.] second ed. Guwahati : Guwahati Bisbabidyalaya, 1962.
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=kCtXYo4Za_0C A Dictionary in Assamese and English] (1867) First Assamese dictionary by [[Miles Bronson and the Noctes|Miles Bronson]] from (books.google.com)
*[https://archive.org/details/someassamesepro01gurdgoog Assamese proverbs, published 1896]

{{Eastern Indo-Aryan languages}}
{{Languages of India}}
{{Languages of Northeast India}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Assamese Language}}
[[Category:Assamese language| ]]
[[Category:Classical Language in India]]
[[Category:Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Official languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Official languages of Assam]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]]